AMERICANA5ANA

Jarcd Farmcr
Mark 5Ing!ctnn. Ycgc Bc!q. 1nc Origins cj Mc!crn Pcsiurc Prcciicc. Nev York:
xford Iniversily Iress, 2O1O. viii + 262 . IIIuslralions, noles, bibIiograhy,
and index. $99.OO (cIolh), $17.95 (aer).
5tcIanIc 5yman. 1nc Su|i|c Bc!q. 1nc Sicrq cj Ycgc in Amcricc. Nev York: Iar-
rar, Slraus, and Giroux, 2O1O. 39O . IIIuslralions, noles, bibIiograhy, and
index. $28.OO.
Rnbcrt Lnvc. 1nc Grcci Ocm. 1nc |mprc|c||c Birin cj Ycgc in Amcricc. Nev York:
Viking, 2O1O. xii + 4O2 . IIIuslralions, noles, bibIiograhy, and index. $27.95.
A markel survey commissioned by Ycgc jcurnc|a gIossy IifeslyIe magazine
based in San Irancisco, vilh searale edilions ubIished in China, }aan,
ThaiIand, AuslraIia, Russia, Germany, and Saineslimaled in 2OO8 lhal 15.8
miIIion Americans (or 6.9 ercenl of I.S. aduIls) racliced osluraI yoga. Su-
ose lhal lhis ouIalion consliluled a discrele reIigious grou. If lhal vere
lhe case, lhe ercenlage of yogis vouId exceed lhe combined lolaI of Hindus
(.4 ercenl), MusIims (.6 ercenl), alheisls (1.6 ercenl), Mormons (1.7 ercenl),
and }evs (1.7 ercenl) in lhe I.S. The Americanizalion of modern yogaa
cuIluraI crealion lhal vas aIready lransnalionaIdemands exIanalion.
1

Yoga derives from lhe Sanskril verb lo yoke, and may be IileraIIy
lransIaled as union. The vord is confusing because of ils homonymy: il
can refer lo a generaI hiIosohy of lranscendenlaI consciousness, or one or
severaI secihc siriluaI disciIines, or bolh. As a hiIosohicaI lradilionone
of lhe six cIassicaI schooIs (Darshanas) of Soulh Asian hiIosohyyoga
encomasses various canonicaI lexls, mosl imorlanlIy Ycgc Suircs (35O45O
C.L.), a coIIeclion of ahorisms allribuled lo Iala|aIi.
2
Deending on lhe lime
and Iace, lhe raclice of yoga has laken Hindu, uddhisl, and }ain forms.
Georg Ieuerslein, in his ouIar encycIoedia Ycgc 1rc!iiicn (2OO1), imagines
a vheeI of yoga vilh six ma|or sokes: R|a (disciIine of lhe mind), }nna
(gnosis), Karma (duly), hakli (devolion), Manlra (recilalion of numinous
sounds), and Halha (disciIine of lhe body). These disciIines can be racliced
searaleIy or in combinalion. Ior examIe, Hare Krishnas focus on hakli and
Rcticus in Amcriccn Hisicrq 4O (2O12) 145158 2O12 by The }ohns Hokins Iniversily Iress
REVIEW5 IN AMERICAN HI5TORY j MARCH 2012 146
Manlra. In conlemorary India, hakli gurus command Iarge foIIovings. In
conlrasl, mosl Americans vho raclice yoga raclice an individuaIized and
simIihed version of lhe singIe hysicaI disciIine.
Halha vas eshed oul in medievaI limes by marginaI maIe seclarian
movemenls. Nlh Siddha qcgins con|oined Tanlra, Siddha aIchemy, and yogic
urihcalions in an alleml lo achieve immorlaIily. In subsequenl cenluries,
miIilarized Shaivile qcgins found irreguIar emIoymenl as mercenaries, sies,
and over brokers. As of lhe nineleenlh cenlury, Halha vas lhe Ieasl imor-
lanl and Ieasl reseclabIe of yogic disciIines. Traces of lhis allilude ersisl.
The |ncqc|cpc!ic cj |n!icn Pni|cscpnics reIegales Halha lo lhe slalus of yoga
saleIIile.
3

SeveraI recenl monograhs, mosl nolabIy David Gordon While's Sinisicr
Ycgis (2OO9), discuss Halha varrior ascelics as sociaI aclors and cuIluraI re-
resenlalions.
4
Like Gysies, fakirs, and Suh dervisheshgures vilh vhom
lhey vere oflen confused or conaledqcgins Iived beyond lhe boundaries
of Indian sociely. They funclioned as bogeymen in Soulh Asian fanlasy and
advenlure Iileralure (and in oIIyvood, lhey remain slock viIIains). Voyeurislic
Luroean lraveI vrilers echoed lhese negalive deiclions: Halha seclarians
vere veird, fanalicaI, Iicenlious, ungovernabIe, dangerous. The slereolyicaI
yogi erformed aranormaI feals Iike Ievilalion and racliced sorcery Iike body
ossession. He had suerhuman sexuaI overs because he never reIeased his
semen. He carried oul exlreme auslerilies and morlihcalions: vaIking around
naked vilh eIehanl chains, slanding on one Ieg for days, hanging uside
dovn from lrees, surviving Iive buriaI, ealing food from bovIs made of human
skuIIs, fasling lo lhe oinl of maceralion, groving oul hair and hngernaiIs lo
incredibIe Ienglhs. Ior Luroeans, nolhing symboIized Indian backvardness
and Hindu erversion Iike a Halha yogi Iying on a bed of naiIs. Ior slralegic
and moraI reasons, rilish ofhciaIs did lheir besl lo round u and break u
ascelic secls and ban lheir seIf-lorlures. Some of lhese disIaced oulcasls
ended u anhandIing as yogic enlerlainers on lhe slreels of rilish India and
in sideshovs aIong lhe Thames.
In reulalion and in conlenl, Halha overIaed vilh Tanlra, a Soulh Asian
medievaI lradilion lhal yoked lranscendence lo lhe body and bodiIy desire.
In lhe anlinomian vorId of Tanlra, riluaI lransgression (incIuding, in some
cases, riluaIized sexuaIily) couId Iead lo Iiberalion. olh Tanlrisls and Halha
yogis emhasized lhe sublIe body (somelimes caIIed lhe energelic body),
a hybrid cororeaI-melahysicaI enlily. Through esoleric lechniquesriluaI
urihcalions foIIoved by prcncqcmc (reslrained brealhing), cscnc (oslure
vork), and mu!rc (seaIing off lhe sublIe body)Halha yogis erformed bodiIy
aIchemy. They drev prcnc (lhe brealh of Iife) inlo lhe body's cenlraI channeI,
lhus avakening lhe serenl (|un!c|ini) al lhe base of sine. As lhis serenl
over uncoiIed and moved uvard, il urihed lhe ranic channeIs (nc!is)
147 FARMER j AmcrIcanasana
and baIanced lheir Iunar and soIar sides, ierced lhe six main cnc|rcs, and
hnaIIy uniled vilh lhe divine in lhe sevenlh cnc|rc al lhe crovn of lhe head.
The resuIl vas bodiIy immorlaIily and suernaluraI over.
KundaIini is onIy vagueIy famiIiar lo mosl of lhe miIIions of Americans
vho slrelch inlo Dovnvard-Iacing Dog ose on slicky mals in neighborhood
gyms and sludios. In ils mainslream form, Halha has been cIeaned u and
arliaIIy de-enchanled. The lyicaI American yoga inslruclor says namasle
and chanls a erfunclory M vilh her sludenls, bul does nol leach lanlric
hysioIogy. She is much more IikeIy lo give a leslimoniaI aboul yoga's benehciaI
effecls on lhe medicaI body. Hov did lhis haen` Hov did Halha become
exoleric, reseclabIe, and ouIareseciaIIy among vomen` And hov did
one feminized, alhIelicized, ara-secuIar version of one yogic disciIine become
synonymous vilh yoga in America`
IreIiminary ansvers lo lhese queslions come from Ycgc Bc!q, 1nc Grcci
Ocm, and 1nc Su|i|c Bc!q, lhree signihcanl addilions lo lhe smaII bul groving
heId of yoga sludies.
5
Mark SingIelon, an academic, uses rimary sources lo
anaIyze lhe lransnalionaI evoIulion of osluraI yoga from lhe 189Os lhrough
lhe 193Os. Roberl Love and Slefanie Syman, bolh |ournaIisls, focus aImosl
excIusiveIy on lhe American scene, bul in differenl vays.
AII lhree aulhors accel lhe schoIarIy consensus lhal modern yoga began
vilh Svami Vivekananda (186319O2), lhe gIobelrolling Hindu reformer from
CaIculla vho soke lo greal accIaim al lhe WorId's IarIiamenl of ReIigions in
Chicago. Vivekananda's inuenliaI book Rcjc-Ycgc (1896) aired some of his
American Ieclures vilh his lransIalion and commenlary on Ycgc Suircs. The
svami resenled Vedanla as lhe modeI for a universaI monislic reIigiona
science of lhe souI. orroving IiberaIIy from Inilarianism and Theosohy,
Vivekananda and his Vedanla Sociely emhasized lhe melahysicaI and lhe
devolionaI, nol lhe hysicaI. In concerl vilh mosl Weslern-educaled Indian
eIiles, Vivekananda scorned Halha, and vilh reason: Ianla|aIi rovided IillIe
or no suorl for il. AIlhough Ycgc Suircs menlions cscnc as one of lhe (Iesser)
eighl Iimbs of yoga, lhe lexl does nol describe any oses. Vivekananda
disaraged Halha seclarians for narcissislicaIIy cIinging lo lhe body vilh
mere hysicaI exercises designed lo fuIhII base desires for erfecl heaIlh
and unsurassed Iongevily. He dovnIayed lhe lanlric background of his
ovn guru. Desile riviIeging mind over body, lhe svami vas no vim. Like
many anlicoIoniaI hgures associaled vilh lhe engaIi Hindu Renaissance, he
used his maslery of LngIish lo asserl lhe sueriorily of Soulh Asian lradilions
even as he diIuled lhem. As }oseh S. AIler vriles in Ycgc in Mc!crn |n!ic,
Vivekananda revoIulionized Hinduism by advocaling a kind of no-nonsense,
seIf-conhdanl, muscuIarand, lherefore, mascuIinizedsiriluaIism.
6
Ior lhe uroses of Hindu nalionaIism, yoga had lo be rescued from lhe
orobrium of Halha qcgins. Their mascuIinily vas undisuled, bul danger-
REVIEW5 IN AMERICAN HI5TORY j MARCH 2012 148
ous, even sinisler, il caIIed lo mind lhe suosed decadence of medievaI
India. Like a good Viclorian, Vivekananda exunged Halha from R|a Yoga.
Inslead of immorlaIily and suernaluraIism, he slressed lhe goaIs of scmc!ni
(higher consciousness) and mc|snc (siriluaI Iiberalion). Laler hgures such as
Sri Yogendra and Svami KuvaIayananda mainslreamed yoga by medicaIiz-
ing il, Iinking il lo Weslern science, erforming Iaboralory exerimenls, and
ralionaIIy demonslraling lhal yogic disciIines couId vork as lheraies for
chronic diseases such as aslhma.
SliII olher Indians lried lo direclIy rehabiIilale Halha on lhe lerms of Weslern
hysicaI cuIlure. These underarecialed hgures from lhe hislory of hlness
are lhe main sub|ecls of Ycgc Bc!q. SingIelon ends his book vhere mosl his-
lories of modern osluraI yoga begin: lhe gymnasia of }aganmohan IaIace in
Mysore vhere inslruclor T. Krishnamacharya in lhe 192Os and 193Os codihed
lhe raxis lhal informs every yoga cIass in lhe vorId loday. Wilhoul denying
Krishnamacharya's seminaI roIe, Ycgc Bc!q conlexluaIizes him and diseIs his
aura of uniqueness and aulhenlicily. SingIelon asserls calegoricaIIy lhal lhe
rimacy of cscnc is a nev henomenon lhal has no araIIeI in remodern
limes (. 3). Ycgc Bc!q offers a radicaIIy secuIar and lransnalionaI inlerrelalion
of modern yoga, or, as SingIelon refers lo caII il, TransnalionaI AngIohone
Yoga. In his anaIysis, oslure raclice oves more lo LngIish bodybuiIding
slar Lugene Sandov lhan lo Ianla|aIi.
In bibIiograhic fashion, SingIelon guides lhe reader lhrough seemingIy
every LngIish-Ianguage hlness manuaI and eriodicaI from lhe earIy lven-
lielh cenlury lhal inuencedor migni nctc inuencedlhe curricuIum al
Mysore, lhe MenIo Iark of modern yoga. He focuses on lhe Soulh Asian
recelion of MuscuIar Chrislianily, Svedish (Ling) gymnaslics, bodybuiId-
ing, and lhe YMCA. Ycgc Bc!q describes a rocess of crealive coolalion. The
Indian ioneers of osluraI yoga vanled lo break free from lhe inlernaIized
coIoniaI mylh of Indian effeminacy and degeneracy. They seIecliveIy aro-
rialed from Luroean hysicaI cuIlureand aIso American Nev Thoughl,
vilh ils sycho-hysioIogicaI edagogy of aulosuggeslionand naluraIized
il as Hindu. Afler incororaling gymnaslics inlo Halha, lhey louled Halha
as lhe originaI gymnaslics. SingIelon cIaims lhal some alriolic Hindus even
imagined yoga as a eugenic fasl lrack lo a beller, slronger nalion. MiIilanl
nalionaIisls oened marliaI arls academies lo lrain a nev generalion of slrong,
viriIe Hindu menremade Halha qcgins vho couId acl as freedom-hghling
gueriIIas. Indians vouId lurn gymnaslicsan exercise melhod adoled by
lhe rilish for miIilary lrainingagainsl lhe coIonizers.
WhiIe SingIelon erforms lhe greal service of exIoding lhe vorId of
osluraI yoga and cIearing lhe vay for many more sludies of lhis creoIized
lradilion, he doesn'l rovide a cIear narralive and doesn'l assign veighls lo
his manifoId causaI faclors. And il may be lhal, in his endeavor lo exhausliveIy
149 FARMER j AmcrIcanasana
calaIog foreign inuences, SingIelon overIooks cerlain indigenous conlexls.
Ycgc Bc!q deserves conlroversy, vhich I mean as a sincere comIimenl.
Some of lhe evidence for Ycgc Bc!q's meIling-ol lheory is circumslanliaI,
Ienly is direcl. Ior examIe, K. V. Iyer, lhe vorId-renovned bodybuiIder from
angaIore, laughl sun saIulalions aIong vilh dumbbeII Iifling. The equaIIy
renovned . C. Ghosh romoled a melhod of muscIe conlroI lhal combined
bodybuiIding and Halha. Al Mysore, Krishnamacharya's sludio vas Iocaled
nexl door lo a Weslern-slyIe gym lhal laughl bodybuiIding, gymnaslics, and
aIso yoga. uiIding on Norman S|oman's 1nc Ycgc 1rc!iiicn cj inc Mqscrc Pc|ccc
(1996), SingIelon argues lhal Krishnamacharya's innovalive tinqcsc (a reealed
sequence of oving movemenls and alhIelic |uming) vas Iess aboul Iineage
lhan alronage. Al lhe mahara|a's bidding, Krishnamacharya choreograhed
a seclacuIar yoga rouline for his young maIe sludenls, lhe Halha lroue
funclioned bolh as cuIluraI ambassadors and circus-Iike enlerlainers.
This erformalive angIe is imorlanl. In a chaler on media, SingIelon makes
lhe exceIIenl oinl lhal Halha, more lhan olher yogic disciIines, requires
iIIuslralion. ConverseIy, lhe ascendance of holograhic cuIlure conferred
rimacy lo yogic disciIines lhal couId be reresenled visuaIIy. Ascnc made
good iclures. efore lhe camera, yoga lexls iIIuslraled lhe conceluaI lanlric
body vilh abslruse dravings. In lhe age of holograhic reroduclion, lhe
yoga body became Iess sublIe, more naluraIislic and emiricaI.
Like mosl Weslern schoIars of yoga, SingIelon is a raclilioneran Ashlangi
by lrainingand he adols a lone of resecl even as he skevers sacred covs.
Ycgc Bc!q is nol, he insisls, aboul imoslure. Il is aboul crealivily. He resenls
Mysore yoga as a modern bricoIage of secuIar inuences subIimaled inlo
Ianla|aIi by Krishnamacharya and Ialer sanclihed as ancienl lradilion by his
rolgs. SingIelon lemers his heresy vilh langibIe enlhusiasm for lhe source
maleriaI in aII ils amusing delaiI, he ceIebrales lhe earIy lvenlielh cenlury as
a singuIarIy crealive eriod for yoga (. 21). The Hinduizalion of Weslern
hysicaI cuIlure lhal he describes in Ycgc Bc!q brings lo mind Iarlha Chal-
ler|ee's vork on coIoniaI-inecled nalionaIism. InforlunaleIy, SingIelon does
nol adequaleIy siluale his book in lhe conlexl of oslcoIoniaI sludies, gender
lheory, cuIluraI lheory, lransnalionaI hislory, imeriaI hislory, Indian hislory,
or lhe hislories of alhIelics, medicine, and reIigion.
ecause of ils reslricled lime frame, Ycgc Bc!q conlains more maleriaI on
Indians co-oling Weslern inuences lhan lhe reverse. As of lhe 192Os, cscnc
vas nol yel exorl-ready (. 154). SingIelon onIy nods lo lhe osl-196Os
gIobaIizalion of Mysore yoga guided by Krishnamacharya's son T. K. V.
Desikachar, his brolher-in-Iav . K. S. Iyengar, and his lhird ma|or rolg,
K. Iallabhi }ois. Hovever, in a chaler lhal delours from his main slory,
SingIelon discusses a ouIar AngIo-American hlness lrend from lhe earIy
lvenlielh cenlury caIIed harmonic gymnaslics. InIike lhe secuIar yoga in
REVIEW5 IN AMERICAN HI5TORY j MARCH 2012 150
}aganmohan IaIace, vhich consisled of acrobalic baIances for men, harmonic
gymnaslics consisled of siriluaI slrelching and reIaxalionism for vomen.
Iara-Chrislian ralher lhan neo-Vedanlic, lhe movemenl nonelheIess look on
minor Indian lraings, incIuding yogic brealhing exercises and diagrams of
cnc|rcs. Adaled from Irench DeIsarlism by Americans Genevieve Slebbins and
Ialer Ca|zoran AIi, lhis quasi-siriluaI form of exressive caIislhenics sread
lo rilain in lhe 193Os and became ouIar lhanks lo lhe Women's League
of HeaIlh. SingIelon secuIales lhal exorled Mysore yoga Ialer grafled onlo
lhis eslabIished rool. This vouId arlIy exIain lhe imbaIanced sex ralio seen
loday in rilish and American yoga sludios.
The recelion of yoga in lhe I.S. foIIoved lvo generaI lra|eclories. The
hiIosohy of yoga and lhe raclice of yogic medilalion enlered American
high cuIlure in lhe mid-nineleenlh cenlury and acquired lhe sheen of re-
seclabiIily by virlue of associalion vilh American rahmins Iike Lmerson.
SubsequenlIy, various ouIar nondenominalionaI melahysicaI reIigious
movemenls subsumed asecls of yogic hiIosohy. Ioslure raclice, by con-
lrasl, encounlered subslanliaI resislance in lhe earIy lvenlielh cenlury, desile
receiving osilive allenlion from WiIIiam }ames in 1nc |ncrgics cj Mcn (19O7)
as a olenliaI cure for nervousness. Halha vas generaIIy considered slrange,
cuIlish, and aIso sexuaIIy dangerous lo vomen. In lhe second haIf of lhe cen-
lury, lhese lra|eclories crossed: hysicaI yoga grev increasingIy mainslream,
vhiIe medilalionaI and devolionaI yoga conlracledafler a seclacuIar bul
brief uorescencelo lhe domain of seclarian movemenls Ied by gurus vho
frequenlIy feII inlo sexuaI scandaI.
1nc Su|i|c Bc!q is lhe more vivid of lvo recenl lrade-markel bookslhe
olher being IhiIi GoIdberg's vide-ranging Amcriccn Vc!c (2O1O)lhal narrale
lhis comIicaled hislory. Slefanie Syman merils a vide readershi, lhough her
vriling slyIe vas, for me, fruslralingIy inconslanl, as if she couIdn'l decide
if she vanled lo be a |ournaIisl, an academic hislorian, a crealive nonhclion
vriler, or a cuIluraI crilic. The book conlains many inlerrelive nuggels and
alches of briIIianl rose, yel il Iacks a slrong argumenl. Il roceeds chrono-
IogicaIIy and biograhicaIIy, riviIeging lhe mosl coIorfuI slories.
Syman begins vilh obIigalory vignelles aboul TranscendenlaI irlalions
vilh yoga hiIosohy. (Thoreau, in one of his Iellers, vrole lhe famousIy
crylic Iine, To some exlenl, and al rare inlervaIs, even I am a yogin.)
7
1nc
Su|i|c Bc!q lhen moves lo ils reaI slarling oinl: Vivekananda's American
so|ourn, 189396, vhich heraIded a lvenly-year eriod of lransnalionaI cross-
ferliIizalion belveen medilalionaI Neo-Vedanla and American siriluaI lrends
such as Mind Cure and Chrislian Science. Iinding ferliIe soiI in melahysicaI
holsols such as oslon and rookIyn, and benehling from lhe alronage of
lvo veaIlhy Nev LngIand vomen, Vivekananda sel u oulosls of lhe Vedanla
Sociely on bolh coasls. Numerous olher disciIes from lhe Ramakrishna rder
151 FARMER j AmcrIcanasana
foIIoved Vivekananda lo lhe Slales, vhere lhey Ieclured lo lhe siriluaI inleI-
Iigenlsia and sel u ashrams. SearaleIy, Iaramahansa Yogananda, founder of
lhe SeIf-ReaIizalion IeIIovshi (and aulhor of lhe videIy read Auic|icgrcpnq
cj c Ycgi), sellIed in Soulhern CaIifornia in 192O. Aboul lhe same lime, Sri
Yogendra came lo Nev York lo sread lhe goseI of medicaIized yoga. The
rienlaI LxcIusion Acl foiIed a Ianned relurn visil. Irom 1924 lo 1965, an
era of reslriclive I.S. immigralion oIicy, yoga in America evoIved IargeIy
indeendenl of Indians.
The seminaI American hgure in lhe excIusionary eriod vas an oulrageous
characler, Iierre ernard (18761955), vhose Iife slory seems ready-made for
a H mini-series. Il incIudes bizarre Iove lriangIes, mnage lrois, lanlric
sex, VanderbiIl heiresses, rivale deleclives, sies, circus eIehanls, basebaII,
and heavyveighl boxing. Syman devoles her Iongesl chaler lo lhis onIy-in-
America laIe, and Roberl Love his enlire book. As Ieasure reading, I highIy rec-
ommend 1nc Grcci Ocm, aIlhough il becomes Iongvinded in ils Ialer chalers.
Love's narralive begins, imrobabIy, in LincoIn, Nebraska, vhere lhe young
leenager Ierry aker mel an immigranl yogi named SyIvais Hamali and became
his rolg. Irom Hamali, aker-cum-ernard Iearned Sanskril, Tanlra, and
Halha, incIuding advanced prcncqcmc lechniques such as KaIi-mudra, lhe
simuIalion of dealh by sIoving one's brealhing and hearl rale lo imercelibIe
IeveIs. In 1898 ernard erformed lhis feal of seIf-hynosis in San Irancisco
lo an audience of doclors vho used needIes lo ierce his earIobe, cheek, Ii,
and longue lo rove lhe occurrence of aulo-aneslhesia. In CaIifornia, ernard
aIso organized lhe Tanlrik rder (T..), a secrel sociely comIele vilh bIood
oalhs, vovs of siIence, and seven degrees of knovIedge. AmaIgamaling Tanlra,
Theosohy, and Rosicrucianism, ernard minled his ovn esoleric lradilions
and inilialed ingnues in lanlric riluaIs. As Hugh Irban shovs in Mcgic Scxu-
c|is (2OO6), ernard and severaI counlerarls in Luroe began lhe rocess by
vhich Weslern sex magic fused vilh Tanlra and lhe equaIIy unreIaled Kcmc
Suirc lo become lhe yoga of sex.
In 19O9, afler arling vays vilh Hamali, ernard moved lo Manhallan and
began leaching Halha lechniques lo cIienls from lhe lhealer vorId. His secrel
riluaI Iife inevilabIy allracled lhe allenlion of lhe vice oIice, vho raided his ad-
dress lhe nexl year (lhe hrsl of many limes) and arresled him in his veIvel T..
high riesl ceremoniaI robe. Congress had |usl assed lhe Mann Acl, and lhe
cily dislricl allorney hoed for a vhile-sIavery shov lriaI. The Loving Guru
Ianguished for over one hundred days in |aiI unliI lhe roseculion droed
ils charges. Throughoul his career, ernard ossessed a Houdini-Iike abiIily
lo eIude lhe Iav, a rovess exceeded onIy by his knack for Iiberaling slied
femaIe sociaIiles of lheir nervousness and inherilance. Many of lhe lrue-Iife
evenls in 1nc Grcci Ocm read Iike sofl-orn versions of Ldilh Wharlon Iols.
REVIEW5 IN AMERICAN HI5TORY j MARCH 2012 152
To escae lhe scruliny of Iav enforcemenl and lhe yeIIov ress, ernard
shifled his base of oeralion lo Nyack, in lhe Hudson VaIIey, in 1918. There,
vilh his vife and business arlner, former roadvay dancer Ianche DeVries,
ernard crealed lhe CIarkslovn Counlry CIub (C.C.C.). ankroIIed by imres-
sionabIe vomen from lhe VanderbiIl famiIy, lhe cIub grev inlo a ma|or success.
ernard rebuiIl his reulalion and invesled in reaI eslale, lhe chemicaI induslry,
banks, and slocks. He buiIl a sladium for his minor Ieague basebaII leam and
roduced air shovs al his airorl. As one IocaI man loId a reorler: Nobody
knovs if he's gol reIigion, bul everybody knovs he's gol money (. 237).
efore lhe Greal Deression drove lhe C.C.C. inlo decIine, il boasled a
gIillering membershi of Manhallan bIuebIoods, bohemians, ceIebrilies, and
high-rohIe arlisls such as LeooId Slokovski. The C.C.C. vas somelhing
Iike a cross belveen an ashram and lhe ohemian Grove: a summer cam
for lhe idIe rich vho vanled lo overcome addiclion or boredom. Roberl Love
caIIs lhe Iace an inslilulionaI bridge belveen rook Iarm and LsaIen, and
a forerunner lo rehab relreals and IifeIong Iearning cenlers (. 343). Dues-
aying members racliced earIy morning Halha, erformed chores on lhe
dairy farm, and allended aflernoon music and dance cIasses lhal cuIminaled
in a season-ending rofessionaI-IeveI circus. n summer evenings, }azz Age
vacalioners galhered in lhe cIub audilorium lo hear Iierre Ieclure on Indian
hiIosohyor, as Love niceIy says, Veda and Tanlra hIlered lhrough an
energelic Midveslern American (. 326). The Guru of Nyack (or Dr. er-
nard, as he referred lo be caIIed) amassed a Iibrary of Sanskril and rienlaIisl
schoIarshi unsurassed by any universily in America. AIlhough he never
lraveIed abroad, he corresonded vilh Indian schoIars and even hnanced a
shorl-Iived Vedic research cenler. As lhe years assed, ernard deemhasized
sex magic and Americanized his yoga even more. Like WaIl Disney, he used
lhe vord Imagineering lo describe his can-do aroach lo Iife and business.
Desile having so much sex vilh so many vomen, ernard aarenlIy
roduced no chiIdren. Hovever, his exlended famiIy incIuded an equaIIy
exlraordinary yoga hgure. His eslranged nehev Theos Casimir Hamali
ernard (19O847) earned gIobaI fame as lhe hrsl Weslerner lo gain enlry lo
lhe lemIes of Lhasa. This reaI-Iife |n!icnc jcncs slory is discussed by Love,
delaiIed more fuIIy by DougIas Veenhof in Wniic Icmc (2O11), and covered
exhausliveIy by IauI Hackell in 1nccs Bcrncr!, inc Wniic Icmc (2O12). WhiIe in
lhe IimeIighl, Theos roduced Hcinc Ycgc (1945), lhe hrsl American sourcebook
on lhe hysicaI disciIine.
Desile lhe former fame of lhe While Lama and lhe mniolenl om,
lhe iniliaI mainslreaming of yoga in America oves more lo vomen, Syman
argues. Ianche DeVries lrained a cohorl of leachers al her Halha sludio for
vomen in Manhallan afler searaling from Iierre in lhe 193Os. Many of her
sludenls subsequenlIy moved lo Los AngeIes, vhich became, afler WWII, lhe
153 FARMER j AmcrIcanasana
Ieading cenler for Halha in America. The cily's hrsl osluraI sludio beIonged lo
anolher sui gcncris hgure, Indra Devi (18992OO2). Lalvian-born Devi lraveIed
lo India as an asiring young dancer and aclress, slarred in earIy oIIyvood
hIms, married a Czech diIomal, mel lhe ra|a of Mysore, and lhrough him
convinced Krishnamacharya lo lake her on in 1937 as his hrsl Weslern and
femaIe sludenl. Ten years Ialer, Devi sel u sho on Sunsel ouIevard, vhere
she feminized Mysore yoga and romoled il as a genlIe, naluraI vay lo deler
iIIness and deIay aging. Devi inlroduced Halha lo HoIIyvood aclresses such
as Grela Garbo and }ennifer }ones. GIoria Svanson vrole lhe leslimoniaI
inlroduclion lo Devi's hrsl yoga book, |crctcr Ycung, |crctcr Hcc|inq (1953).
Ior movie slars and housevives aIike, Devi made oslure raclice accessibIe.
She did nol ush Ianla|aIi, prcncqcmc, or sublIe hysioIogy.
Devi's gynocenlric yoga did nol Iead direclIy lo loday's yoga, nolvilh-
slanding lhe simiIarilies. In lhe 196Os, as delaiIed by Syman, yoga in America
convuIsed and bifurcaled, becoming eilher more mind- or more body-orienled.
Indian svamis immigraled freeIy again, and many Weslern ceIebrilies Iike lhe
ealIes look lhe hiie lraiI lo lhe subconlinenl. The TranscendenlaI Medila-
lion (TM) laughl by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi became a gIobaI henomenon.
TM inslanlIy suIanled Kriya Yoga (lhe disciIine laughl by Yogananda,
vhich incIuded a modicum of Halha) as lhe mosl common form of yoga in
America. MeanvhiIe, buiIding on lhe exerimenlalions of AIdous HuxIey
and AIan Walls, lhe erslvhiIe rofessors Timolhy Leary and Richard AIerl
married sychedeIic drugs lo Hinduized yoga and crealed a nev sacred
science of cnc|rcs-cum-neurolransmillers. Al Woodslock, before lhe rock 'n'
roII, Svami Salchidananda guided audience members in a manlra chanl and
loId lhe drug-addIed crovd lhal lhey couId gel high vilh lheir minds. The
InlernalionaI Sociely for Krishna Consciousness (aka Hare Krishnas) recruiled
members from lhe same demograhic. SimuIlaneousIy, in lhe oosile di-
reclion, Krishnamacharya's slar sludenl Iyengar romuIgaled a rigorous,
analomicaIIy recise melhod of Halha, comIele vilh cuslom ros. He re-
senled his bodiIy version of yoga as lhe fuIIesl exression of Ianla|aIi. (n
lhe mind-body seclrum, one can imagine Vivekananda on one end, Iyengar
on lhe olher, and Yogananda in lhe middIe.) Wilh heI from Yehudi Menuhin,
Iyengar became lhe greal gIobaI ouIarizer of Mysore yoga. His aulhorilalive
Iigni cn Ycgc (1965) offered Weslerners lhe hrsl comrehensive hov-lo guide
for osluraI raclice, fuIIy iIIuslraled. Many Americans lrained vilh Iyengar
al his academy in Iune, and many more borroved freeIy from his book lo
devise sludio cIasses and inslruclionaI rograms for daylime leIevision.
In dramalic fashion, Syman orlrays a lug of var in lhe 197Os and 198Os
over lhe souI of American yogaa conlesl belveen lhe denominalionaI and
lhe hysicaI, belveen Hindu-insired devolees and Iyengar-based exercis-
ers. olh sides Iosl in lhe shorl lerm. TM eaked in lhe 197Os, lhen recii-
REVIEW5 IN AMERICAN HI5TORY j MARCH 2012 154
lousIy decIined, inlo lhal void came lhe medilalionaI Siddha Yoga of Svami
Muklananda. He, Iike many immigranl gurus of lhe eriod, vas evenluaIIy
disgraced by aIIegalions of sexuaI imroriely (a loic exIored more fuIIy
in Thomas A. IorslhoefeI and Cynlhia Ann Humes' Gurus in Amcricc |2OO5j
and LoIa WiIIiamson's 1rcnsccn!cni in Amcricc |2O1Oj). The nev American
Halha avoided scandaI, bul ils reulalion suffered by dinl of associalion. A
fringe movemenl in lhe crovded vorId of hlness and seIf-heI, il Ianguished
in reIalive obscurily in lhe cuIluraI viIderness, Syman says (. 267). Halha
couId nol comele againsl aerobics, lhe dominanl exercise lrend of lhe 198Os.
In shorl, lhe vogue for osluraI yoga since lhe 199Os vas nol, desile ils
muIliIe anlecedenls, lhe inevilabIe cuIminalion of Iinear grovlh. No one,
Syman incIuded, has fuIIy exIained ils henomenaI resurgence. In her veII-
regarded book A Hisicrq cj Mc!crn Ycgc, LIizabelh De MicheIis characlerizes
oslure raclice as secuIarized heaIing riluaI erfeclIy suiled for IargeIy
secuIarized and deveIoed muIlicuIluraI, muIlifailh socielies.
8
In lhe Iniled
Slales, lhe consoIidalion of yoga coincided vilh lhe coming of age of lhe
oomers, a cohorl lhal reIigious sludies schoIars have described as siriluaIIy
advenluresome.
9
The yoga boom aIso lracks vilh lhe grovlh of unchurched
America as discussed in Roberl IuIIer's Spiriiuc|, Bui Nci Rc|igicus (2OO1), lhe
normaIizalion of aIlernalive medicine as anaIyzed in Mary Ruggie's Mcrginc|
ic Mcinsirccm (2OO4), and lhe overing of media-based siriluaI lheraeu-
lics for vomen examined in vorks such as Kalhryn Loflon's Oprcn (2O11).
Women's magazines and daylime TV have done much lo romole yoga by
rohIing Ialler-day equivaIenls of GIoria Svanson (e.g., AIi MacGrav, }ane
Ionda, Chrisly TurIinglon, }ennifer Annislon, Gvenylh IaIlrov, Madonna)
vho have embraced Halha for heaIlh, slress reIief, siriluaIily, loned abs,
oslnalaI sIimming, or some combinalion of lhe above.
y 2OOO, yoga had become a fad, eseciaIIy in urban neighborhoods vilh
high concenlralions of veII-educaled slay-al-home osl-feminisl molhers. y
lhe eslimale of survey lakers, lhe ouIalion of yoga raclilioners in America
in lhe ush Years vas 85 ercenl vhile, 72 ercenl femaIe, 71 ercenl coIIege
educaled, and 27 ercenl oslgraduale educaled. Lven as Americans as a
vhoIe grev dramalicaIIy more obese, lhis sub-ouIalion grev Ieaner and
more exibIe. Yoga is decidedIy more Tye A and vhile-coIIar lhan Nev
Age movemenls Iike Neo-Iaganism and Shamanism. Yoginis accord vilh lhe
bourgeois bohemians described in David rooks' Bc|cs in Pcrc!isc (2OOO) and
vilh lhe demograhic IabeIed by markelers as LHAS (IifeslyIes of heaIlh and
suslainabiIily). The geograhic dislribulion of yoga sludios offers suorl for
iII isho's 1nc Big Scri (2OO8), vhich argues lhal conlemorary Americans
have seIf-segregaled inlo neighborhood-IeveI Red Slale1Iue Slale encIaves
based on IifeslyIe references. CIaire Dederer's recenl yoga memoir Pcscr (2O1O)
rohIes one such neighborhood, Norlh SeallIe, and ils ouIalion of veaIlhy,
veII-ad|usled vhile molhers vho resliveIy seek erfeclion in yogic reose.
155 FARMER j AmcrIcanasana
As oslure raclice gained ouIarily, cailaIisls resonded by crealing and
exIoiling niche markels. Nike added a yoga Iine, Adidas began a IIay Yoga
camaign, Liz CIaiborne acquired rAna, and lhe HeaIlhy Living division of
Aclive Inleresl Media boughl oul Ycgc jcurnc|. In 2OO8 American yogis senl
$5.7 biIIion on cIasses, relreals, equimenl, aareI, and media. Al lhe annuaI
induslry conference sonsored by Ycgc jcurnc|, vendors hII lhe convenlion haII
vilh svag. InIike rior melahysicaI fads Iike Theosohy, mesmerism, and
Svedenborgianism, hysicaI yoga can be fuIIy commodihed. You can even
lake yoga cruises or groove oul lo |am bands al yoga feslivaIs.
In free-markel fashion, America offers a Halha raclice for every ersonaI-
ily. If you vanl masochislic exerlion mixed vilh sexuaIized svealiness, you
can go lo lhe sauna-Iike heal of a ikram sludio, lhe franchise of ikram
Choudhury. Ior a chaIIenging seIf-direcled tinqcsc regimen vilh a dose of
Iala|aIi, you mighl lake on lhe Ashlanga syslem deveIoed by K. Iallabhi
}ois. (Syman righlIy credils ikram and Ashlangalvo edagogies lhal require
maslery of undevialing series' of asanasfor allracling more American men
lo yoga.) Ior an insiralionaI cardio vorkoul, you can lry any of lhe variel-
ies of Iover Yoga. Ior Sanskril chanling, lhemed readings, and music vilh
your sun saIulalions, lhere's }ivamukli. If you refer somelhing IayfuI and
accessibIe lhal combines non-sexuaI lanlrism and American-slyIe osilive
lhinking, Anusara mighl be your lhing. Ior an exIicilIy siriluaI oslure
raclice lhal can become a communily and a vay of Iife, you couId seek oul
While Lolus Yoga, Sivananda Yoga, or KundaIini Yoga. Ior a cororale-slyIe
veIIness rogram, you couId lrain in KriaIu Yoga. If you need sychic and
emolionaI heaIing in addilion lo slrenglh lraining, you mighl invesligale Ior-
resl Yoga. Ior sIov-aced, analomicaIIy recise hysicaI lheray, you couId
lry Iyengar, Yin Yoga, or Viniyoga.
1O
In addilion lo lhese eslabIished schooIs, each of vhich offers leacher-
cerlihcalion rograms, lhere are counlIess ileralions, incIuding AIDS yoga,
yoga for ferliIily, re- and oslnalaI yoga, yoga for kids, yoga vilh dogs, aqua
yoga, disco yoga, naked yoga, and Iaughler yoga, as veII as lrademarked niche
brands Iike SIim CaIm Sexy, Goddess Yoga, Yoga ooly aIIel, AnliGravily Yoga,
AcroYoga, Revila-Yoga (lo resisl vrinkIes), Yoga for GoIfers, and Taxi Yoga (for
eoIe vho send lheir days driving). Some Chrislians raclice HoIy Yoga,
IraiseMoves, Yoga Irayer, or HaiI Mary and Rhylhmic realhingdesile
condemnalions from CardinaI Ralzinger (before he vas Ioe) and Soulhern
alisl cIergymen. Reformed }evs are Iess excIusionary. Some synagogues
even offer Shabbal Yoga. AII in aII, lhe Iale lvenlielh cenlury rivaIed lhe earIy
lvenlielh cenlury as a eriod of yogic reinvenlion, vilh America reIacing
India as lhe cenler of crealivily. The virlues of oslure raclice became so
videIy acceled lhal lhe I.S. Army added yoga lo lhe ITSD rehabiIilalion
rogram al WaIler Reed in 2OO6 and incororaled Halha eIemenls inlo lhe
basic hysicaI lraining requiremenls in 2O11.
REVIEW5 IN AMERICAN HI5TORY j MARCH 2012 156
Is lhere a dislincliveIy American aroach lo yoga` Calherine AIbanese's
5HSXEOLFRI0LQGDQG6SLULW argues lhal American melahysicaIs crealed a nev
and American yogic roducl: a Halha raxis lhal lrealed lhe cororeaI body
as a siriluaI vesseI, a yoga hiIosohy lhal ceIebraled lhe body ilseIf as lhe
miracIe of miracIes. Worshi lhe body, inslrucled Iierre ernard oflen. The
American enIighlened body-seIf vas, AIbanese says, differenl lhan lhe sublIe
body of Tanlra, lhe mechanicaI body of lhe naluraI hygiene movemenl, or lhe
manIy body of hysicaI cuIlure. American yogis have consislenlIy emhasized
lhe hysicaI as roule lo lhe lranscendenl.
11
In yoga sludios, American leach-
ers conslanlIy exhorl sludenls lo Iislen lo and honor lheir individuaI
bodies. Ior ernard, body-cenlric yoga incIuded QDXOL (abdominaI isoIalion)
and seIf-enemas. Today, hovever, American body vorshi lends lo excIude
bodiIy funclions, and yogis here shun some of lhe mosl common Indian yogic
exerciseslechniques Iike manuaIIy cIeaning one's sinuses vilh vax-cord
calhelers and cIeansing lhe nasaI assages vilh a MDOQHWL ol. Slefanie Syman
delecls a slrong slreak of Iroleslanlism in conlemorary American yoga, vilh
ils emhasis on vorking lhe body. This efforlfuI yoga is, she says, aradoxicaI,
bolh an induIgence and a enance (. 291).
Comared lo yoga in India, yoga in AmericaexcIuding oulIying seclarian
medilalion grousfunclions vilhoul formaI gurus. Inslead, a rolaling Iineu
of noveI yel inlerchangeabIe Halha rock slars (disroorlionaleIy maIe
in reIalion lo lhe ouIalion of raclilioners) comeles for audience share.
Comared lo rilain, vilh ils rilish WheeI of Yogaa ruIing body ofhciaIIy
sanclioned by IK SorlAmerican yoga is decenlraIized, enlrereneuriaI,
and non-hierarchicaI. Yoga schooIs offer leacher lraining bul resisl slale-IeveI
allemls lo reguIale lhem as vocalionaI schooIs vilh allendanl aervork,
fees, and inseclions.
In addilion lo commerciaIism and narcissism, erhas lhe mosl characler-
islic fealure of American yoga is ils syncrelism vilh olher forms of ouIar
lheraeulics Iike massage, chiroraclic, aromalheray, and music lheray. As
shovn in Lva Moskovilz's ,Q7KHUDS\:H7UXVW (2OO1), lhe Iniled Slales has
a dee ouIar lradilion of lhe lheraeulic goseI. If you drev a Venn dia-
gram, American osluraI yoga vouId hl inlo lhe overIaed sace of al Ieasl
hve sheres: aIlernalive siriluaIily, aIlernalive medicine, hysicaI lheray,
hysicaI hlness, and humanislic sychoIogy.
In lrulh, lhe American in American yoga is regionaI and melrooIilan.
Irom lhe Greal om lo lhe resenl, lhe Ieading hgures of American Halha
have gravilaled lo Nev York, San Irancisco, and Los AngeIes, and, more
recenlIy, lo coIIege lovns and hubs of ouldoor recrealion or aIlernalive siri-
luaIily Iike Sanla Ie and ouIder. Crossroads of lhealer, hIm, leIevision, and
fashionvilh lheir residenl beaulifuI eoIe vho ose for a Iiving and vho,
Iike medievaI \RJLQV, desire immorlaIilydoubIe as yoga cenlers. Ior roughIy
157 FARMER j AmcrIcanasana
lhe Iasl cenlury, lhe regionaI cuIlure of coaslaI CaIifornia has veneraled bodiIy
beauly and hlness, an enlerrising hislorian couId no doubl hnd direcl Iinks
belveen MuscIe each al Sanla Monica Iier and YogaWorks in Sanla Monica.
ul lhe CaIifornia inuence runs more lhan skin-dee. As shovn by Lrik Davis'
1nc Visicncrq Sicic (2OO6) and }effrey KriaI's |sc|cn (2OO7), siriluaI seekers in
lhe greal Iacihc slale have consislenlIy been on lhe forefronl of exerimenla-
lion vilh Asian lradilions. Ior examIe, in Sanla Cruz Counly, 15 ercenl of
aduIls in 2OOO idenlihed as having Laslern reIigious adherence, vhiIe Iess
lhan 4 ercenl idenlihed as Asian.
12

When one considers lhe hislory of yoga from lhe 189Os lo lhe resenl,
generaI lrends become aarenl: eriheraI lo cenlraI, IocaI lo gIobaI, maIe lo
(redominanlIy) femaIe, siriluaI lo (moslIy) secuIar, seclarian lo universaI,
mendicanl lo consumerisl, medilalionaI lo osluraI, inleIIecluaI lo exerienliaI,
esoleric lo accessibIe, from oraI lo hands-on leaching, from lexluaI lo holo-
grahic reresenlalions of oses, from conlorled sociaI ariahs lo Iilhe sociaI
vinners. Yoga has never been a slabIe enlily, il can mean aImosl anylhing
lo aImosl anybody. SuremeIy adalabIe, oslure raclice varranls use of
an overused vord: meme. Yoga nov beIongs lo vhal Srinivas Aravamudan
in Guru |ng|isn (2OO6) caIIs lhe gIobaI ouIara oslcoIoniaI reaIm of
reIigious cosmooIilanism.
RecenlIy, lhe Hindu American Ioundalion announced a camaign lo Take
ack Yoga from lhe secuIar reaIm of hlness. In comIemenlary fashion, India's
NalionaI Inslilule of Science Communicalion and Informalion Resources has
calaIoged hundreds of asanas in ils TradilionaI KnovIedge DigilaI Library in
an alleml lo deler inleIIecluaI roerly lhieves Iike CaIculla-born, everIy
HiIIsbased ikram Choudhury, vho conlroversiaIIy coyrighled a sequence
of lvenly-six yoga oses vilh lhe I.S. Ialenl fhce. Choudhury, vho, Iike
Iierre ernard, hobnobs vilh ceIebrilies and coIIecls cIassic cars, sonsors lhe
Yoga Asana Chamionshi and hoes lhal Halha viII someday earn recogni-
lion as an Iymic sorl. A macho, oIarizing hgure, Choudhury has earned
lhe scorn of sincere AngIo-American Halha yogis vho cIaim lo be leaching
lhe unaduIleraled CIassicaI Yoga of Ianla|aIi. Hovever, if Mark SingIelon
is righl, Choudhury, a former Indian veighlIifling chamion vho Ieads his
cIasses Iike bool cams, may be cIoser lo lhe siril of lhe originaIlhal is lo
say, Iale imeriaIMysore raclice lhan anyone eIse in America.
}ared Iarmer, Dearlmenl of Hislory, Slony rook Iniversily, is lhe aulhor of
1rccs in Pcrc!isc. A Cc|ijcrnic Hisicrq (forlhcoming, Norlon).
1. Markel survey resuIls from hll:11vvv.yoga|ournaI.com1adverlise1ress_reIeases11O,
afhIialion numbers from The Iev Iorum on ReIigion and IubIic Life, I.S. ReIigious
Landscae Survey: ReIigious AfhIialion: Diverse and Dynamic, Iebruary 2OO8, avaiIabIe
REVIEW5 IN AMERICAN HI5TORY j MARCH 2012 158
al hll:11reIigions.evforum.org. See aIso Gur|eel S. irdee el aI., Characlerislics of Yoga
Isers: ResuIls of a NalionaI Survey, jcurnc| cj Gcncrc| |nicrnc| Mc!icinc 23 (clober 2OO8):
165358, and Roberl . Saer el aI., IrevaIence and Iallerns of AduIl Yoga Ise in lhe
Iniled Slales: ResuIls of a NalionaI Survey, A|icrnciitc 1ncrcpics in Hcc|in cn! Mc!icinc 1O
(March1AriI 2OO4): 4449.
2. See David Gordon While, 1nc Ycgc Suircs cj Pcicnjc|i. A Bicgrcpnq (forlhcoming).
3. GeraId }ames Larson and Ram Shankar hallacharya, eds., Ycgc. |n!ics Pni|cscpnq cj
Mc!iiciicn, voI. 12 of |ncqc|cpc!ic cj |n!icn Pni|cscpnics (2OO8), 136.
4. See aIso David Gordon While, 1nc A|cncmicc| Bc!q (1996), WiIIiam R. Iinch, Wcrricr
Ascciics cn! |n!icn |mpircs (2OO6), and Irederick M. Smilh, 1nc Sc|j Pcsscssc! (2OO6).
5. See Suzanne Nevcombe, The DeveIomenl of Modern Yoga: Survey of lhe IieId,
Rc|igicn Ccmpcss 3 (2OO9): 9861OO2, Mark SingIelon and }ean yrne, eds., Ycgc in inc Mc!crn
Wcr|! (2OO8), and David Gordon While, ed., Ycgc in Prcciicc (2O12).
6. }oseh S. AIler, Ycgc in Mc!crn |n!ic (2OO4), 26.
7. WaIler Harding and CarI ode, eds., 1nc Ccrrcspcn!cncc cj Hcnrq Dcti! 1ncrccu (1958), 251.
8. LIizabelh De MicheIis, A Hisicrq cj Mc!crn Ycgc (2OO4), 1516.
9. See Dean R. Hoge el aI., Vcnisning Bcun!crics (1994), Roberl Wulhnov, Ajicr Hcctcn
(1998), Wade CIark Roof, A Gcncrciicn cj Scc|crs (1993) and Spiriiuc| Mcr|cip|ccc (1999).
1O. See Mimi Svarlz, The Yoga MoguI, Ncu Ycr| 1imcs Mcgczinc, }uIy 25, 2O1O, for a
rohIe of one of lhe Ieading conlemorary yoga enlrereneurs (Anusara founder }ohn Iriend).
11. Calherine AIbanese, A Rcpu||ic cj Min! cn! Spirii (2OO8), 347.
12. Wade CIark Roof and Mark SiIk, Rc|igicn cn! Pu||ic Iijc in inc Pccic Rcgicn (2OO5), 113.