. .

,
29 2012 .


0.1

( )

(- c () ). XXI ,
.
,
, .

(
c) (
~). ,
, ,
.
( )
, -

- .
- , .
, , , ,

i

. ,
1 , ,
. . , -

.
, c, , , ~,
.
, .
, ,

[1],[2],[3].
, ,
,
.

0.2

E, p
m . 4,
, (
), , . , , ,
, .
.
1

ii

, E = mc2 , m
v, , .
,
m0 ,
, .

(. ) . 5,
~. ,
~, . ,
~, . ,

,
.
9, ,
12 ~.
1~.
, . (
(). ,
.) ,
2~
.

, (, ),
iii

(, ),
. 5.
6, .
( ) .
, ,
, .
,
( ).
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
GN ~ c 1
mP = (~c/GN ) 2
2, 2 105 . ,
mP c2 ,
,
. 16.

, .
,
.

.
, ,
, , , , .

. ,
c ~. ,
, .

.
, .
, . , . ,
, ,
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,

. ,

(, ,
) (,
,
). , ,
, ,
. ,

iv

0.3


,

. ,
.

0.4

. . . . , . . .
World
Scientific ABC of
Physics: A Very Short Guide ,
.
. . , . . , .
. , . . , . . , . . , . . , . . , . . ,
. . , . . , . . , . . , . . , . . ,
. . , . . , . .
. . ,
.
.

-4172.2010.2, 10-02-01398
02.740.11.5158 .

, 2011

vi

0.1 *
0.2
0.3 * . . . . . . . . . .
0.4 . . . . . . . . .

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1
1.1 * . . . . . .
1.2 *
1.3 * .
1.4 * . . . . . . . .

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vi
1
1
2
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3

2
2.1 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 * . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 * . . . . . . . .

4
4
4
4

3
3.1 , * . . . . . . .
3.2
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 . . . . . . . .
3.5 .
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6
6

vii

6
7
7
7
8

9
4.1 * . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
4.2 c * . . . . . . . .
9
4.3 * . . . . . . .
10
4.4
* . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
4.5 * . . . . . . . 11
4.6
* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
4.7 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
4.8 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
4.9 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
4.10 * . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
4.11 * . . . . . . .
15

5
5.1 * . . .
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 * . . . . . . . . .
5.5 S L * . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7 * . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8 * . . .
5.9 * . . . . . . . . . . .

16
16
17
17
18
18
19
19
20
20

6
21
6.1 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.2 * . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
6.3 * . . . . . . . . .
22
6.4 * . . . . . . . .
23
6.5 . .
23
6.6 * . . . . .
24
6.7 * 24

6.8 . . . . . . . . . .
25
viii

6.9 -- . . . . .
6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
7.1 :
7.2 * . . . . .
7.3 - * . . . . . . . .
7.4 , c, ~ = 1 * .
7.5 * . .

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8
8.1 * . . . . . . .
8.2 *
8.3 * . . . . . . . .
8.4 * . . . . . .
8.5 * . . . . .
8.6 L S * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7 * . . . .

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25
26
27
29
29
29
30
30
30

31
. . 31
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34

9
35
9.1 * . . . . . . . . .
35
9.2 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
9.3 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
9.5 . . . . . . . . .
37
9.6 . . . . . . . .
37
9.7 . . . . . . . .
37
9.8 8 18 38
10
10.1 * . . . .
10.2 * . . . . . . . .
10.3 *
10.4 * . . .
ix

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10.5 . . . .
10.6 * . . . . .
10.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8 . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9 .
10.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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. . 41
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42
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44

11
11.1 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 * . . . . . .
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 * . . . .
11.5 * . . . . . . . . . .
11.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.8 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.9
11.10 : g-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.12 . . . . . . . . .

45
45
45
46
46
47
48
49
49
50

12
12.1 ? * . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 * .
12.3 . . . . .
12.4 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53
53
54
54

13 , , ,
13.1 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 * . . . . . . .
13.4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.5 * . . . . . . .
13.6 * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.7 * . . . . . . . . . . .
x

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51
51
52

54
56
56
56
57
57
57
58
58

13.8 * . . . . .
13.9
13.10 . . . . . . . . . .
13.11 . . .

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59
59
60
60

14
62
14.1 * . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
14.2 * . . . . . . . . . . .
62
14.3 * 63
14.4 * . . . . . . . .
63
14.5 - . . . . . . . . .
63
15
15.1 * . . . . . . . .
15.2 * . . . . . . . . . .
15.3 CMB
15.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
16.1 : * . . .
16.2 * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 . . . . . . .
16.4
16.5 ? . . . . . . .
16.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
17.1 , * . . .
17.2 * . . . .
17.3 . . . . . . . .
17.4 * . . . . .
17.5
* . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.6 * . . . . . . . . . . .
17.7 * . . . . . . . . . .
17.8 * . . . . . . .
xi

65
65
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68
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73
73
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75
75
75

18
18.1 * . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2 * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3 * . . . . . . . . . .
18.4 * . . . . .
18.5 . . . . . . . . . . .

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19
19.1 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3 . . . . . . . . . . .
19.4
19.5 . . . . . . . . . .
19.6 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.8 , 1962
19.9 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76
76
76
77
77
78
79
79
79
80
80
81
81
81
82
82

20
83
20.1 ,, * . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
20.2 *
84
20.3 * .
84
20.4 . .
85
20.5 . . . . . .
85
20.6 V-A 85
20.7 * . . . . . . .
86
20.8 * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
20.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
21
21.1 * . . . . .
21.2 * . . . .
21.3 * . . . . .
21.4 *
21.5 * . . . . . . . . .
xii

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88
88
88
88
89
89

21.6 * . . . . . .
22
22.1 SU(3) * . . . . . . . .
22.2 * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.3 * . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.4 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.6 * . . . . . . . . . . .
22.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.8 . . . . . . . . . .
22.9

90

91
. . 91
. . 91
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92
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92
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92
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93
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93
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94
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94

23
95
23.1 * . . . . . . . . .
95
23.2 SU(2) U(1) . . . . .
96
23.3 Z- SU(2) U(1) .
96
23.4 . . .
97
23.5 . . . . . . . . . .
98
23.6 . . . . . . . . . .
98
23.7 SU(2)xU(1) 99
23.8 99
23.9 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
23.10 * . . . . . 100
23.11 2011: . . . 101
24
24.1 . . . . . . . . . .
24.2 . .
24.3 2011:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .
. .
. .
. .

102
102
103
103
104

25
105
25.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
25.2 SU(5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
25.3 . . . . . . . . 106
xiii


25.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
26.1 . . . . . . . . . .
26.2
26.3 - . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.4 - . . . . . . . .
27
27.1 *

27.2 * . .
27.3 SSC * .
27.4 LHC * . . . . .
27.5 * . .

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107

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108
108
109
110
110

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111
. 111
112
112
113
114

28 1

116

29 2

118

125

1.1

- ,
,
.
:
c ~.
,
( ). ,
( ).
, , ,
.
,
, , .

xiv

1.2

:
: - (x), - (y),
- (z).
.
.
t - r : x, y, z.
t
. : . , :
. -
: r |r| = const.

1.3

. ,
, .
, .

1.4

.
(.. ), v
v = r/t, r , t , .
.

(. . ) .
: , e
p. , .
, , .

, , .

, .

(.
[1]), ,
.
,
. , ,
2


= 60 . , , 60 3600 ,

.

.
.

2.1

, ,
. ,
, .

2.2

( )
. :(1 ) ,
, , 360 . : 10 =1 /60.
: 100 =10 /60. ,
2 , 3, 14.
=360 /2 57 ,
, .

2.3

.
.
= 24 . = 60 .
4


.
i = 1 .

3.3

3.1

, *

,
.
. -
.
, .
. .

3.2

, . ,
3 105 /=3 108 /,
1010 . ,
, 109 .

3.4

101
da

101
d
2
10
h

102
c

103
k
103
m

106
M
106

109
G

109
n

1012 T

1012 p

1015 P
1015 f
18

10
E

1018 a
21
10
Z

1021 z
24
10
Y

1024 y

3.5

: 1) /, 2)
/, :
3) , 4) . -

:
v = dr/dt. dt
( )
.
dr
.


,
.
.
R
, : r = vdt.
. ,
,
,

[4].

3.6

.
.

4.1

, . .
, . , ;
,

. , , ,
, .

4.2

c *

-
,

, c 300 000 / (
c=299 792 458 /;
8

).

4.3

, ,
:
E p. , , .
, .
.

, .
, .
, ,

. . -,
,
,
, .
.

4.4

EK :
EK = mv2 /2 = p2 /2m.

, , EK
U . ,
,
U = mgh, m , g 10/2
, h .
, E = U + EK
.

-: .

4.5

,
: 1) ,
, 2)
p, px , py , pz .
, ,
, . (,
, ,
.)
p = mv.
r0 t r t = 0 1 :

(4.1)
1 ,
, .

10

11

r = r + vt

(4.2)

, t
. , .
,
10 ,
10 ,
10 .
10 .
100 .
.
,
c = 3108 /. .

. , ,
- .
.
, , . ( )

, .

:
r0 = (r + vt)
t0 = (t + rv/c2 ),

(4.3)

= 1/

p
1 v 2 /c2 .

(4.4)

, v/c 0 ,
t0 = t. ,
, .
, , ct r .

,
s:
s2 = c2 t2 r2 .

(4.5)

, c,
.

,
,
, . , , t it.

s,
(4.5),
xy, yz, zx,
- xt, yt, zt.
,

x, y, z.

12

13

4.6

4.7

4.8

, , E/c p
-, , , 4-. 4-
, c2 :
m2 c2 = E 2 /c2 p2 .

(4.6)

, ,
m

E = E0 + EK ,

(4.7)

, EK , E0 = mc2
E.


p = vE/c2 .

(4.8)

v = pc2 /E.

(4.9)

,
c. ,
(4.1)
|v| c.
(4.6) - (4.9) ,
, ,
, .
14

.
(, )

m.
m2 = E 2 c4 p2 c2 .

4.9

(4.10)

,

E(p = 0) E0 = mc2 .

(4.11)

, E E0
(4.7) (4.8)
p mv,
p= mv.

4.10

, : m < 1051 . , .
(4.6) ,
: |p| = E/c, (4.9), c.
,
.

4.11

me (108 ) 9 1028 .
, , , :
mp 1, 7 1024 .
15

Lx = ypz zpy ,
Ly = zpx xpz ,
Lz = xpy ypx .

, r
p, L = 0. L 6= 0.

: J = L + S.
,
, () r p, . L
.
:
.

5.1

(5.2)

: .
() , .
. S.

.
L, - r
p :
L = r p,
16

(5.1)

5.2

, ( ) ,
. ,
, , 5 ,
6, : 3 3 = 1 + 3 + 5.

5.3

(5.2) ,
17

:
Nx = ctpx xE/c,
Ny = ctpy yE/c,

(5.3)

Nz = ctpz zE/c,

N = ctp rE/c.

(5.4)

r p ,
N 6= 0. r p ,
(5.4)
ctp = rE/c.
(5.5)
v = r/t, (4.8) (4.9).

5.4

(,
) . ( , .)
.

5.5

,
, , .
, ,
, ,
.
,
L

S L *

L2 = ~2 l(l + 1),

(5.6)

l = 0, 1, 2, ... . l 2l+1
: 1, 3, 5, .... . 5.2.

5.6

,
.
, , , .
,
, .
,
.

, .
,
z. Lz Sz ~,
~ = h/2, h ,

. Lz
Sz Lmax
= l~ Szmax = s~, l s
z

.

:
( s) ( s).
, 12 , .
, , .
, ,
, .
. .

18

19

5.7

5.8

.
.
(. ).
, , , .
,
- ,

.

5.9

m1 m2 m = m1 +m2 /c2 ,
. /c2 .
, ,
.

6.1

~ , .
, ,
() , ,
, .

k, p
:
p = ~k.
(6.1)
k = |k| .

k = 2/.

(6.2)

, ,
20

21

. (,
, .)
, (6.1), E ( ) :

(
= /2.)

.
, ,
.
, .
.

6.2

6.4

E = ~.

(6.3)

,
2
: (r, t), |(r, t)|
, r t. , ,
, , ,
. ,
,
, .
,
, .
(6.8)-(6.10) , ,
.

,

, . ( ,
) e 2, 7 . (

1/2 , ; 1/2 = ln 2 0, 7 .)
,
.
.

6.3

-
,
.
, .

,

. , .
,
. -

22

23

6.5

,
.
. , ,

.

, .

6.6

-) ,
, .

6.8

:
i

py y ~/2,

= 1 (
2 + e,
H
p eA)
2m
(6.4)

pz z ~/2.
, , .

6.7

.
.

?. ( )

?
?. , (
24

(6.5)

- , H
, . , A :

Et ~/2,
px x ~/2,

= H,
t

(6.6)

p
= i~/r . ( )
.

6.9

--

1926 , .




2
2
2
2
2

+
m
= 0.
t2
x2
y 2
z 2

(6.7)




2
+ m = 0.
(6.8)
x x
25

x ,
x . ( )
: x = g x , g
.

A = (, A)


6.10

ieA
x



ieA
x


+m


= 0.

(6.9)

12 :
(
p m) = 0,

(6.10)

p = p = i x ,
4 4:

1
0
0
=
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
=
0
1
0
0 1
1

0 0 0
0 0 i
2

=
0 i 0
i 0 0

i
0
,
0
0

0
0
3

=
1
0

0
0
1
0

0 1
1 0
,
0 0
0 0

0 1 0
0 0 1
.
0 0 0
1 0 0
(6.11)

22 , :


1 0
1=
,
0 1
26

, ,
:






0 1
0 i
1 0
1
2
3
=
, =
, =
.
1 0
i 0
0 1
(6.12)
:




1
0
0
0 =
, =
.
(6.13)
0 1
0
( 20) 5 = i 0 1 2 3 , , ,



0 1
5 =
.
(6.14)
1 0

6.11

, .
S. .
.
.
,
t r,

S = Et + pr.

(6.15)

,
S = E0 t = mc2 t.

eiS/~ .
27

(6.16)


S
.
[5].

7.1

:
*

,
, , :
, . , ~=1,054 571 628(53)1034
, 1 , 1 , (53)
.

7.2

XIX
, .
1 2 c2 .
: 1
=1 1 . , ,
,
.
28

29

7.3

- *

,
, .
- 1 . : -,
-, -, -, - (1 = 103 , 1
= 103 , 1 = 106 , 1 = 109 , 1 =
1012 ). ,
1,61019 , , 1 = 6,21018 .
~ = 6, 58211899(16) 1016 .

7.4

, c, ~ = 1 *

,
c, ~.
, ..
c, ~ = 1. , c = 1, ,
. ,
-: 1 =1,781036
, me = 0, 51 , mp = 938 0.9 .
r t.

7.5

. c, ~ = 1

. ,
. ,
, ,
.

30

8.1

,
.
mp , me
-e,
+e.
, r,
U = e2 /r = ~c/r,

(8.1)

= e2 /~c 1/137.(, e = 1, 6
1019 (. 7.3),
(. 12.4).)
, , .
.
31

8.2

, . ( .)
:
.
,
, ,
, .
.
,
, ..
. ( ,
, ,
, . , , ,
, .)

8.3

.
() .

:
n = me c2 2 /2n2 ,
(8.2)

8.4

,
, .
.
mH = mp + me 1 /c2 .

8.5

n,
l, l n 1. . , ,
, , ,
( )
l  1. l = 0
,
.
r, p v . ,

n,
( l) .

8.6

L S *

n ,
1
. n,
.

1 = me c2 2 /2 = 13.6 .
.

n l ,
z. 2l + 1 : lz =
l, l 1, l 2, l + 2, l + 1, l;
: sz = + 12 , 12 .

32

33


z ,
. ( lz
ml , sz ms .)

8.7

,
.

9.1

(., , [6]) .
, , (e, , p) , ..
.
, : mn mp 1.29 .

, .
,
, ,
.
, 34

35

,
.
A. .
Z.
.
, Z.

9.4

9.2

. , 12 . ,
.

9.3

, , ,
: 1)
n, 2) l, 3) ml , 4) ms . , n
1, 2, 3,.... l
0 n 1. l = 0, 1, 2, 3 s, p, d, f . ml
2l + 1 l +l. ms
: 12 , + 12 .
, s, p, d, f
,
. XIX
.
.
,
1868 , .
36

(
, 1s,) : 1 H (1s1 ) 2 He (1s2 ).
,
Z; , l,
n; ,
.

9.5

( 1s, 2s2p)
: 3 Li (2s1 ) 10 Ne (2s2 2p6 ). , s
, p
. (
(3s3p) :
11 Na (3s1 ) 18 Ar (3s2 3p6 ) .

9.6

( 4s3d4p)
: 19 K
(4s1 ) 36 Kr (4s2 3d10 4p6 ). (
5s4d5p)
: 37 Rb (5s1 )
54 Xe (5s2 4d10 5p6 ). ,
4p 5p ,
3d 4d.

9.7

( 6s4f 5d6p)
:
37

55

s2 d1 ,
f . ( 57 La 71 Lu) , ,
( 89 Ac 103 Lr).
18, 32 : 32 = 18 + (14 = 15 1).

Cs (6s1 ) 86 Rn (6s2 4f 14 5d10 6p6 ). ,

6p ,
4f () 5d.
( 7s5f 6d7p)
:
87 Fr (7s1 ) 118 (7s2 5f 14 6d10 7p6 ).
89-103 . 113 - 118 .

9.8

8 18

18 .
I
VIII (. [6])

. ( VIIIB
8,9,10.) (IA) ,
.
(IIA) -
.
(IIIA), (IVA), (VA), (VIA) ,
, , , . (VIIA)
,
. ,
() (VIIIA)
,
.
2-17.
3-12.
3-12
( IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, VIII, IB, IIB).

, 15 :
38

39

10.3

1
30
.
.
2,71025 .
[7].

10

10.4

, . (H2 , O2 ,
HCl, H2 O, CO2 ) ( ).
.

. ( ), t. t=0 , 100 .
, .
= 3 kT , E

: E
2
, T
(T = t + 273), ( K), k
: k = 8, 62 105 / .
c, ~, k
.

10.2

10.5

10.1

:
, O2 , N2 , CO2 , H2 O.
, Ne, Ar,... .
.

.
.

,
. , c, ~, k,
. ( c , , .) c,
,
~, , .

40

41

k,

. (
, k .) ,
,
( ) .

: , ..
,
.
()
. , .

10.6

/ .
:
. :
=14 ,
4 He (=2,17 ) 3 He ( 103 K)
.

.
. , .

. -,
, .
, SiO2 .
NaCl. ,
Hg,
.
, .
, . , .
. .

10.8

10.9

, ,

1911 .
4 .
1938
. 2
.
100 ,
. 1986 ,
, 30 .
125 . 1957 .

,

42

43

10.7



. (
.)

10.10

,
,
, , . ,
, ,
, .


.

11

11.1

:
,

. ().

11.2

. . 1920-
, 1940-
,
.
44

45

11.3

40-
2s 2p .
8,
: 1s
31 /4. , 2s , 2p,
1058 .
,

3 1 .

11.4

,
,

, ,
.
( , )
, , , . :
( ) . ,
. .
.
46

11.5

*
e

. 11.1:

, .

. ,
. 4-
.
; 4- p
: p2 E 2 p2 = m2 . ( , c = 1.)
,
.
,
.
. 11.1 4- q, , ,
.
q 2 6= m 2 = 0. (,
, .)
. ,
,
47

11.6

, ,
90 . ,
, .
, .
?
p

. 11.2:

,
.
( ,
2mp c2 .)
p

e+

. 11.3:

48

e+ , p .
1949 .
.

11.7

1926 . 1930 ,
12 . .
1940 . ,

.

, .

, ,
1930 .
, . (, ,
,
, .)

11.8

,
, . . 11.4
. (,
,
, .)
49

11.10

: g-2

g2 6= 0. 11.6 ,
g 2.
.
. 11.4:

,
, .

11.9

es~/2mc, e, s, m , , g.

. 11.6:

11.11

, 11.7,

. .

. 11.5:

,
11.5, g=2.

. 11.7:

50

51


-
, ..
q 2 .
q 2
. , q 2
, = e2 /~c, q 2 ,
(q 2 ).
.

11.12

, ,


(q 2 ) q 2 = 0.
.

12

12.1

? *

, , . . , , , .

,
. ,
, ,
.
, ,
, (,
-), - -

.
52

53

12.2

.
,
.
. (. 6.1.)

12.3

E , ..
D :
D = E,

(12.1)

 .
H B :
B = H,

. XIX ( ) 0 0 = 1/0 c2 ,
. , , , . , 0
0 .

. 0 . c=1 0 = 0 = 1. (.,
[8],[9]). .
[10]
0
.
, ,
. ,
. !

(12.2)

.
0 = 0 = 1.

c
v=


12.4

(12.3)

,
, 54

55

 , , ,
3,9 .)
( 10 750 ) 400 .

.
,
.

13

, ,
,
13.1

: ,
( ).
, .
, , ,
.

13.2

13.3

30 , . ,
3000
.
.

13.4

300
, .
700 ,
4500 , 6400
.


.
( .
. [11], 6: .)

,
. 6 103 , 61024 .
1,51021 , ,
4000 . (
1,5108 2 , 3,6108 2 , 0,9 ,

(.. , ),

. -

56

57

13.5

 , , ,
23 270 (.
7 [11]).

13.6

m1 m2 ,
r ,
:
U = GN m1 m2 /r,

(13.1)

GN = 6.7 1011 3 1 2 .

13.7

, , ,

13.8

.
,
,
, , . ,
,
, . (
. .) , :
(1010 ).

, , ,
.

, ,
. M = 2 1030 ; R = 7 105
. 150106 . 500 .

(..).
30 /. ( -
, ,
.)
80 , 380103 .

300 ,
5 , .
, ,
.

,
.
200 / 25
. , ,
4.4 (
.)
9 .
, , 700 000.

250 .
100 , 7
,

58

59

13.9

 , , ,
1, 4 1011 M , :
100 M (. [11]). , M , 1010 .

13.10

.
, ..
. , 1 =2105
..=31013 =3,3 . 1 ()
3,3 . 1 () = 3, 3
106 . 1 ()=3, 3 109
.

13.11

, , ,
. ,
.

.
. . 16.4.

,

,
,
.
.
,
,
. ,
, . , ,
1987 SN1987A.
,
, . 1.4 , .
1,4

(. 15.3)

60

61

14.3

E, ,
q v ( c = 1),

14

14.1

200

. (, SN1987.)
2
,
.
350 .
1022 1023 [12].

14.2

1929 , , :
v = Hr, v , r
, H .
, H 70 / . 1/H 15
. ,
,
62

1+v
E 1v
,

q E 1v
1+v .

14.4

, ,
, .
1960 . ,
. ,
, , , , ,
. , , ,
.
.
[13]. ,
,
.

14.5

-.
63

.
,
: .
, ,
.
.
-
.

15

15.1

15
,
. . ,
. ( , 105 ,
.) ,
.
, () ()
, .

15.2

T t

4 3 GN T 4 t2 1,

(15.1)

10T 2 t/mP 1. , ~ 6.6 1022

mP 1022 , t T 2 ,
64

65

t , T (
. 27.1
[14]).

T 109 K 0, 1
, ( 109 ) , .

[15]. ,
, .

15.3

CMB

300 000 1

.
, 2, 3 104
2, 7 .
(Cosmic Microwave Background
CMB) 1940 1965
.

15.4

(.
).
, ,
.

15.5

, 1998 , , - .1 ,
.
, ,

.

1930 , ,
. , ,
,
, . 1960
,
,
(. ).

1
2011 .

66

67


,
g ,
.

16.2

16

16.1

:
*

,
, (, 1916). ,
,
.
1) ,
1919
,
.
2)
, 1960 .
3) ,
XIX .
, ,
68

, , , ,
(),
(). ,
2, ,
, 1.
. ,
,
, ,
GN 6, 7 1039 ~c5 2 .
,
, ,
.
,
, - ,
.

16.3

GN , ,
m2 .
, . , 69

,
.
,
, , -
.
.
1908 , 1905 -. 1915
-
.
,
,

( , ). ,
, , (.
).

g .

16.4

g
r m, 1916 ,
g00 = (1 rg /r)

(16.1)

grr = (1 rg /r)1 ,

(16.2)

rg :
rg = 2GN m
70

(16.3)

rg 3 , rg 1 .
, .
, .
: , ,
rg , .
.

16.5

,
, .
, ..
.
, ,
: .
.

,
, .
,
,
.

16.6

XIX , ,
,
71


GN , ~ c, :
mP = (~c/GN )1/2 .

(16.4)

, mP = 1, 22089(6) 1019 /c2

2, 2 105 .
EP =
mP c2 pP = mP c, 1, 2 1019
(/), lP tP : lP = ~/mP c 1, 6 1035 tP =
~/mP c2 0.5 1043 .
, c , ,
. , ,
. ,
.

.

17

17.1

, *

XIX XX ,
, , . , -
, - , - ,
.

17.2

1910 , - ,
.
10 , , .
, , .

, -,
--.
72

73

17.3

.
: +1/2 -1/2.
SU(2). 2 .

17.4

- . , ,
. - n
p. 1930- ,
e

( ):
n p + e + .

17.5

(17.1)

1930 . 1934 , - :
n
p e GF /(~c)3 = 1, 16637(1) 105 2 .

74

: + p e+ + n.
, , 1956
.

17.6

1930-

.
,
, .
1942
1945 .

17.7

1930- ,

, ,
.
,
. ,

. 1953
.

17.8

, .

,
.

75

18

18.1

, ,
. ,
1912 . 1932 ,
, , , , ,
.
,
.

18.2

, : E
m E/mc2 .
,
.
,
,
, , .
, ,
.

18.3

1947
- 140 . ,
+
, ,
. 1935 .
.
, 0 .
1950- . 135 /2
. (T3 = +1, 0, 1) ,
. 1949
,

( ) .

1938 ,
- 105 /c2 , , , ,
,
. , -

, ,
K- 500
. , -

76

77

18.4


: 0 , + , .
,
( ),
( ). K + , K 0
0 .
K , K
K-
-K- ,
.

18.5

Q = T3 + B/2 + S/2,

19

(18.1)

Q , T3
, B ( +1 ,
-1 , 0 ), S .
,
, K- +1,

K-
0 -, - -1,
- -2.

19.1

1950-

.
1952
++ ,
+ , 0 , 1230 ,
.
1955 p.
n
.

19.2

1956 , -, ,
78

79



0 , (.
[16]).

19.3

1957-58 ,
,
p, n, ,
( ).

. ,
.

. ,
SU(2) , , .
, SU(3).
,
.
, , ( ),
, ,
( ).

,
0 - . - 548
1961 . -
K-
SU(3) , ,
. 0
1964 . 958 .
SU(3) .

19.5

1961 :
- m 770 , - m 780
m 890
, K K
- m 1020 .

19.6

,
12 : (m 940 )
( (m 1115 ), (m 1200
), (m 1320 ).

19.7

1960 - m
+
1230 32 + m 1385
c
m 1535 . - 1962

+
m 1685 J P = 32 .
1964 .

80

81

19.4

19.8

, 1962

1962

.

19.9

1964 -
u, d, s (+2/3 u -1/3 d s)
1/3.
SU(3) . , , uuu
++ , ddd , sss .
uud , udd, 0 - uds.

20

20.1

,, *

K- 1956

: , , .
, .
:
1.
.
(
Charge conjugation ).
2. ,
. ( 180
.)
(
Parity ).
r p ( ),
82

83


( ) L S
( ).
3. . ( Time reversal).
:

, .
,
.
1956 ,
, 1964 ,
- (. ).
-, ,
-.
- .
.

20.2

1956 K + -
-
.
, , 1957 ,
.

20.4

1957 ,
.

20.5

1955

-. , ,
, , ,
.

- 2
.
-.
.
.

20.6

V-A

, .

1958 , -,
,
V-A
.
, e (1 +
5
)e , e , e
, e e V ,
-
e 5 e - A . -

84

85

20.3


,
n
p p.

du
su.
, , E  mc2 , ,
. ,
.
.
, , . m.

20.7

KS0 -.

20.9

-
, .. ,
, , .

, , ,
. , , ,
. .
.

. ,
,
ABCD
ABDC. ,
. (
%) 1904 . ,
.

20.8

1964 KL0 + .
, KL0 -, +
-, , . , +
86

87


u
d
e
e

21.4

21

,

?

21.1

, : u, d, s- c, b, t-.
, c-,
1974 . , b-
1977 . ,
t 1995 .

21.2

: e, , e ,
1975 ,
.

c
s

t
b

1967 ,

: W + , W Z 0 , . W -
-. Z-
.
1973 .
, 1983
W - Z-.
, .
H.
H-
LHC.

21.5

1/2:

1972
,
g.
.

88

89

21.3

21.6

, : 2
; 1 (, ); ,
0 .

22

22.1

SU(3) *

( )

. ,
, .
.
, SU(3) , ,

u, d, s.
, .

22.2

, 6 1/3
+2/3 u, c, t
90

91


-1/3 d, s, b. : , ,
.
: , , . ,

.
,

. .
.

22.3

, : 8 = 3 3 1.
++ . .
( ) .
-
.

22.4

. ,
.
, , ,
.

22.6

, (u, d)
, .
: .

. ,

(CAC Conserved Axial Current). , .. -
- - .
, , , 7 5
-, .
.
(PCAC Partially Conserved Axial Current).

22.7

q = u, d, ,
mq /F = m2 /m2 ,

(22.1)

, ,
, .

F = f / 2 93 ,
.
19
[3]. ,

10 .
, , u d-.

92

93

22.5

22.8

,
s- ms 100 . c- mc 1, 3 ,
b- mb 5 , t- mt 170 .

22.9

. (.. )
. [17].

23

23.1

,
W -. mW 80 . ,
Z 0 -. mZ 91 . mW /mZ = cos W
W ,
. GF (.
17.4)
W -:

GF = / 2m2W sin2 W .

(23.1)

,
W -.
sin2 W 0, 22.
94

95

23.2

SU(2) U(1)

, e
W + , W , W 0
B 0 . W -
SU(2),
B- - SU(2) U(1).
,
(
20), , , T3 =1/2 L T3 =-1/2 eL ,
: T (R ) = T (eR ) = 0.
, W - T , B 0 -
Q T3 , 0 R , -1
eR , -1/2 L eL . , , g1 g2

sin W cos W .

23.3

Z-
SU(2) U(1)

A = B 0 c + W 0 s,

(23.2)

Z = B 0 s + W 0 c.

(23.3)

Z- .
B 0 = Ac Zs,

(23.4)

W 0 = As + Zc,

(23.5)

96

s = sin W
c = cos W .
, eL

(B 0 s + W 0 c)/2 =
(Ac Zs)s/2 (As + Zc)c/2 =
Acs Z(c2 s2 )/2, (23.6)
eR
B 0 s = Acs + Zs2 .

(23.7)

,
. ,
, -cs. Z-
s2 14
14 .
W - , ,
c.

23.4

, (e , e) :
( , ) ( , ), .
,

:
(u, d), (c, s), (t, b),
1,
,
:
97

(u, s), (c, d),

0,22;
(c, b), (t, s),
0,05;
(t, d), (u, b),
, 0,01.

mt
.)

23.5

23.7

, , ,

, . , W Z- , ,
. , SU(2)xU(1),
, , .

23.6

V () = 2 (||2 2 )2 .

 + 

=
,
(23.8)
0
, ||2 = + + + 0 0 , ,
.
,
3/4

=2

1/2
GF

= 174 .

SU(2)xU(1)1
:


0
=
.
(23.10)
+

W Z:
, , . ,
; .

23.8

SU(2)xU(1)

,
.

: , W - Z-
H,
:

mW = g2 / 2 = 2/ sin W ,

(23.11)

(23.9)
mZ = mW / cos W ,

(23.12)

. .
(, t- 1722 !

, , .

98

99

23.11
mH = 2.

(23.13)

,
f , f
, .
1013 , 3 106 , t-
. ,
, ,
.

23.9

2011:

LHC ( ATLAS CMS) Tevatron
( CDF D0)
2011 [18],[19],[20]
- 2011
[21]. .

. .
SSC,
.

23.10

, ,
LHC .
.
, , ..
,
1 . 10
.
LHC 27 ,
3,5 . (
2010 . 2014
7 .)
100

101

24

,
24, 25, 26
, .
, ,
.
,
.
(Supersymmetry, SUSY) 1971
. ,
, . ,
, .

24.1

Q,
1/2. , , Q
, 1/2.
102

,
. , , .
, .
,
a.
, SUSY.
:
+ QQ
+ QQ
= 2p ,
[Q, Q]
(24.1)
p , . ,
, ,
-.
,
.

24.2

i(1 i N ),

. N =
4. N =4-.
J=1, J=1/2
J=0.
.

24.3

2011:

(
) ( )

103



M [19], [20], [21].

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105

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SU(5)

SU(5) .
: 5-
10-. , 5-
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uL , e+
L );
L , L ), 10- (3dL , 3uL , 3
L , 3 .
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.
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25.3

1032
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.

25.4

:
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.
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.

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mP .
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26

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16

( 10 )
,
.

.
N =8 : 1 2, 8 3/2, 28 (= 87/12)
1, 56 (= 8 7 6/1 2 3)
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0; 128 128
.(,
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27

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(.
[25] [26]).

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, , ,
.
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.
.

27.3

SSC *

,
.

1990 III.12
- : 1)
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LHC (8 , 1996?), 3) SSC (20 , 1999),
. . SSC,
20 ,
.
87 112

.
,
, , , . ,
,
,
. 1993
1994
,
(. [22],
- ).
[23] , SSC . 2011
SSC(LHC)(. [24]).
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,
3 .
(1985 - 2011) .
1 .

27.4

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( ),

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,
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. (. [27],[28])
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114

.
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115

28

,
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.
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, .
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22 2011
[30], , v
c. [30], (v c)/c =
2, 48(0, 28)[0, 30] 105 ,
,
. [30] 730 CERN
Gran Sasso 60,7(6,9)[7,4] ,
c.
20 .
, ,
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CERN.
,
, ,
. , , c. ,
116

117

 29

2
, ,

.
, ,
,
, , ,
, . ,
, .
,
.

[1] S. Weinberg, Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles

and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity.
John Wiley 1972
. , : .
1975

[2] S. Weinberg, The Quantum Theory of Fields, Volume

I. Foundations. Cambridge University Press 2000
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J Perrin
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122

123

(LHC)
,
,
,

,
,
(SSC)

CERN
(Centre) Organisation Europeen de Recherche Nucleair
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125

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138