I  !  
1  !  ) &% (
"                  
(' &  %$ . #   , - . /    &   * 
,  4 . Qr = K '012 3 -*14
+, &*)( :
  & 2 89 -*14 7*- ) Br2 (aq ;/  ) 3 =" > , Cu ( s"4   II
"4 *- ) @A, Br (aq1   :

) Cu ( s ) + Br2 ( aq ) Cu 2 + ( aq ) + 2 Br ( aq

27 B K = 1, 25.10 25 : 89

1 E @A,  / 89  *   .  =A
2

Cu 2+ . Br
i
i
E   89  *   = 0 :
= Qr ,i
Br
[ 2 ]i
Qr ,i < KK / 2 / J* J  -L ) Br (aq
) . Cu 2+ (aq
2  , /*-*   O  4-    " / II  J"4   Cu 2+ (aq ) II
"4 *- )  Br (aq 1  89': 1

) Cu 2 + ( aq ) + 2 Br ( aq ) Cu ( s ) + Br2 ( aq
27 @A, / K RB   .  =A

1
27  = 8, 3.1026 0
K

= ' K 27 - UV # A  *"- -9S

  , / # . O 4W/ 2   .

2  !   .
&" X -*4  -A4     J / J1 J  Y

 K :  *"-  8. 2-
;4- @  @"-[ 3*4# 8 & *4  " U 8L J & 4 O  J
  & 10m 7*- ) - Br2 ( aq ; 10mmol / R   & 20m -2 * K
- ; 1, 0 mol / R   & 20m *"-   - ; -/ / -U4 . 1, 0 mol / R]*4
- ] & -U ^ /[ & 4  ) -E(   ( 8S4 .-a"&  *2
 -- 1,5V -A@  J  b* " > 2 - - @ *-  @A
-W2   -W2 %*- com %2- -U. ^ /
1  &  J   2-B " 3f-9 .
"-9    " -* -]* & - --    4- -U. ^ /
2 , J  =K h  2-
-a4 -  : /0K  %2- /-a"& j/ J1 J  Y  2-
& - -U  4 ^ /-  

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]"4 -  : /  3# > 2 4 ) )  4 ( K + ( aq ), Cu 2+ ( aq %*-

@2  @A 3#]4 4 ))  4 ( SO42 ( aq ), Br ( aq]4  @2 %*-@#
 .
3  X  
-    2--9 &
(- 
bf m,04  9E 
]  J- -U^ /
 -A94  2 p

;E  4 ) Cu 2+ ( aq

2 pA -4 :

Cu 2+ ( aq ) + 2e = Cu
2 -   ]4
m,04-9V   > ,
qA ]4 4 ) Br (aqp
 2-a4  J-
-U @A, ^ /1   :

2 Br ( aq ) = Br2 ( aq ) + 2e
W/ 2  89  
-   : 2-

) Cu 2 + ( aq ) + 2 Br ( aq ) Cu ( s ) + Br2 ( aq

   /* (1 /08

4
  &  7 )6
 *& /0 ( / .%   < ;. ( :
II 7= ; < ;: ( :
7   80E 8 2-  t  2- & Q-  J-E 2 K
. 2-
L ^4    2- / 0E 27 I 8 W/ t . Q = I .t
s14   2-   2 *- -a4  & -  J-E * -

I .t
'012  Q = n(e ).F :
F

= ) . n(e

4 /h  *"- j2A - *1 #   0E 4   80E 2-

 -*14 t0E 34  ;  / -" t   . 27 I 3L
vh4 : 89 9V
2
+

Cu ( aq ) + 89  

) 2 Br ( aq ) Cu ( s ) + Br2 ( aq

) n(e

  
0


0

' C 'V
C 'V ' x

x
x
2x

n(e ) I .t
= n(Cu ) = x
=
# @A,  "
2
2.F

CV
CV x

,

* 

W/ 2    :

I .t
) M (Cu
2F
Page 2

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 III < ;  ( :  @ 

-14 X J 01/=   44   8 2-
B0 
)( 2
x4 2 U 8L J 2*4  S"
/ -U4-( 8 *4x - & -U^ /
8S4-a"& -  *2-A
)  / (3, 5V  '-A .
- 12 by2' & "-L 8E4 j *0
/ "4]2-9 B " 3 / #]4 m,0/
9E  ] / BEq4 s7 "4*4 *E ' 0
&   # -/ /  X y4 3
'- &  9  m,0/ & 9 {*S" 34
" .
1 & 0E -# ]4    # /
    J;# ;$}/A
  , 09 & ,  78
-

) O2 ( g ) / H 2O (), C 2 ( g ) / C ( aq
) H 2O () / H 2 ( g ), Na + ( aq ) / Na ( s
  ]4 # / 
+

-U ( 89" O ) ^ / "4 S" Na"4  C

s14  34]4   A ]4      "&  @1 ;$  O;$

;#   O2 ( g ) / H 2O (), C 2 ( g ) / C ( aq ) :

]A & ,  7]4  :

1
H 2O ( ) = O2 ( g ) + 2 H + (aq) + 2e
2

2C (aq) = C 2 ( g ) + 2e
s14  34 "  ;E ]4      "&  @1 } A }A
;#   :

) H 2O () / H 2 ( g ), Na + ( aq ) / Na ( s
O;EO & ,  7  :

)Na + (aq) + e = Na( s

)2 H 2O() + 2e = H 2 ( g ) + 2 HO (aq
2 & -; ; =K= 0E 01/ 4 B   . 8
& 0E  &*" ~,0 J 34 8-"& 04 . .
A J ]4 @A,-; ] "4 U  9" j B -; U 

7 C 2  89   2C ( aq ) = C 2 ( g ) + 2e :
  ". j 7  H 2 & #"     9  J & 9 "4

   A 89/ 2   2 H 2O () + 2e = H 2 ( g ) + 2 HO ( aq ) :
3 ^*71  B  S   8. 2-

) 2 H 2O () + 2C ( aq ) H 2 ( g ) + 2 HO ( aq ) + C 2 ( g
Page 3

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)*& IV < ;( :

 - y   & "1;9
 12 - y  8 /#"4 *U-  ]   A 7 7
  & # ...
 & L*"  A  X 
1  E (DD
" - s & VV--"& & V- .,  [2 JU  AV- .
  ]a-  B " 3 / -UB -a  , & % E*p "-
) 2 H + ( aq ) + SO42 ( aq*"- V- . PbSO4 ( s ) II
"& - s " 8Uh {" > , '   2- J E  # p7 
 4 --9" s .
"& - s " 8Uh-4  8*A@  3 2- & 2 "-9    3  1 RY
   J 4 "-9 -. & h" s
1  89   - / s: VV
,ULO  :
 @ - @# " s ;EO 1   :

)PbO2 ( s ) + SO42 ( aq ) + 4 H + ( aq ) + 2e = PbSO4 ( s ) + 2 H 2O (

 @ - @A  s A :

Pb( s ) + SO42 ( aq ) = PbSO4 ( s ) + 2e

  @A, J*1 -L : 89

) PbO2 ( s ) + 2 SO42 ( aq ) + 4 H + ( aq ) + Pb( s ) 2 PbSO4 ( s ) + 2 H 2O (

, /ULO : 8*A
"-9 , /- 3 L &" s-2 p * -  b 3-9" -A   / J
1 Y m,07  / . "-9 RB  " -* s &   8 8*A" 2-'
/   4 J1 J  Y  .

) 2 PbSO4 ( s ) + 2 H 2O () PbO2 ( s ) + 2 SO42 ( aq ) + 4 H + ( aq ) + Pb( s

  :1  2 & h 82' - .- 3 L & / s*  '- 1" & h 82s
2  !   !   E (1GH
   -. Y9 j/
- K 34 1  # 2    0E  O   " 7  / 8E] 8[ . &  A
0K  U / , %K j/ 89 1 :

)C6 H12O6 ( aq ) + 6O2 ( g ) 6CO2 ( g ) + 6 H 2O (

    / J*-  -L4 -L "A / VE s 9  J-, #
sA#A4O , / 37C 2 p ' -/ /1  J' 0  
2 392 sA 89 K   " / 8S &  E 8 "0E b # / 82 sA 
s /] , .
  -A -- j/ @ . y
& - @  / y*  &   /4 "-A 7] &  A& '04
"
7  A2-   / &"-/0U  ." s p-A' 89 j/ 8y92'
 & 1L. Yh

) 6CO2 ( g ) + 6 H 2O () C6 H12O6 ( aq ) + 6O2 ( g

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