P2 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The digestive system is made up of digestive tracks - a series of hollow organs joined in along, twisting tube

from the mouth to the anus and other organs that help the break down and absorb food. WHAT IS DIGESTION? Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breaking down of food into smaller components, to a form that can be absorbed, for instance, into a blood stream OR Digestion is a form of catabolism; a break-down of macro food molecules to smaller ones. WHY DO WE NEED TO DIGEST FOOD? So the body can absorb nutrients that are in the food. Digestion breaks down the nutrients into the simplest forms so the body can metabolize the necessary vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, sugars, etc. Without digestion the body could not use the food in the form it is ingested. MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN DIGESTION Mechanical digestion is the actual physical break down of food into smaller pieces. One example of this is mastication (chewing) which occurs in the mouth by the teeth, which act to cut and grind food into smaller pieces. This makes them easier to later digest as it increases the SA of the food molecules, i.e. a certain type of food is made of lots of different chemicals but certain chemicals are found in the centre Chemical digestion on the other hand, is the chemical break down of foods into smaller pieces. An example of this is how enzymes break them down. In particular, the enzyme salivary amylase is found in our saliva which acts to break down starch into simpler forms (polysaccharides -- disaccharides). ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION This is process of absorbing or assimilating substances into cells or across the tissues and organs through diffusion or osmosis, as in absorption of nutrients by the digestive system, or absorption of drugs into the bloodstream. DISORDERS AND MANAGEMENT Disorder Hypertension (HTN) or high blood pressure; is a chronic medical condition in which the systematic arterial blood pressure is elevated. It is the opposite of hypotension. It is classified as either primary (essential) or secondary. Management

The first line of treatment for hypertension is the same as the recommended preventive life changes such as the dietary changes, physical exercise, and weight loss, which have all been shown to significantly reduce blood pressure in people with hypertension. If hypertension is high enough to justify immediate use of medication, lifestyle changes are still recommended in conjunction with medication.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The respiratory system consists of air passages through the nose, the windpipe or trachea, and the lungs. INSPIRATION AND EXPIRATION

Inspiration (Breathing in) .This is a passive process. The external intercostal muscles contract and the internal intercostals relax. This pulls the rib cage up and out. At the same time, the diaphragm muscles contract. This flattens the diaphragm. Both actions increase the volume of the thorax. As a result the pressure in the thorax, and hence the lungs, is reduced to less than the atmospheric pressure. Air therefore enters the lungs, inflating the alveoli, until the air pressure in the lungs is equals to that of the atmosphere.

Expiration (breathing out). This is largely a passive process under resting conditions, and is brought about by the elastic recoil of the lung tissue, respiratory muscles and the rib cage. The respiratory muscles act as follows. The external intercostal muscles relax and the internal intercostal contract. The rib cage drops mainly due to its own weight. At the same time, the diaphragm relaxes. The dropping rib cage forces the diaphragm into a domed shape, pushing it up into the thoracic cavity. These events reduce the volume of the thorax and raise its pressure above that of the atmosphere. Consequently air is forced out of the lungs.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE. Gaseous exchange is the diffusion of the oxygen and carbon dioxide that takes place in the alveoli part of the lungs. When oxygen goes into the alveoli, which then touches the capillaries carrying blood, the oxygen is diffused into the blood cells

and the carbon dioxide is diffused into the alveoli as an apposite reaction. The carbon dioxide is then breathed out of the body back into the air.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION Aerobic respiration is a process of cellular respiration that uses oxygen in order to break down molecules, which then releases electrons and creating energy. In the process, aerobic respiration creates a substance known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This responsible for storing and carrying most of the energy to other body cells, thus making life as we know it possible. DISORDERS AND MANAGEMENT Disorder Bronchial asthma; is the condition of subjects with widespread narrowing of the bronchial airways, which changes in severity over short periods of time (either spontaneously or under treatment) and leads to cough, sneezing, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing. Management It can be treated with bronchodilators, with or without corticosteroids, usually administered via aerosol or dyr-powder inhalers, or- if the condition is more severevia a nebulizer. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM The circulatory system is made up of the vessels and the muscles that help and control the flow of blood around the body. This process is called circulation. COMPONENTS OF BLOOD PLASMA Plasma is the liquid components of blood, in which red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are suspended. It constitutes more than half of the volume and consists of mostly of water that contains dissolved salts (electrolytes) and proteins. RED BLOOD CELLS The red blood cells (also called erythrocytes) make up about 40% of the bloods volume. Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, a protein that gives blood its red and enables it to carry oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to all body tissues. WHITE BLOOD CELLS White blood cells (also called leukocytes) are fewer in numbers than the red blood cells, with a ratio of about 1 white blood cell to every 600 to 700 red blood cells. White blood cells are responsible primarily for defending the body against infection. PLATELETS Platelets (also called thrombocytes) are cell-like particles that are smaller than red or white blood cells. Platelets are fewer in number than red blood cells, with a ratio of about 1 platelet to every 20 red blood cells. Platelets help in the clotting process by

gathering at a bleeding site and clumping together to form a plug that helps seal the blood vessel. FUNCTION OF BLOOD VESSELS AND HEART The primary components of blood vessels arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins serve a variety of functions in keeping the body alive and healthy. These functions include, Transporting blood away from the heart Transporting oxygenated blood across the body Transporting blood from the arteries to the capillaries Draining blood from the capillaries into the veins and exchanging oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and salt between the body and surrounding tissue. The hearts only function is to pump blood. The right side of the pumps blood to the lungs, where oxygen is added to the blood and carbon dioxide is removed from it. The left side pumps blood to the rest of the body, where oxygen and nutrients are delivered to tissues and waste products (such as carbon dioxide) are transferred to the blood for removal by other organs (such as the lungs and kidney). FACTORS AFFECTING HEARTBEAT EXERCISE During exercise the heart rate increases due to several factors. First as we exercise the level of carbon dioxide in the body increases while the level of oxygen decreases. In response, the heart beat faster to try to get more oxygen into the blood to supply the heart and brain. CAFFEINE Caffeine is a chemical naturally found in coffee, tea and cocoa beans. Caffeine is a stimulant that affects the central nervous system, respiration and the heart. In addition to stimulating the heart and increasing the heart rate, it also acts as a diuretic which is a substance that causes the body to get rid of excess fluids. WEIGHT Body weight plays a large role in how the heart functions and the resulting heart rate. The more tissue there is within the body, the harder the hart has to work to pump the blood through the body. Therefore, as weight and body mass increases, heart rate increases. SMOKING Smoking cigarettes affects the heart rate in a variety of ways. The nicotine in cigarettes, an additive substance, causes the blood vessels to constrict, which increases the resting heart rate. In addition, cigarette smoke contains carbon monoxide. DISORDERS AND MANAGEMAENT Disorder Angina, characterized by severe and recurrent chest discomfort and pain, is caused due to lack of blood supply and/or oxygen supply in the muscles of the heart. Basically, it is manifested as a complication by the contraction of the blood vessels. Angina is often considered as a warning sign of an impending heart attack. Management The best treatment for angina is to adjust lifestyles and remove high fats from the diet, stop smoking, increase physical activity, reduce blood pressure and lower stress

levels. The use of glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) will help to reduce pain and lower the workload of the heart by relaxing the vessels involved. It can be taken orally as spray or tablets.

RENAL SYSTEM The renal system is also known as the urinary system. Located in the retroperitoneal upper area of the abdominal cavity, the renal system is a collection of the organs and the structures that function in the removal of waste material from the body. The renal system consists of the pair of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. BLOOD SUPPLY A kidney receives the blood from the renal artery that rises from the dorsal aorta. In the kidney, the renal artery divides and subdivides to send an afferent arteriole into each Bowman capsule. Here the afferent forms a bunch of about 50 parallel capillaries called glomerulus. These rejoin to form the efferent arterioles. The efferent arteriole forms a network in the cortex around the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the nephron. FUNCTIONS Osmoregulation (ADH) It controls the levels of water and mineral salts in the blood. It detects changes in the amount of water present in the blood. The blood becomes more concentrated. It makes the pituitary produces more ADH. PH BALANCE Cells and body fluids contain acid-base buffers, which help prevent rapid changes in body fluid pH over short periods of time, until the kidneys pulmonary systems can make appropriate adjustments. The kidneys and pulmonary system then work to maintain acid-base balance through excretion in the urine or respiration. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide gas (PCO2) in the pulmonary system can be measured with a blood sample and correlates with blood carbon dioxide (CO2) levels. PCO2 can then be used as an indicator of the concentration of acid in the body. The concentration of base in the body can be determined by measuring plasma bicarbonate (HCO3-) concentration. When the acid-base balance is disturbed, the respiratory system can alter PCO2 quickly, thus changing the blood pH and correcting imbalances. DISSORDERS AND MANAGEMENT

Disorder Analgesic is injury to the kidney caused by analgesic medications such as aspirin, phenacetin, and paracetamol. The term usually refers to damage induced by excessive

use of combinations of these medications, especially combinations that include phenacetin. Management Treatment of analgesic nephropathy begins with the discontinuation of analgesics, which often halts the progression of diseases and may even in normalization of kidney function.

D2 FAILURE OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM