kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk350kBC kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkONkINTERPRETATION kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkbykAristotle kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkktranslatedkbykE.kM.kEdghill kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk1 kkFirstkwekmustkdefinekthektermsk'noun'kandk'verb',kthenkthekterms 'denial'kandk'affirmation',kthenk'proposition'kandk'sentence.' kkSpo enkwordskarektheksymbolskofkmentalkexperiencekandkwritten wordskarektheksymbolskofkspo enkwords.kJustkaskallkmenkhaveknotkthe samekwriting,ksokallkmenkhaveknotktheksamekspeechksounds,kbutkthe mentalkexperiences,kwhichkthesekdirectlyksymbolize,karektheksamekfor all,kaskalsokarekthosekthingskofkwhichkourkexperienceskarekthekimages.

Thiskmatterkhas,khowever,kbeenkdiscussedkinkmyktreatisekaboutkthe soul,kforkitkbelongsktokankinvestigationkdistinctkfromkthatkwhichklies beforekus. kkAsktherekarekinkthekmindkthoughtskwhichkdoknotkinvolvektruthkor falsity,kandkalsokthosekwhichkmustkbekeitherktruekorkfalse,ksokitkis inkspeech.kForktruthkandkfalsitykimplykcombinationkandkseparation. Nounskandkverbs,kprovidedknothingkiskadded,karekli ekthoughts withoutkcombinationkorkseparation;k'man'kandk'white',kaskisolated terms,kareknotkyetkeitherktruekorkfalse.kInkproofkofkthis,kconsider thekwordk'goat-stag.'kItkhasksignificance,kbutktherekisknoktruthkor falsitykaboutkit,kunlessk'is'kork'isknot'kiskadded,keitherkinkthe presentkorkinksomekotherktense. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk2 kkBykaknounkwekmeankaksoundksignificantkbykconvention,kwhichkhaskno referencektoktime,kandkofkwhichknokpartkisksignificantkapartkfrom thekrest.kInktheknounk'Fairsteed,'kthekpartk'steed'khaskno significancekinkandkbykitself,kaskinkthekphrasek'fairksteed.'kYet therekiskakdifferencekbetweenksimplekandkcompositeknouns;kforkinkthe formerkthekpartkiskinknokwayksignificant,kinktheklatterkitkcontributes tokthekmeaningkofkthekwhole,kalthoughkitkhasknotkankindependent meaning.kThuskinkthekwordk'pirate-boat'kthekwordk'boat'khasknokmeaning exceptkaskpartkofkthekwholekword. kkTheklimitationk'bykconvention'kwaskintroducedkbecauseknothingkis byknaturekaknounkorkname-itkiskonlyksokwhenkitkbecomeskaksymbol; inarticulateksounds,ksuchkaskthosekwhichkbruteskproduce,kare significant,kyetknonekofkthesekconstituteskaknoun. kkThekexpressionk'not-man'kisknotkaknoun.kTherekiskindeedkno recognizedktermkbykwhichkwekmaykdenoteksuchkankexpression,kforkitkis notkaksentencekorkakdenial.kLetkitkthenkbekcalledkankindefiniteknoun. kkThekexpressionsk'ofkPhilo',k'tokPhilo',kandksokon,kconstituteknot nouns,kbutkcaseskofkaknoun.kThekdefinitionkofkthesekcaseskofkaknounkis inkotherkrespectsktheksamekaskthatkofktheknounkproper,kbut,kwhen coupledkwithk'is',k'was',korkwillkbe',ktheykdoknot,kasktheykare, formkakpropositionkeitherktruekorkfalse,kandkthisktheknounkproper alwayskdoes,kunderkthesekconditions.kTa ekthekwordsk'ofkPhilokis'kor 'ofkork'ofkPhilokisknot';kthesekwordskdoknot,kasktheykstand,kform eitherkaktruekorkakfalsekproposition. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk3 kkAkverbkiskthatkwhich,kinkadditionktokitskproperkmeaning,kcarries withkitktheknotionkofktime.kNokpartkofkitkhaskanykindependentkmeaning, andkitkiskaksignkofksomethingksaidkofksomethingkelse. kkIkwillkexplainkwhatkIkmeankbyksayingkthatkitkcarrieskwithkitkthe notionkofktime.k'Health'kiskaknoun,kbutk'iskhealthy'kiskakverb;kfor

besideskitskproperkmeaningkitkindicateskthekpresentkexistencekofkthe statekinkquestion. kkMoreover,kakverbkiskalwayskaksignkofksomethingksaidkofksomething else,ki.e.kofksomethingkeitherkpredicablekofkorkpresentkinksome otherkthing. kkSuchkexpressionskask'isknot-healthy',k'isknot,kill',kIkdoknot describekaskverbs;kforkthoughktheykcarrykthekadditionalknotekof time,kandkalwayskformkakpredicate,ktherekisknokspecifiedknamekforkthis variety;kbutkletkthemkbekcalledkindefinitekverbs,ksincektheykapply equallykwellktokthatkwhichkexistskandktokthatkwhichkdoesknot. kkSimilarlyk'hekwaskhealthy',k'hekwillkbekhealthy',kareknotkverbs,kbut tenseskofkakverb;kthekdifferenceklieskinkthekfactkthatkthekverb indicateskpresentktime,kwhilekthektenseskofkthekverbkindicatekthose timeskwhichkliekoutsidekthekpresent. kkVerbskinkandkbykthemselveskareksubstantivalkandkhaveksignificance, forkhekwhokusesksuchkexpressionskarrestskthekhearer'skmind,kand fixeskhiskattention;kbutktheykdoknot,kasktheykstand,kexpresskany judgement,keitherkpositivekorknegative.kForkneitherkarek'tokbe'kand 'notktokbe'kthekparticiplek'being'ksignificantkofkanykfact,kunless somethingkiskadded;kforktheykdoknotkthemselveskindicatekanything, butkimplykakcopulation,kofkwhichkwekcannotkformkakconceptionkapart fromkthekthingskcoupled. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk4 kkAksentencekiskaksignificantkportionkofkspeech,ksomekpartskofkwhich havekankindependentkmeaning,kthatkisktoksay,kaskankutterance,kthough notkaskthekexpressionkofkanykpositivekjudgement.kLetkmekexplain.kThe wordk'human'khaskmeaning,kbutkdoesknotkconstitutekakproposition, eitherkpositivekorknegative.kItkiskonlykwhenkotherkwordskarekadded thatkthekwholekwillkformkankaffirmationkorkdenial.kButkifkwe separatekoneksyllablekofkthekwordk'human'kfromkthekother,kitkhaskno meaning;ksimilarlykinkthekwordk'mouse',kthekpartk'ouse'khasknokmeaning inkitself,kbutkiskmerelykaksound.kInkcompositekwords,kindeed,kthe partskcontributektokthekmeaningkofkthekwhole;kyet,kaskhaskbeenkpointed out,ktheykhaveknotkankindependentkmeaning. kkEveryksentencekhaskmeaning,knotkaskbeingktheknaturalkmeanskby whichkakphysicalkfacultykiskrealized,kbut,kaskwekhaveksaid,kby convention.kYetkeveryksentencekisknotkakproposition;konlyksuchkare propositionskaskhavekinkthemkeitherktruthkorkfalsity.kThuskakprayerkis aksentence,kbutkiskneitherktrueknorkfalse. kkLetkuskthereforekdismisskallkotherktypeskofksentencekbutkthe proposition,kforkthisklastkconcernskourkpresentkinquiry,kwhereaskthe investigationkofkthekotherskbelongskratherktokthekstudykofkrhetorickor ofkpoetry. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk5 kkThekfirstkclasskofksimplekpropositionskisktheksimplekaffirmation, theknext,ktheksimplekdenial;kallkotherskarekonlykonekbykconjunction. kkEverykpropositionkmustkcontainkakverbkorkthektensekofkakverb.kThe phrasekwhichkdefineskthekspeciesk'man',kifknokverbkinkpresent,kpast, orkfuturektimekbekadded,kisknotkakproposition.kItkmaykbekas edkhowkthe expressionk'akfootedkanimalkwithktwokfeet'kcankbekcalledksingle;kfor itkisknotkthekcircumstancekthatkthekwordskfollowkinkunbro en successionkthatkeffectskthekunity.kThiskinquiry,khowever,kfindskits placekinkankinvestigationkforeignktokthatkbeforekus. kkWekcallkthosekpropositionsksinglekwhichkindicatekaksinglekfact,kor thekconjunctionkofkthekpartskofkwhichkresultskinkunity:kthose propositions,konkthekotherkhand,karekseparatekandkmanykinknumber,

whichkindicatekmanykfacts,korkwhosekpartskhaveknokconjunction. kkLetkus,kmoreover,kconsentktokcallkaknounkorkakverbkankexpression only,kandknotkakproposition,ksincekitkisknotkpossiblekforkakmankto spea kinkthiskwaykwhenkhekiskexpressingksomething,kinksuchkakwaykaskto ma ekakstatement,kwhetherkhiskutterancekiskankanswerktokakquestion orkankactkofkhiskownkinitiation. kkTokreturn:kofkpropositionskonek indkisksimple,ki.e.kthatkwhich assertskorkdeniesksomethingkofksomething,kthekotherkcomposite,ki.e. thatkwhichkiskcompoundedkofksimplekpropositions.kAksimple propositionkiskakstatement,kwithkmeaning,kasktokthekpresencekof somethingkinkaksubjectkorkitskabsence,kinkthekpresent,kpast,kor future,kaccordingktokthekdivisionskofktime. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk6 kkAnkaffirmationkiskakpositivekassertionkofksomethingkaboutksomething, akdenialkaknegativekassertion. kkNowkitkiskpossiblekbothktokaffirmkandktokdenykthekpresencekof somethingkwhichkiskpresentkorkofksomethingkwhichkisknot,kandksince theseksamekaffirmationskandkdenialskarekpossiblekwithkreferencekto thosektimeskwhichkliekoutsidekthekpresent,kitkwouldkbekpossiblekto contradictkanykaffirmationkorkdenial.kThuskitkiskplainkthatkevery affirmationkhaskankoppositekdenial,kandksimilarlykeverykdenialkan oppositekaffirmation. kkWekwillkcallksuchkakpairkofkpropositionskakpairkof contradictories.kThosekpositivekandknegativekpropositionskareksaid tokbekcontradictorykwhichkhavektheksameksubjectkandkpredicate.kThe identitykofksubjectkandkofkpredicatekmustknotkbek'equivocal'.kIndeed therekarekdefinitivekqualificationskbesideskthis,kwhichkwekma ekto meetkthekcasuistrieskofksophists. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk7 kkSomekthingskarekuniversal,kotherskindividual.kBykthekterm 'universal'kIkmeankthatkwhichkiskofksuchkaknaturekasktokbe predicatedkofkmanyksubjects,kbyk'individual'kthatkwhichkisknotkthus predicated.kThusk'man'kiskakuniversal,k'Callias'kankindividual. kkOurkpropositionsknecessarilyksometimeskconcernkakuniversal subject,ksometimeskankindividual. kkIf,kthen,kakmankstateskakpositivekandkaknegativekpropositionkof universalkcharacterkwithkregardktokakuniversal,kthesektwokpropositions arek'contrary'.kBykthekexpressionk'akpropositionkofkuniversal characterkwithkregardktokakuniversal',ksuchkpropositionskask'everykman iskwhite',k'nokmankiskwhite'karekmeant.kWhen,konkthekotherkhand,kthe positivekandknegativekpropositions,kthoughktheykhavekregardktoka universal,karekyetknotkofkuniversalkcharacter,ktheykwillknotkbe contrary,kalbeitkthekmeaningkintendedkisksometimeskcontrary.kAs instanceskofkpropositionskmadekwithkregardktokakuniversal,kbutknot ofkuniversalkcharacter,kwekmaykta ekthek'propositionsk'mankis white',k'mankisknotkwhite'.k'Man'kiskakuniversal,kbutkthe propositionkisknotkmadekaskofkuniversalkcharacter;kforkthekword 'every'kdoesknotkma ektheksubjectkakuniversal,kbutkratherkgiveskthe propositionkakuniversalkcharacter.kIf,khowever,kbothkpredicatekand subjectkarekdistributed,kthekpropositionkthuskconstitutedkis contraryktoktruth;knokaffirmationkwill,kunderksuchkcircumstances,kbe true.kThekpropositionk'everykmankiskeverykanimal'kiskankexamplekof thisktype. kkAnkaffirmationkiskopposedktokakdenialkinktheksensekwhichkIkdenotekby thektermk'contradictory',kwhen,kwhilektheksubjectkremainsktheksame, thekaffirmationkiskofkuniversalkcharacterkandkthekdenialkisknot.kThe

affirmationk'everykmankiskwhite'kiskthekcontradictorykofkthekdenial 'notkeverykmankiskwhite',korkagain,kthekpropositionk'nokmankis white'kiskthekcontradictorykofkthekpropositionk'somekmenkarekwhite'. Butkpropositionskarekopposedkaskcontrarieskwhenkbothkthekaffirmation andkthekdenialkarekuniversal,kaskinktheksentencesk'everykmankis white',k'nokmankiskwhite',k'everykmankiskjust',k'nokmankiskjust'. kkWekseekthatkinkakpairkofkthisksortkbothkpropositionskcannotkbektrue, butkthekcontradictorieskofkakpairkofkcontrarieskcanksometimeskboth bektruekwithkreferencektoktheksameksubject;kforkinstancek'notkevery mankiskwhite'kandksomekmenkarekwhite'karekbothktrue.kOfksuch correspondingkpositivekandknegativekpropositionskaskreferkto universalskandkhavekakuniversalkcharacter,konekmustkbektruekandkthe otherkfalse.kThiskiskthekcasekalsokwhenkthekreferencekiskto individuals,kaskinkthekpropositionsk'Socrateskiskwhite',k'Socrates isknotkwhite'. kkWhen,konkthekotherkhand,kthekreferencekisktokuniversals,kbutkthe propositionskareknotkuniversal,kitkisknotkalwayskthekcasekthatkone isktruekandkthekotherkfalse,kforkitkiskpossiblektokstatektrulykthat mankiskwhitekandkthatkmankisknotkwhitekandkthatkmankiskbeautifulkand thatkmankisknotkbeautiful;kforkifkakmankiskdeformedkhekiskthe reversekofkbeautiful,kalsokifkhekiskprogressingktowardskbeautykhekis notkyetkbeautiful. kkThiskstatementkmightkseemkatkfirstksightktokcarrykwithkitka contradiction,kowingktokthekfactkthatkthekpropositionk'mankisknot white'kappearsktokbekequivalentktokthekpropositionk'nokmankis white'.kThis,khowever,kisknotkthekcase,knorkarektheyknecessarilykat theksamektimektruekorkfalse. kkItkiskevidentkalsokthatkthekdenialkcorrespondingktokaksingle affirmationkiskitselfksingle;kforkthekdenialkmustkdenykjustkthatkwhich thekaffirmationkaffirmskconcerningktheksameksubject,kandkmust correspondkwithkthekaffirmationkbothkinkthekuniversalkorkparticular characterkofktheksubjectkandkinkthekdistributedkorkundistributedksense inkwhichkitkiskunderstood. kkForkinstance,kthekaffirmationk'Socrateskiskwhite'khaskitskproper denialkinkthekpropositionk'Socrateskisknotkwhite'.kIfkanythingkelsekbe negativelykpredicatedkofktheksubjectkorkifkanythingkelsekbekthe subjectkthoughkthekpredicatekremainktheksame,kthekdenialkwillknotkbe thekdenialkproperktokthatkaffirmation,kbutkonkthatkiskdistinct. kkThekdenialkproperktokthekaffirmationk'everykmankiskwhite'kisk'not everykmankiskwhite';kthatkproperktokthekaffirmationk'somekmenkare white'kisk'nokmankiskwhite',kwhilekthatkproperktokthekaffirmationk'man iskwhite'kisk'mankisknotkwhite'. kkWekhavekshownkfurtherkthatkaksinglekdenialkiskcontradictorily oppositektokaksinglekaffirmationkandkwekhavekexplainedkwhichkthese are;kwekhavekalsokstatedkthatkcontrarykarekdistinctkfromkcontradictory propositionskandkwhichkthekcontrarykare;kalsokthatkwithkregardktoka pairkofkoppositekpropositionskitkisknotkalwayskthekcasekthatkonekis truekandkthekotherkfalse.kWekhavekpointedkout,kmoreover,kwhatkthe reasonkofkthiskiskandkunderkwhatkcircumstanceskthektruthkofkthekone involveskthekfalsitykofkthekother. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk8 kkAnkaffirmationkorkdenialkisksingle,kifkitkindicatesksomekonekfact aboutksomekoneksubject;kitkmattersknotkwhetherktheksubjectkis universalkandkwhetherkthekstatementkhaskakuniversalkcharacter,kor whetherkthiskisknotkso.kSuchksinglekpropositionskare:k'everykmankis white',k'notkeverykmankiskwhite';'mankiskwhite','mankisknotkwhite'; 'nokmankiskwhite',k'somekmenkarekwhite';kprovidedkthekwordk'white'khas onekmeaning.kIf,konkthekotherkhand,konekwordkhasktwokmeaningskwhichkdo

notkcombinektokformkone,kthekaffirmationkisknotksingle.kFor instance,kifkakmankshouldkestablishktheksymbolk'garment'kas significantkbothkofkakhorsekandkofkakman,kthekpropositionk'garment iskwhite'kwouldknotkbekaksinglekaffirmation,knorkitskoppositekaksingle denial.kForkitkiskequivalentktokthekpropositionk'horsekandkmankare white',kwhich,kagain,kiskequivalentktokthektwokpropositionsk'horse iskwhite',k'mankiskwhite'.kIf,kthen,kthesektwokpropositionskhave morekthankaksingleksignificance,kandkdoknotkformkaksinglekproposition, itkiskplainkthatkthekfirstkpropositionkeitherkhaskmorekthankone significancekorkelsekhasknone;kforkakparticularkmankisknotkakhorse. kkThis,kthen,kiskanotherkinstancekofkthosekpropositionskofkwhich bothkthekpositivekandktheknegativekformskmaykbektruekorkfalse simultaneously. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk9 kkInkthekcasekofkthatkwhichkiskorkwhichkhaskta enkplace,kpropositions, whetherkpositivekorknegative,kmustkbektruekorkfalse.kAgain,kinkthe casekofkakpairkofkcontradictories,keitherkwhenktheksubjectkis universalkandkthekpropositionskarekofkakuniversalkcharacter,korkwhen itkiskindividual,kaskhaskbeenksaid,'konekofkthektwokmustkbektruekand thekotherkfalse;kwhereaskwhenktheksubjectkiskuniversal,kbutkthe propositionskareknotkofkakuniversalkcharacter,ktherekisknoksuch necessity.kWekhavekdiscussedkthisktypekalsokinkakpreviouskchapter. kkWhenktheksubject,khowever,kiskindividual,kandkthatkwhichkis predicatedkofkitkrelatesktokthekfuture,kthekcasekiskaltered.kForkif allkpropositionskwhetherkpositivekorknegativekarekeitherktruekor false,kthenkanykgivenkpredicatekmustkeitherkbelongktoktheksubjectkor not,ksokthatkifkonekmankaffirmskthatkankeventkofkakgivenkcharacter willkta ekplacekandkanotherkdenieskit,kitkiskplainkthatkthe statementkofkthekonekwillkcorrespondkwithkrealitykandkthatkofkthe otherkwillknot.kForkthekpredicatekcannotkbothkbelongkandknotkbelongkto theksubjectkatkonekandktheksamektimekwithkregardktokthekfuture. kkThus,kifkitkisktruektoksaykthatkakthingkiskwhite,kitkmust necessarilykbekwhite;kifkthekreversekpropositionkisktrue,kitkwillkof necessityknotkbekwhite.kAgain,kifkitkiskwhite,kthekpropositionkstating thatkitkiskwhitekwasktrue;kifkitkisknotkwhite,kthekpropositionkto thekoppositekeffectkwasktrue.kAndkifkitkisknotkwhite,kthekmankwho stateskthatkitkiskma ingkakfalsekstatement;kandkifkthekmankwho stateskthatkitkiskwhitekiskma ingkakfalsekstatement,kitkfollowskthat itkisknotkwhite.kItkmaykthereforekbekarguedkthatkitkisknecessary thatkaffirmationskorkdenialskmustkbekeitherktruekorkfalse. kkNowkifkthiskbekso,knothingkiskorkta eskplacekfortuitously,keitherkin thekpresentkorkinkthekfuture,kandktherekareknokrealkalternatives; everythingkta eskplacekofknecessitykandkiskfixed.kForkeitherkhekthat affirmskthatkitkwillkta ekplacekorkhekthatkdenieskthiskiskin correspondencekwithkfact,kwhereaskifkthingskdidknotkta ekplacekof necessity,kankeventkmightkjustkaskeasilyknotkhappenkaskhappen;kforkthe meaningkofkthekwordk'fortuitous'kwithkregardktokpresentkorkfuture eventskiskthatkrealitykisksokconstitutedkthatkitkmaykissuekinkeither ofktwokoppositekdirections.kAgain,kifkakthingkiskwhiteknow,kitkwas truekbeforektoksaykthatkitkwouldkbekwhite,ksokthatkofkanythingkthat haskta enkplacekitkwaskalwaysktruektoksayk'itkis'kork'itkwillkbe'.kBut ifkitkwaskalwaysktruektoksaykthatkakthingkiskorkwillkbe,kitkisknot possiblekthatkitkshouldknotkbekorknotkbekaboutktokbe,kandkwhenkakthing cannotknotkcomektokbe,kitkiskimpossiblekthatkitkshouldknotkcomektokbe, andkwhenkitkiskimpossiblekthatkitkshouldknotkcomektokbe,kitkmust comektokbe.kAll,kthen,kthatkiskaboutktokbekmustkofknecessitykta e place.kItkresultskfromkthiskthatknothingkiskuncertainkorkfortuitous, forkifkitkwerekfortuitouskitkwouldknotkbeknecessary.

kkAgain,ktoksaykthatkneitherkthekaffirmationknorkthekdenialkisktrue, maintaining,kletkusksay,kthatkankeventkneitherkwillkta ekplaceknor willknotkta ekplace,kisktokta ekupkakpositionkimpossiblektokdefend.kIn thekfirstkplace,kthoughkfactskshouldkprovekthekonekproposition false,kthekoppositekwouldkstillkbekuntrue.kSecondly,kifkitkwasktruekto saykthatkakthingkwaskbothkwhitekandklarge,kbothkthesekqualitieskmust necessarilykbelongktokit;kandkifktheykwillkbelongktokitktheknext day,ktheykmustknecessarilykbelongktokitktheknextkday.kButkifkan eventkiskneitherktokta ekplaceknorknotktokta ekplacektheknextkday,kthe elementkofkchancekwillkbekeliminated.kForkexample,kitkwouldkbe necessarykthatkaksea-fightkshouldkneitherkta ekplaceknorkfailkto ta ekplacekonktheknextkday. kkThesekaw wardkresultskandkotherskofktheksamek indkfollow,kifkitkis ankirrefragableklawkthatkofkeverykpairkofkcontradictory propositions,kwhetherktheykhavekregardktokuniversalskandkarekstatedkas universallykapplicable,korkwhetherktheykhavekregardktokindividuals, onekmustkbektruekandkthekotherkfalse,kandkthatktherekareknokreal alternatives,kbutkthatkallkthatkiskorkta eskplacekiskthekoutcomekof necessity.kTherekwouldkbeknokneedktokdeliberatekorktokta ektrouble,kon theksuppositionkthatkifkwekshouldkadoptkakcertainkcourse,kakcertain resultkwouldkfollow,kwhile,kifkwekdidknot,kthekresultkwouldknot follow.kForkakmankmaykpredictkankeventktenkthousandkyears beforehand,kandkanotherkmaykpredictkthekreverse;kthatkwhichkwas trulykpredictedkatkthekmomentkinkthekpastkwillkofknecessitykta ekplace inkthekfullnesskofktime. kkFurther,kitkma esknokdifferencekwhetherkpeoplekhavekorkhaveknot actuallykmadekthekcontradictorykstatements.kForkitkiskmanifestkthat thekcircumstanceskareknotkinfluencedkbykthekfactkofkankaffirmation orkdenialkonkthekpartkofkanyone.kForkeventskwillknotkta ekplacekor failktokta ekplacekbecausekitkwaskstatedkthatktheykwouldkorkwould notkta ekplace,knorkiskthiskanykmorekthekcasekifkthekprediction dateskbac ktenkthousandkyearskorkanykotherkspacekofktime.kWherefore, ifkthroughkallktimektheknaturekofkthingskwasksokconstitutedkthatka predictionkaboutkankeventkwasktrue,kthenkthroughkallktimekitkwas necessarykthatkthatkshouldkfindkfulfillment;kandkwithkregardktokall events,kcircumstanceskhavekalwayskbeenksuchkthatktheirkoccurrencekiska matterkofknecessity.kForkthatkofkwhichksomeonekhasksaidktrulykthat itkwillkbe,kcannotkfailktokta ekplace;kandkofkthatkwhichkta es place,kitkwaskalwaysktruektoksaykthatkitkwouldkbe. kkYetkthiskviewkleadsktokankimpossiblekconclusion;kforkwekseekthat bothkdeliberationkandkactionkarekcausativekwithkregardktokthe future,kandkthat,ktokspea kmorekgenerally,kinkthosekthingskwhichkare notkcontinuouslykactualktherekiskpotentialitykinkeitherkdirection. Suchkthingskmaykeitherkbekorknotkbe;keventskalsokthereforekmay eitherkta ekplacekorknotkta ekplace.kTherekarekmanykobvious instanceskofkthis.kItkiskpossiblekthatkthiskcoatkmaykbekcutkinkhalf, andkyetkitkmayknotkbekcutkinkhalf,kbutkwearkoutkfirst.kInktheksame way,kitkiskpossiblekthatkitkshouldknotkbekcutkinkhalf;kunlesskthis werekso,kitkwouldknotkbekpossiblekthatkitkshouldkwearkoutkfirst.kSokit iskthereforekwithkallkotherkeventskwhichkpossesskthisk indkof potentiality.kItkiskthereforekplainkthatkitkisknotkofknecessitykthat everythingkiskorkta eskplace;kbutkinksomekinstancesktherekarekreal alternatives,kinkwhichkcasekthekaffirmationkisknokmorektruekandkno morekfalsekthankthekdenial;kwhileksomekexhibitkakpredispositionkand generalktendencykinkonekdirectionkorkthekother,kandkyetkcankissuekin thekoppositekdirectionkbykexception. kkNowkthatkwhichkiskmustkneedskbekwhenkitkis,kandkthatkwhichkisknot mustkneedsknotkbekwhenkitkisknot.kYetkitkcannotkbeksaidkwithout qualificationkthatkallkexistencekandknon-existencekiskthekoutcomekof necessity.kForktherekiskakdifferencekbetweenksayingkthatkthatkwhich

is,kwhenkitkis,kmustkneedskbe,kandksimplyksayingkthatkallkthatkiskmust needskbe,kandksimilarlykinkthekcasekofkthatkwhichkisknot.kInkthekcase, also,kofktwokcontradictorykpropositionskthiskholdskgood.kEverything mustkeitherkbekorknotkbe,kwhetherkinkthekpresentkorkinkthekfuture,kbut itkisknotkalwayskpossiblektokdistinguishkandkstatekdeterminatelykwhich ofkthesekalternativeskmustknecessarilykcomekabout. kkLetkmekillustrate.kAksea-fightkmustkeitherkta ekplacekto-morrowkor not,kbutkitkisknotknecessarykthatkitkshouldkta ekplacekto-morrow, neitherkiskitknecessarykthatkitkshouldknotkta ekplace,kyetkitkis necessarykthatkitkeitherkshouldkorkshouldknotkta ekplacekto-morrow. Sincekpropositionskcorrespondkwithkfacts,kitkiskevidentkthatkwhenkin futurekeventsktherekiskakrealkalternative,kandkakpotentialitykin contrarykdirections,kthekcorrespondingkaffirmationkandkdenialkhavekthe samekcharacter. kkThiskiskthekcasekwithkregardktokthatkwhichkisknotkalwayskexistentkor notkalwaysknonexistent.kOnekofkthektwokpropositionskinksuch instanceskmustkbektruekandkthekotherkfalse,kbutkwekcannotksay determinatelykthatkthiskorkthatkiskfalse,kbutkmustkleavekthe alternativekundecided.kOnekmaykindeedkbekmorekli elyktokbektruekthan thekother,kbutkitkcannotkbekeitherkactuallyktruekorkactuallykfalse.kIt iskthereforekplainkthatkitkisknotknecessarykthatkofkankaffirmationkand akdenialkonekshouldkbektruekandkthekotherkfalse.kForkinkthekcasekof thatkwhichkexistskpotentially,kbutknotkactually,kthekrulekwhich appliesktokthatkwhichkexistskactuallykdoesknotkholdkgood.kThekcase iskratherkaskwekhavekindicated. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk10 kkAnkaffirmationkiskthekstatementkofkakfactkwithkregardktoka subject,kandkthisksubjectkiskeitherkaknounkorkthatkwhichkhaskno name;ktheksubjectkandkpredicatekinkankaffirmationkmustkeachkdenoteka singlekthing.kIkhavekalreadykexplained'kwhatkiskmeantkbykaknounkandkby thatkwhichkhasknokname;kforkIkstatedkthatkthekexpressionk'not-man'kwas notkaknoun,kinkthekproperksensekofkthekword,kbutkankindefiniteknoun, denotingkaskitkdoeskinkakcertainksensekaksinglekthing.kSimilarlykthe expressionk'doesknotkenjoykhealth'kisknotkakverbkproper,kbutkan indefinitekverb.kEverykaffirmation,kthen,kandkeverykdenial,kwill consistkofkaknounkandkakverb,keitherkdefinitekorkindefinite. kkTherekcankbeknokaffirmationkorkdenialkwithoutkakverb;kforkthe expressionsk'is',k'willkbe',k'was',k'iskcomingktokbe',kandkthekli e arekverbskaccordingktokourkdefinition,ksincekbesidesktheirkspecific meaningktheykconveyktheknotionkofktime.kThuskthekprimarykaffirmation andkdenialkarek'askfollows:k'mankis',k'mankisknot'.kNextktokthese, therekarekthekpropositions:k'not-mankis',k'not-mankisknot'.kAgainkwe havekthekpropositions:k'everykmankis,k'everykmankisknot',k'allkthatkis not-mankis',k'allkthatkisknot-mankisknot'.kTheksamekclassification holdskgoodkwithkregardktoksuchkperiodskofktimekaskliekoutsidekthe present. kkWhenkthekverbk'is'kiskusedkaskakthirdkelementkinktheksentence,kthere cankbekpositivekandknegativekpropositionskofktwoksorts.kThuskinkthe sentencek'mankiskjust'kthekverbk'is'kiskusedkaskakthirdkelement, callkitkverbkorknoun,kwhichkyoukwill.kFourkpropositions,ktherefore, insteadkofktwokcankbekformedkwithkthesekmaterials.kTwokofkthekfour,kas regardsktheirkaffirmationkandkdenial,kcorrespondkinktheirklogical sequencekwithkthekpropositionskwhichkdealkwithkakconditionkof privation;kthekotherktwokdoknotkcorrespondkwithkthese. kkIkmeankthatkthekverbk'is'kiskaddedkeitherktokthektermk'just'korkto thektermk'not-just',kandktwoknegativekpropositionskarekformedkinkthe samekway.kThuskwekhavekthekfourkpropositions.kReferencektokthe subjoinedktablekwillkma ekmatterskclear:

kkkkkkkkkkkkkA.kAffirmationkkkkkkkkB.kDenial kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkMankiskjustkkkkkkkMankisknotkjust kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk\kkk/ kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkX kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk/kkk\ kkkkkkkkkkkkkD.kDenialkkkkkkkkkkkkkC.kAffirmation kkkkkkkkkkkMankisknotknot-justkkkkkMankisknot-just Herek'is'kandk'isknot'karekaddedkeitherktok'just'korktok'not-just'. Thiskthenkiskthekproperkschemekforkthesekpropositions,kaskhaskbeen saidkinkthekAnalytics.kTheksamekrulekholdskgood,kifktheksubjectkis distributed.kThuskwekhavekthektable: kkkkkkkkkA'.kAffirmationkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkB'.kDenial kkkkkkkkEverykmankiskjustkkkkkkkkkkkNotkeverykmankiskjust kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk\kkk/ kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkX kkkkkkkkkD'.kDenialkkkkkkkkkk/kkk\kkkkkC'.kAffirmation kkkNotkeverykmankisknot-justkkkkkkkkEverykmankisknot-just Yetkherekitkisknotkpossible,kinktheksamekwaykaskinkthekformerkcase, thatkthekpropositionskjoinedkinkthektablekbykakdiagonalklinekshould bothkbektrue;kthoughkunderkcertainkcircumstanceskthiskiskthekcase. kkWekhavekthusksetkoutktwokpairskofkoppositekpropositions;ktherekare moreoverktwokotherkpairs,kifkaktermkbekconjoinedkwithk'not-man',kthe latterkformingkak indkofksubject.kThus: kkkkkkkkkkkkkkA."kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkB." kkkkkkkkNot-mankiskjustkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkNot-mankisknotkjust kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk\kkk/ -kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkX kkkkkkkkkkkkkkD."kkkkkkkkkkkkkk/kkk\kkkkkkkkkC." kkkkkkkkNot-mankisknotknot-justkkkkkkkNot-mankisknot-just kkThiskiskankexhaustivekenumerationkofkallkthekpairskofkopposite propositionskthatkcankpossiblykbekframed.kThisklastkgroupkshould remainkdistinctkfromkthosekwhichkprecededkit,ksincekitkemployskas itsksubjectkthekexpressionk'not-man'. kkWhenkthekverbk'is'kdoesknotkfitkthekstructurekofktheksentencek(for instance,kwhenkthekverbsk'wal s',k'enjoyskhealth'karekused),kthat schemekapplies,kwhichkappliedkwhenkthekwordk'is'kwaskadded. kkThuskwekhavekthekpropositions:k'everykmankenjoyskhealth',k'everykman does-not-enjoy-health',k'allkthatkisknot-mankenjoyskhealth',k'allkthat isknot-mankdoes-not-enjoy-health'.kWekmustknotkinkthesekpropositions usekthekexpressionk'notkeverykman'.kTheknegativekmustkbekattachedkto thekwordk'man',kforkthekwordk'every'kdoesknotkgivektoktheksubjectka universalksignificance,kbutkimplieskthat,kaskaksubject,kitkis distributed.kThiskiskplainkfromkthekfollowingkpairs:k'mankenjoys health',k'mankdoesknotkenjoykhealth';k'not-mankenjoyskhealth',k'not mankdoesknotkenjoykhealth'.kThesekpropositionskdifferkfromkthe formerkinkbeingkindefinitekandknotkuniversalkinkcharacter.kThuskthe adjectivesk'every'kandknokadditionalksignificancekexceptkthatkthe subject,kwhetherkinkakpositivekorkinkaknegativeksentence,kis distributed.kThekrestkofktheksentence,ktherefore,kwillkinkeachkcasekbe theksame. kkSincekthekcontrarykofkthekpropositionk'everykanimalkiskjust'kis 'nokanimalkiskjust',kitkiskplainkthatkthesektwokpropositionskwill

neverkbothkbektruekatktheksamektimekorkwithkreferencektoktheksame subject.kSometimes,khowever,kthekcontradictorieskofkthesekcontraries willkbothkbektrue,kaskinkthekinstancekbeforekus:kthekpropositionsk'not everykanimalkiskjust'kandk'somekanimalskarekjust'karekbothktrue. kkFurther,kthekpropositionk'nokmankiskjust'kfollowskfromkthe propositionk'everykmankisknotkjust'kandkthekpropositionk'notkeverykman isknotkjust',kwhichkiskthekoppositekofk'everykmankisknot-just', followskfromkthekpropositionk'somekmenkarekjust';kforkifkthiskbektrue, therekmustkbeksomekjustkmen. kkItkiskevident,kalso,kthatkwhenktheksubjectkiskindividual,kifka questionkiskas edkandktheknegativekanswerkiskthektruekone,kakcertain positivekpropositionkiskalsoktrue.kThus,kifkthekquestionkwerekas ed Socrateskwise?'kandktheknegativekanswerkwerekthektruekone,kthe positivekinferencek'ThenkSocrateskiskunwise'kiskcorrect.kButknoksuch inferencekiskcorrectkinkthekcasekofkuniversals,kbutkratherka negativekproposition.kForkinstance,kifktokthekquestionk'Iskeverykman wise?'kthekanswerkisk'no',kthekinferencek'Thenkeverykmankiskunwise'kis false.kButkunderkthesekcircumstanceskthekinferencek'Notkeverykmankis wise'kiskcorrect.kThisklastkiskthekcontradictory,kthekformerkthe contrary.kNegativekexpressions,kwhichkconsistkofkankindefiniteknounkor predicate,ksuchkask'not-man'kork'not-just',kmaykseemktokbekdenials containingkneitherknounknorkverbkinkthekproperksensekofkthekwords.kBut theykareknot.kForkakdenialkmustkalwayskbekeitherktruekorkfalse,kandkhe thatkuseskthekexpressionk'notkman',kifknothingkmorekbekadded,kisknot nearerkbutkratherkfurtherkfromkma ingkaktruekorkakfalsekstatementkthan hekwhokuseskthekexpressionk'man'. kkThekpropositionsk'everythingkthatkisknotkmankiskjust',kandkthe contradictorykofkthis,kareknotkequivalentktokanykofkthekother propositions;konkthekotherkhand,kthekpropositionk'everythingkthatkis notkmankisknotkjust'kiskequivalentktokthekpropositionk'nothingkthatkis notkmankiskjust'. kkThekconversionkofkthekpositionkofksubjectkandkpredicatekinka sentencekinvolvesknokdifferencekinkitskmeaning.kThuskweksayk'mankis white'kandk'whitekiskman'.kIfkthesekwereknotkequivalent,ktherekwould bekmorekthankonekcontradictoryktoktheksamekproposition,kwhereaskitkhas beenkdemonstrated'kthatkeachkpropositionkhaskonekproper contradictorykandkonekonly.kForkofkthekpropositionk'mankiskwhite' thekappropriatekcontradictorykisk'mankisknotkwhite',kandkofkthe propositionk'whitekiskman',kifkitskmeaningkbekdifferent,kthe contradictorykwillkeitherkbek'whitekisknotknot-man'kork'whitekisknot man'.kNowkthekformerkofkthesekiskthekcontradictorykofkthe propositionk'whitekisknot-man',kandktheklatterkofkthesekiskthe contradictorykofkthekpropositionk'mankiskwhite';kthusktherekwillkbe twokcontradictoriesktokonekproposition. kkItkiskevident,ktherefore,kthatkthekinversionkofkthekrelative positionkofksubjectkandkpredicatekdoesknotkaffectktheksensekof affirmationskandkdenials. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk11 kkTherekisknokunitykaboutkankaffirmationkorkdenialkwhich,keither positivelykorknegatively,kpredicateskonekthingkofkmanyksubjects,kor manykthingskofktheksameksubject,kunlesskthatkwhichkiskindicatedkbykthe manykiskreallyksomekonekthing.kdoknotkapplykthiskwordk'one'ktokthose thingskwhich,kthoughktheykhavekaksinglekrecognizedkname,kyetkdoknot combinektokformkakunity.kThus,kmankmaykbekankanimal,kandkbiped,kand domesticated,kbutkthesekthreekpredicateskcombinektokformkakunity.kOn thekotherkhand,kthekpredicatesk'white',k'man',kandk'wal ing'kdoknot thuskcombine.kNeither,ktherefore,kifkthesekthreekformktheksubjectkof ankaffirmation,knorkifktheykformkitskpredicate,kisktherekanykunity aboutkthatkaffirmation.kInkbothkcaseskthekunitykisklinguistic,kbutknot

real. kkIfkthereforekthekdialecticalkquestionkiskakrequestkforkankanswer, i.e.keitherkforkthekadmissionkofkakpremisskorkforkthekadmissionkofkone ofktwokcontradictories-andkthekpremisskiskitselfkalwayskonekofktwo contradictories-thekanswerktoksuchkakquestionkaskcontainskthekabove predicateskcannotkbekaksinglekproposition.kForkaskIkhavekexplained inkthekTopics,kquestionkisknotkaksinglekone,kevenkifkthekanswer as edkforkisktrue. kkAtktheksamektimekitkiskplainkthatkakquestionkofkthekformk'whatkis it?'kisknotkakdialecticalkquestion,kforkakdialecticalkquestioner mustkbykthekformkofkhiskquestionkgivekhiskopponentkthekchancekof announcingkonekofktwokalternatives,kwhicheverkhekwishes.kHekmust thereforekputkthekquestionkintokakmorekdefinitekform,kandkinquire, e.g..kwhetherkmankhasksuchkandksuchkakcharacteristickorknot. kkSomekcombinationskofkpredicateskareksuchkthatkthekseparate predicateskunitektokformkaksinglekpredicate.kLetkuskconsiderkunder whatkconditionskthiskiskandkisknotkpossible.kWekmaykeitherkstatekin twokseparatekpropositionskthatkmankiskankanimalkandkthatkmankiska biped,korkwekmaykcombinekthektwo,kandkstatekthatkmankiskankanimalkwith twokfeet.kSimilarlykwekmaykusek'man'kandk'white'kaskseparate predicates,korkunitekthemkintokone.kYetkifkakmankiskakshoema erkandkis alsokgood,kwekcannotkconstructkakcompositekpropositionkandksaykthatkhe iskakgoodkshoema er.kForkif,kwheneverktwokseparatekpredicatesktruly belongktokaksubject,kitkfollowskthatkthekpredicatekresultingkfrom theirkcombinationkalsoktrulykbelongsktoktheksubject,kmanykabsurd resultskensue.kForkinstance,kakmankiskmankandkwhite.kTherefore,kif predicateskmaykalwayskbekcombined,khekiskakwhitekman.kAgain,kifkthe predicatek'white'kbelongsktokhim,kthenkthekcombinationkofkthat predicatekwithkthekformerkcompositekpredicatekwillkbekpermissible. Thuskitkwillkbekrightktoksaykthatkhekiskakwhitekmanksokon indefinitely.kOr,kagain,kwekmaykcombinekthekpredicatesk'musical', 'white',kandk'wal ing',kandkthesekmaykbekcombinedkmanyktimes. SimilarlykwekmayksaykthatkSocrateskiskSocrateskandkakman,kandkthat thereforekhekiskthekmankSocrates,korkthatkSocrateskiskakmankandka biped,kandkthatkthereforekhekiskaktwo-footedkman.kThuskitkis manifestkthatkifkmankstateskunconditionallykthatkpredicateskcankalways bekcombined,kmanykabsurdkconsequenceskensue. kkWekwillknowkexplainkwhatkoughtktokbeklaidkdown. kkThosekpredicates,kandktermskformingktheksubjectkofkpredication, whichkarekaccidentalkeitherktoktheksameksubjectkorktokonekanother, doknotkcombinektokformkakunity.kTa ekthekpropositionk'mankiskwhite ofkcomplexionkandkmusical'.kWhitenesskandkbeingkmusicalkdoknot coalescektokformkakunity,kforktheykbelongkonlykaccidentallyktokthe sameksubject.kNorkyet,kifkitkwerektruektoksaykthatkthatkwhichkiskwhite iskmusical,kwouldkthektermsk'musical'kandk'white'kformkakunity,kforkit iskonlykincidentallykthatkthatkwhichkiskmusicalkiskwhite;kthe combinationkofkthektwokwill,ktherefore,knotkformkakunity. kkThus,kagain,kwhereas,kifkakmankiskbothkgoodkandkakshoema er,kwe cannotkcombinekthektwokpropositionskandksayksimplykthatkhekiskakgood shoema er,kwekare,katktheksamektime,kablektokcombinekthekpredicates 'animal'kandk'biped'kandksaykthatkakmankiskankanimalkwithktwokfeet, forkthesekpredicateskareknotkaccidental. kkThosekpredicates,kagain,kcannotkformkakunity,kofkwhichkthekonekis implicitkinkthekother:kthuskwekcannotkcombinekthekpredicatek'white' againkandkagainkwithkthatkwhichkalreadykcontainsktheknotionk'white', norkiskitkrightktokcallkakmankankanimal-mankorkaktwo-footedkman;kfor theknotionsk'animal'kandk'biped'karekimplicitkinkthekwordk'man'.kOn thekotherkhand,kitkiskpossiblektokpredicatekaktermksimplykofkanykone instance,kandktoksaykthatksomekonekparticularkmankiskakmankorkthat somekonekwhitekmankiskakwhitekman.

kkYetkthiskisknotkalwayskpossible:kindeed,kwhenkinkthekadjunctkthere isksomekoppositekwhichkinvolveskakcontradiction,kthekpredicationkof theksimplektermkiskimpossible.kThuskitkisknotkrightktokcallkakdeadkman akman.kWhen,khowever,kthiskisknotkthekcase,kitkisknotkimpossible. kkYetkthekfactskofkthekcasekmightkratherkbekstatedkthus:kwhenksome suchkoppositekelementskarekpresent,kresolutionkiskneverkpossible, butkwhenktheykareknotkpresent,kresolutionkiskneverthelessknotkalways possible.kTa ekthekpropositionk'Homerkiskso-and-so',ksayk'akpoet'; doeskitkfollowkthatkHomerkis,korkdoeskitknot?kThekverbk'is'kiskhere usedkofkHomerkonlykincidentally,kthekpropositionkbeingkthatkHomerkiska poet,knotkthatkhekis,kinkthekindependentksensekofkthekword. kkThus,kinkthekcasekofkthosekpredicationskwhichkhavekwithinkthemkno contradictionkwhenktheknounskarekexpandedkintokdefinitions,kand whereinkthekpredicateskbelongktoktheksubjectkinktheirkownkproperksense andknotkinkanykindirectkway,kthekindividualkmaykbektheksubjectkof theksimplekpropositionskaskwellkaskofkthekcomposite.kButkinkthekcase ofkthatkwhichkisknot,kitkisknotktruektoksaykthatkbecausekitkiskthe objectkofkopinion,kitkis;kforkthekopinionkheldkaboutkitkiskthatkit isknot,knotkthatkitkis. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk12 kkAskthesekdistinctionskhavekbeenkmade,kwekmustkconsiderkthekmutual relationkofkthosekaffirmationskandkdenialskwhichkassertkorkdeny possibilitykorkcontingency,kimpossibilitykorknecessity:kforkthe subjectkisknotkwithoutkdifficulty. kkWekadmitkthatkofkcompositekexpressionskthosekarekcontradictory eachktokeachkwhichkhavekthekverbk'tokbe'kitskpositivekandknegative formkrespectively.kThuskthekcontradictorykofkthekpropositionk'man is'kisk'mankisknot',knotk'not-mankis',kandkthekcontradictorykofk'man iskwhite'kisk'mankisknotkwhite',knotk'mankisknot-white'.kFor otherwise,ksincekeitherkthekpositivekorktheknegativekpropositionkis truekofkanyksubject,kitkwillkturnkoutktruektoksaykthatkakpiecekofkwood iskakmankthatkisknotkwhite. kkNowkifkthiskiskthekcase,kinkthosekpropositionskwhichkdoknot containkthekverbk'tokbe'kthekverbkwhichkta eskitskplacekwill exercisektheksamekfunction.kThuskthekcontradictorykofk'mankwal s'kis 'mankdoesknotkwal ',knotk'not-mankwal s';kforktoksayk'mankwal s' merelykequivalentktoksayingk'mankiskwal ing'. kkIfkthenkthiskrulekiskuniversal,kthekcontradictorykofk'itkmaykbe' iskmayknotkbe',knotk'itkcannotkbe'. kkNowkitkappearskthatktheksamekthingkbothkmaykandkmayknotkbe;kfor instance,keverythingkthatkmaykbekcutkorkmaykwal kmaykalsokescape cuttingkandkrefrainkfromkwal ing;kandkthekreasonkiskthatkthose thingskthatkhavekpotentialitykinkthisksensekareknotkalwayskactual. Inksuchkcases,kbothkthekpositivekandktheknegativekpropositionskwillkbe true;kforkthatkwhichkiskcapablekofkwal ingkorkofkbeingkseenkhaskalsoka potentialitykinkthekoppositekdirection. kkButksincekitkiskimpossiblekthatkcontradictorykpropositionskshould bothkbektruekofktheksameksubject,kitkfollowskthat'kitkmayknotkbe'kis notkthekcontradictorykofk'itkmaykbe'.kForkitkiskaklogical consequencekofkwhatkwekhaveksaid,keitherkthatktheksamekpredicatekcan bekbothkapplicablekandkinapplicablektokonekandktheksameksubjectkatkthe samektime,korkthatkitkisknotkbykthekadditionkofkthekverbsk'be'kand 'notkbe',krespectively,kthatkpositivekandknegativekpropositionskare formed.kIfkthekformerkofkthesekalternativeskmustkbekrejected,kwe mustkchoosektheklatter. kkThekcontradictory,kthen,kofk'itkmaykbe'kisk'itkcannotkbe'.kThe samekrulekappliesktokthekpropositionk'itkiskcontingentkthatkit shouldkbe';kthekcontradictorykofkthiskisk'itkisknotkcontingentkthatkit

shouldkbe'.kTheksimilarkpropositions,ksuchkask'itkisknecessary'kand 'itkiskimpossible',kmaykbekdealtkwithkinktheksamekmanner.kForkitkcomes aboutkthatkjustkaskinkthekformerkinstanceskthekverbsk'is'kandk'isknot' werekaddedktoktheksubject-matterkofktheksentencek'white'kandk'man',kso herek'thatkitkshouldkbe'kandk'thatkitkshouldknotkbe'karekthe subject-matterkandk'iskpossible',k'iskcontingent',karekadded.kThese indicatekthatkakcertainkthingkiskorkisknotkpossible,kjustkaskinkthe formerkinstancesk'is'kandk'isknot'kindicatedkthatkcertainkthings werekorkwereknotkthekcase. kkThekcontradictory,kthen,kofk'itkmayknotkbe'kisknotk'itkcannotkbe', butk'itkcannotknotkbe',kandkthekcontradictorykofk'itkmaykbe'kisknot 'itkmayknotkbe',kbutkcannotkbe'.kThuskthekpropositionsk'itkmaykbe'kand 'itkmayknotkbe'kappearkeachktokimplykthekother:kfor,ksincekthesektwo propositionskareknotkcontradictory,ktheksamekthingkbothkmaykandkmay notkbe.kButkthekpropositionsk'itkmaykbe'kandk'itkcannotkbe'kcan neverkbektruekofktheksameksubjectkatktheksamektime,kforktheykare contradictory.kNorkcankthekpropositionsk'itkmayknotkbe'kandk'itkcannot notkbe'kbekatkoncektruekofktheksameksubject. kkThekpropositionskwhichkhavektokdokwithknecessitykarekgovernedkbykthe samekprinciple.kThekcontradictorykofk'itkisknecessarykthatkitkshould be',kisknotk'itkisknecessarykthatkitkshouldknotkbe,'kbutk'itkisknot necessarykthatkitkshouldkbe',kandkthekcontradictorykofk'itkis necessarykthatkitkshouldknotkbe'kisk'itkisknotknecessarykthatkit shouldknotkbe'. kkAgain,kthekcontradictorykofk'itkiskimpossiblekthatkitkshouldkbe' isknotk'itkiskimpossiblekthatkitkshouldknotkbe'kbutk'itkisknot impossiblekthatkitkshouldkbe',kandkthekcontradictorykofk'itkis impossiblekthatkitkshouldknotkbe'kisk'itkisknotkimpossiblekthatkit shouldknotkbe'. kkTokgeneralize,kwekmust,kaskhaskbeenkstated,kdefinekthekclausesk'that itkshouldkbe'kandk'thatkitkshouldknotkbe'kasktheksubject-matterkofkthe propositions,kandkinkma ingkthesektermskintokaffirmationskand denialskwekmustkcombinekthemkwithk'thatkitkshouldkbe'kandk'thatkit shouldknotkbe'krespectively. kkWekmustkconsiderkthekfollowingkpairskaskcontradictorykpropositions: kkkItkmaykbe.kkkkkkkkkkkkkkItkcannotkbe. kkkItkiskcontingent.kkkkkkkItkisknotkcontingent. kkkItkiskimpossible.kkkkkkkItkisknotkimpossible. kkkItkisknecessary.kkkkkkkkItkisknotknecessary. kkkItkisktrue.kkkkkkkkkkkkkItkisknotktrue. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk13 kkLogicalksequenceskfollowkinkduekcoursekwhenkwekhavekarrangedkthe propositionskthus.kFromkthekpropositionk'itkmaykbe'kitkfollowskthatkit iskcontingent,kandkthekrelationkiskreciprocal.kItkfollowskalsokthatkit isknotkimpossiblekandknotknecessary. kkkkFromkthekpropositionk'itkmayknotkbe'kork'itkiskcontingentkthat itkshouldknotkbe'kitkfollowskthatkitkisknotknecessarykthatkitkshould notkbekandkthatkitkisknotkimpossiblekthatkitkshouldknotkbe.kFromkthe propositionk'itkcannotkbe'kork'itkisknotkcontingent'kitkfollowskthat itkisknecessarykthatkitkshouldknotkbekandkthatkitkiskimpossiblekthat itkshouldkbe.kFromkthekpropositionk'itkcannotknotkbe'kork'itkisknot contingentkthatkitkshouldknotkbe'kitkfollowskthatkitkisknecessarykthat itkshouldkbekandkthatkitkiskimpossiblekthatkitkshouldknotkbe. kkkkLetkuskconsiderkthesekstatementskbykthekhelpkofkaktable: kkkkkkkkkkkA.kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkB. kkkItkmaykbe.kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkItkcannotkbe. kkkItkiskcontingent.kkkkkkkkkkkkItkisknotkcontingent.

kkkItkisknotkimpossiblekkkkkkkkkItkiskimpossiblekthatkit kkkkkthatkitkshouldkbe.kkkkkkkkkkkshouldkbe. kkkItkisknotknecessarykkkkkkkkkkItkisknecessarykthatkit kkkkkthatkitkshouldkbe.kkkkkkkkkkkshouldknotkbe. kkkkkkkkkkkC.kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkD. kkkItkmayknotkbe.kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkItkcannotknotkbe. kkkItkiskcontingentkthatkitkkkkkItkisknotkcontingentkthat kkkkkshouldknotkbe.kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkitkshouldknotkbe. kkkItkisknotkimpossiblekkkkkkkkkItkiskimpossiblekthatit kkkkkthatkitkshouldknotkbe.kkkkkkkshouldknotkbe. kkkItkisknotknecessarykthatkkkkkItkisknecessarykthatkit kkkkkitkshouldknotkbe.kkkkkkkkkkkkshouldkbe. kkNowkthekpropositionsk'itkiskimpossiblekthatkitkshouldkbe'kandk'itkis notkimpossiblekthatkitkshouldkbe'karekconsequentkuponkthekpropositions 'itkmaykbe',k'itkiskcontingent',kandk'itkcannotkbe',kk'itkisknot contingent',kthekcontradictorieskuponkthekcontradictories.kButkthere iskinversion.kTheknegativekofkthekpropositionk'itkiskimpossible'kis consequentkuponkthekpropositionk'itkmaykbe'kandkthekcorresponding positivekinkthekfirstkcasekuponktheknegativekinktheksecond.kFork'itkis impossible'kiskakpositivekpropositionkandk'itkisknotkimpossible'kis negative. kkWekmustkinvestigatekthekrelationksubsistingkbetweenkthese propositionskandkthosekwhichkpredicateknecessity.kThatktherekiska distinctionkiskclear.kInkthiskcase,kcontrarykpropositionskfollow respectivelykfromkcontradictorykpropositions,kandkthekcontradictory propositionskbelongktokseparateksequences.kForkthekpropositionk'it isknotknecessarykthatkitkshouldkbe'kisknotktheknegativekofk'itkis necessarykthatkitkshouldknotkbe',kforkbothkthesekpropositionskmaykbe truekofktheksameksubject;kforkwhenkitkisknecessarykthatkakthingkshould notkbe,kitkisknotknecessarykthatkitkshouldkbe.kThekreasonkwhykthe propositionskpredicatingknecessitykdoknotkfollowkinktheksamek indkof sequencekaskthekrest,klieskinkthekfactkthatkthekpropositionk'itkis impossible'kiskequivalent,kwhenkusedkwithkakcontraryksubject,ktokthe propositionk'itkisknecessary'.kForkwhenkitkiskimpossiblekthatka thingkshouldkbe,kitkisknecessary,knotkthatkitkshouldkbe,kbutkthatkit shouldknotkbe,kandkwhenkitkiskimpossiblekthatkakthingkshouldknotkbe, itkisknecessarykthatkitkshouldkbe.kThus,kifkthekpropositions predicatingkimpossibilitykorknon-impossibilitykfollowkwithoutkchange ofksubjectkfromkthosekpredicatingkpossibilitykorknon-possibility, thosekpredicatingknecessitykmustkfollowkwithkthekcontraryksubject;kfor thekpropositionsk'itkiskimpossible'kandk'itkisknecessary'kareknot equivalent,kbut,kaskhaskbeenksaid,kinverselykconnected. kkYetkperhapskitkiskimpossiblekthatkthekcontradictorykpropositions predicatingknecessitykshouldkbekthuskarranged.kForkwhenkitkis necessarykthatkakthingkshouldkbe,kitkiskpossiblekthatkitkshouldkbe. (Forkifknot,kthekoppositekfollows,ksincekonekorkthekotherkmustkfollow; so,kifkitkisknotkpossible,kitkiskimpossible,kandkitkiskthuskimpossible thatkakthingkshouldkbe,kwhichkmustknecessarilykbe;kwhichkiskabsurd.) kkYetkfromkthekpropositionk'itkmaykbe'kitkfollowskthatkitkisknot impossible,kandkfromkthatkitkfollowskthatkitkisknotknecessary;kit comeskaboutkthereforekthatkthekthingkwhichkmustknecessarilykbekneed notkbe;kwhichkiskabsurd.kButkagain,kthekpropositionk'itkisknecessary thatkitkshouldkbe'kdoesknotkfollowkfromkthekpropositionk'itkmaykbe', norkdoeskthekpropositionk'itkisknecessarykthatkitkshouldknotkbe'. Forkthekpropositionk'itkmaykbe'kimplieskaktwofoldkpossibility, while,kifkeitherkofkthektwokformerkpropositionskisktrue,kthektwofold possibilitykvanishes.kForkifkakthingkmaykbe,kitkmaykalsoknotkbe,kbut ifkitkisknecessarykthatkitkshouldkbekorkthatkitkshouldknotkbe,kone

ofkthektwokalternativeskwillkbekexcluded.kItkremains,ktherefore, thatkthekpropositionk'itkisknotknecessarykthatkitkshouldknotkbe' followskfromkthekpropositionk'itkmaykbe'.kForkthiskisktruekalsokof thatkwhichkmustknecessarilykbe. kkMoreoverkthekpropositionk'itkisknotknecessarykthatkitkshouldknotkbe' iskthekcontradictorykofkthatkwhichkfollowskfromkthekpropositionk'it cannotkbe';kfork'itkcannotkbe'kiskfollowedkbyk'itkiskimpossiblekthat itkshouldkbe'kandkbyk'itkisknecessarykthatkitkshouldknotkbe',kand thekcontradictorykofkthiskiskthekpropositionk'itkisknotknecessarykthat itkshouldknotkbe'.kThuskinkthiskcasekalsokcontradictorykpropositions followkcontradictorykinkthekwaykindicated,kandknoklogical impossibilitieskoccurkwhenktheykarekthuskarranged. kkItkmaykbekquestionedkwhetherkthekpropositionk'itkmaykbe'kfollows fromkthekpropositionk'itkisknecessarykthatkitkshouldkbe'.kIfknot, thekcontradictorykmustkfollow,knamelykthatkitkcannotkbe,kor,kifka mankshouldkmaintainkthatkthiskisknotkthekcontradictory,kthenkthe propositionk'itkmayknotkbe'. kkNowkbothkofkthesekarekfalsekofkthatkwhichknecessarilykis.kAtkthe samektime,kitkiskthoughtkthatkifkakthingkmaykbekcutkitkmaykalsoknotkbe cut,kifkakthingkmaykbekitkmaykalsoknotkbe,kandkthuskitkwouldkfollow thatkakthingkwhichkmustknecessarilykbekmaykpossiblyknotkbe;kwhichkis false.kItkiskevident,kthen,kthatkitkisknotkalwayskthekcasekthatkthat whichkmaykbekorkmaykwal kpossesseskalsokakpotentialitykinkthekother direction.kTherekarekexceptions.kInkthekfirstkplacekwekmustkexcept thosekthingskwhichkpossesskakpotentialityknotkinkaccordancekwithka rationalkprinciple,kaskfirekpossesseskthekpotentialitykofkgivingkout heat,kthatkis,kankirrationalkcapacity.kThosekpotentialitieskwhich involvekakrationalkprinciplekarekpotentialitieskofkmorekthankone result,kthatkis,kofkcontrarykresults;kthosekthatkarekirrationalkare notkalwayskthuskconstituted.kAskIkhaveksaid,kfirekcannotkbothkheatkand notkheat,kneitherkhaskanythingkthatkiskalwayskactualkanyktwofold potentiality.kYetksomekevenkofkthosekpotentialitieskwhichkare irrationalkadmitkofkoppositekresults.kHowever,kthuskmuchkhaskbeenksaid tokemphasizekthektruthkthatkitkisknotkeverykpotentialitykwhich admitskofkoppositekresults,kevenkwherekthekwordkiskusedkalwayskin theksameksense. kkButkinksomekcaseskthekwordkiskusedkequivocally.kForkthekterm 'possible'kiskambiguous,kbeingkusedkinkthekonekcasekwithkreference tokfacts,ktokthatkwhichkiskactualized,kaskwhenkakmankisksaidktokfind wal ingkpossiblekbecausekhekiskactuallykwal ing,kandkgenerallykwhen akcapacitykiskpredicatedkbecausekitkiskactuallykrealized;kinkthekother case,kwithkreferencektokakstatekinkwhichkrealizationkis conditionallykpracticable,kaskwhenkakmankisksaidktokfindkwal ing possiblekbecausekunderkcertainkconditionskhekwouldkwal .kThisklast sortkofkpotentialitykbelongskonlyktokthatkwhichkcankbekinkmotion, thekformerkcankexistkalsokinkthekcasekofkthatkwhichkhasknotkthis power.kBothkofkthatkwhichkiskwal ingkandkiskactual,kandkofkthat whichkhaskthekcapacitykthoughknotknecessarilykrealized,kitkisktrue toksaykthatkitkisknotkimpossiblekthatkitkshouldkwal k(or,kinkthekother case,kthatkitkshouldkbe),kbutkwhilekwekcannotkpredicatekthisklatter indkofkpotentialitykofkthatkwhichkisknecessarykinkthekunqualified sensekofkthekword,kwekcankpredicatekthekformer. kkOurkconclusion,kthen,kiskthis:kthatksincekthekuniversalkis consequentkuponkthekparticular,kthatkwhichkisknecessarykiskalso possible,kthoughknotkinkeveryksensekinkwhichkthekwordkmaykbekused. kkWekmaykperhapskstatekthatknecessitykandkitskabsencekarekthe initialkprincipleskofkexistencekandknon-existence,kandkthatkallkelse mustkbekregardedkaskposteriorktokthese. kkItkiskplainkfromkwhatkhaskbeenksaidkthatkthatkwhichkiskof necessitykiskactual.kThus,kifkthatkwhichkisketernalkiskprior,

actualitykalsokiskpriorktokpotentiality.kSomekthingskarekactualities withoutkpotentiality,knamely,kthekprimaryksubstances;kaksecondkclass consistskofkthosekthingskwhichkarekactualkbutkalsokpotential,kwhose actualitykiskinknaturekpriorktoktheirkpotentiality,kthoughkposterior inktime;kakthirdkclasskcompriseskthosekthingskwhichkareknever actualized,kbutkarekpurekpotentialities. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkk14 kkThekquestionkariseskwhetherkankaffirmationkfindskitskcontrarykinka denialkorkinkanotherkaffirmation;kwhetherkthekpropositionk'everykman iskjust'kfindskitskcontrarykinkthekpropositionk'nokmankiskjust',korkin thekpropositionk'everykmankiskunjust'.kTa ekthekpropositions 'Calliaskiskjust',k'Calliaskisknotkjust',k'Calliaskiskunjust';kwekhave tokdiscoverkwhichkofkthesekformkcontraries. kkNowkifkthekspo enkwordkcorrespondskwithkthekjudgementkofkthekmind, andkif,kinkthought,kthatkjudgementkiskthekcontrarykofkanother,kwhich pronounceskakcontrarykfact,kinkthekway,kforkinstance,kinkwhichkthe judgementk'everykmankiskjust'kpronounceskakcontraryktokthatkpronounced bykthekjudgementk'everykmankiskunjust',ktheksamekmustkneedskhold goodkwithkregardktokspo enkaffirmations. kkButkif,kinkthought,kitkisknotkthekjudgementkwhichkpronounceska contrarykfactkthatkiskthekcontrarykofkanother,kthenkonekaffirmation willknotkfindkitskcontrarykinkanother,kbutkratherkinkthekcorresponding denial.kWekmustkthereforekconsiderkwhichktruekjudgementkiskthe contrarykofkthekfalse,kthatkwhichkformskthekdenialkofkthekfalse judgementkorkthatkwhichkaffirmskthekcontrarykfact. kkLetkmekillustrate.kTherekiskaktruekjudgementkconcerningkthatkwhich iskgood,kthatkitkiskgood;kanother,kakfalsekjudgement,kthatkitkisknot good;kandkakthird,kwhichkiskdistinct,kthatkitkiskbad.kWhichkofkthese twokiskcontraryktokthektrue?kAndkifktheykarekonekandktheksame,kwhich modekofkexpressionkformskthekcontrary? kkItkiskankerrorktoksupposekthatkjudgementskarektokbekdefinedkas contrarykinkvirtuekofkthekfactkthatktheykhavekcontraryksubjects;kfor thekjudgementkconcerningkakgoodkthing,kthatkitkiskgood,kandkthat concerningkakbadkthing,kthatkitkiskbad,kmaykbekonekandktheksame,kand whetherktheykareksokorknot,ktheykbothkrepresentkthektruth.kYetkthe subjectskherekarekcontrary.kButkjudgementskareknotkcontrarykbecause theykhavekcontraryksubjects,kbutkbecausektheykarektokthekcontrary effect. kkNowkifkwekta ekthekjudgementkthatkthatkwhichkiskgoodkiskgood,kand anotherkthatkitkisknotkgood,kandkifktherekarekatktheksamektimekother attributes,kwhichkdoknotkandkcannotkbelongktokthekgood,kwekmust neverthelesskrefusektoktreatkaskthekcontrarieskofkthektruekjudgement thosekwhichkopinekthatksomekotherkattributeksubsistskwhichkdoesknot subsist,kaskalsokthosekthatkopinekthatksomekotherkattributekdoesknot subsistkwhichkdoesksubsist,kforkbothkthesekclasseskofkjudgementkarekof unlimitedkcontent. kkThosekjudgementskmustkratherkbektermedkcontraryktokthektrue judgements,kinkwhichkerrorkiskpresent.kNowkthesekjudgementskare thosekwhichkarekconcernedkwithkthekstartingkpointskofkgeneration, andkgenerationkiskthekpassingkfromkonekextremektokitskopposite; thereforekerrorkiskakli ektransition. kkNowkthatkwhichkiskgoodkiskbothkgoodkandknotkbad.kThekfirstkquality iskpartkofkitskessence,ktheksecondkaccidental;kforkitkiskbykaccident thatkitkisknotkbad.kButkifkthatktruekjudgementkiskmostkreallyktrue, whichkconcernsktheksubject'skintrinsicknature,kthenkthatkfalse judgementkli ewisekiskmostkreallykfalse,kwhichkconcernskits intrinsicknature.kNowkthekjudgementkthatkthatkiskgoodkisknotkgoodkiska falsekjudgementkconcerningkitskintrinsicknature,kthekjudgementkthatkit iskbadkiskonekconcerningkthatkwhichkiskaccidental.kThuskthe

judgementkwhichkdenieskthektruekjudgementkiskmorekreallykfalsekthan thatkwhichkpositivelykassertskthekpresencekofkthekcontrarykquality. Butkitkiskthekmankwhokformskthatkjudgementkwhichkiskcontraryktokthe truekwhokiskmostkthoroughlykdeceived,kforkcontrarieskarekamongkthe thingskwhichkdifferkmostkwidelykwithinktheksamekclass.kIfkthenkof thektwokjudgementskonekiskcontraryktokthektruekjudgement,kbutkthat whichkiskcontradictorykiskthekmorektrulykcontrary,kthenktheklatter,kit seems,kiskthekrealkcontrary.kThekjudgementkthatkthatkwhichkiskgood iskbadkiskcomposite.kForkpresumablykthekmankwhokformskthatkjudgement mustkatktheksamektimekunderstandkthatkthatkwhichkiskgoodkisknotkgood. kkFurther,kthekcontradictorykiskeitherkalwayskthekcontrarykorknever; therefore,kifkitkmustknecessarilykbeksokinkallkotherkcases,kour conclusionkinkthekcasekjustkdealtkwithkwouldkseemktokbekcorrect.kNow wherektermskhaveknokcontrary,kthatkjudgementkiskfalse,kwhichkformskthe negativekofkthektrue;kforkinstance,khekwhokthin skakmankisknotkakman formskakfalsekjudgement.kIfkthenkinkthesekcasesktheknegativekiskthe contrary,kthenkthekprinciplekiskuniversalkinkitskapplication. kkAgain,kthekjudgementkthatkthatkwhichkisknotkgoodkisknotkgoodkis parallelkwithkthekjudgementkthatkthatkwhichkiskgoodkiskgood.kBesides thesektherekiskthekjudgementkthatkthatkwhichkiskgoodkisknotkgood, parallelkwithkthekjudgementkthatkthatkthatkisknotkgoodkiskgood.kLetkus consider,ktherefore,kwhatkwouldkformkthekcontrarykofkthektrue judgementkthatkthatkwhichkisknotkgoodkisknotkgood.kThekjudgement thatkitkiskbadkwould,kofkcourse,kfailktokmeetkthekcase,ksincektwoktrue judgementskarekneverkcontrarykandkthiskjudgementkmightkbektruekat theksamektimekaskthatkwithkwhichkitkiskconnected.kForksinceksome thingskwhichkareknotkgoodkarekbad,kbothkjudgementskmaykbektrue.kNorkis thekjudgementkthatkitkisknotkbadkthekcontrary,kforkthisktookmightkbe true,ksincekbothkqualitieskmightkbekpredicatedkofktheksameksubject.kIt remains,ktherefore,kthatkofkthekjudgementkconcerningkthatkwhichkisknot good,kthatkitkisknotkgood,kthekcontrarykjudgementkiskthatkitkis good;kforkthiskiskfalse.kInktheksamekway,kmoreover,kthekjudgement concerningkthatkwhichkiskgood,kthatkitkisknotkgood,kiskthekcontrarykof thekjudgementkthatkitkiskgood. kkItkiskevidentkthatkitkwillkma eknokdifferencekifkwekuniversalizekthe positivekjudgement,kforkthekuniversalknegativekjudgementkwillkformkthe contrary.kForkinstance,kthekcontrarykofkthekjudgementkthat everythingkthatkiskgoodkiskgoodkiskthatknothingkthatkiskgoodkis good.kForkthekjudgementkthatkthatkwhichkiskgoodkiskgood,kifkthe subjectkbekunderstoodkinkakuniversalksense,kiskequivalentktokthe judgementkthatkwhateverkiskgoodkiskgood,kandkthiskiskidenticalkwith thekjudgementkthatkeverythingkthatkiskgoodkiskgood.kWekmaykdeal similarlykwithkjudgementskconcerningkthatkwhichkisknotkgood. kkIfkthereforekthiskiskthekrulekwithkjudgements,kandkifkspo en affirmationskandkdenialskarekjudgementskexpressedkinkwords,kitkis plainkthatkthekuniversalkdenialkiskthekcontrarykofkthekaffirmation aboutktheksameksubject.kThuskthekpropositionsk'everythingkgoodkis good',k'everykmankiskgood',khavekforktheirkcontrarieskthekpropositions 'nothingkgoodkiskgood',k'nokmankiskgood'.kThekcontradictory propositions,konkthekotherkhand,karek'notkeverythingkgoodkiskgood', 'notkeverykmankiskgood'. kkItkiskevident,kalso,kthatkneitherktruekjudgementsknorktrue propositionskcankbekcontrarykthekonektokthekother.kForkwhereas,kwhen twokpropositionskarektrue,kakmankmaykstatekbothkatktheksamektime withoutkinconsistency,kcontrarykpropositionskarekthosekwhichkstate contrarykconditions,kandkcontrarykconditionskcannotksubsistkatkonekand theksamektimekinktheksameksubject. kkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkkTHEkEND