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, http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balancehttp://www.gatt.org
http://data.albankaldawli.org/indicator/NE.IMP.GNFS.ZS
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook
http://www.imf.org/external/arabic/np/exr/countryfacts/egy/index.htm

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.)3103 : () 0(
David Ricardo, The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Barnes&Noble.New York 2005.
)2(
"Not only the labour applied immediately to commodities affect their value, but the labour also which is bestowed
on the implements, tools, and buildings, with which much labour is assisted".p8
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, Barnes&Noble.New York 2004
:) 2(
"The greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour, and the greater part of the skill, dexterity, and
Judgment with which it is any where directed, or applied, seem to have been the effects of the division of
labour"p12.
"The real value of all the different component parts of price, it must be observed, is measured by the quantity of
labour which they can, each of them, purchase or command. Labour measures the value not only of that part of
price which resolves itself into labour, but of that which resolves itself into rent, and of that which resolves itself
into profit"195.
"The manufacturer has his wages advanced to him by his master, he in reality, costs him no expense, the value of
those wages being generally restored, together with a profit".p298
Thomas Robert Malthus, Definitions in Political Economy, John Murray London, 1827
"Land, labour, and capital The two original sources are land and labour; but the aid which labour receives from
capital is applied so very early, and is so very necessary in the production of wealth, that it may be considered as a
third source"p29
Dugald Stewart, Lectures on Political Economy, Macmillin &co, London 1875
"Indeed, as Mr. Hume {in his Essay on commerce} has remarked, trade,artisanship,and manufactures, are nothing more than the
public storehouses of labour"p97

Richard Cantillon, Essai sur la Nature du Commerce in Gnral (Essay on the Nature of Trade in General)
ed. and Trans Henry Higgs, London: Frank Cass and Co., Ltd 1959
"The Land is the Source or Matter from whence all Wealth is produced. The Labour of man is the Form which
produces it: and Wealth in itself is nothing but the Maintenance, Conveniencies, and Superfluities of Life" p38.

) 5( ( ) :) 4(
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:) 5(
"The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any other commodity for which it will exchange, depends on the
relative quantity of labour which is necessary for its production, and not on the greater or less compensation
which is paid for that labour".p7

( ) 6(
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031/81 011/91 .)

David Ricardo, The Principles, op.cit. P 69-77
.

104

. :
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Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, the Process of Capitalist Production, vol,I,
Charles. , Hiker and co. Chiczgo; 1906

)9(

"We know that the value of each commodity is determined by the quantity of labour expended on and materialized in it, by the
working-time necessary, under given social conditions, for its production"..," Assuming this product to be 10 lbs. of yarn, our
first step is to calculate the quantity of labour realised in it. For spinning the yarn, raw material is required; suppose in this case
10 lbs. of cotton"..," We must not let ourselves be misled by the circumstance that the cotton has taken a new shape while the
substance of the spindle has to a certain extent been used up. By the general law of value, if the value of 40 lbs. of yarn=t he
value of 40 lbs. of cotton the value of a whole spindle, i.e., if the same working time is required to produce the commodities on
either side of this equation, then 10 lbs. of yarn are an equivalent for 10 lbs. of cotton, together with one-fourth of a spindle. In
the case we are considering the same working time is materialized in the 10 lbs. of yarn on the one hand, and in the 10 lbs. of
cotton and the fraction of a spindle on the other. Therefore, whether value appears in cotton, in a spindle, or in yarn, makes no
difference in the amount of that value. The spindle and cotton, instead of resting quietly side by side, join together in the process,
their forms are altered, and they are turned into yarn; but their value is no more affected by this fact than it would be if they had
been simply exchanged for their equivalent in yarn. The labour required for the production of the cotton, the raw material of the
yarn, is part of the labour necessary to produce the yarn, and is therefore contained in the yarn. The same applies to the labour
embodied in the spindle, without whose wear and tear the cotton could not be spun." "We have now to consider this labour
under a very different aspect from that which it had during the labour-process; there, we viewed it solely as that particular kind
of human activity which changes cotton into yarn; there, the more the labour was suited to the work, the better the yarn, other
circumstances remaining the same. The labour of the spinner was then viewed as specifically different from other kinds of
productive labour, different on the one hand in its special aim, viz., spinning, different, on the other hand, in the special
character of its operations, in the special nature of its means of production and in the special use-value of its product. For the
operation of spinning, cotton and spindles are a necessity, but for making rifled cannon they would be of no use whatever. Here,
on the contrary, where we consider the labour of the spinner only so far as it is value-creating, i.e., a source of value, his labour
differs in no respect from the labour of the man who bores cannon, or (what here more nearly concerns us), from the labour of
the cotton-planter and spindle-maker incorporated in the means of production. It is solely by reason of this identity, that cotton
planting, spindle making and spinning, are capable of forming the component parts, differing only quantitatively from each
other, of one whole, namely, the value of the yarn. Here, we have nothing more to do with the quality, the nature and the specific
character of the labour, but merely with its quantity. And this simply requires to be calculated. We proceed upon the assumption
that spinning is simple, unskilled labour, the average labour of a given state of society. Hereafter we shall see that the contrary
assumption would make no difference","..In the process we are now considering it is of extreme importance, that no more
time be consumed in the work of transforming the cotton into yarn than is necessary under the given social conditions. If under
normal, i.e., average social conditions of production, a pounds of cotton ought to be made into b pounds of yarn by one hour's
labour, then a day's labour does not count as 12 hours' labour unless 12 a pounds of cotton have been made into 12 b pounds of
yarn; for in the creation of value, the time that is socially necessary alone counts"..,".We assumed, on the occasion of its
sale, that the value of a day's labour-power is three shillings, and that six hours' labour are incorporated in that sum; and
consequently that this amount of labour is requisite to produce the necessaries of life daily required on an average by the
labourer. If now our spinner by working for one hour can convert 1 2/3 lbs. of cotton into 1 2/3 lbs. of yarn, it follows that in six
hours he will convert 10 lbs. of cotton into 10 lbs. of yarn. Hence, during the spinning process, the cotton absorbs six hours'
labour. The same quantity of labour is also embodied in a piece of gold of the value of three shillings. Consequently by the mere
labour of spinning, a value of three shillings is added to the cotton"," Let us now consider the total value of the product, the
10 lbs. of yarn. Two and a half days' labour have been embodied in it, of which two days were contained in the cotton and in the
substance of the spindle worn away, and half a day was absorbed during the process of spinning. This two and a half days'
labour is also represented by a piece of gold of the value of fifteen shillings. Hence, fifteen shillings is an adequate price for the
10 lbs. of yarn, or the price of one pound is eighteen-pence. Our capitalist stares in astonishment. The value of the product is
exactly equal to the value of the capital advanced. The value so advanced has not expanded, no surplus-value has been created,
and consequently money has not been converted into capital. The price of the yarn is fifteen shillings, and fifteen shillings were
spent in the open market upon the constituent elements of the product, or, what amounts to the same thing; upon the factors of
the labour-process; ten shillings were paid for the cotton, two shillings for the substance of the spindle worn away, and three
shillings for the labour-power. The swollen value of the yarn is of no avail, for it is merely the sum of the values formerly existing
in the cotton, the spindle, and the labour-power; out of such a simple addition of existing values, no surplus-value can possibly
arise. These separate values are now all concentrated in one thing; but so they were also in the sum of fifteen shillings, before it
was split up into three parts, by the purchase of the commodities".. "There is in reality nothing very strange in this result. The
value of one pound of yarn being eighteen pence, if our capitalist buys 10 lbs. of yarn in the market, he must pay fifteen shillings
for them. It is clear that, whether a man buys his house ready built, or gets it built for him, in neither case will the mode of
acquisition increase the amount of money laid out on the house"... "But here we are dealing with exchange-value. The
capitalist paid to the labourer a value of 3 shillings, and the labourer gave him back an exact equivalent in the value of 3
shillings, added by him to the cotton: he gave him value for value"." Our capitalist foresaw this state of things, and that was
the cause of his laughter. The labourer therefore finds, in the workshop, the means of production necessary for working, not only
during six, but during twelve hours. Just as during the six hours' process our 10 lbs. of cotton absorbed six hours' labour, and
became 10 lbs. of yarn, so now, 20 lbs. of cotton will absorb 12 hours' labour and be changed into 20 lbs. of yarn. Let us now
examine the product of this prolonged process. There is now materialized in these 20 lbs. of yarn the labour of five days, of which
four days are due to the cotton and the lost steel of the spindle, the remaining day having been absorbed by the cotton during the
spinning process. Expressed in gold, the labour of five days is thirty shillings. This is therefore the price of the 20 lbs. of yarn,
giving, as before, eighteen pence as the price of a pound. But the sum of the values of the commodities that entered into the

105
process amounts to 27 shillings. The value of the yarn is 30 shillings. Therefore the value of the product is 1/9 greater than the
value advanced for its production; 27 shillings have been transformed into 30 shillings; a surplus-value of 3 shillings has been
created. The trick has at last succeeded; money has been converted into capital ". P656-668

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)Human Development Report (2003) (2004
)Report of the World Social Situation (2008) (2010
)World Development Report (2001) (2005

106
)World Economic Outlook, IMF (2002) (2003) (2006
)International Monetary Fund, Direction of Trade Statistics, quarterly, September (2010
)Sudan, Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment, United Nation Environment Programme (2007

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