Telecom Basics

by : Gulshan Nanda

PSTN (public switched telephone network)

The PSTN (public switched telephone network) refers to the world's collection of interconnected voice-oriented public telephone networks, both commercial and governmentowned. It's also referred to as the Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS). It's the aggregation of circuit-switching telephone networks that has evolved from the days of Alexander Graham Bell ("Doctor Watson, come here!"). Today, it is almost entirely digital in technology except for the final link from the central (local) telephone office to the user. In relation to the Internet, the PSTN actually furnishes much of the Internet's long-distance infrastructure. Because Internet service providers ISPs pay the long-distance providers for access to their infrastructure and share the circuits among many users through packetswitching, Internet users avoid having to pay usage tolls to anyone other than their ISPs.

POTS (plain old telephone service)

POTS is a term sometimes used in discussion of new telephone technologies in which the question of whether and how existing voice transmission for ordinary phone communication can be accommodated. For example, ADSL and ISDN provide some part of their channels for "plain old telephone service" while providing most of their bandwidth for digital data transmission

DSP (digital signal processing)

Digital signal processing (DSP) refers to various techniques for improving the accuracy and reliability of digital communications. The theory behind DSP is quite complex. Basically, DSP works by clarifying, or standardizing, the levels or states of a digital signal. A DSP circuit is able to differentiate between human-made signals, which are orderly, and noise, which is inherently chaotic. All communications circuits contain some noise. This is true whether the signals are analog or digital, and regardless of the type of information conveyed. Noise is the eternal bane of communications engineers, who are always striving to find new ways to improve the signalto-noise (S/N) ratio in communications systems. Traditional methods of optimizing S/N ratio include increasing the transmitted signal power and increasing the receiver sensitivity. (In wireless systems, specialized antenna systems can also help.) Digital signal processing dramatically improves the sensitivity of a receiving unit. The effect is most noticeable when noise competes with a desired signal. A good DSP circuit can sometimes seem like an electronic miracle worker. But there are limits to what it can do. If the noise is so strong that all traces of the signal are obliterated, a DSP circuit cannot find any order in the chaos, and no signal will be received. If an incoming signal is analog, for example a standard television broadcast station, the signal is first converted to digital form by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The resulting digital signal has two or more levels. Ideally, these levels are always predictable, exact voltages or currents. However, because the incoming signal contains noise, the levels are not always at the standard values. The DSP circuit adjusts the levels so they are at the correct values. This practically eliminates the noise. The digital signal is then converted back to analog form via a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).

If a received signal is digital, for example computer data, then the ADC and DAC are not necessary. The DSP acts directly on the incoming signal, eliminating irregularities caused by noise, and thereby minimizing the number of errors per unit time.

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N)

In analog and digital communications, signal-to-noise ratio, often written S/N or SNR, is a measure of signal strength relative to background noise. The ratio is usually measured in decibels (dB). If the incoming signal strength in microvolts is Vs, and the noise level, also in microvolts, is Vn, then the signal-to-noise ratio, S/N, in decibels is given by the formula S/N = 20 log10(Vs/Vn) If Vs = Vn, then S/N = 0. In this situation, the signal borders on unreadable, because the noise level severely competes with it. In digital communications, this will probably cause a reduction in data speed because of frequent errors that require the source (transmitting) computer or terminal to resend some packets of data. Ideally, Vs is greater than Vn, so S/N is positive. As an example, suppose that Vs = 10.0 microvolts and Vn = 1.00 microvolt. Then S/N = 20 log10(10.0) = 20.0 dB which results in the signal being clearly readable. If the signal is much weaker but still above the noise -- say 1.30 microvolts -- then S/N = 20 log10(1.30) = 2.28 dB which is a marginal situation. There might be some reduction in data speed under these conditions. If Vs is less than Vn, then S/N is negative. In this type of situation, reliable communication is generally not possible unless steps are taken to increase the signal level and/or decrease the noise level at the destination (receiving) computer or terminal. Communications engineers always strive to maximize the S/N ratio. Traditionally, this has been done by using the narrowest possible receiving-system bandwidth consistent with the data speed desired. However, there are other methods. In some cases, spread-spectrum techniques can improve system performance. The S/N ratio can be increased by providing the source with a higher level of signal output power if necessary. In some high-level systems such as radio telescopes, internal noise is minimized by lowering the temperature of the receiving circuitry to near absolute zero (-273 degrees Celsius or -459 degrees Fahrenheit). In wireless systems, it is always important to optimize the performance of the transmitting and receiving antennas.

Electromagnetic field
An electromagnetic (EM) field is generated when charged particles, such as electrons, are accelerated. All electrically charged particles are surrounded by electric fields. Charged particles in motion produce magnetic fields. When the velocity of a charged particle changes, an EM field is produced. Electromagnetic fields were first discovered in the 19th century, when physicists noticed that electric arcs (sparks) could be reproduced at a distance, with no connecting wires in between. This led scientists to believe that it was possible to communicate over long distances without wires. The first radio transmitters made use of electric arcs. These "spark transmitters" and the associated receivers were as exciting to people in the early 20th century as the Internet is today. This was the beginning of what we now call wireless communication. Electromagnetic fields are typically generated by alternating current (AC) in electrical conductors. The frequency of the AC can range from one cycle in thousands of years (at the low extreme) to trillions or quadrillions of cycles per second (at the high extreme). The 3

standard unit of EM frequency is the hertz, abbreviated Hz. Larger units are often used. A frequency of 1,000 Hz is one kilohertz (kHz); a frequency of 1,000 kHz is one megahertz (MHz); a frequency of 1,000 MHz is one gigahertz (GHz). The wavelength of an EM field is related to the frequency. If the frequency f of an EM wave is specified in megahertz and the wavelength w is specified in meters (m), then in free space, the two are related according to the formula w = 300/f For example, a signal at 100 MHz (in the middle of the American FM broadcast band) has a wavelength of 3 m, or about 10 feet. This same formula applies if the frequency is given in gigahertz and the wavelength is specified in millimeters (mm). Thus, a signal at 30 GHz would have a wavelength of 10 mm, or a little less than half an inch. The realm of EM field energy is called the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. In theory this extends from arbitrarily long wavelengths to arbitrarily short wavelengths, or, as engineers sometimes imprecisely quip, "from DC to light."

Signal
1) In electronics, a signal is an electric current or electromagnetic field used to convey data from one place to another. The simplest form of signal is a direct current (DC) that is switched on and off; this is the principle by which the early telegraph worked. More complex signals consist of an alternating-current (AC) or electromagnetic carrier that contains one or more data streams. Data is superimposed on a carrier current or wave by means of a process called modulation. Signal modulation can be done in either of two main ways: analog and digital. In recent years, digital modulation has been getting more common, while analog modulation methods have been used less and less. There are still plenty of analog signals around, however, and they will probably never become totally extinct. Except for DC signals such as telegraph and baseband, all signal carriers have a definable frequency or frequencies. Signals also have a property called wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the frequency. 2) In some information technology contexts, a signal is simply "that which is sent or received," thus including both the carrier (see 1) and the data together. 3) In telephony, a signal is special data that is used to set up or control communication.

Vocoder
A vocoder is an audio processor that captures the characteristic elements of an an audio signal and then uses this characteristic signal to affect other audio signals. The technology behind the vocoder effect was initially used in attempts to synthesize speech. The effect called vocoding can be recognized on records as a "talking synthesizer", made popular by artists such as Stevie Wonder. The basic component extracted during the vocoder analysis is called the formant. The formant describes the fundamental frequency of a sound and its associated noise components. The vocoder works like this: The input signal (your voice saying "Hello, my name is Fred") is fed into the vocoder's input. This audio signal is sent through a series of parallel signal filters that create a signature of the input signal, based on the frequency content and level of the frequency components. The signal to be processed (a synthesized string sound, for example) is fed into another input on the vocoder. The filter signature created above during the analysis of your voice is used to filter the synthesized sound. The audio output of the vocoder contains the synthesized sound modulated by the filter created by your voice. You hear a synthesized sound that pulses to the tempo of your voice input with the tonal characteristics of your voice added to it. 4

LITTLE MORE ABOUT SOUND WAVES

Section 1. Sound waves Sound waves are longitudinal waves produced by variations in air pressure. A vibrating source pushes molecules in air back and forth, creating areas of compression and rarefaction. When a molecule moves, it collides with the next one and makes it move too. The energy of a sound wave travels away from the source trough a series of molecule
rarefaction compression

collisions parallel to the direction of the wave. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.

Sound waves can also travel trough liquids and solids. The velocity of a sound wave depends on the temperature of the medium and its elasticity (more elasticity means that molecules will move easily). Through air, sound waves travel at 343 m/s. Actually, sound waves move faster through liquids and solids than through gases.

Measuring sound waves

The frequency of a sound wave is called pitch. In music, different pitches (C, D, E, etc.) are represented by notes.

The human ear is able to feel frequencies between 20 Hz to 15 000 Hz, depending on the age of the person. Sound waves with a frequency above 20 000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves. The amplitude or volume of a sound wave is the amount of pressure exerted by a sound source to air molecules. The higher the pressure, the harder the molecules will collide and the farther the wave will travel. You need a Java-enabled browser Scientists measure the amplitude in atmospheres. Humans can detect from less than a billionth of an atmosphere to values one million times higher. However, it is hard to deal with this huge range of different values. Instead, the pressure is measured by the intensity of the sound. The quietest sound corresponds to a value of zero decibels (unit of sound intensity) and a value above a hundred corresponds to annoying sounds. Example: A sound wave with a wavelength of 1.24 m is moving at 343 m/s. What is the frequency of this wave? wl=wavelengthwl=1.24mv=343m/sv=(wl)f f = v/wl = (343 m/s)/(1.24 m) = 276.61 Hz

Interference of waves
When two or more waves with the same frequency reach the ear, the ear interprets these waves as one wave with amplitude as big as the sum or difference of the initial waves.

Destructive

Constructive

When two waves with different frequencies reach the ear, the resulting sound will be pleasant if the frequencies have ratios that are small whole numbers (2:1, 3:2, 4:3). This is called consonance.

PCM (pulse code modulation)

PCM (pulse code modulation) is a digital scheme for transmitting analog data. The signals in PCM are binary; that is, there are only two possible states, represented by logic 1 (high) and logic 0 (low). This is true no matter how complex the analog waveform happens to be. Using PCM, it is possible to digitize all forms of analog data, including full-motion video, voices, music, telemetry, and virtual reality (VR). To obtain PCM from an analog waveform at the source (transmitter end) of a communications circuit, the analog signal amplitude is sampled (measured) at regular time intervals. The sampling rate, or number of samples per second, is several times the maximum frequency of the analog waveform in cycles per second or hertz. The instantaneous amplitude of the analog signal at each sampling is rounded off to the nearest of several specific, predetermined levels. This process is called quantization. The number of levels is always a power of 2 -- for example, 8, 16, 32, or 64. These numbers can be represented by three, four, five, or six binary digits (bits) respectively. The output of a pulse code modulator is thus a series of binary numbers, each represented by some power of 2 bits. At the destination (receiver end) of the communications circuit, a pulse code demodulator converts the binary numbers back into pulses having the same quantum levels as those in the modulator. These pulses are further processed to restore the original analog waveform.

Digital signal X (DS0, DS1....DS4)

Digital signal X is a term for the series of standard digital transmission rates or levels based on DS0, a transmission rate of 64 Kbps, the bandwidth normally used for one telephone voice channel. Both the North American T-carrier system and the European E-carrier systems of transmission operate using the DS series as a base multiple. The digital signal is what is carried inside the carrier system. DS0 is the base for the digital signal X series. DS1, used as the signal in the T-1 carrier, is 24 DS0 (64 Kbps) signals transmitted using pulse-code modulation (PCM) and time-division multiplexing (TDM). DS-2 is four DS1 signals multiplexed together to produce a rate of 6.312 Mbps. DS-3, the signal in the T-3 carrier, carries a multiple of 28 DS1 signals or 672 DS0s or 44.736 Mbps. Digital signal X is based on the ANSI T1.107 guidelines. The ITU guidelines differ somewhat. The following table summarizes the set of signals and relates them to the T-carrier and Ecarrier systems. DS0 Multiple 0 24 32 48 96 128 512 672 2048 2176 4032 4 channels E4 TCarrier T-1 T-2 T-3 -

Digital Signal Designator DS0 DS1 DS1C DS2 DS3 DS4/NA DS4 -

Data Rate 64 Kbps 1.544 Mbps 2.048 Mbps 3.152 Mbps 6.312 Mbps 8.448 Mbps 34.368 Mbps 44.736 Mbps 139.264 Mbps 139.264 Mbps 274.176 Mbps 565.148 Mbps

E-Carrier E1 E2 E3 E4 E5

T-1 and E-1

T-1 and E-1 are both standards for digital transmission. T-1 is used in North America, and E-1 is used in many countries outside North America. Data is transmitted over T-1 trunks as a series of frames. Each frame is divided into 24 different "time-slots" which are 8 bits long. Each of the time-slots, also called "channels," handles a single voice conversation, digitized at at a rate of 64 kbps. E-1 trunks work similarly to T-1, except that E-1 circuits carry 32 time-slots of data. 30 of these channels carry audio information, and are called B channels. Two of these channels carry signaling data, and are called D channels.

Digital Trunks: T-1

T-1 is a standard for digital transmission used in North America. Data is transmitted over T1 trunks as a series of frames. Each frame is divided into 24 different "time-slots" which are 8 bits long. Each of the time-slots, also called "channels," handles a single voice conversation, digitized at at a rate of 64 kbps. T-1Protocols: E&M and ISDN T-1 E&M, which originally stood for "ear and mouth," can handle 24 voice conversations on a single trunk. Every so often in E&M T-1, two bits are "robbed" from the audio and used for signaling--this is called robbed-bit signaling. The two signaling bits indicate when a ring, seize, disconnect, or hangup is taking place. T-1 ISDN uses a T-1 circuit as 23 voice channels and one signaling channel. Because the data channel carries the signaling information at a high speed, telephone calls can be placed quickly, and because of the protocol used, DNIS or ANI transmission failures are impossible. Additionally, since no bits are robbed from the voice channels, the voice quality is better than that of E&M T-1's robbed-bit signaling

T-1 E&M
T-1 E&M, which originally stood for "ear and mouth," can handle 24 voice conversations on a single T-1 trunk. E&M signaling is divided into two types: call control signaling and address signaling. Call control signaling refers to seize, ring, hangup, disconnect and blocking signals, and address signaling includes sending ANI, DNIS and outbound number information. Every so often in E&M, two bits are "robbed" from the audio and used for call control signaling--this is called robbed-bit signaling. These two signaling bits indicate when a ring, seize, disconnect, or hangup is taking place. All the address signaling methods in E&M (except for decadic) are called "in-band" because the audio channel is used to carry tones. Address signaling in E&M is done in one of the following ways: DTMF (Dual Tone Multi-Frequency) signaling, where touch-tones are transmitted across the audio channel. MF (Multi-Frequency) signaling, which is very similar to DTMF but uses different frequencies in the tones. 8

"Decadic" or "pulse," where one of the robbed signaling bits is pulsed in a similar way to the loop current breaks sent by a rotary phone.

Digital Trunks: E-1

E-1 is a standard for digital transmission that is used in many countries outside North America. Data is transmitted over E-1 trunks as a series of frames. Each frame is divided into 32 different "time-slots" which are 8 bits long. Each of the time-slots, also called "channels," handles a single voice conversation, digitized at at a rate of 64 kbps. 30 of these channels carry audio information, and are called B channels. Two of these channels carry signaling data,and are called D channels.

E-1

signaling: CAS and ISDN

E-1 signaling is handled on the two D-channels, apart from the audio. There are two main types of E-1 signaling, which we will call CAS (Channel Associated Signaling), and ISDN. (Some people define CAS differently and include ISDN as a CAS protocol--unfortunately it is common for people to use the same terminology in different ways when discussing T-1 and E-1 signaling.)

E-1 CAS
CAS (Channel Associated Signaling) can handle 30 voice conversations on a single E-1 trunk. CAS signaling is divided into two types: call control signaling and address signaling. Call control signaling refers to seize, ring, hangup, disconnect and blocking signals, and address signaling includes sending ANI, DNIS and outbound number information. With CAS, call control signaling is done using ABCD signaling bits. The ABCD values for all 30 channels are carried on the two D channels of the E-1 trunk. This bit signaling is therefore referred to as being "out-of-band" in CAS. Address signaling in CAS is done in one of the following ways: R2 signaling, also called compelled signaling, where the CO (central office) and CPE (customer premise equipment) must exchange a series of tones. There are two different standards for the frequencies to be used for R2, CCITT and Socotel, and many different standards for the details of which tones are exchanged and how they are interpreted. Typically each country has a different R2 standard, and it is not uncommon for there to be several standards in use within a given country. DTMF signaling, exactly as for a touch-tone telephone. MF, also called R1 signaling, which is very similar to DTMF but uses different frequencies in the tones. "Decadic" or "pulse," where one of the ABCD signaling bits is pulsed in a similar way to the loop current breaks sent by a rotary phone. All the address signaling methods in CAS (except decadic) are called "in-band" because the audio channel is used to carry tones. R2 is the type most often found in E-1 CAS protocols.

There are three types of signaling that you should consider for digital T1/E1:

1) Channel-associated signaling (CAS). CAS signaling means that instead of

having a specific timeslot (such as an ISDN D channel in PRI) designated to provide signaling only, signaling bits (on-hook and off-hook) are within the sixth, twelfth, eighteenth, and twenty-fourth frames of each timeslot. CAS signaling is often called robbedbit signaling (RBS) because it takes bits from bearer channels and uses them for signaling. CAS signaling must be specified on both ends of the T1 link and is enabled by default on T1 high capacity digital voice port adapters. 2) E&M signaling. E&M connections can use one of three different signaling types to acknowledge on-hook and off-hook states: wink-start, immediate-start, and delay-start. E&M wink-start is usually preferred because it provides better Answer Supervision (knowledge that the connected device is ready to answer the call). However, not all COs and PBXs can handle wink-start signaling. The E&M connection between the router and switch (CO or PBX) must use matching E&M signaling types or calls are not be connected properly. E&M signaling is defined with the ds0-group controller configuration command, as in the following T1 example: ds0-group 1 timeslots 1-24 type e&m-wink-start 3) FXO and FXS signaling. While most digital T1/E1 connections used for switch-toswitch (or switch-to-router) trunks are E&M connections, a digital T1/E1 port adapter can also support FXS and FXO connections, which people normally use to provide emulated-OPX (Off-Premises eXtension) from a PBX to remote stations. As a general rule, FXO ports connect to FXS ports. Either ground-start or loop-start signaling is appropriate for these connections. Ground-start provides better Disconnect Supervision to detect when a remote user has hung up the phone, but ground-start is not available on all PBXs. The FXO or FXS connection between the router and switch (CO or PBX) must use matching signaling, or calls are not be connected properly. FXS and FXO signaling are defined with the ds0-group controller configuration command, as in the following T1 example: ds0-group 1 timeslots 1-24 type fxo-ground-start

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Telephone Exchange
On each telephone call, a talking path must be set up between the calling and the called telephone. The method of making this connection, known as switching, has progressed from the simplest of hand operated switches through the more complex manual systems to the present mechanical switching systems. This Survey of Telephone Switching describes broadly the characteristics of the major switching systems used by the Pacific Company. It is intended to give an appreciation of switching systems rather than details for engineering. The Bell System Practices are the working manuals used by engineers and provide the standard to which the switching systems are constructed. No originality is claimed, as the material has been compiled principally from Bell System publications, and training courses of other Associated Companies.

DEVELOPMENT OF TELEPHONE SWITCHING SYSTEMS

In the development of dial telephone switching two fundamentally different arrangements have been devised for controlling the operations of the switches. In one, the switch at each successive stage is directly responsive to the digit that is being dialed. Systems using this method of operation are called direct dial control. An example is the step-by-step system in common use today. In the second arrangement, the dialed information is stored for a short period of time by centralized control equipment before being used to control the switching operations. The systems using the latter arrangement are known as common control systems. Examples of these are panel and crossbar. A history of the evolution of these types of switching systems is presented, together with a discussion of their comparative merits for various fields of use and a look toward the future developments to be expected.

Historical
The need for a switching system became apparent as soon as public interest in telephony was aroused. This occurred in 1877, less than a year after Bell's original patent had been granted. The obvious method was to connect every telephone individually to every other telephone. But this procedure would quickly become complicated and impractical. Over a thousand different connections would be required to interconnect only 50 telephones. 11

The logical way to overcome the problem of interconnecting telephones was simply to gather up their connecting wires and bring them together in a central place. Then all that would be required would be a means of connecting the right telephone wires together when people wanted to talk. Upon this ability, the ability to interconnect any two of a great number of telephones, rests the value of telephone service to the public. The first commercial telephone switchboard was placed in service in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1878 with a capacity of eight telephone lines. Within a year, the Connolly and McTighe girl-less telephone system was patented. The first patent on the Strowger step-by-step system was issued in 1891. By 1892, the first commercial installation of automatic switching equipment using step-by-step mechanism was made at La Porte, Indiana. Though the rotary dial was developed in 1896, many of the early systems did not use this type. Various calling devices were used for a number of years. Among these were lever operated pre-set devices, key sets of several types, and dials with holes (in one case as many as 100) in which a peg could be inserted to act as a stop for an arm which was pulled around and allowed to restore. In all the early systems, regardless of the device used, the signals generated at the calling station directly controlled the selectors. By 1905 there were several single office cities which had commercial installations of Strowger step-by-step equipment. A number of Western Electric Company 100-line and 20line automatic systems were in service and a small amount of semi-automatic equipment under direct control of the A operator's dial was in operation. Planning was under way to remove some of the limitations and extend the field of use of the automatic and semiautomatic systems.

Step-By-Step System
The switch mechanism employed in the step-by-step direct dial control system is arranged to take 1 to 10 steps vertically and 1 to 10 steps horizontally, thereby permitting the switch to have access to any one of 100 positions. This is accomplished by means of a bank attached to the frame and a set of wipers mounted on a shaft. The bank consists of ten rows, or levels, of ten positions each and placed one above the other to compose a 100position unit. The shaft, which mounts the wipers, can be lifted and rotated so that by first raising it to a particular level and then rotating it, the wipers can be placed in contact with any desired position in the bank. The train of selection in a step-by-step office (Figure 1-1) is built up as the digits of the desired number are dialed by the calling subscriber. It is essentially a progressively built-up connection. The switches are selected in sequence and held until disconnection of the call.

Evolution of Principle of Translation

While mechanisms and circuits were being developed for direct dial control switching, work of a theoretical nature was going on which was to have an important effect on future designs. This work consisted of traffic probability studies and observations resulting in the 12

development of formulas and curves examining the efficiency of trunk groups. These studies strongly influenced the views of engineers as to the economical size of switches. Figure 1-2 is a reproduction of three curves produced by E. C. Molina in 1908, showing the average load carried by various numbers of trunks for three probability conditions namely P.01, P.001, and P.0001, corresponding to all trunks busy conditions encountered by calls once in a hundred, once in a thousand, and once in ten thousand times respectively. From these curves it can be seen, for example, that ten trunks can carry a load averaging slightly over four calls with a probability of encountering a busy condition once in one hundred attempts. Twenty trunks can carry an average of over eleven simultaneous calls with the same P.01 loss due to all trunks being busy, but with an increase of efficiency for the larger group of 15 per cent. The larger trunk group provides an increase in efficiency from 41 to 56 per cent. These studies had considerable effect on the trend of overall system design. For example, it appeared that grouping subscriber lines on the connectors in groups of more than 100 might result in some economy. Other economies were possible if the limitations imposed by decimal selection could be avoided. Direct dial control equipment is limited by the decimal digits dialed into it and by the speed of the customer's dialing. At each switching stage two actions take place. First, the switch follows the dial pulses until it reaches a group of outlets corresponding to the dialed digit. Then, in the interval following this digit, and before the pulses of the next digit arrive, the switch hunts over the outlets for an idle path to reach the next stage. The number of paths from a switch level is, therefore, limited by the number of terminals the switch can hunt over in the interdigital interval. Direct dial control systems have generally employed switches with ten outlets per level. Special arrangements, such as twin levels, also have been employed to increase the number of outlets. A twin level switch provides terminals for two trunks at each rotary step and thus twenty trunks per level can be reached. A new method of operation was necessary to take advantage of the Molina theory of trunk grouping and to offset the disadvantages of direct dial control. To allow time for trunk hunting over larger groups, and permit time for connections to distant offices, emphasis was placed upon the development of a system that could perform mechanically the functions of a manual operator.. These involved answering the calling subscriber's line, recording and storing the called number, determining the route to the called party, selecting a trunk, and completing the connection to the called line. However, another development, namely translation, was required before systems could operate with large access switches and non-decimal selections. Translation is the mechanical conversion of decimal information received from the dial to nondecimal forms for switch control and other purposes. When translation is made changeable, by some means such as cross-connection, it is the basis of much of the flexibility of common control systems. A necessary feature of systems employing translation of a series of digits, such as an office code, is digit storage. It was only a small step from the concept of translation and digit storage to devices which provided these features in common circuits. This development culminated in the design of the common control system utilizing a sender.

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The Panel System

The panel system (Figure 1-3) is a common control switching system. It was developed for large metropolitan areas where the number of central offices to be served creates a complicated trunking problem. In the panel system, direct control of the switches by the subscriber's dial is abandoned in favor of a register, or sender, in which the pulses are stored until the equipment is ready to use them. This allows the selecting apparatus more time to hunt over large trunk groups than is normally present between the digits dialed by a subscriber. The principal piece of apparatus which gives the system its name is the panel type selector, so-called because the terminals over which the selector passes are arranged in a flat rectangular bank or panel. This is used throughout the system in various forms, differing in size, in detailed arrangement, and in electrical connections, but all having the same general appearance and electromechanical construction. Each bank, employing punched metallic strips, can accommodate 100 outlets with three wires per outlet. Five banks are stacked into a frame over which 60 power-driven selectors can hunt. The panel system uses revertive pulsing to control the selectors. With revertive pulsing, as the selector progresses, it sends back pulses which the sender counts. When the selector reaches the desired position, the sender stops it by opening the pulsing circuit. Because of the increased size of the switches, the panel system uses a continuously operated power drive common to a number of switches.

Development of a Large City Numbering Plan

By 1916 the full automatic system (Strowger) had established a competitive position with manual for single-office cities. Because the number of dial pulls for a single office was four or less, little concern was felt about dialing accuracy. For the multi-office cities it appeared that full mechanical operation would improve service, be more economical, and reduce the pressing need for operators. However, in spite of these factors urging the adoption of a dial system, and even though automatic equipment was actually used in Los Angeles and Chicago in the first decade of the century, there was a reluctance to adopt full automatic operation in the very large multi-office cities because of the lack of a suitable numbering plan. An awkward plan was under consideration for handling dial traffic in these cities. It required the use of seven digit numbers with the dial customers being called upon to use arbitrary three digit numerical codes for the office names. At the same time, the existing office names would be retained for use by the manual customers. Adoption of this dual arrangement would have required the provision of a cumbersome directory. But worse than that, it was felt that dialing seven numerical digits would be too confusing to customers and consequently there would be an excessive number of dialing errors. It was, therefore, planned to use semi-mechanical operation for large cities, retaining an operator between the customers and the machine. While this scheme did not save as many operators as the full mechanical method, it was believed necessary to have trained operators so that the customers would not be subjected to the complications of dialing. However, in 1917 W. G. Blauvelt of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company proposed a numbering plan which would permit the customers to dial up to seven digits with 14

acceptable accuracy and which would also be satisfactory for manual operation. This arrangement consisted of the use of one to three letters and four decimal digits. The first one, two, or three letters of the office name were printed in bold type in the directory as an indication to dial customers that these were to be dialed ahead of the four digits. Manual customers used the office name as before. Letters as well as numbers were placed on the dial plate in line with the finger holes of the dial. This proposal was immediately adopted and further Bell System development proceeded along the lines of full automatic operation. The Bell System planned to use panel equipment in large cities, not only because of the trunk efficiency which was possible with the use of the large panel switch, but also because trunking, being no longer under direct control of the dial in this system, was divorced from numbering. The panel system was also attractive because it had flexibility for growth and for contingencies such as the introduction of new types of service. These advantages would be provided by the common sender and translators of that system.

Evolution of the Marker Principle

In retrospect, it is obvious that the developmental thinking up to the early 1920s was limited by the belief that it was necessary to have the selectors do the testing for idle trunks even with common controls. This arrangement had been successfully used in the step-by-step system and it was natural to follow the same plan in the panel. Subsequent development of the common control idea, started with an experimental coordinate system in 1924. Though the coordinate system was not developed for commercial use, it provided the marker systems in which the trunk testing is done by the markers. The coordinate system derived its name from the method of operation of its switch, the process resembling the method of marking a point by the use of two coordinates. The switch was essentially a large version of the present crossbar switch and selected and held a set of crosspoints by the operation of horizontal and vertical members. Translation of the called office code, selection of a trunk, and operation of the switches to connect a transmission circuit to the trunk were functions of a new circuit, the marker, which the sender called into use for a fraction of a second after it had received the office code digits. When the marker does the testing for idle trunks, the trunk access from a particular switch is no longer a limiting factor in the size of the trunk group. Thus it became possible to design systems using markers to do the trunk testing and any type of switch to do the connecting. When a trunk has been selected by the marker, the appropriate switches can be operated to connect to the marked terminal. The maximum size of the trunk group need no longer be limited by the number of terminals on one switch. With a primary-secondary switch array, groups much larger than those accessible on a single switch can be handled.

Crossbar System
In the early 1930's the Bell System started development of the No. 1 Crossbar system, with markers in both originating and terminating equipments and with improved features over the coordinate system which it resembled in many respects. A typical common control arrangement for a system using translation is shown in Figure 1-4 for No. 1 Crossbar. 15

Self-checking circuits, second trials and trouble indicators, which had proven highly successful in the later (decoder) variety of panel system, were important features of No. 1 Crossbar. Automatic alternate routing and the ability to operate with non-consecutive PBX assignments were major new features introduced for the first time in this system. The subsequently developed No. 5 Crossbar system included a number of improvements, the chief of which from a common control standpoint was the use of common markers for originating and terminating business and the use of the call back feature in setting up the connection. In this system the common equipment records the calling line identification as well as the called number, and after setting up the path to the called line or outgoing trunk, breaks down the connection to the common equipment from the calling line and then re-establishes a connection back to the calling line. Common control systems have been employed by the Bell System in addition to those already mentioned. These include panel sender tandem, crossbar tandem, and No. 4, A4A and 4A toll crossbar. Even with all these improvements added the dial switching system, as it is known today, is an efficient machine only to a certain point. Registers, senders and markers can be furnished only in quantities that are reasonable and economical, based on normal busyhour loads. When presented with an abnormal load, the system may fail because of faulty customer usage, such as failing to await dial tone. The remedy for this, obviously, is a system so rapid in operation that registering devices are always available. Switching systems that perform at the speed required are not uncommon in other fields.

Other Digital Systems

In any discussion of telephone switching it is not possible to ignore high speed switching systems used outside the telephone industry. Other digital systems, which like a telephone switching system, receive and store information and manipulate this information toward a useful end in accordance with the rules of logic built into them have already acquired impressive proportions. Well known examples are the large-scale digital computing machines that furnish answers to mathematical problems previously beyond the resources of human calculators. Also in operation are railroad and airline seat reservation systems and other similar automatic inventory systems that keep accurate track of thousands of items and furnish instantaneous answers to complicated inventory questions. Studies are being made of automatic air traffic control systems and there are in limited use automatic production lines, machines for weather prediction, for library search, for language translation. The new art of mechanized computing has already surpassed the switching art in one important way. Most modern large computers rely heavily on electronics, but modern switching offices do not. There are good practical reasons for the gap. Reasons of history, economics, and reliability constrain telephone engineers to a conservative approach. Any new system must be compatible with every old system. In other words, it must understand signals sent by the old systems and send signals understandable by them. In addition, the system has to work with existing wires and telephone sets in the presence of trouble and misuse. Also, newer techniques must demonstrate economic as well as technical 16

superiority. Finally, systems must continue to operate reliably despite some equipment failures. Even the most optimistic electronic computer designers cannot yet claim 99 per cent, let alone 99.9 per cent reliability for continuous operation. Despite these considerable difficulties, it seems probable that the next big advance in practical switching will be electronic. Electronics has high speed to offer the telephone engineer. This speed can be well used in a large exchange to handle the flood of control operations necessary to keep up with telephone traffic. As many as a dozen relay markers have been used in a No. 5 office. One sufficiently reliable electronic marker could replace all of these. Of course, such a simple replacement may not give the best design. It may be better to redesign from the ground up.

The Advantage of Speed in Switching

A picture of how speed could be used to advantage in a large exchange may be had by thinking first of a manual exchange which is small enough so that a single operator can handle all calls. Responding to each calling subscriber's signal she plugs into his jack, listens as he gives the desired number, then sets up the other end of the same cord to this number. She must also take down both ends of the cord when the circuit is no longer in use, handle calls to other exchanges on a special basis, provide information, record charges, and perform a variety of other duties. If the number of subscribers on this small exchange is increased, they would normally be served by adding more operators. Imagine, however, an operator who is human in every way except that she can operate at electronic speeds. She would not be able to take care of a much larger number of subscribers, since she would not have time to listen patiently as each calling subscriber repeated the number he wished. At ten calls a second, common in a large office during a busy period, if it required five seconds on the average to give each number by voice, at least fifty operators would be required even though all other functions could be compressed into zero time. This fast electronic operator could then, obviously do little without something more to help her. If she could have some kind of bulletin board, on which calling subscribers could write, through dialing, in their slow and ponderous human way the calls they wished to make, and if she could read this bulletin board in her fast electronic way, then sufficient speed would enable her to set up and take down each call and still have time to spare for other necessary tasks.

Future Development
It is apparent in the foregoing that electronics can be used to build a single control unit fast enough to handle the entire exchange on a one-at-a-time basis. It is also evident that electronic storage will be a feature of this electronic exchange and that electronic speeds may accelerate the switches themselves. Electronic devices have advantages for switching other than speed. One advantage is size. Some of the most valuable space in the world is occupied by floor above floor of switching equipment in the downtown sections of large cities. Electronics may ultimately cut this space to a fraction of its present size. Another advantage lies in lower power consumption. Most relays absorb about a watt of power. A semi-conductor information17

processing circuit containing a transistor and a few germanium diodes absorbs only a few milliwatts and can handle far more information per second. A third advantage is reliability. Despite the high level of reliability and low cost which relays have achieved, they are essentially complex devices since they rely on a combination of electrical, magnetic, and mechanical -phenomena. A relay which can outlast a billion operations is an engineering marvel. A megacycle electronic counter performs a billion operations in just 16 minutes and 40 seconds. Preliminary results indicate that solid state electronic devices can be designed to last many years. The expectation of failure per operation is obviously far less with these devices than with relays: a fact which, when combined with proper system design, should substantially reduce maintenance troubles. Within the past several years, rapid progress has been made in the development of electronic devices that are adaptable to the rigid requirements of telephone switching functions. A development program is now active in the Bell Telephone Laboratories to apply them to the creation of a new switching system, the Electronic Central Office (ECO), that will make little or no use of electromechanical relays and switches employed earlier. The new switching system promises substantial economy in equipment costs and as much as 80 per cent saving in floor space. Economy is also expected in outside plant due to the use of two stages of concentration outside of the central office and to the higher loop resistances permissible. Operational speeds will be increased, maintenance will be made easier and the usual administrative activities will be simplified. The Electronic Central Office will more readily permit the introduction of new features and provide for greater flexibility in meeting changing requirements. It is planned to make a trial field installation of an Electronic Office about 1958 for service of some 2000 lines (4000 main stations). By selecting a small relatively isolated single office town for the initial installation it is possible to restrict the area of intensive development for the present. Continuing development, however, will ultimately make the Electronic Central Office applicable to all switching requirements both with respect to size and to the services to be provided.

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