BIONERGITICS and ATP PRODUCTION

The study of the flow and transformation of energy in and between living organisms and between living organisms and their environment. Bioenergetics describe the transfer and utilization of energy in living systems. Changes in free energy (G) provide a tool for prediction of whether a reaction will take place. Laws of Thermodynamics : 1. Energy and matter cannot be created or destroyed, but they can be changed from one form to the other.

2. Any transformation of energy or matter results in some loss of useful energy in other words, no energetic process is 100% efficient. It states that energy transformations increase entropy (=degree of disorganization of a system). The direction and extent to which a chemical reaction proceeds is determined by the degree to which two factors change during the reaction. These are: Enthalpy (H) & Entropy (S) . Enthalpy (H) Is a measure of the change in heat content of the reactants and products. Entropy (S) Is a measure of the change in randomness or disorder of reactants and products. Free energy Neither H nor S by itself is sufficient to determine whether a chemical reaction proceeds spontaneously in the direction it is written. However, when combined together, enthalpy and entropy can be used to define a third quantity, free energy, which predicts the direction in which a reaction proceeds spontaneously.

G = H - TS
T is the absolute temperature in degree Kelvins (K):

[K = C + 273]
If the G value for a reaction is less than zero (G<0), then the reaction is favourable and is exergonic(+ve G), however if the G value is greater than zero (G>0), then the reaction is unfavorable and endergonic (-ve G). A reaction in which G is equal to zero (G=0) is at equilibrium. Negative Go: There is a net loss of energy and the reaction goes spontaneously to the right, i.e. A is converted to B. The reaction is said to be exergonic.

A Exergonic Reactions:

Exergonic reactions release energy as they proceed Products contain less free energy than reactants Exergonic reaction is breakdown of ATP - the universal energy carrier Most exergonic reactions in body make ATP Positive Go: There is a net gain of energy and the reaction does not go spontaneously from B to A. The reaction is said to be endergonic. Endergonic Reactions: Endergonic reactions require input of energy to proceed Products contain more free energy than reactants

 Cells require constant inputs of free energy from environment to buck entropy & remain highly organized Do this by coupling endergonic reactions to exergonic reactions G is zero: If G = 0, the reaction is in equilibrium. Energy Contents of Compounds Compounds can be classified according to their energy contents into three main classes: 1. Highenergy (Go =-10 Kcal) 2. Intermediateenergy (Go =-7 Kcal) 3. Low energy (Go<4 Kcal) Examples 1. High-energy Compounds: a) Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) b) 1,3-Diphosphoglycerate (1,3-DPG) c) Creatine phosphate (CP) 3. Low-energy Compounds: a) Glucose-6-phosphate b) Glucose-1-phosphate 2. Intermedite-energy Compounds: a) Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) b) Guanosine triphosphate (GTP)

Role of ATP in Energy Metabolism ATP has an intermediate position on the bioenergetic scale of phosphate-containing compounds. ADP can accept phosphate groups from high-energy phosphate compounds to form ATP which, in turn can donate phosphate to compounds in the cell to form lower energy phosphates. The body cannot transfer phosphate groups directly from very high-energy donors to lowenergy acceptors without their first transfer to ATP. Bioenergetics Economics : Consumption = Metabolism + Waste + Growth Consumption = Income Metabolism = Rent and Investments. Wastes & Losses = Taxes Growth = Savings

BIOLOGIC OXIDATION & ATP PRODUCTION : When a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) is allowed to ignite, a combustion reaction proceeds with the liberation of heat energy and water (H2O): Combustion H2 + O2 In biologic oxidation: Hydrogen is carried by coenzymes as NADH2 or FADH2. H2O + Energy

 Hydrogen is oxidized by oxygen in a multistep manner, in each step a small portion step of the total energy is liberated. These oxidative steps linked to the formation of ATP occur in the electron transport chain localized in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Energy budget:Glycolysis Glucose 2 pyruvic acid or 2 lactic acid. Energy investment phase Requires 2 ATP. Energy generation phase Produces 4 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate or 2 lactate. C6H12O6 (Glucose) + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O G = - 2870 kJ / mol

1 mole of glucose (C6H12O6) = 686 kilocalories (kcal) Aerobic respiration: consumes the glucose, produces 36 moles of ATP, equivalent to 262.8 kcal Anaerobic: produces only 3 moles, equiv to 21.9 kcal Link reaction Pyruvic acid Acetyl CoA

1 NADH production. Cycle goes 2 times, total 2 NADH production. 2 NADH molecules = 23=6 ATP, equivalent to 43.8 kcal Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) Pyruvic acid (3C) is converted to acetyl-CoA (2C) CO2 is given off. Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate ( 4C) to form citrate (6C). Citrate is metabolized to oxaloacetate two CO2 molecules given off. Produces three molecules of NADH and one FADH. Also forms one molecule of GTP Produces one ATP. 3 NADH = 33ATP = 9 ATP , 1 FADH = 12ATP = 2 ATP , 1 GTP = 11 ATP = 1 ATP Total 12 ATP, cycle goes 2 times therefore 122= 24 ATP produces 24 moles, equiv to 175.2 kcal.

Electron transport chain Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondria. Electrons removed from NADH and FADH are passed along a series of carriers (cytochromes) , ATP produce. Each NADH produces 3 ATP Each FADH produces 2 ATP. Total 5 ATP, equivalent to 36.5 kcal. Called the chemiosmotic hypothesis H+ from NADH and FADH are accepted by O2 to form water. Fats Triglycerides glycerol and fatty acids Fatty acids acetyl-CoA Beta-oxidation Beta Oxidation is the Process of Converting Fatty Acids to Acetyl-CoA Breakdown of triglycerides releases fatty acids Fatty acids must be converted to acetyl-CoA to be used as a fuel Activated fatty acid (fatty acyl-CoA) into acyl mitochondrion Fatty acid chopped into 2 carbon fragments forming acetyl-CoA Acetyl-CoA enters Krebs cycle and is used for energy Glycerol is not an important muscle fuel during exercise. Protein Broken down into amino acids Converted to glucose, pyruvic acid, acetyl-CoA, and Krebs cycle intermediates CO-ENZYMES Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) Hydrogen and Electron Carrier Molecules One NADH yields 3 ATP molecules, equivalent to 21.9 kcal. Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

One NADH yields 2 ATP molecules, equivalent to 14.6 kcal. NAD + 2H+ NADH + H+ FAD + 2H+ F1DH2

Adonosin diphosphate (ADP) -Provide energy for the conversion of ADP to ATP which is indirectly accomplished. -During phosphorlisation ADP combines with inorganic phosphate (Pi) to form ATP. ADP + Pi ATP

One mole of ATP has energy yield of 7.3 kcal.

Relationship Between the Metabolism of Proteins, Fats, and Carbohydrates.