CONTROL VALVES Nomenclature Flow Capacity: The valve sizing coefficient most commonly used as a measure of the capacity

of body and trim of a control valve is Cv. Cv is defined as one U.S gallon per minute of 60OF of water that flows through a valve with a one PSI pressure drop. The general equation is Specific gravity at flowing temperature Cv = Flow ----------------------------------------------Pressure drop As a normal practice the calculated Cv is used to determine the valve size and the trim sizes and the manufacture has to select the Cv in such a way that the minimum and maximum operation of the process will be able to achieve by opening 20% to 80%. Pressure profile : - The control valve acts as a restriction in the flow stream. As the fluid stream approaches this restriction, its velocity increases in order for the full flow to pass through the restriction. Energy for this increase in velocity comes from a corresponding decrease in pressure. Maximum velocity and minimum pressure occur immediately downstream from the throttling point at the narrowest constriction from the fluid stream, known as vena contracta. Down stream from the vena contracta, the fluid slows and part of the energy (in the form of velocity) is converted back to pressure. The slight pressure losses between inlet and outlet are due to frictional effects. P1 (inlet pressure) Dp (valve pressure drop) P2 (outlet pressure) PRESSURE PROFILE of fluid Passing through a Valve

---------------------------------- Pv (vapor pressure) Pvc (Pressure at vena Contracta)

Allowable Pressure Drop From the definition of Cv it is clear that as the Dp (pressure drop) increases for a given Cv there should be an increase in flow. This occurs up to a point after which increase in Dp will not yield an increase in flow. This point is the chocked flow.

Flow rate Dp choked pressure drop

In liquids when the pressure at any point in the valve drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid the vapor bubbles form. These bubbles occupy more volume than the liquid from which they are formed. As further increase in pressure drop, the proportion of bubbles to liquid increases until the volume of the flow is so great that the valve can not pass additional flow. The pressure drop at this point is the chocked flow. In gases as the down stream pressure decreases (consequently increasing the pressure drop), the velocity of the gas across vena contracta increases due to the increasing volume of the gas. When the velocity reaches sonic (Mach=1), any further increase in pressure drop will not result in additional flow. The pressure drop corresponds to sonic velocity condition across the vena contracta is the chocked pressure drop. When sizing a control valve the smaller of the actual pressure drop or the chocked pressure drop is always used to determine the correct Cv. This pressure drop is the allowable pressure drop. Cavitations In liquids when the pressure at the vena contracta drops below the vapor pressure of the fluid, vapor bubbles begin to form in the fluid stream. Down stream from the vena contracta, the fluid decelerates with a resultant increase in pressure. If this pressure is higher than the vapor pressure, the bubble collapse (or implodes) as the vapor returns to the liquid phase. This two step mechanism called cavitations produces noise, vibration and physical damage to the valve and down stream piping. The onset of cavitations known as the incipient cavitations is the point when the bubbles first begin to form and collapse. The point at which the chocked pressure cavitations occurs (severe damage, vibration and noise) is at the chocked pressure drop. Flashing If the down stream pressure is equal to or less than the vapor pressure, the vapor bubbles created at the vena contracta do not collapse, resulting in liquid gas mixture down stream of the valve, this is commonly called flashing. Velocity of this two phase flow is very high resulting in the possibility for the erosion of the valve and the piping components. Velocity As a general rule the valve outlet velocity should be limited to the following maximum values. Liquids : - 50 feet per second Gases : - Approaching Mach 1.0 Mixed gases and liquids : - 500 feet per second. In general smaller sized valves handle slightly higher velocities and larger valves handle lower velocities. Liquid applications where the fluid temperature is close to the saturation point should be limited to 30feet per second to avoid reducing the fluid pressure below the vapor pressure.

Valves in cavitating service should be limited to 30 feet per second. To minimize damage to the downstream piping. In flashing services the velocities to be below 500 feet per second. Erosion damage can be limited by using chrome molybdenum body material and stellite overlayed trim. Sizing Cv for liquids q Gf Cv = ---------Fp Fr dPa q :- flow rate in gallons per minute Fp : - Piping geometry factor Fr : - Reynolds number factor Pa : - Allowable pr.drop across the valve in psi Gf : - specific gravity at flowing temperature. Piping geometry factor (Fp) Valve sizing coefficients are determined from tests run with the valve mounted in a straight run of pipe which is the same diameter as the valve body. If the process piping configurations are different from the standard test manifold, the valve capacity is changed. The effect of reducers and expanders can be approximated by the use of the piping geometry factor, Fp. Reynolds number factor (Fr) Fr is used to correct the calculated Cv for non turbulent flow conditions due to high viscosity fluids, very low velocities, or very small valve Cvs. Sizing Cv for Gases Because of compressibility, gases and vapors expand as the pressure drops at the vena contracta, decreasing their specific weight. To account for the change in specific weight, an expansion factor, Y, is introduced into the valve sizing formula. x Q = 7320 Fp Cv P1 Y ------MT1Z Fp = piping geometry factor P1 = Inlet pressure in absolute Y =Expansion factor x =ratio of actual pressure drop to absolute inlet pressure (Dp / P1) M = molecular weight T1 = Absolute upstream pressure in degrees R (degree F + 460) Z = Compressibility factor Q = Gas flow in SCFH (standard cubic feet per hour) Body materials The control valve user normally specifies the body material. Which is often the same material as the pipe. The most common choices of body material are carbon steel, chrome molybdenum steel and stainless steel.

Carbon steel is the most commonly used for bodies. It handles most non corrosive liquids and gases up to 800oF for continuous service or to 1000oF for occasional service. Carbon steel can be used for most condensate and steam services. Chrome moly steel is used for higher temperatures and pressures than carbon steel, including such services as high pressure steam or flashing condensate which requires corrosion and erosion resistance. This is stronger than carbon steel and in some cases is as strong as stainless steel. It costs less than SS but not as corrosion resistance. SS is specific for higher temperature services (1000oC and above) or in corrosive application. Special alloys such as HastalloyB or C, monel, nickel and titanium are also available. The valve body can be cast, forged, wrought or fabricated. Castings are the first choices in standard sizes and ratings. Forgings are used for smaller sized bodies (generally these are high pressure ratings). Barstock are recommended when the delivery is critical and a casting or forging is not available. Fabricated type is a convenient way to manufacture large angle valves. Bonnets are manufactured from barstock of the same material as the body. Exception is the smaller low pressure chrome moly valves where SS bonnet is the standard. Gaskets Gaskets are used to prevent leakage around the seat ring, bonnet or pressure balanced sleeve. Teflon gaskets This is the first economical choice as far as possible with the pressure and temperature limits. 6000 5000 4000 Pressure (psi) 3000 2000 1000 0 -200 Kel-F Gaskets 0 200 Temperature (oF) 400 Reinforced TFE Virgin TFE

Flat Kel-F gaskets are used primarily for cryogenic services. The temperature range for Kel-F is 423 to 350oF. Spiral Wound Gaskets This consists of alternate layers of metal and non metallic materials wound together. AFG is a non asbestos filler material for standard spiral wound gaskets and may be directly substituted for asbestos material in most applications. This can be used in steam services up to 1000deg F and in air at 1500degF. Gasket type 304SS/Asbestos 316SS/ Asbestos 316SS/ Grafoil Temperature limit -20 to 750oF -20 1000oF -320 1000oF Pressure limit ANSI 2500 to ANSI 2500 to ANSI 2500 Remarks

Inconel/ grafoil

-20 1500oF

class Valves through 8 in carbon steel and chrome moly. class SS, carbon and chrome moly valves sizes 10 and above class High pressure, high temperature severe service applications up to 1000oFespecially severe service valves to At a full pr. Used for high temp. rating Applications- 1000oF above, or where inconel is preferred over 316SS for that particular fluid.

Unbalanced and pressure balanced trim Valtek offers 3 unbalanced trim designs 1) standard full area trim which provides maximum Cv with a removable seat ring 2) reduced trim which provides a lower Cv in a wide variety of sizes or when larger bodies are required. 3) Integral seat trim which utilizes the seat machined into the body and an oversized plug to provide additional Cv beyond the capabilities of standard full area and reduced area trim designs. Unbalanced trim design generally requires that the direction of flow should assist the motion of failure, for ex. Flow over or fail closed and flow under for fail open. The force required to fail open or closed is a function of the off balanced area. This area is equal to the seat area in fail open applications and the seat area minus the stem area in fail closed applications. Pressure balanced trim For high pressure drop applications, pressure balanced trim may be required to reduce the thrust necessary to stroke the plug by reducing the trims off balance area. However with high thrust cylinder actuators, pressure balanced trim may not be required. Often when tight shut off is required an oversized cylinder actuator may be the most economical choice...

Because the pressure balanced plug fits closely to the sleeve the trim should be used in relatively clean services. As a standard, pressure balanced trim is designed to classII shut off. Flow direction is under the plug for fail closed applications and over the plug for fail open applications. Allowing the fluid pressure to act on both sides of the plug results in a net force equal to the pressure times the off balance area. This balancing force is made possible by transfer holes in the plug. Leakage past the plug is prevented by a seal around the top of the plug head. Flow characteristics Flow characteristics are the relationship between flow coefficient and the valve stroke. Many valve types such as butterfly, eccentric disk and ball valves have inherent characteristics which can not be changed (except with characterizable positioner cams). Flow characteristics of globe valves can be determined by the shape of the plug head. The 3 most common types of flow characteristics are quick opening, equal percentage and linear. These characteristics can be approximated by contouring the plug. However in as much as there is body effects and other uncontrollable factors, plus the need for maximizing the flow capacity for a particular valve, the real curves often deviate considerably from these ideals. When a constant pressure drop is maintained across the valve, the characteristics of the valve alone controls the flow, this characteristic is the inherent flow characteristics. But in stalled characteristics include both the valve and pipeline effects. 100 80 Quick open 60 Flow, % 40 20 0 20 Equal % 40 60 80 Valve lift, % 100 linear

Equal Percentage This is the characteristics most commonly used in process control. The change in flow per unit of valve stroke is directly proportional to the flow occurring just before the change is made. While the flow characteristics may be equal%, most control loops will produce an installed characteristic approaching linear when the overall system pressure drop is large relative to that across the valve. (Such is the case in the majority of applications)

Linear An inherently linear characteristic produces equal changes in flow per unit of valve stroke regardless of plug position. Linear plugs are used on those systems where the valve pressure drop is a major portion of the total system pressure drop and the inlet pressure is constant. Quick open Quick open plugs are used for on/off applications designed to produce maximum flow quickly. Trim design The design concepts relative to valve trim that affect not only the characteristic curve but also how the valve responds to erosion, cavitations, vibration, high pressure drop and other similar problems. Guides Proper operation of control valves depends on a positive relation between the valve plug and seat. Accurate guiding is accomplished by Top guiding The plug is aligned by a guide bushing in the bonnet or body. Top and bottom guiding Aligned by the guide bushing in the bonnet and the bottom flange. Port guiding Plug is aligned in the body port or ports only. Top and port guiding Aligned in the bonnet and the port. Stem guiding Plug is aligned by guide bushing acting on the valve plug stem. Cage To help problems associated with high pressure drops and their attendant and noise problems, various designs of cage trim have been developed. Cage trim valves provide higher capacity for the same size valve body than other globe valves making them economically attractive. This acts as an excellent guide for the plug. The cage results in longer trim life under high pressure drops. Bonnet assembly This is the part through which the valve plug stem moves and is the means for sealing against leakage along the stem.

Bolted flange bonnet with a standard packing box is used for temperature from 0o to 450o F. Extension bonnet For cryogenic or low temperature services, the packing box is kept at reasonable temperature by extension bonnets. The bonnet may be cast or fabricated; they may be insulated if necessary. Finned Bonnet In services with higher temperature requirements high temperature packings or finned bonnets are used to provide a large heat radiating area. Bellows seal This type of bonnet assembly is used on applications where no leakage along the stem can be tolerated. These are used on installations where the process fluid is pyrophoric, toxic, explosive, highly expensive or difficult to contain such as hydrogen gas. Two types of pack less sealing are made, one in which process fluid is sealed inside the bellows and one in which fluid is sealed outside the bellows. Trim Materials Hardened trim is considered for all chocked flow conditions or for temperatures above 600oF. Generally SS 316 is used as standard. Hardened trim is used to protect against erosion and/or corrosion. The hardened surface may include the seat surface of the plug and seat ring, the full seat ring bore, the full contour of the plug or the lower guide area of the plug stem. Stellite is commonly used which has good relative hardness and corrosion resistance. For corrosion resistance special alloys such as Alloy 20, Hastalloy C and monel are also available. Aside from corrosion, the main factors that cause wear in valve trim are the conditions of the process fluid. Gas versus liquid Velocity and pressure differential Temperature Flashing Presence of abrasive solids Gas versus Liquids Clean gases even at high velocities are not usually a source of trim erosion. However entrained solids or liquid droplets in high velocity gas can wear the trim rapidly. Depending on the fluids composition, liquids at high velocity can produce accelerated erosion. For ex. At high velocities water can cause more damage than lubricating oil. With liquids another harmful effect is cavitations which can erode most trim material even hardened trim. Liquid application valves require hardened trim more often than gas application valves.

Velocity and pressure differential Erosion caused by flowing fluid is a function of the velocity of the fluid. Velocity is depending on flow rate and area. In order to have a large flow rate through a relatively small area, large differential pressures are required. Therefore hardened trim selection becomes a function of differential pressure. Temperature As temperature increases, many trim materials susceptible to erosion because of the general deterioration of their mechanical properties. Therefore the selection of the hardened trim must be compatible with high temperature conditions. For ex., hardened 440C would not be recommended for services above 800oF, where as stellite can be used up to 1500oF. At the same time at the other end of the temperature scale- such as cryogenic most hardened materials become excessively brittle and 316SS becomes relatively hard. When ever the temperature exceeds 550oF, seating surfaces should be hardened. The plug stem and bushings should be hardened above 600oF regardless of the pressure differentials. Corrosion The erosion and abrasion of valve and trim is aggravated by the corrosive effect of the process fluid. Types of hardened Trim This covers Stainless steel hard faced with stellite. Flame sprayed with tungsten carbide or aluminium oxides. Hard materials such as wrought stellite 6B or the various sintered metal carbides and oxides Materials hardened by heat treatment such as 416, 17-4pH, 440C, or 329SS or K Monel K500. Soft and metal seats A soft seat is used in applications requiring ANSI class VI bubble tight shut off. Its design consists of an elastomer insert sandwiched between a metal seat ring and retainer. Class IV is the industry standard for metal seated valves. Class V versus Class VI Due to the common belief that Class VI shut off is more stringent than Class V under all circumstances, the following should be noted. Class V allowable leakage is defined as 0.0005cc per minute per inch of orifice diameter per psi differential. Therefore allowable leakage increases with orifice diameter and differential pressure.

Class VI allowable leakage is independent of pressure differential and is only a function of orifice diameter. For large orifice diameter or small pressure drops, Class VI shut off may be less stringent than Class V. This shows that Class VI shut off can be obtained with metal seats. It is not true that class VI shut off can not be obtained in high temperature services simply because a soft seat can not be used. Keep in mind that seat loading must be increased to 250 to 400lbs. per linear inch of seating force to obtain class VI shut off.

ANSI B16.104 Seat Leakage Classifications ANSI B16.104

Leakage Class I 45-60psig or max. Air or water Operating at 50-125F differential, (10-52C) whichever is lower. As above As above As above As above Max. Service pressure drop across valve plug, not to exceed ANSI body rating. (100 psi pressure drop minimum.) Maximum Leakage Allowable Test Medium Test Pressures Testing Procedures Required for Establishing Rating No test required provided user and supplier agree. Pressure applied to valve inlet, with outlet open to atmosphere or connected to a low head loss measuring device, full normal closing thrust provided by actuator. As above As above

II

0.5% of rated capacity 0.1% rate of capacity 0.01% of rated capacity

III IV

VI

Pressure applied to valve inlet after filling entire body cavity and 0.0005 ml per connected piping with water and minute of water Water at stroking valve plug closed. Use net per inch of port 50-125F specified max. Actuator thrust, but diameter per psi (10-52C) no more, even if available during differential test. Allow time for leakage flow to stabilize. Actuator should be adjusted to Not to exceed 50 psig or maximum Air or operating conditions specified with amounts shown rated differential nitrogen at full normal closing thrust applied to in following pressure across valve 50-125F valve plug seat. Allow time for table based on plug, whichever is (10-52C) leakage flow to stabilize and use port diameter. lower. suitable measuring device.

ANSI B16.104 Class VI Seat Leakage Allowable

Nominal Port Diameter Leak Rate Inches Millimeters ml Per Minute Bubbles per minute* 1 25 0.15 1 1 1/2 38 0.30 2 2 51 0.45 3 2 1/2 64 0.60 4 3 76 0.90 6 4 102 1.70 11 6 152 4.00 27 8 203 6.75 45 *Bubbles per minute are an easily measured alternative based on a suitable measuring device such as 1/4" O.D. x 0.032" wall tube submerged in water to a depth of 1/8" to 1/4". The tube end shall be cut square and smooth with no chamfers or burrs and the tube axis shall be perpendicular to the surface of the water. Other apparatus may be constructed and the number of bubbles per minute may vary from these shown, as long as the correctly indicated the flow in ml per minute.

Resilient Seated Butterfly Valve Bubble-Tight Shut Off Class B

Maximum Leakage Allowable Test Medium Air over water on underside of disc and water on disc topside or water on underside of disc; room temperature. Test Pressures Testing Procedures Required

None

Valve disc to be closed shut. Pressure applied to valve inlet after filling cavity of 110% of valve underside of disc with water or air over rated shut-off water. Hold pressure at test parameter for pressure. one minute and observe for any water leakage or air bubbles if air or water test.

Valve Selection Fundamentally there are only 2 known ways of controlling the flow of liquids and gases, and all valves are in essence are based on one or the other types illustrated below... Obturating Rotating Sliding

squeezing

This illustrates a simple tank with liquid flowing from an outlet near the bottom. To stop or control the flow one can either place a finger against the pipe end (Dutch boy) or

alternatively if the pipe is flexible, it can be squeezed. These are the basic principles on which valves are constructed. The first principle is developed in 3 ways. Moving the stopper by direct thrust on to the orifice seating. This obturating movement is the basis of globe type valves. Rotating the stopper. This is the basis of plug type valves. Sliding the stopper across the face of the orifice seating. This is the basis of gate type valves. The second type, squeezing action is the basis of all diaphragm type valves. Each of the 4 valve motivations- obturating, rotating, sliding and squeezing has its own advantages and disadvantages. An appraisal of the 4 basic types is given below. Principle Type Advantages Disadvantages

Obturating Globe

Rotating

Conical (plug) Ball (plug) Butterfly (plug)

Rotating

Rotating

Sliding

Gate

Best shut off High head loss Good regulating characteristics Quick acting Temperature limitation on Straight through flow PTFE sleeved valves Need for attention to lubricate in lubricated valve Quick acting Temperature limited by Straight through flow seating material Easy operation Quick acting Metal to metal seated type Good regulating does not give tight shut off characteristics Temperature limited by Compact seating material on resilient seated type. Straight through flow Slow acting Bulky Glandless Pressure and Positive shut off on dirty limited by fluids material. temperature diaphragm

Squeezing

Diaphragm

Globe valve Here the direct thrust of the disk on to the seating provides the best form of shut off and regulating characteristics closure is positive and it is possible to feel when the valve is shut. The regulating characteristic is the relationship between movement of the valve hand wheel and the effect that this movement has on the amount of medium flowing through the valve.

The globe valve is the most suitable type for throttling, i.e. Fine regulation, because the wear and tear through erosion around the seating is more evenly distributed than in any other type of valve. A study of the other type shows that they all wear more at one point than another. Globe valves have reasonably short up and down movement of the disk, theoretically equal to a quarter of the seating diameter, and are not therefore big time wasters when being operated. The disadvantage is the internal shape of the body, in providing the under and over flow, the diversion from the straight line crates a loss of pressure. Due to this streamlined globe valves with its reduced pressure loss is introduced. The more the head loss through valves, bends, length of the pipe, the bigger the pump and the larger the power consumption. Plug valve Advantages of the plug valve are the straight through flow, hence minimum head loss and the quick action requiring only 90o (quarter turn) movement. The disadvantages are of 2 fold. One, its quick action can lead to water hammer in hydraulic installations when it is closed too rapidly. Secondly, it is difficult to combine tight shut off with ease of operation. The essential difference between the plug cock and the plug valve is that the latter incorporates the features to reduce the friction between the plug and the body during operation and to seal them against leakage. Probably the best known method, which has been used for many years, is to introduce a lubricant, specially formulated for the purpose, between the plug and the body. Such pressure lubricated valves are used for high pressure high temperature applications. Another method is to introduce a sleeve, usually of PTFE, between the plug and the body to avoid metal to metal contact. In these sleeved plug valves it is usual for the sleeve to be retained in the body and for the plug to rotate with in it. This method provides excellent shut off and is particularly suited to applications where alloy materials are needed. The temperature limitations to be considered. A derivative of the plug cock is the ball valve. The advantages and disadvantages are the same as sleeved valves, as it is also employed seatings of PTFE. It tends to require less torque than the sleeved plug valve, but its sealing security in severe applications tends to be less over a period of service. An even further development of the plug valve is the butterfly valve. A compact, quick acting and easy to operate which is well suited to flow regulation. Also for tight shut off resilient seating which is temperature limited to be used. Also as the disk is in the flow path the disk to be more substantial for the higher pressures. The head loss may be 3 times that of a gate valve. Gate Valve

The main advantage is the straight through flow when it is fully opened and hence minimum resistance to flow. The disadvantage is that it is the slowest acting of all because the gate has to be moved greater than the bore of the valve also this valve is bulk in height. However it is relatively free from mechanical problems and hence the number one choice for the hydraulic service. Diaphragm valves This valve has 2 advantages. One no separate stem gland is necessary as the diaphragm shuts of the flow as well as acts as a gland. Also the flexibility of the diaphragm provides a positive shut off even on dirty fluids. The main disadvantages are, the diaphragm has to be made from an elastomer, usually either natural or synthetic rubber, and this limits its application in respect to both temperature and pressure. Also because of the stresses induced in the diaphragm the valve has a shorter working life than other valve types. Approaching the problem of valve selection we need first to know about the flow resistance of the various types of valves. Normally a liquid or gas offers some resistance to flow. With a length of straight pipe, the resistance is caused by boundary friction between the internal surface of the pipe and the medium passing through it. When a valve is inserted into a pipe line it adds its own resistance to flow. With a plug or gate valve as the flow is straight through the resistance is less, but in a globe valve the flow can be deflected through as many as 3 right angles, the resistance is high. Resistances to flow are found by experiment and are usually expressed in equivalent lengths of straight pipe. Within quite narrow limits a particular basic type of valve can be described as having a constant number of meters of straight pipe equivalent per millimeter of valve size. For a conventional globe valve this is 0.4, means 25mm globe valve is equal to 25*0.4=10meters of 25mm pipe. While the resistance of a 50mm globe valve is 50*0.4=20meters of 50mm pipe and so on. The resistance constants of the various valve types are shown below. 0.4- Globe (Conventional) 0.27 - Globe (stream lined) 0.16- Y Valve 0.16 - Angle valve 0.025- 0.04 - Butterfly 0.025 - Plug Valve 0.1 - Gate and Ball valve. It can be seen that the rotating and sliding valve offer almost no resistance. The obturating type varies quite appreciable from Y-Valve, which is a globe valve with the head work inclined at an angle to the pipe, at 0.16m per mm, to the conventional globe type at 0.4m per mm size.

With the basic theory, the 4 valve types, their individual advantages and disadvantages and resistance to flow, the first requirement is to establish precisely duty of the particular valve to perform. This can be done by providing answers to the 3 questions. Is the valve for use on a gas, including steam and air, or a liquid? When conveying liquids, head losses are far more important than when conveying gases. Hence for a liquid, a straight through type with minimum head loss should be used. With gas this is not so important. Is the valve to be used often? If the valve to be used frequently, the time taken in opening and closing could be considered. For frequent use, quick acting plug type should be chosen, with the obturating type as the second choice and the sliding type avoided. Is the valve to be used as on/off or regulating? Obturating type is the most suitable for throttling or regulation. All valves should off course, unless otherwise qualified be capable of isolation. Obviously the 3 questions can cause conflicting answers in choosing the ideal valve and hence to be compromised. The following diagram is an attempt to give the best compromise solution. Regulate Isolate OBTURATING OBTURA Gas Frequently ROTATING SLIDING Liquid APPLICATION DIAGRAM Order of determination 1. gas or liquid 2. operated frequently or infrequently 3. regulate or isolate The chart is used in the order of answering the questions connecting gas or liquid too frequently or infrequently and then dropping a perpendicular from either regulate or isolate. The point of intersection gives the best overall choice; the one nearer to the point of intersection would be the second choice.

Infrequently

In this example, a valve for liquid (used frequently for isolation), a rotating type of valve to be chosen as this gives straight through flow and the quick action needed for frequent use. If however a rotating type to meet either pressure or temperature conditions can not be obtained then the second choice would be the obturating type, because for a valve to be fully opened and closed frequently, more emphasis would be given to the time required to operate the valve than the straight through flow characteristics of the slow acting sliding through valves. It is interesting to note that there are 8 possible answers to 3 questions and hence 8 different types of valving conditions. Obturating and sliding provides 2 of this each, while rotating provides other 4 sets of conditions. This probably explains the increasing popularity of sleeved plug valves, ball valves and butterfly valves. After selecting from the diagram it is necessary to qualify for this choice according to working pressure, temperature and in case of obturating type the allowable pressure loss. Obtuarating (Globe) valves These are available in all materials and all types of seating designs to fill every possible role. The only factor to consider is the resistance to flow. Decide between conventional globe, streamlined globe, and Y valve on the basis of flow resistance. Rotating (Plug) valves The ordinary pattern is suitable for infrequent use on gas and water, while the lubricated type is preferable for larger sizes and higher pressures. The sleeved plug valves and ball valves are more suitable for frequent use. Sliding (gate) valves This is the number one choice for hydraulic applications where used infrequently, but should not be too infrequent. Gate valves benefit from being used occasionally, as this helps to prevent build up of sediment on the seat faces which, when the valve is open, are exposed to the flowing medium. Many seating variations are available. Ex. PTFE inserts for tight shut off on gas and low surface tension fluids. The butterfly can be considered as an alternate to gate valve, especially as size increases, since it requires much less head room for installation. The disk of a butterfly simply rotates with in its own bore and is quicker in operation and more suited to regulation than the gate valve. The parallel slide valve is best suited where stresses are caused by pipe expansion and contraction. For example on steam and high pressure hot water heating circuits. The essential difference between the parallel slide valve and the wedge gate valve is that as the names imply the gate in the parallel slide valve has faces which are parallel and in opening slide across the parallel seating in the body of the valve. The wedge gate valve or

sluice valve has a tapered wedge which mates by a wedging action with similarly tapered seats in the valve body.

FINAL SELECTION Obturating globe Decide between conventional globe, streamlined globe and Y valves valve on the basis of flow resistance. Rotating plug Ordinary type for infrequent use on gas and water with lubricated valves type for larger sizes and higher pressures. Sleeved plug and ball valves for frequent use. Sliding gate No.1 choice for hydraulic service with infrequent use. valves Butterfly can be considered as alternative as size increases requiring less head room and giving better regulation. Valve rangeability Maximum controllable flow/ minimum controllable flow. Type Globe Throttling Ball valves Std. Butterfly valve Pinch and Diaphragm valve Range ability 30:1 to 50:1 100:1 10:1 to 20:1 as low as 5:1

Operating range ability Ro = (q1/ q2) dP2 / dP1 q1 initial Flow q2 Final Flow dP1 & dP2 Initial and final pr.drop across the valve. Body Design Globe Valves Can be divided as single port, double port, while 3 way split body and angle valves are classified as special type globe valves. Single port valves Simple in construction Usually used in sizes 2 and below Tight shut off Wide range ability High unbalanced forces on the plug requiring large actuators.

Double port valves Generally higher flow capacities and require smaller stem forces compared to the same size single port valve. They are frequently specified for sizes larger than 2 Not to be used when leakage is objectionable 3 way valves Most of this type require the characteristics of unbalanced forces on the valve plug and require large actuators. They are usually installed with the flow tending to open the valve plug discs to prevent slamming of the valve plug. Balancing can be done with 4 seats i.e. Dual double seats in one body. Split Body This is a special type globe body with a seat ring clamped between them. This is applicable to single seated valves only. Its construction minimizes erosion effects Allows parts to be replaced easily Relatively inexpensive Angle valves Mainly single ported type Applicable to services requiring high pressure drops or where effects of turbulence, cavitations or impingement present problems. Have good control characteristics, high range ability, high pressure and temperature ratings Can be easily removed from line and can handle sludges and erosive materials. Venturi type flow angle body is good for flashing services, high pressure drop and erosive applications. Needle valves Barstock body design and forged bodies are for high pressure applications requiring small flows and high range abilities. Ball valves One type of ball valve employs a cage to carry a solid ball into the mouth of the body opening. This is used in paper and pulp industry. Self cleaning, tight shut off, wide range ability and accurate flow control are the characteristics. Hard to handle fluids such as paper sludge, polymer slurries and other fluids with entrained solids can be controlled by ball valves. These have high recovery (low pressure loss), good control characteristics and high range abilities. Butterfly valves High pressure drop, high static pressure and tight shut off types are available.

These are economical especially in larger sizes. The main disadvantage is the requirement of large operating torque. These are used between 10o and 60o range because torque conditions cause instability beyond this range. At 0o and 90o forces are balanced and in others it is unbalanced. Diaphragm type valves (Saunders type valves) This consists of a body, bonnet and flexible diaphragm. Closure is made by forcing a flexible dome like diaphragm against a weir. Well suited for slurries and viscous fluids, have high capacity. This shows poor control characteristics and low turn down ratio. Pinch Valves For heavy slurries such as metallic ores, fibers, sand, coal, pulp & paper stock chemicals. They are made of a sleeve molded of rubber or synthetic material, with flanged or clamped ends for pipe connections and for a pinching mechanism for control. Air or hydraulic pressure is applied to the sleeve for closure. These are inexpensive, high capacities but poor control characteristics and low range abilities. Drag Valves This utilizes a patented multiple disc technique which divides the incoming flow into a series of smaller streams with tortuous flow paths. The paths are engineered to maintain the fluid velocity through the valve at or near line velocity. Control is obtained by positioning the plug inside the stack of discs to change the flow area. The valve was developed for difficult control applications, such as high pr. Drops, high temperature and pressure, flashing service and erosive applications. This reduces noise inherent in its design. It is more expensive than a standard valve. PRESSURE CONTROL- REDUCING AND RETAINING VALVE Pressure reducing valve This is installed where it is required to reduce from one level of pressure to another and to maintain the reduced pressure on the down stream side with in limits, irrespective of fluctuations in the inlet pressure or change in flow demand. The valve is automatic in operation. Pressure retaining valves Also known as surplus valve and used to maintain a level of pressure in the line upstream of the valve, the valve opening with rising upstream pressure. It is a reverse acting version of the pressure reducing valve. Types Self operated pressure reducing or retaining valves fall into two main categories, direct acting and pilot operated.

Direct acting valve The controlled pressure acts directly through a diaphragm, piston or bellows, on an imposing force from a compressed helical spring, weight or weighted lever or from compressed air. Although the pressure controlled is not so accurate with pilot operated valves they are less costly. Pilot operated valves The main is assisted or completely controlled by the operation of a pilot valve which may be itself a direct acting reducing valve. The pilot valve acts so as to regulate the amount of opening of the main valve in a way that will maintain the flow at the desired level of pressure. These will provide very close accuracy of pressure control, compact in design and smaller than direct acting valves for the same service. Because of the complex design pilot operated valves require regular maintenance and clean working conditions, later being ensured by fitting a strainer. Valves may be of single seat design if tight shut off is required. Double seated can be preferred if leakage is acceptable, because this improves the maximum flow range and accuracy of pressure control. Safety, Relief and Safety relief valve Safety valve A valve which automatically discharges steam, gases or vapors so as to prevent a predetermined safe pressure being exceeded, such valves have a rapid opening action (pop action) and obtained their rated discharge capacity with a rise in pressure of 10% or less. Relief valves A valve which automatically discharges liquid so as to prevent a predetermined safe pressure being exceeded. The term is commonly used for pressure relieving valves in which the lift is proportional to the increase in pressure above the set pressure. Safety relief valves A valve, which depending upon its application automatically discharges gases, vapors or liquids so as to prevent a predetermined safe pressure being exceeded. Safety or relief valves should be used on any closed vessel or system in which the pressure can be other than atmospheric and where any circum stances the design pressure of the system can be exceeded. In any process, imbalance in rates of fluid flow or energy transfer into or out of process equipment may result in the pressure exceeding the operating pressure. If for these or other reasons, pressure exceeds prescribed limits it must be relieved by a safety or relief valve.

Basic classes There are mainly 3 basic classes of safety or relief valves. Direct Pilot operated Supplementary loading Direct acting The direct acting valve is the simplest and most commonly used class because it is suitable for most applications. The load is usually applied to such valves by means of helical coil compression springs, although other means of loading are sometimes used such as weights. Pilot Operated Valve The most common type comprises a main valve and a pilot valve through which the system pressure loads the main valve. When a pre determined pressure (set pressure) is reached the pilot valve, which is itself a safety or relief valve, relieves the pressure loading on the main valve and allows it to open. These are used when the increase in pressure to open the valve, and the fall in pressure to allow the valve to close, must be less than can be attained by the use of directing acting valves. Supplementary loading valve This is similar to direct acting valve, except that an additional load is applied from an external source. Electric and pneumatic supplementary loading systems are available. These are used where it is necessary for the system pressure to operate closer, to the relieving pressure of the valve than can be obtained with a direct acting valve, while retaining the fail safe feature of the latter. Capacity tanks Spring less pneumatic actuators may stay in the last position on air failure but will more likely to drift slowly to a closed or open position, depending on valve plug forces. When it is necessary to open or close a valve against line pressure a capacity tank is used. Stored air pressure on the cushion loading side of the piston provides positive valve opening or closing, regardless of the magnitude or direction of the forces involved when air supply failure occurs.

Control valve characteristic guidelines Liquid Level Control System Control valve pressure drop Constant delta pressure Decreasing delta pressure with increasing Load, delta pressure at maximum load > 20% of minimum load delta pressure. Decreasing delta pressure with increasing Load, delta pressure at maximum load < 20% of minimum load delta pressure. Increasing delta pressure with increasing Load, delta pressure at maximum load < 200% of minimum load delta pressure. Increasing delta pressure with increasing Load, delta pressure at maximum load > 200% of minimum load delta pressure. best inherent characteristic Linear Linear

Equal percentage

Linear Quick Opening

Source: Control engineering with data from Fisher Controls Flow Control Processes Best inherent characteristic Flow measurement Location of control wide range of small range of flow but Signal to controller valve in relation to flow set point large delta pressure change Is: measuring element is at valve with increasing Load Proportional to flow in series In bypass * Proportional to flow Squared in series In bypass * linear Linear linear Equal Percentage equal percentage equal percentage equal percentage equal percentage

* When control valve closes, flow rate increases in measuring element.

Source: Pressure Control System Application Liquid process Gas process, small volume, less than 10 ft (3 m) of pipe between control valve and Load. Gas process, large volume [process has a Receiver, distribution system, or Transmission line exceeding 100 ft (30.5 m) Of nominal pipe volume], decreasing delta Pressure with increasing load, delta Pressure at maximum load >20% of Minimum load delta pressure. Gas process, large volume, decreasing Delta pressure with increasing load, delta Pressure at maximum load <20% of Minimum load delta pressure. Best inherent characteristic Equal percentage

Equal percentage

Linear

Equal percentage