Chng 2

L thuyt shannon
Nm 1949, Claude shannon cng b mt bi bo c nhan " L thuyt thng tin trong cc h mt" trn tp ch " The Bell System Technical Journal". Bi bo c nh hng ln n vic nghin cu khoa hc mt m. Trong chng ny ta s tho lun mt vi tng trong l thuyt ca Shannan.

2.1 mt hon thin.

C hai quan im c bn v an ton ca mt h mt. an ton tnh ton: o ny lin quan n nhng n lc tnh ton cn thit ph mt h mt. Mt h mt l an ton v mt tnh ton nu c mt thut ton tt nht ph n cn t nht N php ton, N l s rt ln no . Vn l ch, khng c mt h mt thc t bit no c th c chng t l an ton theo nh ngha ny. Trn thc t, ngi ta gi mt h mt l "an ton v mt tnh ton" nu c mt phng php tt nht ph h ny nhng yu cu thi gian ln n mc khng chp nhn c.(iu ny tt nhin l rt khc vi vic chng minh v an ton). Mt quan im chng minh v an ton tnh ton l quy an ton ca mt h mt v mt bi ton c nghin cu k v bi ton ny c coi l kh. V d, ta c th chng minh mt khng nh c dng " Mt h mt cho l an ton nu khng th phn tch ra tha s mt s nguyn n cho trc". Cc h mt loi ny i khi gi l " an ton chng minh c". Tuy nhin cn phi hiu rng, quan im ny ch cung cp mt chng minh v an ton c lin quan mt bi ton khc ch khng phi l mt chng minh hon chnh v an ton. ( Tnh hnh ny cng tng t nh vic chng minh mt bi ton l NP y : C th

chng t bi ton cho ch t cng kh nh mt bi ton NP y khc , song khng phi l mt chng minh hon chnh v kh tnh ton ca bi ton). an ton khng iu kin. o ny lin quan n an ton ca cc h mt khi khng c mt hn ch no c t ra v khi lng tnh ton m Oscar c php thc hin. Mt h mt c gi l an ton khng iu kin nu n khng th b ph thm ch vi kh nng tnh ton khng hn ch. Khi tho lun v an ton ca mt mt, ta cng phi ch ra kiu tn cng ang c xem xt. Trong chng 1 cho thy rng, khng mt h mt no trong cc h m dch vng, m thay th v m Vigenre c coi l an ton v mt tnh ton vi phng php tn cng ch vi bn m ( Vi khi lng bn m thch hp). iu ny m ta s lm trong phn ny l pht trin l thuyt v cc h mt c an ton khng iu kin vi phng php tn cng ch vi bn m. Nhn thy rng, c ba h mt nu trn u l cc h mt an ton v iu kin ch khi mi pkn t ca bn r c m ho bng mt kho cho trc!. R rng l an ton khng iu kin ca mt h mt khng th c nghin cu theo quan im phc tp tnh ton v thi gian tnh ton cho php khng hn ch. y l thuyt xc sut l nn tng thch hp nghin cu v an ton khng iu kin. Tuy nhin ta ch cn mt s kin thc s ng trong xc sut; cc nh ngha chnh s c nu di y. nh ngha 2.1. Gi s X v Y l cc bin ngu nhin. K hiu xc sut X nhn gi tr x l p(x) v Y nhn gi tr y l p(y). Xc sut ng thi p(x,y) l xc sut X nhn gi tr x v Y nhn gi tr y. Xc sut c iu kin p(x | y) l xc sut X nhn gi tr vi iu kin Y nhn gi tr y. Cc bin

ngu nhin X v Y c gi l c lp nu p(x,y) = p(x) p(y) vi mi gi tr c th x ca X v y ca Y. Quan h gia xc sut ng thi v xc sut c iu kin c biu th theo cng thc: p(x,y) = p(x | y) p(y) i ch x v y ta c : p(x,y) = p(y | x) p(x) T hai biu thc trn ta c th rt ra kt qu sau:(c gi l nh l Bayes) nh l 2.1: (nh l Bayes). Nu p(y) > 0 th: H qu 2.2. X v Y l cc bin c lp khi v ch khi: p(x) p(y | x) | y) = p(x) vi mi x,y. p(x | p(x y) = p(y) Trong phn ny ta gi s rng, mt kho c th ch dng cho mt bn m. Gi s c mt phn b xc sut trn khng gian bn r P. K hiu xc sut tin nghim bn r xut hin l pP (x). Cng gi s rng, kha K c chn ( bi Alice v Bob ) theo mt phn b xc sut xc nh no . ( Thng thng kho c chn ngu nhin, bi vy tt c cc kho s ng kh nng, tuy nhin y khng phi l iu bt buc). K hiu xc sut kha K c chn l pK(K). Cn nh rng kha c chn trc khi Alice bit bn r. Bi vy c th gi nh rng kho K v bn r x l cc s kin clp. Hai phn b xc sut trn P v K s to ra mt phn b xc sut trn C. Tht vy, c th d dng tnh c xc sut pP(y) vi y l bn m c gi i. Vi mt kho K K, ta xc nh: C(K) = { eK (x) : x P } y C(K) biu th tp cc bn m c th K l kha. Khi vi mi y C, ta c : pC (y) = pK(K) pP(dK (y))
{K:yC(K)}

Nhn thy rng, vi bt k y C v x P, c th tnh c xc sut c iu kin pC(y | x).(Tc l xc sut y l bn m vi iu kin bn r l x): pC (y | x ) = pK(K)
{K:x= dK(y)}

By gi ta c th tnh c xc sut c iu kin pP (x | y ) ( tc xc sut x l bn r vi iu kin y l bn m) bng cch dng nh p l Bayes. (x) = Ta thu c cng thc sau: P Cc php tnh ny c th thc hin c nu bit c cc pK(K) phn b xc sut.
{K:x= dK(y)}

Sau y s trnh by mt v d n gin minh pK(K) pP(d ho vic tnh ton b xc sut ny. pP(y | x cc ) = phn K (y)) {k,U:yc(k)} V d 2.1. Gi s P = {a,b} vi pP(a) = 1/4, pP(b) = 3/4. Cho K = { K1, K2, K3} vi pK(K1) = 1/2, pK(K2) = pK(K3) = 1/4. Gi s C = {1,2,3,4} v cc hm m c xc nh l eK1(a) = 1, eK2(b) = 2, eK2(a) = 2, eK2(b) = 3, eK3(a) = 3, eK3(a) = 4. H mt ny c biu th bng ma trn m ho sau: a b K1 2 K2 3 K3 4 Tnh phn b xc sut pC ta c: pC (1) = 1/8 pC (2) = 3/8 + 1/16 = 7/16 pC (3) = 3/16 + 1/16 = 1/4 pC (4) = 3/16 By gi ta c th cc phn b xc sut c iu kin trn bn r vi iu kin bit bn m. Ta c : 2 2 1

pP(a | 1) = 1 pP(b | 1) = 0 pP(a | 2) = 1/7 pP(b | 2) = 6/7 pP(a | 3) = 1/4 pP(b | 3) = 3/4 pP(a | 4) = 0 pP(b | 4) =1 By gi ta c iu kin xc nh khi nim v mt hon thin. Mt cch khng hnh thc, mt hon thin c nghi l Oscar vi bn m trong tay khng th thu c thng tin g v bn r. tng ny s c lm chnh xc bng cch pht biu n theo cc thut ng ca cc phn b xc sut nh ngha trn nh sau: nh ngha 2.2. Mt h mt c mt hon thin nu pP(x | y) = pP(x) vi mi x P , y C . Tc xc sut hu nghm bn r l x vi iu kin thu c bn m y l ng nht vi xc sut tin nghim bn r l x. Trong v d 2.1 ch c bn m 3 mi tho mn tnh cht mt hon thin, cc bn m khc khng c tnh cht ny. Sau y s chng t rng, MDV c mt hon thin. V mt trc gic, iu ny dng nh qu hin nhin. Vi m dch vng, nu bit mt phn t bt k ca bn m y Z26, th mt phn t bt k ca bn r x Z26 cng c th l bn m gii ca y tu thuc vo gi tr ca kho. nh l sau cho mt khng nh hnh thc ho v c chng minh theo cc phn b xc sut. nh l 2.3. Gi s 26 kho trong MDV c xc sut nh nhau v bng1/26 khi MDV s c mt hon thin vi mi phn b xc sut ca bn r. Chng minh: Ta c P = C = K = Z26 v vi 0 K 25, quy tc m ho eKl eK(x) =x +K mod 26 (x 26). Trc tin tnh phn b PC . Gi s y Z26, khi : pC (y) = pK(K) pP(dK (y))
K Z26

= 1/26 pP(y -K) = 1/26 pP(y -K)

K Z26

Xt thy vi y c nh, cc gi tr y -K mod 26 s to thnh mt hon v ca Z26 v pP l mt phn b xc sut. Bi vy ta c: pP(y -K) = pP(y)
K Z26 y Z26

K Z26

Do vi bt k y Z26.

=1 pC (y) = 1/26

Tip theo ta c: pC (y|x) = pK(y -x mod 26) = 1/26 Vi mi x,y v vi mi cp x,y, kha duy nht K (kho m bo eK(x) = y ) l kho K = y-x mod 26. By gi s dng nh l Bayes, ta c th d dng tnh: pP(x) pC (y| pP(x|y) x) hon thin. Bi vy, MDV c mt pC (y) = Nh vy, m dch vng l h mt khng ph c min l pP(x) . ch dng mt kho ngu nhin m ho mi k t ca bn r. (1/26) = (1/26) Sau y s ngin cu mt hon thin trong trng hp chung. Trc tin thy rng,(s = pP(x) dng nh l Bayes) iu kin pP (x | y) = pP (x) vi mi xP , yP l tng ng vi pC (y | x) = pC (y) vi mi xP , yP . Gi s rng pC (y) > 0 vi mi yC (pC (y) = 0 th bn m s khng c dng v c th loi khi C ). C nh mt gi tr no xP. Vi mi yC ta c pC (y | x) = pC (y) > 0. Bi vy, vi mi yC phi c t nht mt kho K sao cho eK(x) = y. iu ny dn n | K | | C | . Trong mt h mt bt k ta phi c | C | | P | v mi quy tc m ho l mt n

nh. Trong trng hp gii hn, | K | = | C | = | P | , ta c nh l sau (Theo Shannon). nh l 2.4 Gi s (P,C, K, E, D) l mt h mt , trong | K | = | C | = | P | . Khi , h mt c mt hon thin khi v mi khi kho K c dng vi xc sut nh nhau bng 1/| K | , v mi x P,mi y C c mt kho duy nht K sao cho eK(x) = y. Chng minh Gi s h mt cho c mt hon thin. Nh thy trn, vi mi x P v y C , phi c t nht mt kho K sao cho eK(x) = y. Bi vy ta c bt ng thc: | C | = | {eK(x) :K C }| | K | Tuy nhin, ta gi s rng | C | = | K | . Bi vy ta phi c: | {eK(x) :K C }| = | K | Tc l y khng tn ti hai kho K1 v K2 khc nhau eK1(x) = eK2(x) = y. Nh vy ta chng t c rng, vi bt k x P v y C c ng mt kho K eK(x)=y. K hiu n = | K | . Gi s P = { xi: 1 i n } v c nh mt gi tr y C. Ta c th k hiu cc kho K1,K2,. . .,Kn sao cho eKi (xi ) = yi, 1 i n. S dng nh l Bayes ta c: pC(y| xi) pP pP(xi|y) Xt iu kin mt hon (xi) thin pP(xi|y) = pP (xi). iu = kin ny ko theo pK(Ki) = pC (y) vi 1 i n. Tc l kho pC (y) c dng vi xc sut nh nhau (chnh bng pC(y)). Tuy nhin v s kho l | K | nn ta c pK(K) =1/ | K | vi mi K K . pK(K1). (pP (xi)) gi nh u tho mn. Khi Ngc li, gi= s hai iu (y) d dng thy c h mt p c mt hon thin vi mi C phn b xc sut bt k ca bn r ( tng t nh chng minh nh l 2.3). Cc chi tit dnh cho bn c xem xt.

Mt m kho s dng mt ln ca Vernam (One-TimePad:OTP) l mt v d quen thuc v h mt c mt hon thin. Gillbert Verman ln u tin m t h mt ny vo nm 1917. H OTP dng m v gii m t ng cc bn tin in bo. iu th v l trong nhiu nm OTP c coi l mt h mt khng th b ph nhng khng th chng minh cho ti khi Shannon xy dng c khi nim v mt hon thin hn 30 nm sau . M t v h mt dng mt ln nu trn hnh 2.1. S dng nh l 2.4, d dng thy rng OTP c mt hon thin. H thng ny rt hp dn do d thc hin m v gii m. Vernam ng k pht minh ca mnh vi hy vng rng n s c ng dng thng mi rng ri. ng tic l c nhng nhng nhc im quan trng i vi cc h mt an ton khng iu kin, chng hn nh OTP. iu kin | K | | P | c ngha l lng kha (cn c thng bo mt cch b mt) cng ln nh bn r. V d , trong trng hp h OTP, ta cn n bit kho m ho n bit ca bn r. Vn ny s khng quan trng nu c th dng cng mt kho m ho cc bn tin khc nhau; tuy nhin, an ton ca cc h mt an ton khng iu kin li ph thuc vo mt thc t l mi kho ch c dng cho mt ln m. V d OTP khng th ng vng trc tn cng ch vi bn r bit v ta c th tnh c K bngf php hoc loi tr xu bt bt k x v eK(x). Bi vy, cn phi to mt kha mi v thng bo n trn mt knh bo mt i vi mi bn tin trc khi gi i. iu nyto ra kh khn cho vn qun l kho v gy hn ch cho vic s dng rng ri OTP. Tuy nhin OTP vn c p dng trong lnh vc qun s v ngoi giao, nhng lnh vc ny an ton khng iu kin c tm quan trng rt ln.

Hnh 2.1. H mt s dng kho mt ln (OTP) Gi s n 1 l s nguyn v P = C = K = (Z2)n. Vi K (Z2)n , ta xc nh eK(x) l tng vc t theo modulo 2 ca K v x (hay tng ng vi php hoc loi tr ca hai dy bit tng ng). Nh vy, nu x = (x1,..., xn ) v K = (K1,..., Kn ) th: eK(x) = (x1 + K1,..., xn + Kn) mod 2. Php m ho l ng nht vi php gii m. Nu y = (y1,..., yn ) th:

Lch s pht trin ca mt m hc l qu trnh c gng to cc h mt c th dng mt kho to mt xu bn m tng i di (tc c th dung mt kho m nhiu bn tin) nhng ch t vn cn d c an ton tnh ton. Chun m d liu (DES) l mt h mt thuc loi ny (ta s nghin cu vn ny trong chng 2).

2.2. ENTROPI
Trong phn trc ta tho lun v khi nim mt hon thin v t mi quan tm vo mt trng hp c bit, khi mt kho ch c dng cho mt ln m. By gi ta s xt iu s xy ra khi c nhiu bn r c m bng cng mt kho v bng cch no m thm m c th thc hin c kt qu php tn cng ch ch vi bn m trong thi gian ln. Cng c c bn trong nghin cu bi ton ny l khi nim entropi. y l khi nim trong l thuyt thng tin do Shannon u ra vo nm 1948. C th coi entropi l i lng o thng tin hay cn gi l bt nh. N c tnh nh mt hm phn b xc sut. Gi s ta c mt bin ngu nhin X nhn cc gi tr trn mt tp hu hn theo mt phn b xc sut p(X). Thng tin thu nhn c bi mt s kin xy ra tun theo mt phn

b p(X) l g?. Tng t, nu s kin cn cha xy ra th ci g l bt nh v kt qu?. i lng ny c gi l entropi ca X v c k hiu l H(X). Cc tng ny c v nh kh tru tng, bi vy ta s xt mt v d c th hn. Gi s bin ngu nhin X biu th php tung ng xu. Phn b xc sut l: p(mt xp) = p(mt nga) = 1/2. C th ni rng, thng tin (hay entropi) ca php tung ng xu l mt bit v ta c th m ho mt xp bng 1 v mt nga bng 0. Tng t entropi ca n php tung ng tin c th m ho bng mt xu bt c di n. Xt mt v d phc tp hn mt cht. Gi s ta c mt bin ngu nhin X c 3 gi tr c th l x1, x2, x3 vi xc sut tng ng bng 1/2, 1/4, 1/4. Cch m hiu qu nht ca 3 bin c ny l m ho x1 l 0, m ca x2 l 10 v m ca x3 l 11. Khi s bt trung bnh trong php m ho ny l: 1/2 1 +1/4 2 + 1/4 2 = 3/2. Cc v d trn cho thy rng, mt bin c xy ra vi xc sut 2-n c th m ho c bng mt xu bt c di n. Tng qut hn, c th coi rng, mt bin c xy ra vi xc sut p c th m ho bng mt xu bt c di xp x -log2 p. Nu cho trc phn b xc sut tu p1, p2,. . ., pn ca bin ngu nhin X, khi o thng tin l trng s trung bnh ca cc lng -log2pi. iu ny dn ti nh ngha hnh thc ho sau. nh ngha 2.3 Gi s X l mt bin ngu nhin ly cc gi tr trn mt tp hu hn theo phn b xc sut p(X). Khi entropy ca phn b xc sut ny c nh ngha l lng: H(X) = - pi log2 pi Nu cc gi tr c th ca X l xi ,1 i n th ta c: H(X) = - p(X=xi )log2 p(X= xi)
n i=1 n

i=1

Nhn xt Nhn thy rng, log2 pi khng xc nh nu pi =0. Bi vy i khi entropy c nh ngha l tng tng ng trn tt c cc xc sut khc 0. V limx0xlog2x = 0 nn trn thc t cng khng c tr ngi g nu cho pi = 0 vi gi tr i no . Tuy nhin ta s tun theo gi nh l khi tnh entropy ca mt phn b xc sut pi , tng trn s c ly trn cc ch s i sao cho pi 0. Ta cng thy rng vic chn c s ca logarit l tu ; c s ny khng nht thit phi l 2. Mt c s khc s ch lm thay i gi tr ca entropy i mt hng s. Ch rng, nu pi = 1/n vi 1 i n th H(X) = log2n. Cng d dng thy rng H(X) 0 v H(X) = 0 khi v ch khi pi = 1 vi mt gi tr i no v pj = 0 vi mi j i. Xt entropy ca cc thnh phn khc nhau ca mt h mt. Ta c th coi kho l mt bin ngu nhin K nhn cc gi tr tun theo phn b xc sut pK v bi vy c th tnh c H(K). Tng t ta c th tnh cc entropy H(P) v H(C) theo cc phn b xc sut tng ng ca bn m v bn r. V d 2.1: (tip) Ta c: H(P) = -1/4log21/4 - 3/4log23/4 = -1/4(-2) - 3/4(log23-2) =2 - 3/4log23 0,81

bng cc tnh ton tng t, ta c H(K) = 1,5 v H(C) 1,85. 2.2.1. M huffman v entropy Trong phn ny ta s tho lun s qua v quan h gia entropy v m Huffman. V cc kt qu trong phn ny khng lin quan n cc ng dng trong mt m ca entropy nn ta c th b qua m khng lm mt tnh lin tc. Tuy

nhin cc h qu y c th dng nghin cu su hn v khi nim entropy. trn a ra entropy trong bi cnh m ho cc bin c ngu nhin xy ra theo mt phn b xc sut nh. Trc tin ta chnh xc ho thm nhng tng ny. Cng nh trn, coi X l bin ngu nhin nhn cc gi tr trn mt tp hu hn v p(X) l phn b xc sut tng ng. Mt php m ho X l mt nh x bt k: f:X {0,1}* trong {0,1}* k hiu tp tt c cc xu hu hn cc s 0 v 1. Vi mt danh sch hu hn (hoc mt xu) cc bin c x1, x2, . . . , xn, ta c th m rng php m ho f nh s dng nh ngha sau: f(x1x2...xn ) = f(x1) ... f(xn) trong k hiu php ghp. Khi c th coi f l nh x: f:X* {0,1}* By gi gi s xu x1...xn c to t mt ngun khng nh sao cho mi xi xy ra u tun theo phn b xc sut trn X. iu ngha l xc sut ca mt xu bt k x1...xn c tnh bng p(x1) ... p(xn) ( rng xu ny khng nht thit phi gm cc gi tr phn bit v ngun l khng nh). Ta c th coi dy n php tung ng xu l mt v d. By gi gi s ta chun b dng nh x f m ho cc xu. iu quan trng y l gii m c theo mt cch duy nht. Bi vy php m f nht thit phi l mt n nh. V d 2.2. Gi s X = {a,b,c,d} , xt 3 php m ho sau: f(a) = 1 g(a) = 0 h(a) = 0 f(b) = 10 f(c) = 100f(d) = 1000 g(b) = 10 g(c) = 110 g(d) = 111 h(b) = 01 h(c) = 10 h(d) = 11

C th thy rng, f v g l cc php m n nh, cn h khng phi l mt n nh. Mt php m ho bt k dng f c th c gii m bng cch bt u im cui v gii m ngc tr li: Mi ln gp s mt ta s bit v tr kt thc ca phn t hin thi. Php m dng g c th c gii m bng cch bt u im u v x l lin tip. Ti thi im bt k m c mt dy con l cc k t m ca a ,b,c hoc d th c th gii m n v c th ct ra khi dy con. V d, vi xu10101110, ta s gii m 10 l b, tip theo 10 l b, ri n 111 l d v cui cng 0 l a. Bi vy xu gii m l bbda. thy rng h khng phi l mt n nh, ch cn xt v d sau: h(ac) = h(bc) = 010 Theo quan im d dng gii m, php m g tt hn f. S d nh vy v nu dng g th vic gii m c th c lm lin tip t u n cui v bi vy khng cn phi c b nh. Tnh cht cho php gii m lin tip n gin ca g c gi l tnh cht tin t clp ( mt php m g c gi l c tin t c lp nu khng tn ti 2 phn t x,y X v mt xu z {0,1}* sao cho g(x) = g(y) z). Tho lun trn khng lin h g n entropy. Tuy nhin khng c g ng ngc nhin khi entropy li c lin quan n tnh hiu qu ca php m. Ta s o tnh hiu qu ca php m f nh lm trn: l di trung bnh trng s ( c k hiu l l (f) ) ca php m mt phn t ca X. Bi vy ta c nh ngha sau:
l( f ) =
xX

p ( x ) | f ( x) |

Trong |y| k hiu l di ca xu y. By gi nhim v ch yu ca ta l phi tm mt php m ho n nh sao cho ti thiu ho c l(f) . Thut ton Huffman l mt thut ton ni ting thc hin c mc

ch ny. Hn na, php m f to bi thut ton Huffman l mt php m c tin t c lp v H(X) l(f) H(X) +1 Nh vy, gi tr ca entropy cho ta nh gi kh chnh xc v di trung bnh ca mt php m n nh ti u. Ta s khng chng minh cc kt qu nu m ch a ra mt m t ngn gn hnh thc ho v thut ton Huffman. Thut ton Huffman bt u vi phn b xc sut trn tp X v m mi phn t ban u l trng. Trong mi bc lp, 2 phn t c xc sut thp nht s c kt hp thnh mt phn t c xc sut bng tng ca hai xc sut ny. Trong 2 phn t, phn t c xc sut nh hn s c gn gi tr "0", phn t c gi tr ln hn s c gn gi tr "1". Khi ch cn li mt phn t th m ca x X s c cu trc bng dy cc phn t ngc t phn t cui cng ti phn t ban u x. Ta s minh ho thut ton ny qua v d sau. V d 2.3. Gi s X = {a,b,c,d,e} c phn b xc sut: p(a) = 0,05; p(b) = 0,10; p(c) = 0,12; p(d) = 0,13 v p(e) = 0,60. Thut ton Huffman c thc hin nh trong bng sau:

A 0,05 0

b 0,10 1

c 0,12 0,12 0

d 0,13 0,13 1

e 0,60 0,60 0.60

0,15 0,15 0

0,25 1

0,40 0 1,0 iu ny dn n php m ho sau: x f(x) a b c d e 000 001 010 011 1

0,60 1

Bi vy di trung bnh ca php m ho l: l(f) = 0,05 3 + 0,10 3 + 0,12 3 + 0,13 3 + 0,60 1 = 1,8 So snh gi tr ny vi entropy: H(X) = 0,2161 + 0,3322 + 0,3671 + 0,3842 + 0,4422 = 1,7402.

2.3. Cc tnh cht ca entropi

Trong phn ny s chng minh mt s kt qu quan trng lin quan n entropi. Trc tin ta s pht biu bt ng thc Jensen. y l mt kt qu c bn v rt hu ch. Bt ng thc Jensen c lin quan n hm li c nh ngha nh sau. nh ngha 2.4. Mt hm c gi tr thc f l li trn khong I nu:
x + y f ( x) + f ( y) f 2 2

vi mi x,y I. f l hm li thc s trn khong I nu:

vi mi x,y I,x y.

x + y f ( x) + f ( y ) f > 2 2

Sau y ta s pht biu m khng chng minh bt ng thc Jensen. nh l 2.5.(Bt ng thc Jensen). Gi s h l mt hm li thc s v lin tc trn khong l,

a
i =1

=1

v ai >0,1 i n. Khi :
n a f ( x ) f ai xi i i i =1 i =1
n

trong xi I,1 i n. Ngoi ra du "=" ch xy ra khi v ch khi x1=. . . = xn. By gi ta s a ra mt s kt qu v entropi. Trong nh l sau s s dng khng nh: hm log2x l mt hm li thc s trong khong (0, ) (iu ny d dng thy c t nhng tnh ton s cp v o hm cp 2 ca hm logarith l m trn khong (0, )). nh l 2.6. Gi s X l bin ngu nhin c phn b xc sut p1, p2,... , pn, trong pi >0,1 i n. Khi H(X) log2n. Du "=" ch xy ra khi v ch khi pi = 1/n, 1 i n. Chng minh: p dng bt ng thc Jensen, ta c:

H ( X ) = pi log 2 pi = pi log 2 (1 / pi )
i =1 i =1

log 2 ( pi 1 / pi )
i =1

= log2n Ngoi ra, du "=" ch xy ra khi v ch khi pi = 1/n, 1 i n. nh l 2.7. H(X,Y) H(X) +H(Y) ng thc (du "=") ch xy ra khi v ch khi X v Y l cc bin c c lp Chng minh. Gi s X nhn cc gi tr xi,1 i m;Y nhn cc gi tr yj,1 j n. K hiu: pi = p(X= xi), 1 i m v qj = p(Y = yj ), 1 j n. K hiu ri j = p(X = xi ,Y = yj ), 1 i m, 1 j n. (y l phn b xc sut hp). Nhn thy rng
pi = rij
j =1 n

(1 i m) v
q j = rij
i =1 m

(1 j n). Ta c

H ( X ) + H (Y ) = ( pi log 2 pi + q j log 2 q j )
i =1 m j =1

= ( rij log 2 pi + rij log 2 q j )

i =1 j =1 j =1 i =1

= rij log 2 pi q j
i =1 j =1

Mt khc
H ( X , Y ) = rij log 2 rij
i =1 j =1 m n

Kt hp li ta thu c kt qu sau:
H ( X , Y ) H ( X ) H (Y ) = rij log 2 (1 / rij ) + rij log 2 pi q j
i =1 j =1 m n i =1 j =1 m n m n

= rij log 2 ( pi q j / rij )

i =1 j =1

= log 2 pi q j
i =1 j =1

= log 2 1 =0

( y p dng bt ng thc Jensen khi bit rng cc rjj to nn mt phn b xc sut ). Khi ng thc xy ra, c th thy rng phi c mt hng s c sao cho pjj / rjj = c vi mi i,j. S dng ng thc sau:

rij = pi q j = 1
j =1 i =1 j =1 i =1

iu ny dn n c=1. Bi vy ng thc (du "=") s xy ra khi v ch khi rjj = pjqj, ngha l: p(X = xj, Y = yj ) = p(X = xj )p(Y = yj )

vi 1 i m, 1 j n. iu ny c ngha l X v Y c lp. Tip theo ta s a ra khi nim entropi c iu kin nh ngha 2.5. Gi s X v Y l hai bin ngu nhin. Khi vi gi tr xc nh bt k y ca Y, ta c mt phn b xc sut c iu kin p(X|y). R rng l :
H ( X | y ) = p ( x | y ) log 2 p( x | y )
x

Ta nh ngha entropi c iu kin H(X|Y) l trung bnh trng s (ng vi cc xc sut p(y) ca entropi H(X|y) trn mi gi tr c th y. H(X|y) c tnh bng:
H ( X | Y ) =
y

p( y) p( x | y) log
x

p( x | y )

Entropi c iu kin o lng thng tin trung bnh v X do Y mang li. Sau y l hai kt qu trc tip ( Bn c c th t chng minh) nh l 2.8. H(X,Y) = H(Y) + H(X | Y) H qu 2.9. H(X |Y) H(X) Du bng ch xy ra khi v ch khi X v Y c lp.

2.4. Cc kho gi v khong duy nht

Trong phn ny chng ta s p dng cc kt qu v entropi trn cho cc h mt. Trc tin s ch ra mt quan h c bn gia cc entropi ca cc thnh phn trong h mt. Entropi c iu kin H(K|C) c gi l bt nh v kho. N cho ta bit v lng thng tin v kho thu c t bn m.

nh l 2.10. Gi s(P, C, K, E, D) l mt h mt. Khi : H(K|C) = H(K) + H(P) - H(C) Chng minh: Trc tin ta thy rng H(K,P,C) = H(C | K,P) + H(K,P). Do y = eK(x) nn kho v bn r s xc nh bn m duy nht. iu ny c ngha l H(C|K,C) = 0. Bi vy H(K,P,C) = H(K,P). Nhng K v P c lp nn H(K,P) = H(K) + H(P). V th: H(K,P,C) + H(K,P) = H(K) + H(P) Tng t v kho v bn m xc nh duy nht bn r (tc x = dK(y)) nn ta c H(P | K,C) = 0 v bi vy H(K,P,C) = H(K,P). By gi ta s tnh nh sau: H(K | C) = H(K,C) - H(C) = H(K,P,C) - H(C) = H(K) + H(P) - H(C) y l ni dung ca nh l. Ta s quay li v d 2.1 minh ho kt qu ny. V d 2.1 (tip) Ta tnh c H(P) 0,81, H(K) = 1,5 v H(C) 1,85. Theo nh l 2.10 ta c H(K | C) 1,5 + 0,85 - 1,85 0,46. C th kim tra li kt qu ny bng cch p dng nh ngha v entropi c iu kin nh sau. Trc tin cn phi tnh cc xc sut xut p(Kj | j), 1 i 3, 1 j 4. thc hin iu ny c th p dng nh l Bayes v nhn c kt qu nh sau: ` P(K1 P(K1 P(K1 P(K1 | 1) = 1 p(K2 | 1) = 0 p(K3 | 1) = 0 | 2) = 6/7 p(K2 | 2) = 1/7 p(K3 | 2) = 0 | 3) = 0 p(K2 | 3) = 3/4 p(K3 | 3) = 1/4 | 4) = 0 p(K2 | 4) = 0 p(K3 | 4) = 1

By gi ta tnh: H(K | C) = 1/8 0 +7/16 0,59 + 1/4 0,81 + 3/16 0 = 0,46

Gi tr ny bng gi tr c tnh theo nh l 2.10. Gi s (P, C, K, E, D ) l h mt ang c s dng. Mt xu ca bn r x1x2 . . .xn s c m ho bng mt kho to ra bn m y1y2 . . .yn. Nh li rng, mc ch c bn ca thm m l phi xc nh c kho. Ta xem xt cc phng php tn cng ch vi bn m v coi Oscar c kh nng tnh ton v hn. Ta cng gi s Oscar bit bn r l mt vn bn theo ngn ng t nhin (chng hn vn bn ting Anh). Ni chung Oscar c kh nng rt ra mt s kho nht nh ( cc kho c th hay cc kho chp nhn c) nhng trong ch c mt kho ng, cc kho c th cn li (cc kho khng ng) c gi l cc kho gi. V d, gi s Oscar thu c mt xu bn m WNAJW m bng phng php m dch vng. D dng thy rng, ch c hai xu bn r c ngha l river v arena tng ng vi cc kho F( = 5) v W( = 22). Trong hai kho ny ch c mt kho ng, kho cn li l kho gi. (Trn thc t, vic tm mt bn m ca MDV c di 5 v 2 bn gii m c ngha khng phi qu kh khn, bn c c th tm ra nhiu v d khc). Mc ch ca ta l phi tm ra gii hn cho s trung bnh cc kho gi. Trc tin, phi xc nh gi tr ny theo entropi (cho mt k t) ca mt ngn ng t nhin L ( k hiu l HL ). HL l lng thng tin trung bnh trn mt k t trong mt xu c ngha ca bn r. (Ch rng, mt xu ngu nhin cc k t ca bng ch ci s c entropi trn mt k t bng log2 26 4,76). Ta c th ly H(P) l xp x bc nht cho HL. Trong trng hp L l Anh ng, s dng phn b xc sut trn bng 1.1, ta tnh c H(P) 4,19. D nhin cc k t lin tip trong mt ngn ng khng c lp vi nhau v s tng quan gia cc k t lin tip s lm gim entropi. V d, trong Anh ng, ch Q lun ko theo sau l ch U. lm xp x bc hai, tnh entropi ca phn b xc sut ca tt c cc b i ri chia cho 2. Mt cch tng qut, ta nh ngha Pn l bin ngu nhin c phn b xc sut ca tt c cc b n ca bn r. Ta s s dng tt c cc nh ngha sau:

nh ngha 2.6 Gi s L l mt ngn ng t nhin. Entropi ca L c xc nh l lng sau:

H L = lim
n

H (Pn ) n

d ca L l:

RL =l - (HL / log2 | P | )

Nhn xt: HL o entropi trn mi k t ca ngn ng L. Mt ngn ng ngu nhin s c entropi l log2 |P | . Bi vy i lng RL o phn "k t vt tri" l phn d. Trong trng hp Anh ng, da trn bng cha mt s ln cc b i v cc tn s, ta c th tnh c H(P2). c lng theo cch ny, ta tnh c H(P2) 3,90. C tip tc nh vy bng cch lp bng cc b ba .v.v... ta thu c c lng cho HL. Trn thc t, bng nhiu thc nghim khc nhau, ta c th i ti kt qu sau 1,0 HL 1,5. Tc l lng thng tin trung bnh trong ting Anh vo khong 1 bt ti 1,5 bt trn mi k t!. Gi s ly 1,25 l gi tr c lng ca gi tr ca HL. Khi d vo khong 0,75. Tc l ting Anh c d vo khong 75%! (iu ny khng c ngha loi b tu 3 trn 4 kb t ca mt vn bn ting Anh m vn c kh nng c c n. N ch c ngha l tm c mt php m Huffman cho cc b n vi n ln, php m ny s nn vn bn ting Anh xung cn 1/4 di ca bn gc). Vi cc phn b xc sut cho trn K v Pn. C th xc nh phn b xc sut trn Cn l tp cc b n ca bn m. (Ta lm iu ny trong trng hp n =1). Ta xc nh Pn l bin ngu nhin biu din b n ca bn r. Tng t Cn l bin ngu nhin biu th b n ca bn m. Vi y Cn, nh ngha: K(y) = { K K: x Pn, pPn(x) > 0, eK(x) =y}

ngha l K(y) l tp cc kho K sao cho y l bn m ca mt xu bn r di n c ngha, tc l tp cc kho "c th" vi y l bn m cho. Nu y l dy quan st c ca bn m th s kho gi s l | K(y) | -1 v ch c mt kho l kho ng trong s cc kho c th. S trung bnh cc kho gi (trn tt c cc xu bn m c th di n) c k hiu l
= yC n p ( y ) | K ( y ) | yC n p ( y ) = yC n p ( y ) | K ( y ) | 1 s n = yC n p ( y )(| K ( y ) | 1)

sn v n c tnh nh sau: T nh l 2.10 ta c: H(K| Cn) =H(K) + H(Pn) - H(Cn). C th dng c lng sau: H(Pn) nHL =n(1 - RL)log2| P | vi iu kin n ln. Hin nhin l: H(Cn ) nlog2| C |. Khi nu | P | = | C | th: H(K| Cn) H(K) - nRLlog2 | P | (2.1)
yC n p( y ) log 2 | K ( y ) | log 2 yC n p ( y ) | K ( y ) | = log 2 ( sn + 1) H ( K | C n ) = yC n p ( y )H ( K | y )

Tip theo xt quan h ca lng H(K | Cn) vi s kho gi sn. Ta c: y ta p dng bt ng thc Jensen (nh l 2.5) vi f(x) = log2x. Bi vy ta c bt ng thc sau: (2.2 Kt hp hai bt ng thc (2.1) v (2.2), ta c :
log 2 ( sn + 1) H ( K ) nRL log 2 | P | H ( K | C n ) log 2 ( sn + 1)

Trong trng hp cc kho c chn ng xc sut (Khi H(K) c gi tr ln nht) ta c kt qu sau.

nh l 2.11 Gi s (P, C, K, E, D ) l mt h mt trong | C | = | P | v cc kho c chn ng xc sut. Gi s RL l d ca ngn ng gc. Khi vi mt xu bn m di n cho trc ( n l s ln), s trung bnh cc kho gi s n tho mn bt ng thc nh sau:
sn {| K | /(| P | nRL )} 1

Lng |K| / |P|nRL-1 tin ti 0 theo hm m khi n tng. c lng ny c th khng chnh xc vi cc gi tr n nh. l do H(Pn)/ n khng phi l mt c lng tt cho HL nu n nh. Ta a ra y mt khi nim na nh ngha 2.7. Khong duy nht ca mt h mt c nh ngha l gi tr ca n m ng vi gi tr ny, s kho gi trung bnh bng 0 (k hiu gi tr ny l n0). iu c ngha l n0 l di trung bnh cn thit ca bn m thm m c th tnh ton kho mt cch duy nht vi thi gian ln. Nu t sn =0 trong nh l 2.11 v gii theo n ta s nhn c c lng cho khong duy nht: n0 log2|K| / RL log2 |P| V d vi MTT, ta c |P| = 26 v |K| =26 !. Nu ly RL =0,75 th ta nhn c c lng cho khong duy nht bng: n0 88,4/ (0,75 4,7) 25 iu c ngha l thng thng nu m thm c c xu bn m vi di ti thiu l 25, anh ta c th nhn c bn gii m duy nht.

2.5. Cc h mt m tch
Mt pht minh khc do Shannon a ra trong bi bo ca mnh nm 1949 l tng kt hp cc h mt bng cch to tch ca chng. tng ny c tm quan trng to ln

trong vic thit k cc h mt hin nay ( chng hn chun m d liu -DES ). n gin, trong phn ny ch hn ch xt cc h mt trong C=P: cc h mt loi ny c gi l t ng cu. Gi s S1= (P, P, K1, E1, D1) v S2= (P, P, K2, E2, D2) l hai h mt t ng cu c cng cc khng gian bn m v r. Khi , tch ca S1 v S2 (k hiu l S1 S2) c xc nh l h mt sau: (P, P, K1 K2, E, D) Kho ca h mt tch c dng K = (K 1,K2) trong K1 K1 v K2 K2. Cc quy tc m v gii m ca h mt tch c xc nh nh sau: Vi mi K = (K1,K2), ta c mt quy tc m
e( K1 , K 2 ) ( x ) = eK 2 (eK1 ( x ))

EK xc nh theo cng thc:

d ( K1 , K 2 ) ( y ) = d K1 (d K 2 ( y ))

v quy tc gii m:
d ( K1 , K 2 ) (e( K1 , K 2 ) ( x) = d ( K1 , K 2 ) (eK 2 (eK1 ( x))) = d K1 ( d K 2 (eK 2 (eK1 ( x ))) = d K1 (eK1 ( x))) = x.

Ngha l trc tin ta m ho x bng eK1 ri m li bn kt qu bng eK2. Qu trnh gii m tng t nhng thc hin theo th t ngc li: Ta bit rng, cc h mt u c cc phn b xc sut ng vi cc khng gian kho ca chng. Bi vy, cn phi xc nh phn b xc sut cho khng gian kho K ca h mt tch. Hin nhin ta c th vit: pK(K1,K2)= pK1(K1) pK2=(K2) Ni mt cch khc, ta chn K1 c phn b pK1 ri chn mt cch c lp K2 c phn b pK2(K2).

Sau y l mt v d n gin minh ho khi nim h mt tch. Gi s nh ngha h mt m nhn nh trong hnh 2.2 sau. Hnh 2.2. M nhn Gi s P = C = Z26 v gi s: K = {a Z26: UCLN(a,26) = 1} Vi a K, ta xc nh: ea(x) = ax mod 26 v da(y) = a-1y mod 26 (x,y) Z26. Cho M l mt h m nhn ( Vi cc kho c chn ng xc sut) v S l MDV ( vi cc kho chn ng xc sut). Khi d dng thy rng M S chnh l h m Affine ( cng vi cc kho c chn ng xc sut). Tuy nhin vic chng t S M cng l h m Affine kh hn mt cht ( cng vi cc kha ng xc sut). Ta s chng minh cc khng nh ny. Mt kho dch vng l phn t K Z26 v quy tc gii m tng ng l eK(x) = x + K mod 26. Cn kho trong h m nhn l phn t a Z26 sao cho UCLN(a,26) = 1. Quy tc m tng ng l ea(x) = a mod 26. Bi vy, mt kho trong m tch M S c dng (a,K), trong e(a,K)(x) =a x + K mod 26 y chnh l nh ngha v kho trong h m Affine. Hn na, xc sut ca mt kho trong h m Affine l:1/312 = 1/12 1/26. l tch ca xc sut tng ng ca cc kho a v K. Bi vy M S l h m A ffine. By gi ta s xt S M. Mt kho ny trong h m ny c dng (K ,a) trong : e(K,a)(x) = a(x+K) = a x + aK mod 26 Nh vy kho (K,a) ca m tch S M ng nht vi kho (a, aK) ca h m Affine. Vn cn li l phi chng t rng mi kho ca m Affine xut hin vi cng xc sut 1/312 nh trong m tch S M. Nhn thy rng, aK = K1 khi v ch khi K = a-1K1, ( hy nh li rng UCLN(a,26) =1, bi vy a c phn t

nghch o). Ni cch khc, kho (a, K1) ca h m Affine tng ng vi kho (a-1K1,a) ca m tch S M. Bi vy, ta c mt song nh gia hai khng gian kho. V mi kho l ng xc sut nn c th thy rng S M thc s l m Affine. Ta chng minh rng M S = S M. Bi vy, hai h mt l giao hon. Tuy nhin khng phi mi cp h mt u giao hon; c th tm ta c cc cp phn v d, Mt khc ta thy rng php tch lun kt hp: (S1 S2) S3 = S1 (S2 S3) Nu ly tch ca mt h mt t ng cu vi chnh n th ta thu c h mt S S (k hiu l S2). Nu ly tch n ln th h mt kt qu l Sn. Ta gi Sn l h mt lp. Mt h mt S c gi l lu ng nu S2 = S. C nhiu h mt nghin cu trong chng 1 l h mt lu ng. Chng hn cc h MDV, MTT, Affine, Hill, Vigenre v hon v u l lu ng. Hin nhin l nu h mt S l lu ng th khng nn s dng h mth tch S2 v n yu cu lng kho cc ln m khng c bo mt cao hn. Nu mt h mt khng phi l lu ng th c kh nng lm tng mt bng cch lp nhiu ln. tng ny c dng trong chun m d liu (DES). Trong DES dng 16 php lp, tt nhin h mt ban u phi l h mt khng lu ng. Mt phng php c th xy dng cc h mt khng lu ng n gin l ly tch ca hai h mt n gin khc nhau. Nhn xt: C th d dng chng t rng, nu c hai h mt S1 v S2 l lu ng v giao hon th S1 v S2 cng l lu ng. iu ny rt ra t cc php ton i s sau: (S1 S2) (S1 S2) = S1 (S2 S1) S2 =S1 (S1 S2) S2 =(S1 S1) (S2 S2) = S1 S2.

( Ch dng tnh cht kt hp trong chng minh trn) Bi vy, nu c S1 v S2 u l lu ng v ta mun S1 S2 l khng lu ng th iu kin cn l S1 v S2 khng giao hon. Rt may mn l nhiu h mt n gin tho mn iu kin trn. K thut thng c s dng trong thc t l ly tch cc h m kiu thay th v cc h m kiu hon v. Trong chng sau ta s xt mt th hin c th ca k thut ny.

2.5. Cc ch gii.
Khi nim mt hon thin v vic s dng cc k thut entropi trong cc h mt ln u tin do Shannon a ra trong [SH49]. Cc h mt tch cng c tho lun trong bi bo ny. Khi nim entropi cng do Shannon a ra trong [SH48]. Cc sch nhp mn tt v entropi, m Huffman v cc vn c lin quan c trong cc ti liu ca Welsh [WE88] v Goldie, Pinch [GP91]. Cc kt qu trong phn 2.4 c ly theo Beauchemin v Brassard [BB88], cc tc gi ny tng qut ho cc kt qu ban u ca Shannon.

Bi tp
2.1. Cho n l mt s nguyn dng. Mt hnh vung Latin cp n (L) l mt bng n n cc s nguyn 1, . . . , n sao cho mi mt s trong n s nguyn ny ch xut hin ng mt ln mi hng v mi ct ca L. V d hnh vung Latin cp 3 c dng: 1 3 2 2 1 3 3 2 1

Vi mt hnh vung Latin L bt k cp n, ta c th xc nh mt h m tng ng. Gi s P = C = K = { 1, . . ., n}. Vi 1 i n, quy tc m ho ei c xc nh l ei(j) = L(i,j). Do mi hng ca L s cho mt quy tc m ho). Hy chng minh rng, h mt hnh vung Latin ny c mt hon thin. 2.2. Hy chng t rng m Affine c mt hon thin 2.3. Gi s mt h mt t c mt hon thin vi phn b xc sut p0 no ca bn r. Hy chng t rng mt hon thin vn cn d c i vi mt phn b xc sut bt k ca bn r. 2.4. Hy chng t rng nu mt h mt c mt hon thin v |K| = |C| = |P| th mi bn m l ng xc sut. 2.5. Gi s X l tp c lc lng n, trong 2k n 2k+1 v p(x) =1/n vi mi x X. a/ Hy tm mt php m ho c tin t c lp ca X (k hiu l f) sao cho l(f) = k+2 - 2k+1/n Ch dn: Hy m ho 2k+1-n cc phn t ca X bng cc xu c di k v m ho cc phn t cn li bng cc xu c di k+1. b/ Hy minh ho cu trc ca bn khi n = 6. Tnh l(f) v H(X) trong trng hp ny. 2.6. Gi s X = {a,b,c,d,e} c phn b xc sut nh sau: p(a) = 0,32, p(b) = 0,23 p(c) = 0,20, p(d) = 0,15, p(e) = 0,10. Hy dng thut ton Huffman tm php m ho ti u c tin t c lp ca X. So snh di ca php m ny vi H(X). 2.7. Hy chng t rng H(X,Y) = H(Y) +H(X|Y). Sau chng minh b l H(X|Y) H(X), ng thc ch xy ra khi v ch khi X v Y c lp. 2.8. Chng minh rng, mt h mt c mt hon thin khi v ch khi H(P|C) = H(P). 2.9. Chng minh rng trong mt h mt bt k H(K|C) H(P C) ( v mt trc gic, kt qu ny ni rng vi bn m cho trc, bt nh ca thm m v kho t nht cng ln bng bt nh khi thm m bn r). 2.10. Xt mt h mt trng P = {a,b,c}, K = {K1,K2,K3} v C = {1,2,3,4}. Gi s ma trn m ho nh sau: a B c

K1 K2 K3

1 2 3

2 3 4

3 4 1

Gi s cc kho c chn ng xc sut v phn b xc sut ca bn r l pP(a) = 1/2, pP(b) = 1/3, pP(c) = 1/6. Hy tnh H(P), H(C), H(K), H(K|C) v H(P|C). 2.11. Hy tnh H(K|C) v H(K|P,C) ca h m Affine. 2.12. Xt h m Vigenre c di t kho l m. Hy chng t khong duy nht l 1/RL, trong RL l d ca ngn ng ang xt. (kt qu ny c hiu nh sau: Nu n0 l s k t cn m ho th di ca bn r l n0/m v mi phn t ca bn r gm m k t. Bi vy, khong duy nht 1/RL ng vi mt bn r gm m/RL k t). 2.13. Hy ch ra rng, khong duy nht ca h m Hill ( vi ma trn m ho m m) l nh hn m/RL ( hy ch rng s k t trong mt bn r c di l m2/RL). 2.14. MTT trn khng gian r ( c kch thc n) s c |K| = n!. Cng thc Stirling cho c lng sau i vi n:
n 2n (n / e) n

a/ Dng cng thc Stirling, a ra mt khong c lng cho khong duy nht ca MTT. b/ Cho m 1 l mt s nguyn. MTT b m l h m thay th trong cc khng gian r ( v bn m) cha tt c 26m cc b m. Hy nh gi khong duy nht ca MTT b m nu RL = 0,75. 2.15. Hy chng minh rng MDV l lu ng. 2.16. Gi s S1 l MDV ( vi cc kho ng xc sut) v S2 l MDV trong cc kho c chn theo mt phn b xc sut pK no ( khng ng xc sut). Hy chng t rng S1 S2 = S1. 2.17. Gi s S1 v S2 l cc h m Vigenre c di t kho tng ng l m1 v m2 trong m1 m2. a/ Nu m1 | m2 th ch ra rng S1 S2 = S1. b/ Ta th tng qut ho kt qu trn bng gi nh rng S2 S1 = S3, S3 l h m Vigenre c di t kho l

BCNN(m1,m2) ( BCNN - bi chung nh nht). Hy chng t rng gi nh ny l khng ng. Ch dn: Nu m1 0 mod m2 th s cc kho trong h m tch S1 S 2 nh hn s kho trong S3.