RO

`.I RA
TOAN
.C
Pha.m Tien So.n
- `a La.t, 2005
D

Mu.c lu.c
. D
U
-`
MO
A

D
M
-E
1 PHEP

Cac nguyen l
y co. ban cua phep dem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.1

Nguyen l
y tong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.2

Nguyen l
y tch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

1.1.3

Nguyen l
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

1.2

Hoan vi. v`a to ho..p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

1.3

Cac thua.t toan sinh ra hoan vi. v`a to ho..p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

1.4

Hoan vi. v`a to ho..p suy ro.ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

1.5

Cac he. so nhi. th

u.c v`a cac d`ong nhat th
u.c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

1.6

`ong chim b
`o cau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nguyen l
y chu

36

1.6.1

`ong chim b
`o cau (da.ng th
Nguyen l
y chu
u. nhat) . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

1.6.2

`ong chim b
`o cau (da.ng th
Nguyen l
y chu
u. hai) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

1.6.3

`ong chim b
`o cau (da.ng th
Nguyen l
y chu
u. ba) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39

1.1

.
2 QUAN HE

43

2.1

Quan he. hai ngoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

2.2

Quan he. v`a ma tra.n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48

2.3

Quan he. th
u. tu.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

2.4

Quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

2.5

Bao dong cua quan he. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

2.6

Lattice cua cac phan hoa.ch

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

2.6.1

Thua.t toan giao cac phan hoa.ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

2.6.2

Thua.t toan tro.n cac phan hoa.ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

BOOLE
-A
3 D
. I SO

81

3.1

Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

81

3.2

Latiice phan bo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

3.3

- a.i so Boole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D

96

3.4

H`am Boole

3.5

Bieu dien cac h`am Boole qua he. tuyen, ho.i v`a phu d.inh . . . . . . . . . . . 107

3.6

Bieu dien toi thieu cua h`am Boole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

3.6.1

Khai nie.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

3.6.2

Phu.o.ng phap ban d`o Karnaugh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

TUYE
N TINH
4 MA
4.1

119

Mo. d`au . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

4.1.1

Khai nie.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

4.1.2

Ma phat hie.n loi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

4.1.3

Ma su.a sai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

4.2

Cac khai nie.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

4.3

Khoang cach Hamming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

4.4

Ho.i ch
u.ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
4.4.1

Giai ma d`
ung bang chuan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4

4.5

Ma ho`an hao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

4.6

Ma Hamming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

THI.
-`
5 D
O

149

5.1

Cac khai nie.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

5.2

`en v`a chu tr`nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Day chuy

5.3

Chu tr`nh Hamilton v`a b`ai toan ngu.`o.i du li.ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

5.4

5.3.1

Quy tac t`m chu tr`nh Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

5.3.2

Ma Gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

- u.`o.ng di v`a ma.ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

D
5.4.1

5.5

Thua.t toan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

Ma tra.n bieu dien d`o thi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

5.5.1

`e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Ma tra.n k

5.5.2

Ma tra.n lien thuo.c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

5.6

- ang cau gi
D
u.a cac d`o thi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

5.7

- `o thi. phang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

D

6 CAY
6.1

6.2

6.3

191

Mo. d`au . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

6.1.1

Cac khai nie.m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

6.1.2

Ma Huffman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Cay bao tr`

um . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.2.1

`eu ro.ng xac d.inh cay bao tr`

Thua.t toan t`m kiem theo chi
um . . . . . 198

6.2.2

`eu sau xac di.nh cay bao tr`

Thua.t toan t`m kiem theo chi
um . . . . . 199

Cay bao tr`

um nho nhat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.3.1

Thua.t toan Kruskal

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5

6.4

Lie.t ke cay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

6.5

Cay nhi. phan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

6.5.1

Thua.t toan xay du..ng cay t`m kiem nhi. phan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

T`
ai li
e.u tham kha o

215

. D
U
-`
MO
A

Toan ho.c r`o.i ra.c l`a mo.t bo. pha.n cua Toan ho.c nh`a m nghien c
u.u cac doi tu.o..ng r`o.i ra.c:
.
.
.
.
nghien c
u u cac cau tr
uc r`o i ra.c khac nhau v`a cac phu o ng phap giai cac van d`e co lien quan
den cac cau tr
uc n`ay.
u. v`a va.n h`anh trong may tnh du.o.i da.ng cac tn hie.u r`o.i ra.c (cac may
Thong tin lu.u tr
tnh lien tu.c ch l`a cac may tnh tu.o.ng tu.., chuyen du.ng). V` va.y cong cu. d`
ung de bieu dien
.
.
thong tin trong may v`a xu l
y cac thong tin n`ay l`a Toan ho.c r`o i ra.c.
Ngo`ai ra, cac phu.o.ng phap v`a ket qua cua Toan ho.c r`o.i ra.c co the d`
ung de giai quyet tru..c
`eu van d`e da. t ra cua Tin ho.c nhu. logic, h`am da.i so logic, to ho..p tren t`
tiep nhi
u.... Toan
`eu
ho.c r`o.i ra.c chuan bi. san v`a cung cap cac cong cu., phu.o.ng phap lua.n de giai quyet nhi
.
.
.
van d`e cua Tin ho.c. Co the noi Toan ho.c r`o i ra.c l`a ng`anh Toan ho.c co so cho Tin ho.c.
Mu.c dch cua giao tr`nh nh`a m cung cap mo.t so cong cu. Toan ho.c de bu.o.c d`au di v`ao
Tin ho.c. Giao tr`nh du.o..c tr`nh b`ay mo.t cach d`an trai ho.n l`a di sau v`ao mo.t van d`e cu. the.
`an co cac b`ai ta.p nh`a m cung co nh
Cuoi moi ph
u.ng kien th
u.c da ho.c. Hy vo.ng ra` ng giao
`an n`ao yeu c
`au ho.c ta.p cua cac ba.n sinh vien.
tr`nh n`ay dap u
.ng du.o..c ph
`om sau chu.o.ng vo.i 20 t`ai lie.u tham khao tr`nh b`ay cac van d`e sau:
Giao tr`nh bao g
- `e ca.p den cac phu.o.ng phap co. ban cua phep dem: Nguyen
Chu.o.ng 1: Phep dem. D
`ong chim b
`o cau...
l
y tch, nguyen l
y tong, nguyen l
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u., nguyen l
y cac chu
.
.
.
.
.
Ch
ung dong vai tr`o quan tro.ng trong Tin ho.c, chang ha.n: de u o c lu o. ng th`o i gian thu..c hie.n
`an dem so th`o.i gian thi h`anh t`
cua mo.t thua.t toan ch
ung ta c
u.ng d`ong le.nh hoa.c cac v`ong
la.p. Phep dem c
ung dong vai tr`o quan tro.ng trong l
y thuyet xac suat.
Chu.o.ng 2: Quan he.. Tr`nh b`ay cac quan he. th
u. tu.., quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng v`a cuoi c`
ung
.
.
u u ha.n. Ch
ung ta c
ung xet moi quan he. gi
u.a cac
l`a quan he. tong quat tren nh
u ng ta.p h
quan he. vo.i ma tra.n hay d`o thi. bieu dien no.
- a.i so Boole. Thua.t ng
`eu lnh
Chu.o.ng 3: D
u. da.i so Boole du.o..c su. du.ng de mo ta nhi
.
.
.
.
u tu duy logic v`a cac bang chan tri. den cac phep toan so ho.c du o..c thu..c
vu. c co lien quan, t`
hie.n bo.i cac ma.ch die.n tu.. Chu.o.ng n`ay bat d`au vo.i moi quan he. gi
u.a cac ta.p du.o..c sap
.
.
.
th
u tu. v`a cac lattice. Ke tiep l`a da.i so Boole v`a van d`e cu. c tieu hoa h`am Boole.
7

`e l
`om cac ma cho phep
Chu.o.ng 4: Ma tuyen tnh. Gio.i thie.u so. lu.o..c v
y thuyet ma bao g
.
.
.
.
- ay l`a van d`e th`o i su. do su. phat trien cac cong nghe. mo.i trong vie.c
phat hie.n v`a su a sai. D
`en v`a lu.u tr
truy
u. d
u. lie.u.
- `o thi.. Chu.o.ng n`ay gio.i thie.u mo.t so khai nie.m v`a b`ai toan co. ban cua l
Chu.o.ng 5: D
y
.
.
.
thuyet d`o thi. nhu chu tr`nh Euler, chu tr`nh Hamilton, du `o ng di ngan nhat, tnh phang cua
d`o thi....
Chu.o.ng 6: Cay. No.i dung chnh cua chu.o.ng d`e ca.p den nh
u.ng van d`e: Xay du..ng ma toi
um v`a he. cac chu tr`nh do. c la.p, cay bao tr`
um toi thieu, lie.t ke cay.
u.u Huffman, cay bao tr`
`an Tuan Minh, cac ba.n b`e v`a cac
Toi da. c bie.t cam o.n cac d`ong nghie.p, da. c bie.t Th.s. Tr
.
sinh vien v` nh
u ng dong gop cua ho. trong qua tr`nh bien soa.n giao tr`nh n`ay.
`e nh
Toi chan th`anh cam o.n ba.n do.c v
u.ng y
kien doi vo.i cac thieu sot khong the tranh
khoi cua cuon sach.
- `a La.t, ng`ay 12 thang 6 nam 2003
D
Pha.m Tien So.n

Chu.o.ng 1
D
M
-E
PHEP
`e cach sap xep cac doi tu.o..ng, l`a mo.t bo. pha.n quan tro.ng cua
Toan to ho..p nghien c
u.u v
toan ho.c r`o.i ra.c. Nh
u.ng van d`e cua to ho..p du.o..c nghien c
u.u t`
u. The ky 17, lien quan tru.o.c
.
.
.
.
tien den cac tr`o cho i may rui. Ng`ay nay toan to ho. p du o. c d`
ung ro.ng rai trong tin ho.c.
Mu.c dch chnh cua chu.o.ng n`ay l`a thiet la.p mo.t so phu.o.ng phap dem cac ta.p h
u.u ha.n
.
.
`an tu cua ch
`an tu m`a khong lie.t ke cac ph
ung.
ph

1.1

C
ac nguy
en l
y co. ban cua ph
ep d

em

`an tu. S, ta k
`an tu. cua ta.p S. Do do #S = #T neu
Voi ta.p h
u.u ha.n ph
y hie.u #S l`a so ph
`an tu.. Ch
uy
r`a ng
hai ta.p S v`a T co c`
ung so cac ph
# = 0,

#{1, 2, . . . , n} = n vo.i n N.

Ch
ung ta bat d`au vo.i mo.t so nguyen l
y dem.

1.1.1

Nguy
en l
y t
ong

Gia su. A1 , A2 , . . . , Am l`a cac su.. kie.n doi mo.t loa.i tr`
u. nhau; v`a gia su. cac su.. kie.n A1 , A2 , . . . , Am
.
.
.
co tu o ng u
ng n1 , n2 , . . . , nm cach xay ra. Khi do su.. kie.n (hoa.c A1 , hoa.c A2 , . . . , hoa.c Am )
co n1 + n2 + + nm cach xay ra.
V du. 1.1.1 Gia su. lo.p tru.o.ng co the l`a mo.t n
u. sinh, hoa.c l`a mo.t nam sinh. Co bao nhieu
.
.
.
cach cho.n lo p tru o ng khac nhau neu so ho.c sinh n
u. l`a 36 v`a so nam sinh l`a 20?
9

Go.i A1 (tu.o.ng u
.ng, A2 ) l`a su.. kie.n lo.p tru.o.ng l`a n
u. sinh (tu.o.ng u
.ng, nam sinh). Ta co
36 cach cho.n lo.p tru.o.ng l`a n
u. sinh v`a 20 cach cho.n lo.p tru.o.ng l`a nam sinh. Theo nguyen
l
y tong, su.. kie.n (A1 hoa.c A2 ) co (36 + 20) = 56 cach cho.n.
V du. 1.1.2 Gia su. mo.t sinh vien co the cho.n du
ng mo.t chuyen d`e tu.. cho.n trong mo.t
`om 3, 5 v`a 9 chuyen d`e tu.o.ng u
trong ba danh sach. Ba danh sach n`ay g
.ng. Hoi sinh vien
do co bao nhieu cach lu..a cho.n?
Theo nguyen l
y tong, co 3 + 5 + 9 = 17 cach.
y thuyet ta.p ho..p nhu.
Nh
a.n x
et 1 Nguyen l
y tong co the phat bieu theo thua.t ng
u. cua l
.
.
`an tu cua ta.p T1 T2 Tm
sau. Neu cac ta.p T1 , T2 , . . . , Tm doi mo.t r`o i nhau th` so cac ph
.
.
`an tu cua cac ta.p n`ay; t
b`a ng tong so cac ph
u c l`a
#(T1 T2 . . . Tm ) =

m
X

#Ti .

i=1

1.1.2

Nguy
en l
y tch

Gia su. A1 , A2 , . . . , Am l`a cac su.. kie.n doi mo.t loa.i tr`
u. nhau; v`a gia su. cac su.. kie.n A1 , A2 , . . . , Am
.
.
.
co tu o ng u
ng n1 , n2 , . . . , nm cach xay ra. Khi do su.. kie.n (A1 v`a A2 v`a . . . v`a Am ) co
n1 n2 nm cach xay ra.
u. Hoi co may cach hoa trang?
V du. 1.1.3 Gia su. co hai ma.t na., ba m
D`
ung nguyen l
y tch, co 3 2 = 6 cach hoa trang khac nhau. C
ung co the d`
ung l
y thuyet
.
.
ta.p ho. p nhu sau: Moi cach hoa trang l`a mo.t cach cho.n x X v`a mo.t cach cho.n y Y. Do
do so cach hoa trang l`a so cac ca.p (x, y) thuo.c X Y v`a do do b`a ng #X #Y = 2 3 = 6.
y n`ay c
ung thu.`o.ng du.o..c phat bieu du.o.i da.ng ta.p ho..p nhu. sau: Gia
Nh
a.n x
et 2 Nguyen l
`an tu. v`a doi mo.t r`o.i nhau. Khi do so ph
`an tu. cua
u.u ha.n ph
su. cac ta.p T1 , T2 , . . . , Tm co h
ta.p tch Descartes T1 T2 Tm b`a ng
#T1 #T2 #Tm .
V du. 1.1.4 Co bao nhieu chuoi bit khac nhau co do. d`ai 8? Moi bit co hai cach cho.n, hoa.c
0 hoa.c 1. Do do theo nguyen l
y tch, co 28 = 256 chuoi bit co do. d`ai 8.
`om ba ch
u. cai v`a theo
V du. 1.1.5 Co bao nhieu bang so xe khac nhau, neu moi bang g
.
.
`om 26 k
sau l`a ba con so (gia thiet bang ch
u cai g
y tu. )?
10

Moi ch
u. cai co 26 cach cho.n; moi so co 10 cach cho.n. Do do theo nguyen l
y tch, so cac
bang so xe khac nhau l`a:
26 26 26 10 10 10 = 17.576.000.
`an tu. len ta.p Y co n ph
`an
V du. 1.1.6 Co bao nhieu anh xa. khac nhau t`
u. ta.p X co m ph
.

tu ?
`an tu. cua Y cho moi mo.t trong m ph
`an
Moi anh xa. l`a mo.t bo. m cach cho.n mo.t trong n ph
.
tu cua X. Theo nguyen l
y tch, so anh xa. n`ay ba` ng
m
|n n
{z n} = n .
`an
m l

`an tu.
V du. 1.1.7 Co bao nhieu anh xa. mo.t-mo.t (do.n anh) khac nhau t`
u. ta.p X co m ph
`an tu.?
len ta.p Y co n ph
Neu m > n : khong co anh xa. mo.t-mo.t t`
u. X to.i Y.
Gia su. m n v`a X := {a1 , a2 , . . . , am }.
`an tu. tu.o.ng u
`an tu. a1 co n cach cho.n ph
+ Vo.i ph
.ng trong Y.
+ V` anh xa. l`a mo.t-mo.t, nen doi vo.i a2 ch c`on (n 1) cach cho.n.
..
.
+ Tu.o.ng tu.., am ch c`on (n m + 1) cach cho.n.
Theo nguyen l
y tch, so anh xa. mo.t-mo.t khac nhau ba` ng
n(n 1)(n 2) (n m + 1).
- em so ta.p con cua mo.t ta.p h
V du. 1.1.8 D
u.u ha.n S.
Gia su. S := {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }. De d`ang thiet la.p mo.t tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t-mo.t gi
u.a ta.p con P
.
.
cua S vo i cac chuoi bit do. d`ai n : bit th
u i b`a ng 1 neu v`a ch neu ai P. Ma.t khac, so cac
n
chuoi bit do. d`ai n l`a 2 nen so cac ta.p con cua S l`a 2n .
V du. 1.1.9 Cho hai doa.n chu.o.ng tr`nh sau:
Chu.o.ng tr`nh 1:
Chu.o.ng tr`nh 2:
k := 0;
k := 0;
for i1 := 1 to n1 do k := k + 1;
for i1 := 1 to n1 do
for i2 := 1 to n2 do k := k + 1;
for i2 := 1 to n2 do
...
...
for im := 1 to nm do k := k + 1;
for im := 1 to nm do k := k + 1;
11

Hoi k se lay gia tri. bao nhieu sau khi moi doa.n chu.o.ng tr`nh tren du.o..c thu..c hie.n?
+ Chu.o.ng tr`nh 1: C
u. moi v`ong la.p d.ia phu.o.ng, k tang len mo.t do.n vi..
`an la.p cua v`ong la.p th
Go.i Ai l`a so l
u. i. Ai co ni kha nang. Ho.n n
u.a Ai v`a Aj , i 6= j, loa.i
.
tr`
u nhau. Do do theo nguyen l
y tong, so v`ong la.p l`a n1 + n2 + + nm .
+ Chu.o.ng tr`nh 2: C
u. moi v`ong la.p to`an cu.c, k tang len mo.t do.n vi.. Moi v`ong la.p to`an
cu.c do m v`ong la.p di.a phu.o.ng ghep la.i. Theo nguyen l
y tch so v`ong la.p to`an cu.c b`a ng
n1 n2 nm .

`eu tru.`o.ng ho..p c

`an phai phoi ho..p ca hai nguyen l
V du. 1.1.10 Trong nhi
y tong v`a tch:
.
.
.
.
.
`om t`
u 6 den 8 k
y tu..; moi k
y tu.. l`a
Gia su moi ngu `o i su du.ng may tnh co mo.t ma.t ma, g
mo.t ch
u. cai hoa hoa.c l`a mo.t con so. Moi ma.t ma nhat thiet phai ch
u.a t nhat mo.t con so.
Hoi co bao nhieu ma.t ma co the co?
Go.i P l`a tong so cac ma.t ma co the co v`a P6 , P7 , P8 l`a so cac ma.t ma co the vo.i do. d`ai
tu.o.ng u
.ng b`a ng 6, 7, 8.
Theo nguyen l
y tong: P = P6 + P7 + P8 .
Vie.c tnh tru..c tiep P6 l`a kho. Ta tnh gian tiep nhu. sau:
`om ch
`om ca tru.`o.ng ho..p khong co con so n`ao
+ So cac xau co do. d`ai 6, g
u. v`a so, bao g
theo nguyen l
y tch l`a (26 + 10)6 = 366 .
+ So cac xau do. d`ai 6, khong ch
u.a con so n`ao l`a 266 .
+ Do do P6 = 366 266 = 1.867.866.560.
Tu.o.ng tu.. cho P7 v`a P8 :
P7 = 367 267 = 70.332.353.920,
P8 = 368 268 = 2.612.282.842.880.
Cuoi c`
ung
P = P6 + P7 + P8 = 2.684.483.063.360.

Nh
a.n x
et 3 Khi cac su.. kie.n A1 v`a A2 co the xay ra d`ong th`o.i ta khong the d`
ung nguyen
.
.
.
.
.
`an su a doi nhu sau: Neu van co.ng (n1 + n2 ) ta da dem th`
u.a,
l
y tong. Tru `o ng ho. p n`ay c
`an c`
`an trong A1 , mo.t l
`an trong A2 ).
v` co tru.`o.ng ho..p da dem hai l
ung mo.t su.. kie.n (mo.t l
.
.
.
.
`an tr`
Tru `o ng ho. p n`ay ch xay ra khi no d`ong th`o i co the xay ra A1 v`a A2 . V` va.y c
u. di so
u.a n`ay.
tru.`o.ng ho..p doi th`
12

1.1.3

Nguy
en l
y bao h`
am-loa.i tr`
u.

Gia su. A1 v`a A2 l`a hai su.. kie.n bat k`

y. Neu su.. kie.n A1 co the xay ra n1 cach, su.. kie.n A2 co
`an (A1 v`a A2 )]
the xay ra n2 cach, th` su.. kie.n (A1 hoa.c A2 ) co the xay ra [(n1 + n2 ) so l
cach.
B`a ng thua.t ng
u. ta.p ho..p, nguyen l
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. tro. th`anh:
#(A1 A2 ) = #A1 + #A2 #(A1 A2 ).
V du. 1.1.11 Co bao nhieu chuoi bit do. d`ai 8 hoa.c bat d`au b`a ng 1, hoa.c ket th
uc b`a ng
.
.

`
`
`

00? (Co the co chuoi v`

u a bat dau ba ng 1, v`
u a ket th
uc ba ng 00).
`an tu. th
Go.i P1 l`a so cac chuoi bit do. d`ai 8 bat d`au ba` ng 1. Nhu. va.y, ph
u. nhat da du.o..c
cho.n, ch c`on la.i 7 bit. Theo nguyen l
y tch,
P1 = 27 = 128.
Go.i P2 l`a so cac chuoi bit do. d`ai 8 ket th
uc ba` ng 00. Theo nguyen l
y tch
P2 = 26 = 64.
Go.i P3 l`a so cac chuoi bit do. d`ai 8 bat d`au b`a ng 1 v`a ket th
uc b`a ng 00. Theo nguyen l
y
tch
P3 = 25 = 32.
du.ng nguyen l
Ap
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. ta co
P = P1 + P2 P3 = 160.
Nguyen l
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. co the mo. ro.ng cho tru.`o.ng ho..p m su.. kie.n, nhu.ng ph
u.c ta.p
`an sau.
ho.n, ta se d`e ca.p o. ph
Su.. cong nha.n ba nguyen l
y tren nhu. l`a xuat phat diem cua l
y thuyet to ho..p:
+ Tnh du
ng dan cua ba nguyen l
y tren l`a du
ng hien nhien. Quan diem cua ch
ung ta
.
.

l`a cong nha.n 3 nguyen l

y tren, coi nhu xuat phat diem cua l
y thuyet to ho. p. Cac ket qua
`an lu.o..t du.o..c suy ra tru..c tiep hoa.c gian tiep t`
u. ba nguyen l
khac se l
y n`ay.
+ Neu khong thoa man, c
ung co the t`m cach ch
u.ng minh ba nguyen l
y n`ay, nhu. va.y ta
`eu g` khac l`a du
`an den cac cong cu. khac, thu..c chat ta la.i cong nha.n mo.t di
ng
la.i phai c
`oi suy lua.n ra ba nguyen l
hien nhien de r
y tren.

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit bat d`au ba` ng 1100?
13

2. Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit bat d`au v`a ket th

uc ba` ng 1?
3. Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit trong do hoa.c bit th
u. hai, hoa.c bit th
u. tu. b`a ng 1?
-u
4. Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit co du
ng mo.t bit b`a ng 1? D
ng hai bit ba` ng 1? Co t nhat
mo.t bit b`a ng 1?
5. Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit do.c xuoi ngu.o..c d`eu giong nhu. nhau?
6. Cac k
y tu.. ABCDE du.o..c su. du.ng de ta.o th`anh cac chuoi do. d`ai 3.
(a) Co bao nhieu chuoi du.o..c ta.o ra neu cho phep la.p?
(b) Co bao nhieu chuoi du.o..c ta.o ra neu khong cho phep la.p?
(c) Co bao nhieu chuoi bat d`au b`a ng A du.o..c ta.o ra neu cho phep la.p?
(d) Co bao nhieu chuoi bat d`au b`a ng A du.o..c ta.o ra neu khong cho phep la.p?
(e) Co bao nhieu chuoi khong ch
u.a k
y tu.. A du.o..c ta.o ra neu cho phep la.p?
(f) Co bao nhieu chuoi khong ch
u.a k
y tu.. A du.o..c ta.o ra neu khong cho phep la.p?
7. Tren ta.p X := {5, 6, . . . , 200} :
(a) Co bao nhieu so chan, le?
(b) Co bao nhieu so chia het cho 5?
`om nh
(c) Co bao nhieu so g
u.ng ch
u. so phan bie.t?
(d) Co bao nhieu so khong ch
u.a ch
u. so 0?
(e) Co bao nhieu so lo.n ho.n 101 v`a khong ch
u.a ch
u. so 6?
(f) Co bao nhieu so co cac ch
u. so du.o..c sap theo th
u. tu.. tang thu..c su..?
(g) Co bao nhieu so co da.ng xyz vo.i 0 6= x < y v`a y > z?
y.
8. Gia su. co 5 sach tin ho.c, 3 sach may tnh, 2 sach va.t l
(a) Co bao nhieu cach sap xep ch
ung len gia sach?
(b) Co bao nhieu cach sap xep sao cho 5 sach tin ho.c o. pha trai, c`on 2 sach va.t l
y o.
ben phai?
(c) Co bao nhieu cach sap ch
ung len gia sao cho tat ca cac sach theo c`
ung nhom du.o..c
`e nhau?
sap k
`e nhau?
(d) Co bao nhieu cach sap ch
ung len gia sao cho hai sach va.t l
y khong k
9. Co 10 ban copy cua mo.t cuon sach v`a co mo.t copy cua 10 cuon sach khac. Co bao
nhieu cach co the cho.n 10 cuon sach?
`eu nhat n ph
`an tu. cua ta.p g
`om (2n + 1) ph
`an tu.?
10. Co bao nhieu ta.p con co nhi
du.ng nguyen l
11. Ap
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. de giai:
(a) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit hoa.c bat d`au b`a ng 100 hoa.c co bit th
u. tu. ba` ng 1?
(b) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit hoa.c bat d`au b`a ng 1 hoa.c ket th
uc ba` ng 1?
14

1.2

Ho
an vi. v`
a t
o ho..p

- i.nh ngha 1.2.1 Mo.t hoan vi. cua n ph

`an tu. x1 , x2 , . . . , xn l`a mo.t sap xep co th
D
u. tu.. n
.
`an tu n`ay.
ph
`an tu.. Neu cac ph
`an tu. du.o..c k
V du. 1.2.1 Co sau hoan vi. cua ba ph
y hie.u l`a A, B, C th`
sau hoan vi. l`a
ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, CBA.
- i.nh l
`an tu..
D
y 1.2.2 Co n! ho
an vi. cu a n ph
`an tu. co the du.o..c xay
Ch
u.ng minh. Ta ch
u.ng minh theo quy na.p. Mo.t hoan vi. cua n ph
`an tu. d`au tien, cho.n ph
`an tu. th
`an
du..ng theo n bu.o.c lien tiep: Cho.n ph
u. hai, ..., cho.n ph
.
.
.
.
.

`
`
`
`
tu cuoi c`
ung. Phan tu dau tien co the cho.n n cach. Ngay khi phan tu dau tien du o. c cho.n,
`an tu. th
`an tu. th
`an tu.
ph
u. hai co the du.o..c cho.n n 1 cach. Khi ph
u. hai da du.o..c cho.n, ph
th
u. ba co the du.o..c cho.n n 2 cach, v`a van van. Theo nguyen l
y quy na.p v`a sau do nguyen
`
l
y tch, ton ta.i
n(n 1)(n 2) 2 1 = n!
`an tu.. 2
hoan vi. cua n ph
V du. 1.2.2 Co

10! = 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 3.628.800
`an tu..
hoan vi. cua 10 ph
V du. 1.2.3 Co bao nhieu hoan vi. cua cac k
y tu.. ABCDEF ch
u.a chuoi con DEF ?
- i.nh l
Co the xem chuoi con DEF nhu. mo.t k
y tu... Theo D
y 1.2.2 co 4! = 24 hoan vi. cua
.
.

cac k
y tu. ABCDEF ch
u a chuoi con DEF.
V du. 1.2.4 Co bao nhieu hoan vi. cua cac k
y tu.. ABCDEF ch
u.a cac k
y tu.. DEF theo th
u.
y?
tu.. bat k`
Ta co the giai b`ai toan qua hai bu.o.c: Cho.n mo.t th
y tu.. DEF ; v`a xay du..ng
u. tu.. cua cac k
- i.nh l
y tu.. DEF. Theo D
y 1.2.2, bu.o.c
mo.t hoan vi. cua ABC ch
u.a th
u. tu.. da cho cua cac k
u. hai co 4! = 24 cach. Theo nguyen l
y
d`au tien co 3! = 6 cach; theo V du. 1.2.3 bu.o.c th
.
.
u. tu.. bat k`
y l`a 6 24 = 144.
tch, so cac hoan vi. cua ABCDEF ch
u a cac k
y tu. DEF theo th
`an tu. du.o..c cho.n t`
u. tu.. cua r ph
u. n
Trong mo.t so tru.`o.ng ho..p ta muon khao sat mo.t th
.
.
.
.
`an tu . Mo.t th
ph
u tu. nhu the go.i l`a r-hoan vi..
15

- i.nh ngha 1.2.3 Mo.t r-hoan vi. cua n ph

`an tu. (phan bie.t) x1 , x2 , . . . , xn l`a mo.t sap xep
D
`an tu. co th
`an tu. n`ay. So cac r-hoan vi. cua ta.p n ph
`an tu. phan bie.t k
r-ph
u. tu.. t`
u. n ph
y
hie.u l`a P (n, r).
V du. 1.2.5 Ta co mo.t so 2-hoan vi. cua a, b, c l`a
ab, bc, ac.
- i.nh ngha 1.2.3, ch
`an tu..
u. tu.. cua tat ca n ph
Neu r = n trong D
ung ta nha.n du.o..c mo.t th
- i.nh l
Do do theo D
y 1.2.2 P (n, n) = n!. Tong quat ta co
- i.nh l
`an tu. phan bie.t l`a
D
y 1.2.4 So cac r-ho
an vi. cu a ta.p n ph
P (n, r) = n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1),

r n.

`an tu. du.o..c cho.n t`

`om
Ch
u.ng minh. Ch
ung ta dem so cac cach co th
u. tu.. cua r ph
u. ta.p g
.
.
.
`an tu d`au tien. Ke tiep, co n 1 cach cho.n ph
`an tu th
`an tu . Co n cach cho.n ph
u.
n ph
`an tu. th
`an tu. th
u. ba, ..., co n r + 1 cach cho.n ph
u. r. Do do theo
hai, n 2 cach cho.n ph
.
`an tu phan bie.t l`a
nguyen l
y tch, so cac r-hoan vi. cua ta.p n ph
n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1).
2
- i.nh l
V du. 1.2.6 Theo D
y 1.2.4, so cac 2-hoan vi. cua X = {a, b, c} l`a
P (3, 2) = 3 2 = 6.
Sau hoan vi. n`ay l`a
ab, ac, ba, bc, ca, cb.
V du. 1.2.7 Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t chu ti.ch, mo.t pho chu ti.ch, mo.t thu. k
y v`a mo.t
.
.
.

thu qu
y t`
u mo.t nhom 10 ngu `o i?
`an dem so cac cach co th
`om 10
Ch
ung ta c
u. tu.. cua 4 ngu.`o.i du.o..c cho.n t`
u. mo.t nhom g
.
.
y 1.2.4 so cac cach cho.n l`a
ngu `o i. Theo Di.nh l
P (10, 4) = 10 9 8 7 = 5040.
Ch
uy
r`a ng c
ung co the suy ra ket qua tru..c tiep t`
u. nguyen l
y tch (ta.i sao?).
16

 ta co the di
`an di qua 7 di.a diem khac nhau. Ong
V du. 1.2.8 Mo.t ngu.`o.i ban h`ang rong c
.
.
theo th
u tu. bat k`
y. Co bao nhieu h`anh tr`nh khac nhau?
`om 7 ph
`an tu.:
So cac h`anh tr`nh co the co l`a so cac hoan vi. t`
u. ta.p g
P (7, 7) = 7! = 5040.
`an tnh toan v`a
Neu chang ha.n ong ta muon t`m h`anh tr`nh co do. d`ai ngan nhat, ong ta c

so sanh 5040 h`anh tr`nh ca thay!(?).

Ta co the viet
P (n, r) = n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1)
n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1)(n r) 2 1
=
(n r) 2 1
n!
=
.
(n r)!
- i.nh ngha 1.2.5 Xet ta.p X := {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } ch
`an tu. phan bie.t. Mo.t r-to ho..p
u.a n ph
D
`an tu., khong phan bie.t th
u. tu..
cua ta.p X l`a mo.t bo. r ph
, lay t`
u. ta.p n`ay. So cac r-to ho..p
n
`om n ph
`an tu. phan bie.t k
.
y hie.u l`a C(n, r) hay
cua ta.p g
r
`om
Ch
ung ta se xac di.nh cong th
u.c cho C(n, r) b`a ng cach dem so cac r-hoan vi. cua ta.p g
.
.
.
.
.
`

n phan tu theo hai cach. Th

u nha t, su du.ng cong th
u c P (n, r). Cach th
u hai l`a dem so cac
`om n ph
`an tu. co lien quan vo.i C(n, r). T`
r-hoan vi. cua ta.p g
u. do se suy ra ket qua.
- `au
`an tu. phan bie.t qua hai bu.o.c lien tiep: D
Ta co the xay du..ng r-hoan vi. cua ta.p n ph
.
.
.
.
`an tu khong phan bie.t th
tien, cho.n mo.t r-to ho. p cua X (ta.p con r ph
u tu. ) v`a sau do sap
.
.
.
th
u tu. no. Chang ha.n, de xay du. ng mo.t 2-hoan vi. cua {a, b, c, d} ta co the cho.n 2-to ho..p
v`a sau do sap th
u. tu.. no. Theo nguyen l
y tch, so cac r-hoan vi. b`a ng tch cua so cac r-to
.
.
.
`an tu.. T
ho. p v`a so cac cach sap th
u.c l`a
u tu. cua r ph
P (n, r) = C(n, r)r!.
Va.y
C(n, r) =

P (n, r)
.
r!

- i.nh l
Do do theo D
y 1.2.4 ta co
- .inh l
`an tu. phan bie.t l`a
D
y 1.2.6 So cac r-ho
an vi. cu a ta.p n ph
C(n, r) =

n!
,
(n r)!r!
17

r n.

.......

...
...
..
...
.
.......................................
....
...
...
...
...
..
..........................................................................
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
......................................

H`nh 1.1:
V du. 1.2.9 Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 5 ngu.`o.i t`
u. 10 ngu.`o.i de la.p th`anh mo.t do. i bong (khong
.
.
phan bie.t th
u tu. )?
`an tu.
Cau tra l`o.i l`a ba` ng so to ho..p cha.p 5 cua 10 ph
C(10, 5) =

10!
= 252.
5!5!

`om hai ngu.`o.i n

V du. 1.2.10 Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d`ong g
u. v`a ba ngu.`o.i nam
.
.
.
.
.
.
t`
u mo.t nhom nam ngu `o i n
u v`a sau ngu `o i nam?
So cach cho.n hai ngu.`o.i n
u. v`a ba ngu.`o.i nam tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a C(5, 2) = 10 v`a C(6, 3) = 20.
Ho.i d`ong du.o..c xay du..ng qua hai bu.o.c lien tiep: Cho.n ngu.`o.i n
u.; cho.n ngu.`o.i nam. Theo
nguyen l
y tch, tong so cac ho.i d`ong l`a 10 20 = 200.
u.a chnh xac bon bit 1?
V du. 1.2.11 Co bao nhieu chuoi tam bit ch
Mo.t chuoi tam bit ch
u.a bon bit 1 du.o..c xac di.nh duy nhat ngay khi ch
ung ta biet cac bit
.
.
.

`
`

n`ao ba ng 1. Nhu ng dieu n`ay co the thu. c hie.n bo i C(8, 4) cach.

V du. 1.2.12 Co bao nhieu h`anh tr`nh t`
u. goc du.o.i ben trai cua mo.t b`an c`o. vuong kch
ung ta ch di theo cach sang phai v`a len tren? Mo.t
thu.o.c n n den goc tren ben phai neu ch
.
.
.
h`anh tr`nh nhu va.y tren b`an c`o 4 4 du o..c cho trong H`nh 1.1.
y tu.. U.
y tu.. R v`a n k
Moi h`anh tr`nh co the du.o..c mo ta bo.i mo.t chuoi do. d`ai 2n cua n k
Chang ha.n, h`anh tr`nh trong H`nh 1.1 tu.o.ng u
.ng chuoi RU U RRU RU. Mo.t chuoi nhu. va.y
u. tu..) trong so 2n
co the nha.n du.o..c b`a ng cach cho.n n vi. tr doi vo.i R (khong phan bie.t th
.
.
vi. tr cho phep cua chuoi v`a sau do ch`en n k
y tu. U v`ao nh
u ng vi. tr c`on la.i. Do do so h`anh
tr`nh l`a C(2n, n).
18

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Co bao nhieu hoan vi. cua a, b, c, d? Lie.t ke cac hoan vi. n`ay.
2. Co bao nhieu 3-hoan vi. cua a, b, c, d? Lie.t ke cac hoan vi. n`ay.
3. Co bao nhieu hoan vi., 5-hoan vi. cua 11 doi tu.o..ng khac nhau?
4. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t chu ti.ch, mo.t pho chu ti.ch v`a mo.t thu. k
y t`
u. mo.t nhom
.
.
11 ngu `o i?
y
5. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t chu ti.ch, mo.t pho chu ti.ch, mo.t ke toan v`a mo.t thu. k
.
.
.
t`
u mo.t nhom 12 ngu `o i?
6. Co bao nhieu chuoi co phan bie.t th
u. tu.. du.o..c ta.o ra t`
u. cac k
y tu.. ABCDE neu:
(a) Ch
u.a chuoi con ACE.
y tu.. ACE theo th
u. tu.. t`
uy y
.
(b) Ch
u.a cac k
(c) Ch
u.a cac chuoi con DB v`a AE.
(d) Ch
u.a hoa.c chuoi con AE hoa.c EA.
(e) K
y tu.. A xuat hie.n tru.o.c k
y tu.. D. Chang ha.n BCAED, BCADE.
(f) Khong ch
u.a cac chuoi con AB, CD.
(g) K
y tu.. A xuat hie.n tru.o.c k
y tu.. C v`a C xuat hie.n tru.o.c E.
- a.t X := {a, b, c, d}.
7. D
(a) T`m so cac 3-to ho..p cua X. Lie.t ke cac to ho..p n`ay.
(b) T`m moi quan he. gi
u.a cac 3-to ho..p v`a 3-hoan vi. cua X.
`om ba ngu.`o.i t`
8. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d`ong g
u. nhom 11 ngu.`o.i?
`om bon ngu.`o.i t`
9. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d`ong g
u. nhom 12 ngu.`o.i?
`om sau ngu.`o.i nam v`a bay ngu.`o.i n
10. Mo.t cau la.c bo. g
u..
`om nam ngu.`o.i?
(a) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d`ong g
`om ba nam v`a bon n
(b) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d`ong g
u.?
`om bon ngu.`o.i v`a t nhat mo.t n
(c) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d`ong g
u.?
`om bon ngu.`o.i vo.i nhi
`eu nhat mo.t nam?
(d) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d`ong g
`om bon ngu.`o.i co ca nam v`a n
(e) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n mo.t ho.i d`ong g
u.?
u.a chnh xac ba bit 0?
11. (a) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit ch
(b) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit ch
u.a ba bit 0 v`a 5 bit 1?
(c) Co bao nhieu chuoi 8 bit ch
u.a t nhat hai bit 0?
19

12. Mo.t cu.a h`ang co 50 may tnh trong do co bon bi. hong.
(a) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n bon may tnh?
(b) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n bon may tnh khong hong?
(c) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n bon may tnh trong do co hai chiec bi. hong?
(d) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n bon may tnh trong do co t nhat mo.t chiec bi. hong?
13. Xet mo.t h`anh tr`nh tren b`an c`o. kch thu.o.c m n t`
u. goc trai ben du.o.i den goc tren
ben phai v`a theo hu.o.ng hoa.c sang phai hoa.c len tren.
(a) So h`anh tr`nh co the l`a bao nhieu?
du.ng de ch
(b) Ap
u.ng minh da ng th
u.c
n
X

C(k + m 1, k) = C(m + n, m).

k=0

`an xuat hie.n cua

14. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng so cac chuoi bit do. d`ai n 4 ch
u.a chnh xac hai l
chuoi bit 10 l`a C(n + 1, 5).
15. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng so cac chuoi bit do. d`ai n ch
u.a chnh xac k bit 0 sao cho hai bit 0
khong xuat hie.n lien tiep l`a C(n k + 1, k).
16. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng tch cua k so nguyen lien tiep chia het cho k!.
`an tu. phan
17. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng co (2n 1)(2n 3) . . . 3 1 cach cho.n n ca.p t`
u. 2n ph
bie.t.
18. Gia su. co n doi tu.o..ng trong do co r doi tu.o..ng phan bie.t v`a n r l`a d`ong nhat. Ch
u.ng
minh cong th
u.c
P (n, r) = r!C(n, r)
b`a ng cach dem so co phan bie.t th
u. tu.. cua n doi tu.o..ng theo hai cach:
- `au tien dem so co phan bie.t th
+D
u. tu.. cac vi. tr cua r doi tu.o..ng phan bie.t.
- `au tien dem so co phan bie.t th
+D
u. tu.. cac vi. tr cua n r doi tu.o..ng d`ong nhat.

1.3

C
ac thu
a.t to
an sinh ra ho
an vi. v`
a t
o ho..p

- a.i ho.c D
- `a La.t co n b`ai hat c
`an ghi len mo.t da CD. Cac b`ai
Nhom nha.c rock cua tru.`o.ng D
.
.ng l`a
hat chiem th`o i gian (tnh b`a ng giay) tu.o.ng u
t1 , t 2 , . . . , t n .
20

(1.1)

- a CD co the lu.u tr
`eu nhat l`a C giay. V` day l`a da CD d`au tien cua nhom, nen ho.
D
u. nhi
.
`eu c`ang tot. Do do b`ai toan l`a cho.n mo.t ta.p
muon ghi cac b`ai hat vo i th`o.i lu.o..ng c`ang nhi

con {i1 , i2 , . . . , ik } cua {1, 2, . . . , n} sao cho to ng

k
X

tij

j=1

khong vu.o..t qua C v`a lo.n nhat co the. Cach tiep ca.n l`a kiem tra tat ca cac ta.p con cua
- e thu..c hie.n ch
{1, 2, . . . , n} v`a cho.n mo.t ta.p con sao cho tong (1.1) lo.n nhat co the. D
ung
`om n ph
`an tu.. Ph
`an n`ay tr`nh b`ay
`an mo.t thua.t toan ta.o ra tat ca cac to ho..p cua ta.p g
ta c
cac thua.t toan sinh ra cac hoan vi. v`a to ho..p.
`om n ph
`an tu. nen th`o.i gian thu..c hie.n cua thua.t toan kiem tra
Do co 2n ta.p con cua ta.p g
tat ca cac ta.p con t nhat l`a O(2n ). Nh
u.ng thua.t toan nhu. va.y l`a khong ho..p l
y ngoa.i tr`
u.
vo.i nh
u.ng gia tri. n nho. Tuy nhien co nh
u.ng b`ai toan m`a de giai no khong co cach n`ao tot
.
.
.
.
ho n l`a lie.t ke tat ca cac tru `o ng ho. p.
Phu.o.ng phap lie.t ke tat ca cac to ho..p v`a cac hoan vi. theo th
u. tu.. t`
u. dien: Vo.i hai t`
u.
.
.
.
.
.
.
da cho, de xac di.nh t`
u n`ao du
ng tru o c trong t`
u dien, ch
ung ta so sanh cac k
y tu. trong t`
u..
Co hai kha nang:
(a) Moi k
y tu.. trong t`
u. ngan ho.n tr`
ung vo.i k
y tu.. tu.o.ng u
.ng trong t`
u. d`ai ho.n.
(b) Ta.i mo.t vi. tr n`ao do, cac k
y tu.. trong hai t`
u. khac nhau.
Neu (a) du
ng, t`
u. ngan ho.n se du
.ng tru.o.c. Chang ha.n, dog du
.ng tru.o.c doghouse
.
trong t`
u dien. Neu (b) du
ng ch
ung ta xac di.nh vi. tr ben trai nhat p m`a ta.i do cac k
y tu..
khac nhau. Th
u. tu.. cua cac t`
u. tu.. cua cac k
u. du.o.c xac di.nh bo.i th
y tu.. ta.i vi. tr p. Chang
u. dien.
ha.n, nha du
.ng tru.o.c nhanh trong t`
- e do.n gian ta se di.nh ngha th
D
u. tu.. t`
u. dien tren ta.p cac k
y hie.u l`a cac so tu.. nhien.
- i.nh ngha 1.3.1 Gia su. = s1 s2 . . . sp v`a = t1 t2 . . . tq l`a cac chuoi tren ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n}.
D
Ta noi co th
u. tu.. t`
u. dien nho ho.n , k
y hie.u < , neu hoa.c
(a) p < q v`a si = ti vo.i i = 1, 2, . . . , p; hoa.c
`on ta.i i sao cho si 6= ti , v`a vo.i ch so i nho nhat nhu. va.y, ta co si < ti .
(b) T
V du. 1.3.1 Tren ta.p {1, 2, 3, 4} ta co = 132 < = 1324. Tren ta.p {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ta co
= 13246 < = 1342.
- `au tien ta xet b`ai toan lie.t ke tat ca cac r-to ho..p cua ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n}. Trong thua.t
D
toan, ch
ung ta se lie.t ke r-to ho..p {x1 , x2 , . . . , xr } tu.o.ng u
.ng chuoi s1 s2 . . . sr trong do
21

s1 < s2 < < sr v`a {x1 , x2 , . . . , xr } = {s1 , s2 , . . . , sr }. Chang ha.n, 3-to ho..p {6, 2, 4} se
tu.o.ng u
.ng chuoi 246.
Ta se lie.t ke cac r-to ho..p cua ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n} theo th
u. tu.. t`
u. dien. Do do, cac chuoi du.o..c
.
.
.
lie.t ke d`au tien v`a cuoi c`
ung tu o ng u
ng l`a 12 . . . r v`a (n r + 1) . . . n.
V du. 1.3.2 Lie.t ke tat ca 5-to ho..p cua {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
Chuoi d`au tien l`a 12345, theo sau l`a 12346 v`a 12347. Chuoi ke tiep l`a 12356 v`a sau do
12357. Chuoi cuoi c`
ung l`a 34567.
V du. 1.3.3 T`m chuoi tiep theo 13467 khi ch
ung ta lie.t ke 5-to ho..p cua ta.p ho..p X :=
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
`an tu. cua X
Khong co chuoi n`ao bat d`au vo.i 134 v`a cac bieu dien cua mo.t to ho..p 5 ph
phai lo.n ho.n 13467. Do do chuoi tiep theo 13467 phai bat d`au l`a 135. V` 13567 l`a chuoi
`an tu. cua X nen 13567 l`a to ho..p phai
nho nhat bat d`au ba` ng 135 v`a l`a mo.t to ho..p cua 5 ph
t`m.
ung ta lie.t ke 4-to ho..p cua ta.p ho..p X :=
V du. 1.3.4 T`m chuoi tiep theo 2367 khi ch
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
`an tu. cua X
Khong co chuoi n`ao bat d`au vo.i 23 v`a cac bieu dien cua mo.t to ho..p 4 ph
phai lo.n ho.n 2367. Do do chuoi tiep theo 2367 phai bat d`au l`a 24. V` 2456 l`a chuoi nho
`an tu. cua X nen 2456 l`a to ho..p phai t`m.
nhat bat d`au b`a ng 24 v`a l`a mo.t to ho..p cua 5 ph
- e t`m chuoi ke tiep =
Xet chuoi = s1 s2 . . . sr bieu dien to ho..p {x1 , x2 , . . . , xr }. D
.

`
t1 t2 . . . tr ta t`m phan tu ben phai nha t sm m`a khong phai l`a gia tri. cu..c da.i cua no ta.i do.
(sr co the lay gia tri. cu..c da.i n, sr1 co the lay gia tri. cu..c da.i n 1, . . . ). Khi do
ti = si ,

vo.i i = 1, 2, . . . , m 1.

`an tu. tm b`a ng sm + 1. Nh

`an tu. c`on la.i cua chuoi xac d.inh bo.i
Ph
u.ng ph
tm+1 = sm + 2,

tm+2 = sm + 3, . . . .

Thu
a.t to
an sinh c
ac t
o ho..p
- a.t si = i, i = 1, 2 . . . , r.
Bu.o.c 1. [Kho.i ta.o chuoi] D
Bu.o.c 2. [Xuat to ho..p d`au tien] Xuat chuoi s = s1 s2 . . . sr .
Bu.o.c 3. [La.p] Vo.i moi i = 2, 3, . . . , C(n, r) thu..c hie.n cac bu.o.c sau:
22

`an tu. ben phai nhat khong phai l`a gia tri. cu..c da.i cua no.
3.1. T`m ph
3.2. (Gia tri. cu..c da.i cua sk du.o..c d.inh ngha l`a n r + k).
- a.t sm = sm + 1.
3.3. D
3.4. Vo.i moi j = m + 1, . . . , r, da. t sj = sj1 + 1.
3.5. Xuat s.
V du. 1.3.5 Xet ta.p {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Gia su.
s1 = 2, s2 = 3, s3 = 4, s4 = 6, s5 = 7.
du.ng
`an tu. ben phai nhat khong phai l`a gia tri. cu..c da.i cua no ta.i do. Ap
Ta co s3 l`a ph
thua.t toan tren, ta co chuoi tiep theo 23467 l`a 23567.
V du. 1.3.6 Thua.t toan ta.o 4-to ho..p cua {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} cho ta
1234, 1235, 1236, 1246, 1256, 1345, 1346,
1356, 1456, 2345, 2346, 2356, 3456.
Tu.o.ng tu.. thua.t toan sinh cac to ho..p, thua.t toan sinh cac hoan vi. se lie.t ke theo th
u. tu..
t`
u. dien.
- e xay du..ng hoan vi. cua ta.p {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} sau hoan vi. 163542, ch
`an
ung ta c
V du. 1.3.7 D
.

`eu nhat co the.

co d.inh cac ch
u so ben trai nhi
`on ta.i hoan vi. tiep theo hoan vi. 1635 ? V` hoan vi. co da.ng 1635 khac hoan vi. da cho
T
l`a 163524 v`a 163524 nho ho.n 163542 nen hoan vi. sau 163542 khong the co da.ng 1635 .
`on ta.i hoan vi. tiep theo hoan vi. 163 ? Ba ch
T
u. so cuoi c`
ung phai l`a mo.t hoan vi. cua
.
{2, 4, 5}. V` 542 l`a hoan vi. lo n nhat cua {2, 4, 5} nen hoan vi. bat k`
y vo.i ba ch
u. so bat d`au
163 nho ho.n hoan vi. 63542. Va.y hoan vi. sau hoan vi. da cho khong the co da.ng 163 .
Hoan vi. tiep theo cua 163542 khong the bat d`au l`a 1635 hay 163 do hoa.c cac ch
u. so c`on
la.i trong hoan vi. da cho (42 v`a 542, tu.o.ng u
.ng) l`a giam. Do do, bat d`au t`
u. ben phai, ch
ung
.
.
`

`
ta can t`m ch
u so dau tien d m`a lan ca.n ben phai cua no l`a r thoa man d < r. Trong tru `o.ng
.
u. so th
u. ba: 3 co tnh chat n`ay. Va.y hoan vi. tiep theo hoan vi. da cho se bat
ho. p tren, ch
d`au l`a 16. Ch
u. so tiep theo khong the nho ho.n 3. V` ta muon hoan vi. tiep theo nho nhat,
.
u. so c`on la.i: 235
nen ch
u so ke tiep l`a 4. Do do hoan vi. tiep theo bat d`au vo.i 164. Cac ch
`an tang vo.i gia tri. nho nhat. Va.y hoan vi. tiep theo hoan vi. da cho l`a 16435.
c
Nha.n xet r`a ng de ta.o tat ca cac hoan vi. cua ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n} ch
ung ta co the bat d`au vo.i
hoan vi. 12 . . . n v`a la.p la.i phu.o.ng phap cua V du. 1.3.7 de ta.o hoan vi. ke tiep. Thua.t toan
ket th
uc khi ta.o ra hoan vi. n(n 1) . . . 21.
23

 du.ng phu.o.ng phap cua V du. 1.3.7, ta co the lie.t ke tat ca cac hoan vi. cua
V du. 1.3.8 Ap
{1, 2, 3, 4} theo th
u. tu.. t`
u. dien nhu. sau:
1234, 1243,
2314, 2341,
3412, 3421,

1324,
2413,
4123,

1342,
2431,
4132,

1423, 1432,
3124, 3142,
4213, 4231,

2134,
3214,
4312,

2143,
3241,
4321.

Thu
a.t to
an sinh c
ac ho
an vi.
- a.t si = i, i = 1, 2 . . . , n.
Bu.o.c 1. [Kho.i ta.o chuoi] D
Bu.o.c 2. [Xuat hoan vi. d`au tien] Xuat chuoi s = s1 s2 . . . sn .
Bu.o.c 3. [La.p] Vo.i moi i = 2, 3, . . . , n! thu..c hie.n cac bu.o.c sau:
3.1. T`m ch so lo.n nhat m thoa man s < s
.
m

m+1

3.2. T`m ch so lo.n nhat k thoa man sk > sm .

`an tu. sm v`a sk .
3.3. Hoan vi. hai ph
- ao ngu.o..c th
`an tu. sm+1 , . . . , sn .
3.4. D
u. tu.. cua cac ph
3.5. Xuat s.
du.ng thua.t toan tren t`m hoan vi. tiep theo 163542: Gia su.
V du. 1.3.9 Ap
s1 = 1, s2 = 6, s3 = 3, s4 = 5, s5 = 4, s6 = 2.
Ch so m lo.n nhat thoa sm < sm+1 l`a 3. Ch so k lo.n nhat thoa sk > sm l`a 5. Hoan vi. sm
- ao ngu.o..c th
`an tu. s4 , s5 , s6 ta nha.n du.o..c hoan vi.
v`a sk ta co s3 = 4, s5 = 3. D
u. tu.. cac ph
tiep theo l`a 164235.

B`
ai t
a.p
1. T`m r-to ho..p sinh ra bo.i thua.t toan sinh to ho..p vo.i n = 7 sau khi r-to ho..p du.o..c cho:
1356, 12367, 14567.
2. T`m hoan vi. sinh ra bo.i thua.t toan sinh hoan vi. sau hoan vi. du.o..c cho: 12354, 625431,
12876543.
`an tu. neu
3. T`m tat ca r-to ho..p t`
u. ta.p n ph
(a) n = 6, r = 3.
(b) n = 6, r = 2.
(c) n = 7, r = 5.
`an tu..
4. T`m cac hoan vi. cua ta.p hai, ba ph
24

5. Viet thua.t toan de. quy sinh ra tat ca cac r-to ho..p cua ta.p {s1 , s2 , . . . , sn }. Chia b`ai
toan th`anh hai b`ai toan con:
u.a s1 .
+ Lie.t ke cac r-to ho..p ch
+ Lie.t ke cac r-to ho..p khong ch
u.a s1 .
6. Viet thua.t toan de. quy sinh ra tat ca cac hoan vi. cua ta.p {s1 , s2 , . . . , sn }. Chia b`ai
toan th`anh n b`ai toan con:
+ Lie.t ke cac hoan vi. bat d`au vo.i s1 .
+ Lie.t ke cac hoan vi. bat d`au vo.i s2 .
..
.
+ Lie.t ke cac hoan vi. bat d`au vo.i sn .

1.4

Ho
an vi. v`
a t
o ho..p suy r
o.ng

Trong cac mu.c tru.o.c, ch

ung ta da nghien c
u.u cac hoan vi. v`a to ho..p khong cho phep la.p la.i
`an n`ay t`m hieu cac hoan vi. cua cac day ch
`an tu.. Ph
`an tu. la.p la.i v`a cac
u.a nh
cac ph
u.ng ph
phep cho.n khong phan bie.t th
u. tu.. co la.p la.i. Tru.o.c het ta xet v du. sau.
`eu van d`e dem, cac ph
`an tu. co the la.p la.i; chang ha.n co bao nhieu
V du. 1.4.1 Trong nhi
.
.
xau khac nhau co do. d`ai n t`
u bang 26 ch
u cai?
`om
u. cai du.o..c r
Hien nhien o. day, co the coi cac ch
ut ra co ho`an la.i. Mo.t xau do. d`ai n g
.
.
n ch
u cai. Moi ch
u cai co 26 cach cho.n lu..a. Theo nguyen l
y tch, so xau co the l`a
n
26
| 26
{z 26} = 26 .
`an
n l

- .inh l
`a ng nr .
`an tu. b
D
y 1.4.1 So cac r-ho
an vi. co la.p la.i cu a ta.p n ph
du.ng nguyen
Ch
u.ng minh. Co n cach cho.n cho moi vi. tr trong r-hoan vi. (v` co la.p la.i). Ap
r
l
y tch, so cac r-hoan vi. co la.p la.i b`a ng n . 2
V du. 1.4.2 Xet chuoi SU CCESS. Co bao nhieu chuoi khac nhau co the co khi sap xep
la.i cac k
y tu.. cua chuoi n`ay?
Tru.o.c het ch
y tu.. C, mo.t
uy
ra` ng trong chuoi SU CCESS do. d`ai 7 co ba k
y tu.. S, hai k
y tu.. E. Nh
u.ng k
ung khong
k
y tu.. U v`a mo.t k
y tu.. n`ay l`a khong phan bie.t, nen hoan vi. ch
.

ta.o ra chuoi mo i.
25

Co tat ca 7! chuoi l`a hoan vi. cua chuoi SU CCESS. Ba k

y tu.. S hoan vi. ta.o ra 3! chuoi;
hai k
y tu.. C hoan vi. ta.o ra 2! chuoi; mo.t k
y tu.. U hoan vi. ta.o ra 1! chuoi; v`a mo.t k
y tu.. E
hoan vi. ta.o ra 1! chuoi. Va.y so chuoi tha.t su.. khac nhau l`a
7!
.
3!2!1!1!
V du. 1.4.3 Xet chuoi M ISSISSIP P I. Co bao nhieu chuoi khac nhau co the co khi sap
xep la.i cac k
y tu.. cua chuoi n`ay?
`en v`ao 11 cho trong
Xet b`ai toan di
,
vo.i cac k
y tu.. da cho. Co C(11, 2) cach cho.n cac vi. tr doi vo.i P. Khi da cho.n xong P, ta co
C(9, 4) cach cho.n cac vi. tr doi vo.i S. Khi da cho.n S, co C(5, 4) cach cho.n cac vi. tr doi vo.i
`en cac k
I. Cuoi c`
ung ch c`on mo.t cach cho.n M. Theo nguyen l
y tch, so cac cach de di
y tu..
l`a
11! 9! 5!
2!9! 4!5! 4!1!
11!
=
2!4!4!1!
= 34.650.

C(11, 2)C(9, 4)C(5, 4) =

Tong quat ta co
- i.nh l
`an tu. S c
D
y 1.4.2 Gia su. d
ay n ph
o n1 d
oi tu.o..ng loa.i 1, n2 d
oi tu.o..ng loa.i 2, ..., v`a
nt d
oi tu.o..ng loa.i t. Khi d
o so cac cach cho.n day S l`
a
n!
.
n1 !n2 ! . . . nt !
u.
Ch
u.ng minh. Ta gan cac vi. tr doi vo.i moi day do. d`ai n cac doi tu.o..ng de ta.o ra mo.t th
tu.. trong S. Co C(n, n1 ) cach cho.n cac vi. tr doi vo.i cac doi tu.o..ng loa.i 1. Khi da cho.n xong
cac doi tu.o..ng n`ay, ta co C(n n1 , n2 ) cach cho.n cac vi. tr doi vo.i cac doi tu.o..ng loa.i 2, v`a
van van. Theo nguyen l
y tch, so cac cach de thu..c hie.n l`a
C(n, n1 )C(n n1 , n2 ) C(n n1 n2 nt1 , nt )
`eu c
`an ch
v`a do do co di
u.ng minh. 2
Ke tiep ch
ung ta khao sat b`ai toan dem cac phep cho.n khong phan bie.t th
u. tu.. co la.p la.i.
26

V du. 1.4.4 Xet ba loa.i sach: sach may tnh, sach va.t l
y v`a sach li.ch su.. Gia su. thu. vie.n
co t nhat sau cuon sach moi loa.i. Co bao nhieu cach co the cho.n sau cuon sach?
`an tu. khong phan bie.t th
B`ai toan l`a lay sau ph
u. tu.. t`
u. ta.p {may tnh, va.t l
y, li.ch su.} cho
.
.
.
phep la.p la.i. Mo.t phep cho.n du o. c xac di.nh duy nhat bo i so moi kieu sach du.o..c cho.n. K
y
hie.u
May tnh
Va.t l
y
Li.ch su.
| |

co ngha l`a phep cho.n ba cuon sach may tnh, hai sach va.t l
y v`a mo.t sach li.ch su.. Nha.n xet
r`a ng moi th
u. tu.. cua sau k
y hie.u v`a hai k
y hie.u | tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t phep cho.n. Do do b`ai
toan l`a dem so cac th
u. tu... Va.y co the thu..c hie.n b`a ng C(8, 2) = 28 cach.
- i.nh l
`om t ph
`an tu. th` so phep cho.n k ph
`an tu. kh
ong phan bie.t
D
y 1.4.3 Neu X l`
a ta.p g
.
.
.
th
u tu. t`
u X cho phep la.p l`a
C(k + t 1, t 1) = C(k + t 1, k).
- a.t X := {a1 , a2 , . . . , at }. Xet k + t 1 khoang trang
Ch
u.ng minh. D
...
`om k k
g
y hie.u v`a t 1 k
y hie.u |. Moi vi. tr cua k
y hie.u n`ay tren cac khoang trang xac
`an tu.
d.inh mo.t phep cho.n. n1 k
y hie.u den k
y hie.u | d`au tien tu.o.ng u
.ng phep cho.n n1 ph
`an tu. a2 ; v`a van van. Ta
a1 ; n2 k
y hie.u den k
y hie.u | th
u. hai tu.o.ng u
.ng phep cho.n n2 ph
co C(k + t 1, t 1) cach cho.n cac vi. tr cho | nen co C(k + t 1, t 1) cach cho.n. Gia tri.
n`ay b`a ng C(k + t 1, k), so cach cho.n cac vi. tr cua ; do do co
C(k + t 1, t 1) = C(k + t 1, k)
`an tu. khong phan bie.t th
cach cho.n k ph
u. tu.. t`
u. ta.p X cho phep la.p la.i. 2
V du. 1.4.5 Co cac ho.p ch
u.a cac qua bong m`au do, xanh v`a v`ang. Moi ho.p ch
u.a t nhat
tam qua bong. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n tam qua bong? Co bao nhieu cach cho.n tam qua
bong, moi m`au t nhat mo.t qua bong?
- i.nh l
(a) Theo D
y 1.4.3, so cach cho.n tam qua bong l`a
C(8 + 3 1, 3 1) = C(10, 2) = 45.
- `au tien cho.n mo.t qua bong moi m`au; sau do cho.n them nam qua bong. Theo D
- .inh l
(b) D
y
1.4.3 ta co
C(5 + 3 1, 3 1) = C(7, 2) = 21
cach.
27

V du. 1.4.6 (a) Co bao nhieu nghie.m nguyen khong am cua phu.o.ng tr`nh
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 29?

(1.2)

`an tu. xi co kieu

Moi nghie.m cua phu.o.ng tr`nh (1.2) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i phep cho.n 29 ph
- i.nh l
i, i = 1, 2, 3, 4. Theo D
y 1.4.3 so phep cho.n l`a
C(29 + 4 1, 4 1) = C(32, 3) = 4960.
(b) Co bao nhieu nghie.m nguyen cua phu.o.ng tr`nh (1.2) thoa man
x1 > 0,

x2 > 1,

x3 > 2,

x4 0?

`eu kie.n da cho tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i phep cho.n 29 ph

`an tu. xi
Moi nghie.m cua (1.2) thoa di
`an t nhat mo.t ph
`an tu. co kieu 1, t nhat hai ph
`an tu. co
co kieu i, i = 1, 2, 3, 4, sao cho c
.
.
- `au tien cho.n mo.t ph
`an tu co kieu 3. D
`an tu co kieu 1, hai ph
`an tu. co
kieu 2, t nhat ba ph
- i.nh l
`an tu. co kieu 3. Sau do cho.n them 23 ph
`an tu. c`on la.i. Theo D
kieu 2 v`a ba ph
y 1.4.3

so phep cho.n l`a

C(23 + 4 1, 4 1) = C(26, 3) = 2600.
`an n`ay vo.i vie.c mo. ro.ng nguyen l
Ch
ung ta ket th
uc ph
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u..
`an tnh #(A B C). Nha.n xet l`a
Xet tru.`o.ng ho..p co ba su.. kie.n A, B, C. Ta c
`an du.o..c tnh mo.t l
`an, hai l
`an v`a ba l
`an (H`nh 1.2(a));
(a) Neu lay #A + #B + #C : co ph
`an khong du.o..c
(b) Neu lay #A + #B + #C #(A B) #(A C) #(B C) : co ph
`an n`ao (H`nh 1.2(b));
tnh l
(c) Neu lay #A + #B + #C #(A B) #(A C) #(B C) + #(A B C) : moi
`an du.o..c tnh du
`an (H`nh 1.2(c)).
ph
ng mo.t l
Va.y
#(A B C) = #A + #B + #C #(A B) #(A C) #(B C) + #(A B C).
Tong quat ta co
- i.nh l
D
y 1.4.4 Gia su. c
o
o m su.. kie.n A1 , A2 , . . . Am . Khi d
#(A1 A2 Am ) =

m
X
i=1

#Ai

1i<jm
m+1

+ + (1)

#(Ai Aj ) +

X
1i<j<km

#(A1 A2 Am ).

28

#(Ai Aj Ak )

.........
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.
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3
2

(a)

(b)

(c)

H`nh 1.2:
`an tu. a bat k`
Ch
u.ng minh. Ta se ch
y thuo.c ta.p A1 A2 Am
u.ng minh r`a ng lay mo.t ph
.
.
.

`an o ve phai.
th` a c
ung du o. c ke den du
ng mo.t l
`an tu. n`ay da
ng r ta.p, chang ha.n trong A1 A2 Ar , r m. Ph
Gia su. a thuo.c du
du.o..c tnh
P
`an trong m
+ C(r, 1) l
i=1 #Ai ;
P
`an trong m
+ C(r, 2) l
i=1 #(Ai Aj );
...
`an trong
+ C(r, m) l

Pm
i=1

#(Ai1 Ai2 Aim ).

`an l`a
Va.y no da du.o..c tnh tong co.ng so l
C(r, 1) C(r, 2) + C(r, 3) + (1)m+1 C(r, r).
Nhu.ng
C(r, 0) C(r, 1) + C(r, 2) + (1)r C(r, r) = 0
`an tu. a da du.o..c tnh
v`a C(r, 0) = 1. Va.y ph
C(r, 1) C(r, 2) + C(r, 3) + (1)r+1 C(r, r) = 1
`an. 2
l
V du. 1.4.7 Co bao nhieu nghie.m nguyen khong am cua phu.o.ng tr`nh
x1 + x2 + x3 = 11
29

`eu kie.n x1 3, x2 4 v`a x3 6?

vo.i di
Tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. V du. 1.4.6, ta co
+ Tong so nghie.m nguyen khong am cua phu.o.ng tr`nh (1.4.7) l`a
C(3 + 11 1, 11) = 78.
`eu kie.n x1 4 l`a
+ So nghie.m vo.i di
C(3 + 7 1, 7) = C(9, 7) = 36.
`eu kie.n x2 5 l`a
+ So nghie.m vo.i di
C(3 + 6 1, 6) = C(8, 6) = 28.
`eu kie.n x3 7 l`a
+ So nghie.m vo.i di
C(3 + 4 1, 4) = C(6, 4) = 15.
`eu kie.n x1 4, x2 5 l`a
+ So nghie.m vo.i di
C(3 + 2 1, 2) = C(4, 2) = 6.
`eu kie.n x1 4, x3 7 l`a
+ So nghie.m vo.i di
C(3 + 0 1, 0) = C(2, 0) = 1.
`eu kie.n x2 5, x3 7 b`a ng 0.
+ So nghie.m vo.i di
`eu kie.n x1 4, x2 4, x3 7 b`a ng 0.
+ So nghie.m vo.i di
- i.nh l
Theo D
y 1.4.4 so nghie.m do`i hoi l`a
78 36 28 15 + 6 + 1 + 0 0 = 6.
- i.nh l
D
y 1.4.5 Gia su. m, n l`
a cac so nguyen du.o.ng khac nhau, m n. Khi d
o co
nm C(n, 1)(n 1)m + C(n, 2)(n 2)m + (1)n1 C(n, n 1)1m
`an tu..
`an tu. den ta.p co n ph
anh xa. len khac nhau t`

u. ta.p m ph
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
V du. 1.4.8 Gia su. co nam cong vie.c v`a bon ngu.`o.i xin vie.c. Co bao nhieu cach phan cong
vie.c khac nhau neu moi ngu.`o.i phai du.o..c phan cong t nhat mo.t cong vie.c?
Moi phu.o.ng phap phan cong tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t anh xa. len t`
u. ta.p cac cong vie.c den ta.p
.
.
.
.
.
.
ngu `o i. Theo gia thiet, moi ngu `o i d`eu du o. c phan cong t nhat mo.t cong vie.c, cac anh xa. l`a
du.ng D
- i.nh l
len. Ap
y 1.4.5 vo.i m = 5, n = 4 ta co so cach phan cong cong vie.c b`a ng so cac
anh xa. len khac nhau v`a ba` ng
45 C(4, 1)35 + C(4, 2)25 C(4, 3)15 = 1024 972 + 192 4 = 240.
30

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Co bao nhieu chuoi khac nhau co the co khi sap xep la.i cac k
y tu.. cua cac chuoi sau:
(a) GU IDE.
(b) SCHOOL.
(c) SALEP ERSON S.
2. Co bao nhieu cach chia 10 cuon sach cho ba sinh vien sao cho sinh vien th
u. nhat co
.
.
u ba co hai cuon?
nam cuon, sinh vien th
u hai co ba cuon v`a sinh vien th
3. Gia su. co cac ho.p ch
u.a cac qua bong m`au xanh, do v`a v`ang. Moi ho.p ch
u.a t nhat
10 qua.
(a) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 10 qua bong?
(b) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 10 qua bong vo.i t nhat mo.t qua m`au do?
(c) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 10 qua bong vo.i t nhat mo.t qua m`au do, t nhat hai qua
m`au xanh v`a t nhat ba qua m`au v`ang?
d. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 10 qua bong vo.i du
ng mo.t qua m`au do?
.
e. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n 10 qua bong vo i du
ng mo.t qua m`au do v`a t nhat mo.t qua
m`au xanh?
4. T`m so nghie.m nguyen cua phu.o.ng tr`nh
x1 + x2 + x3 = 15
neu
(a) x1 0, x2 0, x3 0.
(b) x1 = 1, x2 0, x3 0.
(c) 6 x1 0, x2 0, x3 0.
(d) x1 1, x2 1, x3 1.
(e) x1 0, x2 > 0, x3 = 1.
(f) 6 > x1 0, 9 > x2 1, x3 0.
5. T`m so nghie.m nguyen cua phu.o.ng tr`nh
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 15
neu 0 x1 4, 0 x2 5, 0 x3 9.
6. Co bao nhieu so nguyen trong ta.p {1, 2, . . . , 1000000} co tong cac ch
u. so b`a ng 15?
u. so b`a ng 20?
7. Co bao nhieu so nguyen trong ta.p {1, 2, . . . , 1000000} co tong cac ch
u. mo.t nhom
8. Co bao nhieu cach cho.n ba do.i: mo.t do. i bon ngu.`o.i, hai do.i hai ngu.`o.i t`
.
.
tam ngu `o i?
31

9. Mo.t t
ui sach ch
u.a 20 qua bong: sau do, sau xanh v`a tam tm.
(a) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n nam qua bong neu cac qua bong du.o..c xem l`a phan bie.t?
(b) Co bao nhieu cach cho.n nam qua bong neu cac qua bong c`
ung m`au du.o..c xem l`a
d`ong nhat?
10. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng (n!)k chia het (kn)!.
11. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng
n+k2
X

C(i, k 1) = C(n + k 1, k 1).

i=k1

12. Viet thua.t toan t`m tat ca cac nghie.m nguyen khong am cua phu.o.ng tr`nh
x1 + x2 + x3 = n

1.5

(n N).

`ong nh
C
ac h
e. s
o nhi. th
u.c v`
a c
ac d

at th
u.c

- i.nh l
- i.nh l
y nhi. th
u.c) Neu a v`a b l`
D
y 1.5.1 (D
a cac so thu..c v`a n l`
a so tu.. nhien th`
n

(a + b) =

n
X

C(n, k)ank bk .

k=0

- e co mo.t th`anh
Ch
u.ng minh. Khi khai trien (a + b)n cac t`
u. co da.ng ank bk , k = 0, 1, . . . , n. D
nk
k
.
`an a b c
`an co du
ph
ng n k ch
u a trong tong so n vi. tr (v`a keo theo co du
ng k ch
u. b).
- i
`eu n`ay co the thu..c hie.n b`a ng C(n, k) cach. Do do ank bk xuat hie.n C(n, k) l
`an. Suy ra
D
(a + b)n = C(n, 0)an b0 + C(n, 1)an1 b1 + + C(n, n)a0 bn .
2
Chnh v` l
y do tren m`a C(n, r) du.o..c go.i l`a he. so nhi. th
u.c.
V du. 1.5.1 T`m he. so cua a5 b4 trong khai trien cua (a + b)9 .
- i.nh l
Theo D
y nhi. th
u.c, he. so cua a5 b4 trong khai trien (a + b)9 l`a
C(9, 4) =

9!
= 126.
4!5!

V du. 1.5.2 Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
n
X

(1)k C(n, k) = 0.

k=0

32

Ta co
n

0 = [1 + (1)] =

n
X

C(n, k)1

nk

n
X
(1) =
(1)k C(n, k).
k

k=0

k=0

- i.nh l
y nhi. th
u.c ta co
V du. 1.5.3 Su. du.ng D
n

2 = (1 + 1) =

n
X

C(n, k).

k=0

- .inh l
- ang th
D
y 1.5.2 (D
u.c Pascal)
C(n + 1, k) = C(n, k 1) + C(n, k)
v
o.i 1 k n.
`om n ph
`an tu.. Cho.n a
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. X l`a ta.p g
/ X. Ta co C(n + 1, k) l`a so cac ta.p
.
`an tu cua ta.p Y := X {a}. Moi ta.p con k ph
`an tu. cua Y co the chia th`anh hai
con k ph
lo.p:
+ Cac ta.p con cua Y khong ch
u.a a.
+ Cac ta.p con cua Y ch
u.a a.
`om k ph
`an tu. v`a do do co C(n, k)
Cac ta.p con thuo.c nhom th
u. nhat l`a cac ta.p con cua X g
.
ta.p con nhu va.y.
`an tu. cua X vo.i
Cac ta.p con thuo.c nhom th
u. hai l`a cac ta.p l`a ho..p cua ta.p con (k 1) ph
.
.
`om mo.t ph
`an tu a v`a do do co C(n, k 1) ta.p con nhu va.y. Suy ra
ta.p g
C(n + 1, k) = C(n, k 1) + C(n, k).
2
u.ng minh da ng th
u.c
V du. 1.5.4 Ch
n
X

C(i, k) = C(n + 1, k + 1).

i=k

- i.nh l
Theo D
y 1.5.2

C(i, k) = C(i + 1, k + 1) C(i, k + 1).

Va.y
n
X
i=k

C(i, k) =

n
X

C(i + 1, k + 1)

i=k

= C(n + 1, k + 1).
33

n
X
i=k

C(i, k + 1)

V du. 1.5.5 T`
u. dang th
u.c (1.5.4) ta co
1 + 2 + + n = C(1, 1) + C(2, 1) + + C(n, 1)
= C(n + 1, 2)
(n + 1)n
=
.
2
- i.nh l
- ang th
D
y 1.5.3 (D
u.c Vandermonde)
C(m + n, r) =

r
X

C(m, k)C(n, r k)

k=0

v
o.i r min(m, n).
`om m, n ph
`an tu. phan bie.t. Lay ta.p S g
`om
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. cac ta.p T1 , T2 tu.o.ng u
.ng g
.
.
.
`an tu t`
u hai ta.p n`ay. So cac ta.p S nhu va.y ba` ng C(m + n, r).
r ph
`om
Ma.t khac, ta.p S co the g
`an tu. thuo.c ta.p T1 . So cac ta.p con nhu. va.y b`a ng C(m, k);
+ k ph
`an tu. thuo.c ta.p T2 . So cac ta.p con nhu. va.y b`a ng C(n, r k);
+ (r k) ph
vo.i 0 k r.
`eu c
`an ch
Theo nguyen l
y tch, sau do nguyen l
y tong ta co di
u.ng minh. 2

B`
ai t
a.p
- i.nh l
1. Su. du.ng D
y nhi. th
u.c khai trien cac bieu th
u.c
(a) (x + y)4 .
(b) (2c 3d)5 .
2. T`m he. so cua so ha.ng khi bieu th
u.c du.o..c khai trien:
(a) x4 y 7 ; (x + y)11 .
(b) x2 y 3 z 5 ; (x + y + z)10 .
(c) a2 x3 ; (a + x + c)2 (a + x + d)3 .

(d) a3 x4 ; (a + ax + x)2 (a + x)5 .

(e) a2 x3 ; (a + ax + x)(a + x)4 .
34

3. T`m so cac so ha.ng khi khai trien bieu th

u.c
(a) (x + y + z)10 .
(b) (w + x + y + z)12 .
(c) (x + y + z)10 (w + x + y + z)2 .
4. (a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng C(n, k) < C(n, k + 1) neu v`a ch neu k < (n 1)/2.
(b) Suy ra cu..c da.i cua C(n, k) vo.i k = 0, 1, . . . , n l`a C(n, [n/2]).
- i.nh l
u.ng minh D
y nhi. th
u.c b`a ng quy na.p toan ho.c.
5. Ch
6. Su. du.ng l
y lua.n to ho..p ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
C(n, k) = C(n, n k).
7. Tnh tong
n1
X

k(k + 1).

k=1

8. Tnh tong

n
X

k2.

k=1

- i.nh l
9. D`
ung D
y nhi. th
u.c ch
u.ng minh
n
X

2k C(n, k) = 3n .

k=0

10. Gia su. n chan. Ch

u.ng minh ra` ng
n/2
X

C(n, 2k) = 2

n1

k=0

n/2
X

C(n, 2k 1).

k=1

11. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng
n

(a + b + c) =
12. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng
3n =

n
X

n!
ai bj cnij .
i!j!(n

j)!
0i+jn

n
X

n!
.
i!j!(n

j)!
0i+jn
35

13. D`
ung l
y lua.n to ho..p ch
u.ng minh ra` ng
n
X

C(n, k)2 = C(2n, n).

k=0

14. (a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
n1

n(1 + x)

n
X

C(n, k)kxk1 .

k=1

(b) T`
u. do suy ra
n1

n2

n
X

kC(n, k).

k=1

1.6

`ong chim b
`o c
Nguy
en l
y chu
au

`ong chim b
`o cau (c`on go.i l`a nguyen l
Nguyen l
y chu
y Dirichlet) thu.`o.ng d`
ung nha` m tra l`o.i
.
.
.
`on ta.i mo.t ph
`an tu thoa tnh chat cho tru o c? Khi ap du.ng th`anh cong, nguyen
cau hoi: Co t
.
.
`on ta.i; tuy nhien khong ch ra cach t`m no nhu. the n`ao v`a co
l
y n`ay ch ra ra` ng doi tu o. ng t
.
`on ta.i.
`an tu t
bao nhieu ph
`ong chim b
`o cau khang d.inh ra` ng neu co n va.t c
`an xep
Da.ng d`au tien cua nguyen l
y chu
.
.

`
v`ao k ho.p v`a n > k th` co t nha t co mo.t ho.p ch
u a hai hoa.c nhieu ho n hai va.t. L
y do
khang d.inh n`ay du
ng co the ch
u.ng minh ba` ng phan ch
u.ng: Neu ket lua.n l`a sai, moi ho.p
`eu nhat mo.t va.t v`a do do trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay co nhi
`eu nhat k va.t. Nhu.ng co n
ch
u.a nhi
va.t nen n k vo l
y.

1.6.1

`ong chim b
`o c
Nguy
en l
y chu
au (da.ng th
u. nh
at)

`an xep v`ao k ho.p v`a n > k th` co t nhat co mo.t ho.p ch
`eu
Neu co n va.t c
u.a hai hoa.c nhi
.
ho n hai va.t.
`ong chim b
`o cau khong ch ra ho.p n`ao ch
Ch
uy
r`a ng, nguyen l
y chu
u.a ho.n hai va.t. No
`on ta.i cua mo.t ho.p vo.i t nhat hai va.t trong do.
ch khang d.inh su.. t
V du. 1.6.1 So cac ho.c vien cua mo.t lo.p ho.c t nhat l`a bao nhieu de co t nhat hai ho.c
y thi mon Toan ho.c r`o.i ra.c, neu du.. d.inh thang diem l`a
vien co so diem nhu. nhau trong k`
0-10?
`ong chim b
`o cau, c
`an co t nhat 11 + 1 = 12 ho.c
Co 11 thang diem. Theo nguyen l
y chu
vien.
36

V du. 1.6.2 Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng vo.i n + 1 so nguyen du.o.ng khac nhau khong vu.o..t qua 2n
th` phai co hai so chia het cho nhau.
Gia su. n + 1 so nguyen du.o.ng l`a a1 , a2 , . . . , an+1 , vo.i 0 ai 2n. Ta co the viet
ai = 2ki qi ,

i = 1, 2, . . . , n + 1,

trong do ki l`a so nguyen khong am v`a qi l`a so nguyen le khong am v`a khong vu.o..t qua 2n.
V du. 1 = 20 , 14 = 21 7, 40 = 23 5, . . . .
V` ch co n so le khong vu.o..t qua 2n nen trong n + 1 so le q1 , q2 , . . . , qn+1 phai co t nhat
hai so b`a ng nhau, chang ha.n qi = qj = q vo.i i 6= j.
Khi do
ai = 2ki qi = 2ki q,
aj = 2kj qj = 2kj q,
.
.
vo.i ki 6= kj . Suy ra ai ..aj neu ki > kj v`a aj ..ai neu kj > ki .
Ket qua tren l`a tot nhat theo ngha neu ta giam nhe. gia thiet di b`a ng cach thay n cho
`an lay ta.p cac so
n + 1 th` ket qua khong c`on du
ng n
u.a. Tha.t va.y ch c
{n + 1, n + 2, . . . , 2n}.
`om n2 + 1 so thu..c phan bie.t d`eu ch
u.ng minh ra` ng trong mo.i day g
V du. 1.6.3 Ch
u.a mo.t
.
.
.
.
day con do. d`ai n + 1 hoa.c tang thu. c su. , hoa.c giam thu. c su. .
Gia su. n2 + 1 so thu..c phan bie.t l`a a1 , a2 , . . . , an2 +1 . Vo.i moi so ai ta gan cho no ca.p so
(ki , di ) nhu. sau:
+ ki l`a do. d`ai cua day con tang d`ai nhat xuat phat t`
u. ai .
+ di l`a do. d`ai cua day con giam d`ai nhat xuat phat t`
u. ai .
B`a ng phan ch
u.ng gia su. khong co day con n`ao co do. d`ai n + 1 la.i tang thu..c su.. hoa.c giam
thu..c su... Khi do ki , di n, i = 1, 2, . . . , n2 + 1.
`on ta.i cac ch so s, t sao
Nha.n xet ra` ng co n2 ca.p (ki , di ) khac nhau vo.i ki , di n. Nen t
cho (ks , ds ) = (kt , dt ).
Nhu.ng cac so lay l`a phan bie.t, nen as 6= at . Khong mat tnh tong quat gia su. as < at .
u. at de du.o..c mo.t day con mo.i tang co do. d`ai
Bay gi`o. them as v`ao day con xuat phat t`
1 + kt = 1 + ks trai vo.i gia thiet ks l`a do. d`ai cua day con tang d`ai nhat.

1.6.2

`ong chim b
`o c
Nguy
en l
y chu
au (da.ng th
u. hai)

`on ta.i x1 , x2
Neu f l`a anh xa. t`
u. ta.p h
u.u ha.n X den ta.p h
u.u ha.n Y v`a #X > #Y th` t
X, x1 6= x2 , sao cho f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
37

Tha.t va.y, da. t X l`a ta.p cac va.t v`a Y l`a ta.p cac ho.p. Gan moi va.t x vo.i mo.t ho.p f (x).
`ong chim b
`o cau da.ng th
Theo nguyen l
y chu
u. nhat, co t nhat hai va.t khac nhau x1 , x2 X
du.o..c gan c`
ung mo.t ho.p; t
u.c l`a f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
V du. 1.6.4 Neu 20 bo. vi xu. l
y du.o..c noi vo.i nhau th` co t nhat hai bo. vi xu. l
y du.o..c noi
tru..c tiep to.i c`
ung so cac bo. vi xu. l
y.
- a.t ai l`a so cac bo. vi xu. l
K
y hie.u cac bo. vi xu. l
y l`a 1, 2, . . . , 20. D
y du.o..c noi tru..c tiep
.
.
.
.
`an ch
`en xac d.inh
vo i bo. vi xu l
y i. Ch
ung ta c
u ng minh ra` ng ai = aj vo i i 6= j n`ao do. Mi
.
.
.
`en gia tri. cua A tu o ng u
v`a mi
ng l`a X := {1, 2, . . . , 20} v`a Y := {0, 1, . . . , 19}. Tuy nhien,
`ong chim b
`o cau da.ng
#X = #{0, 1, . . . , 19} nen khong the ap du.ng tru..c tiep nguyen l
y chu
hai.
Ch
uy
r`a ng ta khong the co ai = 0 v`a aj = 19 vo.i i, j n`ao do, v` neu ngu.o..c la.i ta co mo.t
bo. vi xu. l
y (th
u. i) khong du.o..c noi vo.i bat c
u. bo. vi xu. l
y n`ao trong khi la.i co mo.t bo. vi
.
.
.
.
.
.
xu l
y (th
u j) du o. c noi vo i tat ca cac bo. vi xu l
y khac (ke cac bo. vi xu. l
y th
u. i). Do do Y
l`a ta.p con cua ta.p {0, 1, . . . , 18} hoa.c {1, 2, . . . , 19}. Va.y #Y < 20 = #X. Theo nguyen l
y
`ong chim b
`o cau da.ng hai ta co ai = aj vo.i i 6= j n`ao do.
chu
V du. 1.6.5 Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu cho.n 151 giao tr`nh may tnh phan bie.t du.o..c danh so
.
.
.
u 1 den 300 th` co t nhat hai giao tr`nh co so th
u. tu.. lien tiep.
th
u tu. t`
Gia su. cac giao tr`nh du.o..c danh so l`a
c1 , c2 , . . . , c151 .

(1.3)

Cac so n`ay c`
ung vo.i
c1 + 1, c2 + 1, . . . , c151 + 1

(1.4)
`ong chim b
`o cau da.ng th
ta.o th`anh 302 so thay doi t`
u. 1 den 301. Theo nguyen l
y chu
u. hai
co t nhat hai gia tri. b`a ng nhau. Cac so trong (1.3) l`a phan bie.t v`a do do cac so trong (1.4)
c
ung khac nhau. V` va.y phai co mo.t so trong day (1.3) ba` ng mo.t so trong day (1.4). Do do
ci = cj + 1
(hien nhien i 6= j) v`a ta co hai giao tr`nh ci v`a cj du.o..c danh so lien tiep.
`om 80 khoan mu.c, moi khoan mu.c du.o..c danh dau ho..p
V du. 1.6.6 Ban ke t`ai khoan g
.
u.ng minh ra` ng co t nhat hai khoan
le. hoa.c khong ho. p le.. Co 45 khoan mu.c ho..p le.. Ch
mu.c trong danh sach cach nhau chnh xac chn khoan mu.c. (Chang ha.n cac khoan mu.c ta.i
cac vi. tr 13 v`a 22 hoa.c ta.i vi. tr 69 v`a 78).
`an ch ra ai aj = 9 vo.i i, j n`ao do.
K
y hie.u ai l`a vi. tr cua khoan mu.c ho..p le. th
u. i. Ta c
Xet cac so
a1 , a2 , . . . , a45
(1.5)
38

v`a
a1 + 9, a2 + 9, . . . , a45 + 9.
(1.6)
`ong chim b
`o
90 so trong (1.5) v`a (1.6) lay cac gia tri. t`
u. 1 den 89. Do do theo nguyen l
y chu
.

cau da.ng th
u hai, co t nha t hai so tr`
ung nhau. Hien nhien khong the co hai so trong day
`on ta.i mo.t so trong day (1.5) ba` ng mo.t so trong day (1.6).
(1.5) hoa.c (1.6) ba` ng nhau; nen t
Va.y ai aj = 9 vo.i i, j n`ao do.
K
y hie.u dxe l`a so nguyen nho nhat lo.n ho.n x. V du. d8.3e = 9. K
y hie.u [x] l`a so nguyen
.
.

lo n nha t nho ho n x. V du. [2.3] = 2.

1.6.3

`ong chim b
`o c
Nguy
en l
y chu
au (da.ng th
u. ba)

Cho f l`a anh xa. t`

u. ta.p h
u.u ha.n X den ta.p h
u.u ha.n Y. Gia su. n := #X, m := #Y, k :=
`on ta.i t nhat k gia tri. a1 , a2 , . . . , ak sao cho
dn/me. Khi do t
f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) = = f (ak ).
- a.t Y := {y1 , y2 , . . . , ym }. Gia su. khang d.inh l`a sai. Khi do t
`on ta.i nhi
`eu nhat
Ch
u.ng minh. D
.
.
`on ta.i nhi
`eu nhat k 1 gia tri. x X vo i f (x) = y2 ; . . . ;
k 1 gia tri. x X vo i f (x) = y1 ; t
`on ta.i nhi
`eu nhat k 1 gia tri. x X vo.i f (x) = ym . Do do t
`on ta.i nhi
`eu nhat m(k 1)
t
.
.
`an tu trong mi
`en xac d.inh cua f. Nhu ng
ph
n
m(k 1) < m = n,
m
`on ta.i t nhat k gia tri. a1 , a2 , . . . , ak X sao cho
vo l
y. Do do t
f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) = = f (ak ).
2
V du. 1.6.7 Mo.t da.c tru.ng h
u.u ch cua cac anh den trang l`a do. sang trung b`nh cua anh.
Ta noi ra` ng hai anh l`a tu.o.ng tu.. neu do. sang trung b`nh cua ch
ung khac nhau khong vu.o..t
qua mo.t ngu.o.ng n`ao do. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng trong so sau anh, hoa.c co ba anh d`ong th`o.i
.
.
.
tu o ng tu. , hoa.c co ba anh d`ong th`o.i khong tu.o.ng tu...
K
y hie.u cac anh l`a P1 , P2 , . . . , P6 . Moi ca.p (P1 , Pi ), i = 2, 3, . . . , 6, co gia tri. tu.o.ng tu..
`ong chim b
`o cau da.ng th
`on ta.i t nhat
y chu
u. ba, t
hoa.c khong tu.o.ng tu... Theo nguyen l
.
.
`on ta.i cac ca.p
d5/2e = 3 ca.p vo i c`
ung gia tri.; t
u c l`a t
(P1 , Pi ), (P1 , Pj ), (P1 , Pk )
hoa.c tu.o.ng tu.., hoa.c khong tu.o.ng tu... Gia su. moi ca.p l`a tu.o.ng tu.. (trong tru.`o.ng ho..p ngu.o..c
la.i, xem B`ai ta.p 5). Neu mo.t trong cac ca.p
(Pi , Pj ), (Pi , Pk ), (Pj , Pk )
39

(1.7)

l`a tu.o.ng tu.., th` hai h`nh anh n`ay c`

ung vo.i P1 doi mo.t tu.o.ng tu.. v`a do do ta co ba h`nh
tu.o.ng tu... Ngu.o..c la.i, neu cac ca.p trong (1.7) khong tu.o.ng tu.. th` ta co ba anh tu.o.ng u
.ng
khong tu.o.ng tu...
V du. 1.6.8 So ho.c vien toi thieu l`a bao nhieu de dam bao t nhat co 6 ngu.`o.i c`
ung thang

diem, neu giao vien cho diem theo thang diem A, B, C, D, F ?

Ta co N l`a so nho nhat thoa dN/5e = 6. Suy ra N = 5 5 + 1 = 26 ho.c vien.
V du. 1.6.9 Gia su. nhom co sau ngu.`o.i; c
u. lay mo.t ca.p bat k`
y, th` hai ngu.`o.i n`ay hoa.c l`a
.
ba.n, hoa.c l`a th`
u. Ch
u ng minh r`a ng se co cac bo. ba hoa.c d`eu l`a ba.n cua nhau, hoa.c d`eu l`a
th`
u cua nhau.
Lay x l`a ngu.`o.i bat k`
y trong nhom; nam ngu.`o.i c`on la.i la.p th`anh nhom rieng. Ta ta.o hai
ho.p B v`a T. Nam ngu.`o.i n`ay se du.o..c phan loa.i (theo quan he. vo.i x) :
(a) hoa.c l`a ba.n cua x : tu.o.ng u
.ng ngu.`o.i trong ho.p B;
.ng ngu.`o.i trong ho.p T.
(b) hoa.c l`a th`
u cua x : tu.o.ng u
`ong chim b
`o cau da.ng th
Theo nguyen l
y chu
u. ba, se co mo.t ho.p co t nhat d5/2e = 3
ngu.`o.i. Gia su. do l`a ho.p B vo.i ba ngu.`o.i y, z, u.
`on ta.i ca.p trong nhom ba ngu.`o.i n`ay l`a ba.n cua nhau, chang ha.n y v`a z, khi do
Neu t
`an t`m. Ngu.o..c la.i, t
u.c l`a y, z, u moi ca.p doi mo.t l`a th`
u cua nhau, khi do
{x, y, z} l`a bo. ba c
`an t`m.
{y, z, u} l`a bo. ba c
u.ng minh tu.o.ng tu...
Cac tru.`o.ng ho..p c`on la.i ch

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Co the noi nam may tnh vo.i nhau sao cho co chnh xac hai may tnh du.o..c noi tru..c
tiep den c`
ung mo.t so may? Giai thch.
`om 115 khoan mu.c, moi khoan mu.c du.o..c danh dau ho..p le. hoa.c
2. Ban ke t`ai khoan g
.
u.ng minh r`a ng co t nhat hai khoan mu.c
khong ho. p le.. Co 60 khoan mu.c ho..p le.. Ch
trong danh sach cach nhau chnh xac bon khoan mu.c.
`om 100 khoan mu.c, moi khoan mu.c du.o..c danh dau ho..p le. hoa.c
3. Ban ke t`ai khoan g
u.ng minh r`a ng co t nhat hai khoan mu.c
khong ho..p le.. Co 55 khoan mu.c ho..p le.. Ch
trong danh sach cach nhau chnh xac chn khoan mu.c.
`om 80 khoan mu.c, moi khoan mu.c du.o..c danh dau ho..p le. hoa.c
4. Ban ke t`ai khoan g
u.ng minh r`a ng co t nhat hai khoan mu.c
khong ho..p le.. Co 50 khoan mu.c ho..p le.. Ch
trong danh sach cach nhau chnh xac hoa.c ba hoa.c sau khoan mu.c.
40

5. Ho`an chnh V du. 1.6.5 b`a ng cach ch ra r`a ng neu cac ca.p (P1 , Pi ), (P1 , Pj ), (P1 , Pk ) l`a
`on ta.i ba anh doi mo.t tu.o.ng tu.. hoa.c doi mo.t khong tu.o.ng tu...
khong tu.o.ng tu.. th` t
6. Ket lua.n cua V du. 1.6.5 nhu. the n`ao neu:
(a) Co t ho.n sau anh?
(b) Co ho.n sau anh?
`om (n + 2) ph
`an tu. l`a ta.p con cua {1, 2, . . . , 2n + 1} v`a m := max X. Vo.i
7. Gia su. X g
moi k X \ {m} da. t
(
k
neu k m2 ,
ak :=
mk
neu k > m2 .
`en gia tri. cua a ch
(a) Ch
u.ng minh mi
u.a trong {1, 2, . . . , n}.
`on ta.i i 6= j sao cho ai 6= aj .
(b) Suy ra t
`on ta.i hai ph
`an tu. phan bie.t i, j X sao cho m = i + j.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh t
`om (n + 1) ph
`an tu. l`a ta.p con cua {1, 2, . . . , 2n + 1} co tnh
(d) Cho v du. ta.p X g
`on ta.i i, j X sao cho i + j X.
chat: Khong t
- a.t
8. Xet mo.t nhom 10 ngu.`o.i vo.i cac tuoi (du.o..c tnh l`a so nguyen) l`a a1 , a2 , . . . , a10 . D
ri := ai mod 16 v`a
(
ri
neu ri 8,
si :=
16 ri
neu ri > 8.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng s1 , s2 , . . . , s10 thay doi t`
u. 0 den 8.
`on ta.i j 6= k sao cho sj 6= sk .
(b) Ch
u.ng minh t
(c) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu sj = rj v`a sk = rk hoa.c sj = 16 rj v`a sk = 16 rk th` 16
chia het aj ak .
`eu kie.n trong (c) sai th` 16 chia het aj + ak .
(d) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu cac di
9. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng trong khai trien tha.p phan cua thu.o.ng cua hai so nguyen, khoi cac
ch
u. so cuoi c`
ung l`a la.p la.i. V du.
1/6 = 0.1666 . . . ,

217/660 = 0.32878787 . . . .

`au thu bong ro ma.c ao mang cac so t`

u. 1 den 12 du
.ng th`anh v`ong tr`on tren
10. Mu.`o.i sau c
.
.
.
`on ta.i ba c
`au thu lien tiep co tong cac
yy
. Ch
u ng minh ra` ng t
s`an dau theo th
u tu. tu`
so t nhat 26.
11. Gia su. f l`a anh xa. mo.t-mo.t len t`
u. X := {1, 2, . . . , n} len X. K
y hie.u f k l`a anh xa. ho..p
`an cua f :
k l
f k := f f f .
{z
}
|
`an
k l

`on ta.i cac so nguyen phan bie.t i 6= j sao cho f i (x) 6= f j (x) vo.i mo.i
Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng t
.
`on ta.i so nguyen k sao cho f k (x) = x vo.i mo.i x X.
x X. Ch
u ng minh r`a ng t
41

12. Mo.t h`nh ch

u. nha.t kch thu.o.c 3 7 du.o..c chia th`anh 21 h`nh vuong; moi h`nh vuong
du.o..c to m`au den hoa.c trang. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng b`an c`o. ch
u.a mo.t h`nh ch
u. nha.t khong
`am thu.`o.ng (khong co kch thu.o.c 1 k hoa.c k 1) sao cho bon h`nh vuong o. moi goc
t
hoa.c tat ca to m`au den hoa.c tat ca to m`au trang.
u.ng minh ra` ng neu p bit 1 v`a q bit 0 du.o..c da. t xung quanh mo.t v`ong tr`on theo th
13. Ch
u.
`on ta.i k bit 1 du
tu.. tu`
yy
, trong do p, q, k l`a cac so nguyen thoa p kq th` t
.ng lien
tiep.
14. Viet thua.t toan t`m do. d`ai cua day con do.n die.u tang d`ai nhat cua mo.t day so cho
tru.o.c.

42

Chu.o.ng 2
.
QUAN HE
Nhu. da biet, tat ca cac doi tu.o..ng trong the gio.i xung quanh ta d`eu co nh
u.ng moi quan he.
.
.
.
`on ta.i tach r`o.i (khong
nhat d.inh vo i nhau. Ro r`ang khong co mo.t doi tu o. ng n`ao co the t
`eu moi
lien quan) vo.i the gio.i ben ngo`ai. Ma.t khac, moi doi tu.o..ng la.i ch
u.a du..ng rat nhi
.
quan he. no.i ta.i cua ban than no. Xet mo.t nhom sinh vien trong c`
ung mo.t lo p, ta co the noi
.
r`a ng hai sinh vien co quan he. vo i nhau neu ho. co c`
ung que. Xet mo.t ta.p ho..p cac so nguyen
`an tu. n`ao do cua ta.p ho..p n`ay co quan he. vo.i nhau
{1, 2, . . . , 15}, ta co the noi r`a ng ba ph
`an tu. hay cac doi tu.o..ng co
neu tong cua ch
ung chia het cho 4. Noi mo.t cach khac, cac ph
.
.
.
.
quan he. cha.t che vo i nhau, nhu ng moi quan he. du o. c hieu nhu. the n`ao l`a phu. thuo.c v`ao
u. lie.u quan he., du.o..c du.a ra bo.i E. F. Codd v`ao
d.inh ngha cua ch
ung ta. Mo h`nh co. so. d
.
nam 1970, du. a tren khai nie.m cua quan he. n ngoi l`a mo.t trong nh
u.ng u
.ng du.ng cua quan
he. trong Tin ho.c.
Trong chu.o.ng n`ay, ch
y thuyet ta.p ho..p.
ung ta se nghien c
u.u cac moi quan he. tren co. so. l
.
.
.
.
u u cac moi quan he. hai ngoi tren hai ta.p ho. p v`a tren c`
ung mo.t ta.p
Tru o c het ta nghien c
.
.
ung ta se xet den quan
ho. p, c`
ung vo i cac tnh chat cua cac moi quan he. do. Tiep theo, ch
he. th
u. tu.., quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng v`a cac moi lien quan.

2.1

Quan h
e. hai ng
oi

- i.nh ngha 2.1.1 Quan he. hai ngoi t`

u. ta.p S len ta.p T, k hie.u R, l`a mo.t ta.p con cua
D
`en xac d.inh c`on T l`a doi mi
`en xac d.inh. Neu S T ta noi R
S T. Ta.p S du.o..c go.i l`a mi
l`a quan he. hai ngoi tren S.
V du. 2.1.1 Gia su. S l`a danh sach cac sinh vien cua tru.`o.ng da.i ho.c. T l`a danh sach cac
`om cac ca.p (a, b), trong do a l`a sinh vien c`on b l`a ch
u.ng
ch
u.ng ch ho.c. Ta.p R S T g
.
ch m`a sinh vien ghi danh ho.c. Vo i moi a S, ta.p {b T | (a, b) R} l`a danh sach cac
43

 b1

.........
.......
.....
....
.
.
.
...
.....
.....
........
.....
............
......................
.
.
.
...........
.................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
......... .......
.........
..
.....
.....
.....
.....
.
.
.
.
.....
....
.......
........
......
.....
.
.
.
.
.
....
.....
......
.........
......... ..........
.............
.
.
.
.... ................
.........
.....
.........
......
.............
......
......
.....

b2

a1

b3

a2

b4

a3

b5

a4

b6

H`nh 2.1:
ch
u.ng ch m`a sinh vien a theo ho.c. Ta.p {a | (a, b) R} l`a danh sach cac sinh vien theo ho.c
ch
u.ng ch b.
V du. 2.1.2 Gia su. P l`a ta.p cac chu.o.ng tr`nh du.o..c thu..c hie.n tren may tnh v`a mo.t do.n
vi. C cac chu.o.ng tr`nh co san cho phep de su. du.ng. Ta da. t mo.t quan he. R t`
u. C len P nhu.
sau: (c, p) R neu chu.o.ng tr`nh p su. du.ng thu tu.c c.
V du. 2.1.3 Cho

S := {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 }

l`a ta.p cac sinh vien tot nghie.p c`on

T := {b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 , b5 , b6 }
`an nha.n sinh vien tot nghie.p. Quan he.
l`a ta.p cac co. quan c
R := {(a1 , b2 ), (a2 , b1 ), (a3 , b6 ), (a4 , b4 )}
t`
u. S len T mo ta cac ca.p sap xep no.i cong tac cho moi sinh vien.
Trong chu.o.ng n`ay, ngoa.i tr`
u. nh
u.ng tru.`o.ng ho..p ngoa.i le. m`a se noi ro, ta se luon luon gia
thiet r`a ng cac quan he. du.o..c xet tren cac ta.p h
u.u ha.n. Khi do co the mo ta quan he. R t`
u.
S len T b`a ng phu.o.ng phap d`o thi. (xem them Chu.o.ng 5) nhu. sau: cac dnh cua d`o thi. bieu
`an tu. cua S v`a T, c`on cac cung l`a cac du.`o.ng co hu.o.ng noi cac ca.p (a, b) R (co
thi. cac ph
khi ngu.`o.i ta viet tat du.o.i da.ng aRb); chang ha.n quan he. trong V du. 2.1.3 co d`o thi. trong
H`nh 2.1.
ung thu.`o.ng d`
ung ma tra.n cap m n de bieu thi. moi quan he. R t`
u.
Ngo`ai ra, ngu.`o.i ta c
`an tu. mij cua
S = {a1 , a2 , . . . , am } len T = {b1 , b2 , . . . , bn }, trong do m := #S, n := #T. Ph
.
.
.
ma tra.n du o. c xac d.inh nhu sau
(
1 neu (ai , bj ) R,
mij :=
0 neu ngu.o..c la.i.
44

V du. 2.1.4 Ma tra.n bieu dien quan he. R trong V du. 2.1.3 l`a
b1
a1 0
a2
1
a3 0
a4 0

b2
1
0
0
0

b3
0
0
0
0

b4
0
0
0
1

b5
0
0
0
0

b6

0
0
.
1
1

Ban than cac quan he. la.i lien quan vo.i nhau ta.o nen cac quan he. mo.i. Chang ha.n, ho..p
gi
u.a cac quan he. l`a mo.t h`nh th
u.c ta.o nen cac quan he. mo.i.
V du. 2.1.5 Gia su. R1 l`a quan he. t`
u. S1 len S2 ; R2 l`a quan he. t`
u. S2 len S3 . Ho..p cua hai
.
.
quan he. R1 v`a R2 l`a mo.t quan he. t`
u S1 len S3 xac d.inh bo i
`on ta.i y S2 de (x, y) R1 , (y, z) R2 }.
R1 R2 := {(x, z) S1 S3 | t
`om
V du. 2.1.6 Gia su. T l`a ta.p cac ch
u.ng ch, U l`a ta.p cac khoa. Quan he. R0 S U g
.
cac ca.p (b, c) sao cho ch
u ng ch b T l`a bat buo.c ghi danh ho.c khoa U. Xet quan he. R
.
`on ta.i ch
nhu trong V du. 2.1.1. The th` RR0 l`a ta.p cac ca.p (a, c) sao cho t
u.ng ch bat buo.c
.
.
m`a sinh vien a phai ho.c khi ghi danh v`ao khoa c. Ch
uy
r`a ng trong tru `o ng ho..p n`ay R0 R l`a
khong co ngha!
De d`ang ch
u.ng minh r`a ng (gia su. cac phep toan ho..p l`a co ngha):
Tnh ch
at 2.1.2 (a) Tnh ket ho..p
(R1 R2 )R3 = R1 (R2 R3 ).
(b) Tnh phan bo d
oi vo.i phep ho..p, ngha l`a
(R1 R2 )R3 = (R1 R3 ) (R2 R3 ),

R1 (R2 R3 ) = (R1 R2 ) (R1 R3 ).

(c) Tnh chnh quy d

oi vo.i cac phep bao h`am, ngha l`a neu R1 R2 v`a R3 R4 , th`
R1 R3 R2 R4 ,

R1 R3 R2 R4 .

Ho.n n
u.a, neu R1 R2 v`
a R3 R4 th` R1 R3 R2 R4 .
- a.t S1 := {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, S2 := {a, b, c} v`a S3 := [e, f, g, h}. Xet cac quan he. t`
u.
V du. 2.1.7 D
.
.
.
.
.
S1 len S2 v`a t`
u S2 len S3 xac d.inh tu o ng u
ng bo i
R1 := {(1, a), (2, a), (2, c), (3, a), (3, b), (4, a), (4, b), (4, c), (5, b)},
R2 := {(a, e), (a, g), (b, f ), (b, g), (b, h), (c, e), (c, g), (c, h)}.
45

Khi do

R1 R2 = {(1, e), (1, g), (2, e), (2, g), (2, h), (3, e), (3, f ), (3, g), (3, h),
(4, e), (4, f ), (4, g), (4, h), (5, f ), (5, g), (5, h)},
v`a cac ma tra.n A1 , A2 v`a A tu.o.ng u
.ng cac quan he. R1 , R2 v`a R1 R2 l`a

1 0 0
1 0 1 0

1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0

A1 = 1 1 0 , A2 = 0 1 1 1 , A =
1 1 1 1 .
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
0 1 0
0 1 1 1
So sanh A v`a ma tra.n tch cua A1 v`a A2

1
2

A1 A2 =
1
2
0

0
0
1
1
1

1
2
2
3
1

0
1

1
,
2
1

- i
`eu n`ay
`an tu. khac 0 trong ma tra.n A1 A2 ! D
ta thay so 1 trong ma tra.n A tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i ph
.
.
`an sau.
se du o. c giai thch trong ph
- i.nh ngha 2.1.3 Gia su. R l`a quan he. t`
u. S len T. Quan he. ngu.o..c cua R, k
D
y hie.u R1 , l`a
mo.t quan he. t`
u. T len S xac d.inh bo.i
R1 := {(x, y) T S | (x, y) R}.
Tnh ch
at 2.1.4 Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren S. Khi d
o
(a) R = R1 neu v`a ch neu R doi x
u.ng, t
u.c l`a
R = R1 xRy suy ra yRx.
(b) R R1 E := {(x, x) | x S} neu v`a ch neu R pha n d
oi x
u.ng, t
u.c l`a
R R1 E xRy v`a yRx th` x = y.
Ch
u.ng minh (a) Hien nhien theo di.nh ngha.
(b) Gia su. R phan doi x
u.ng, v`a (x, y) R R1 . Khi do xRy v`a yRx. Suy ra xRx. Hay
(x, x) E.
2

Ngu.o..c la.i gia su. R R1 E, xRy v`a yRx. Th` (x, y) R R1 E. Do do (x, y) E.
46

B`
ai t
a.p
- a.t S := {0, 1, 2}. Moi phat bieu sau xac d.inh mo.t quan he. R tren S bo.i mRn neu
1. D
khang d.inh l`a du
ng doi vo.i m, n S. Viet moi quan he. nhu. mo.t ta.p cac ca.p co th
u.
tu...
(a) m n.
(d) mn = 0.
(g) m2 + n2 = 2.
(b) m < n.
(e) mn = m.
(h) m2 + n2 = 3.
(c) m = n.
(f) m + n S.
(i) m = max{n, 1}.
Cac quan he. n`ao l`a doi x
u.ng? phan doi x
u.ng? Viet ma tra.n v`a ve cac d`o thi. tu.o.ng
u
.ng.
2. Cac quan he. hai ngoi sau xac di.nh tren N.
(a) Viet quan he. hai ngoi R1 xac d.inh bo.i m + n = 5 da.ng cac ca.p th
u. tu...
(b) Nhu. tren vo.i R2 xac d.inh bo.i max{m, n} = 2.
`om vo ha.n cac ca.p th
(c) Quan he. hai ngoi R3 xac di.nh bo.i min{m, n} = 2 g
u. tu... Hay
viet nam ca.p trong do.
3. Neu A l`a ma tra.n cua quan he. R t`
u. S len T (gia thiet S v`a T l`a cac ta.p h
u.u ha.n).
1
.
.
T`m ma tra.n cua quan he. ngu o. c R .
4. Gia su. R l`a quan he. hai ngoi tren ta.p S. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng R l`a doi x
u.ng neu v`a ch
1
neu R = R .
u. S len T.
5. Gia su. R1 , R2 l`a cac quan he. t`
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng (R1 R2 )1 = R11 R21 .
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng (R R )1 = R1 R1 .
1

(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu R1 R2 th` R11 R21 .
6. Gia su. G l`a d`o thi. cua quan he. R tren ta.p h
u.u ha.n S. Mo ta d`o thi. cua quan he. R1 .
7. Tren ta.p S := {1, 2, 3, 4} xet cac quan he. hai ngoi sau:
R1 := {(1, 1), (1, 2), (3, 4), (4, 2)},
R2 := {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 4), (2, 2)}.
`an tu. cua R1 R2 v`a R2 R1 .
Lie.t ke cac ph
u. T len U.
8. Khao sat cac quan he. R1 v`a R2 t`
u. S len T v`a cac quan he. R3 v`a R4 t`
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R1 (R3 R4 ) = R1 R3 R1 R4 .
(b) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng (R R )R R R R R v`a da ng th
u.c khong nhat thiet
1

du
ng.
(c) Cac quan he. R1 (R3 R4 ) v`a R1 R3 R1 R4 co lien he. nhu. the n`ao?
47

2.2

Quan h
e. v`
a ma tr
a.n

Nhu. V du. 2.1.7 ch ra, ma tra.n cua quan he. R1 R2 khong phai l`a tch A1 A2 cua cac ma tra.n
`an tu. b`a ng 1 trong A tu.o.ng u
R1 v`a R2 . Tuy nhien ch
ung co moi lien he.: ph
.ng mo.t-mo.t vo.i
.
`an tu khac khong trong A1 A2 .
ph
Xet B := {0, 1} v`a hai phep toan Boole , d.inh ngha nhu. sau:

0
1

0
1

0 1
0 1
1 1

0 1
0 0
0 1

De thay r`a ng
Tnh ch
at 2.2.1 V
o.i mo.i x, y B ta co
x y = max{x, y},

x y = min{x, y}.

- .inh ngha 2.2.2 (a) A du.o..c go.i l`a ma tra.n Boole neu cac ph
`an tu. cua no thuo.c B.
D
(b) Tch hai ma tra.n Boole A1 v`a A2 cap m n v`a n p tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a ma tra.n Boole cap
m p, k hie.u A1 A2 , xac d.inh bo.i
(A1 A2 )[i, j] := nk=1 (A1 [i, k] A2 [k, j]),

i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , p.

(c) Ho.i hai ma tra.n Boole A1 v`a A2 cap m n l`a ma tra.n Boole cap m n, k hie.u A1 A2 ,
`an tu. l`a
co cac ph
(A1 A2 )[i, j] := A1 [i, j] A2 [i, j],

i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.

(d) Tuyen hai ma tra.n Boole A1 v`a A2 cap m n l`a ma tra.n Boole cap m n, k hie.u
`an tu. l`a
A1 A2 , co cac ph
(A1 A2 )[i, j] := A1 [i, j] A2 [i, j],

i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.

V du. 2.2.1 Trong V du. 2.1.7 th` A = A1 A2 .

- i.nh l
D
y 2.2.3 Neu A1 v`a A2 l`a cac ma tra.n tu.o.ng u
.ng quan he. R1 t`
u. A len B v`
a R2 t`
u.
.
B len C th` A1 A2 l`a ma tra.n cu a quan he. ho. p R1 R2 .
48

Ch
u.ng minh. Ta co
(A1 A2 )[i, j] = 0 A1 [i, k] A2 [k, j] = 0, k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
A1 [i, k] = A2 [k, j] = 0, k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
2
V du. 2.2.2 Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren {1, 2, 3} vo.i ma tra.n

1 0 0
A = 1 0 1 .
1 1 0
Quan he. R2 := RR co ma tra.n

1 0 0
A A = 1 1 0 .
1 0 1

V`a quan he. R3 := RR2 co ma tra.n

1 0 0
A A A = 1 0 1 = A.
1 1 0

Suy ra R = R3 . Ho.n n
u.a vo.i mo.i n 1 ta co
Rn+2 = R(n1)+3 = Rn1 .R3 = Rn1 .R = Rn !
V du. 2.2.3 Gia su. R1 v`a R2 l`a cac quan he. tren {1, 2} co cac ma tra.n Boole tu.o.ng u
.ng

1 1
1 1
A1 =
,
A2 =
.
1 0
0 1
Do

A1 A2 =

1 1
1 1

6=

1 1
1 0

= A2 A1 ,

nen R1 R2 6= R2 R1 . Bat da ng th
u.c n`ay ch ra r`a ng (2, 2) R1 R2 nhu.ng (2, 2)
/ R2 R1 .
- i.nh l
D
y 2.2.4 Ta.p P(S S), tat ca c
ac quan he. tren S, vo.i phep toan ho..p l`a nu.a nhom.
Ch
u.ng minh. Tha.t va.y, phep ho..p co tnh chat ket ho..p do Tnh chat 2.1.2(a); v`a do.n vi. l`a
quan he. d`ong nhat:
E := {(x, x) S | x S}.
2
- .inh l
`e nghien c
D
y sau ch ra vie.c nghien c
u.u quan he. chuyen v
u.u cac ma tra.n cua ch
ung.
49

- i.nh l
`an tu.. Khi d
`on ta.i anh xa. mo.t-mo.t len gi
D
o t
u.a ta.p
y 2.2.5 Gia su. S l`a ta.p n ph
xa. n`ay ba o to`an cac
P(S S) c
ac quan he. tren S v`a ta.p cac ma tra.n Boole cap n n. Anh
phep toan nu.a nhom: neu R1 , R2 v`a R l`a cac quan he. v
o.i cac ma tra.n Boole A1 , A2 v`
aA
.
.
.
tu o ng u
ng, th`
R1 R2 = R A1 A2 = A.
Ch
u.ng minh. Hien nhien theo cac ket qua tren. 2
- i.nh ngha 2.2.6 Quan he. hai ngoi R tren S du.o..c go.i l`a
D
(a) Phan xa. neu xRx vo.i mo.i x S;
`au neu xRy v`a yRz th` xRz.
(b) Bac c
V du. 2.2.4 Xet cac quan he. R1 , R2 , R3 v`a E tren S :=
tra.n

0 1 1 1
1
0 0 1 1
1

A1 :=
0 0 0 1 , A2 := 0
0 0 0 0
0

1 0 0 1
1
0 1 0 0
0

A3 :=
0 0 1 0 , I4 := 0
1 0 0 1
0

{1, 2, 3, 4} tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac ma
1
1
1
0

0
1
1
1

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
,
1
1

0
0
.
0
1

(a) R1 l`a quan he. du.o..c xac d.inh bo.i mR1 n neu m < n. Quan he. R1 l`a phan xa. v`a bac
`au.
c
(b) R2 l`a quan he. du.o..c xac di.nh bo.i mR2 n neu |m n| 1. Quan he. R2 l`a phan xa., doi
`au.
x
u.ng nhu.ng khong bac c
(c) R3 l`a quan he. du.o..c xac d.inh bo.i mR3 n neu v`a ch neu m = n (mod 3). Ta co R3 l`a
`au.
quan he. phan xa., doi x
u.ng v`a bac c
`au.
(d) Quan he. E := {(m, n) S S | m = n} tren S l`a phan xa., doi x
u.ng v`a bac c
V du. 2.2.5 (a) Quan he. R tren Z d.inh ngha bo.i
mRn

neu v`a ch neu

m + n = 0 (mod 3)

`au do (4, 2), (2, 1) R nhu.ng

l`a doi x
u.ng, khong phan xa. do (1, 1)
/ R v`a khong bac c
(4, 1)
/ R.
(b) Vo.i m, n Z d.inh ngha mRn neu m n le. Quan he. l`a doi x
u.ng nhu.ng khong phan
`au.
xa. v`a khong bac c
50

Tnh ch
at 2.2.7 Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren ta.p A. Khi d
o
(a) R pha n xa. neu v`a ch neu E R.
`au neu v`a ch neu R2 R.
(b) R b
ac c
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Hien nhien.
`au v`a (x, z) R2 . Khi do t
`on ta.i y A sao cho (x, y), (y, z) R. V`
(b) Gia su. R l`a bac c
2
.
.
.
`au nen (x, z) R. Ngu o. c la.i, gia su R R. Xet (x, y), (y, z) R. Th` (x, z) R2 .
R bac c
Va.y (x, z) R. 2
Gia su. A1 , A2 l`a hai ma tra.n Boole c`
ung cap m n. K
y hie.u A1 A2 ngha l`a
A1 [i, j] A2 [i, j]
vo.i mo.i i = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Tnh ch
at 2.2.8 Gia su. R1 , R2 l`a hai quan he. t`
u. S len T tu.o.ng u
.ng cac ma tra.n A1 , A2 .
Ta c
o
(a) R1 R2 neu v`a ch neu A1 A2 .
(b) R1 R2 c
o ma tra.n Boole A1 A2 .
(c) R1 R2 c
o ma tra.n Boole A1 A2 .
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
H
e. qua 2.2.9 Gia su. R l`
a quan he. tren ta.p S tu.o.ng u
.ng ma tra.n Boole A := (aij )nn , n =
#S. Khi d
o
(a) R2 R neu v`a ch neu A A A.
(b) R pha n xa. neu v`a ch neu aii = 1, i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
(c) R d
oi x
u.ng neu v`a ch neu A = At .
(d) R pha n d
oi x
u.ng neu v`a ch neu A At In .
`au neu v`a ch neu A A A.
(e) R b
ac c
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
51

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Vo.i moi ma tra.n Boole sau, xet quan he. tu.o.ng u
.ng R tren {1, 2, 3}. T`m ma tra.n
`au.
Boole cua R2 v`a xac di.nh quan he. n`ao l`a bac c

1 1 0
1 0 1
0 0 1
0 1 1 ,
0 1 0 ,
0 1 0 .
1 0 1
1 0 1
1 0 0
Ve d`o thi. cua cac quan he. tren.
2. Gia su. S := {1, 2, 3}, T := {a, b, c, d} v`a R1 , R2 l`a cac quan he. t`
u. S len T vo.i cac ma
tra.n Boole

1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
A2 := 1 0 0 1 .
A1 := 0 1 0 0 ,
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
(a) T`m cac ma tra.n Boole cua R11 , R21 .
(b) T`m cac ma tra.n Boole cua (R1 R2 )R11 , R1 R11 R2 R11 .
(c) T`m cac ma tra.n Boole cua R2 (R11 R21 ), R2 R11 R2 R21 .
`an (b) v`a (c) vo.i cac khang d.inh trong B`ai ta.p 10.
(d) So sanh cac cau tra l`o.i trong ph
3. Gia su. S := {1, 2, 3} v`a R := {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 2)}.
(a) T`m cac ma tra.n cua R, RR1 v`a R1 R.
`an (a).
(b) Ve cac d`o thi. cua cac quan he. trong ph
`au, t
u.c l`a R2 R, nhu.ng R2 6= R.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R l`a bac c
`au? Giai thch.
(d) R R1 l`a quan he. bac c
(e) T`m Rn vo.i n = 2, 3, . . . .
4. Gia su. S := {1, 2, 3} v`a R := {(2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)}.
(a) T`m cac ma tra.n cua R, R1 v`a R2 R.
`an (a).
(b) Ve cac d`o thi. cua cac quan he. trong ph
`au?
(c) R l`a bac c
`au?
(d) R2 l`a bac c
`au?
(e) R R2 l`a bac c
5. Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren S := {1, 2, 3} vo.i

0
A := 1
0
(a) T`m ma tra.n Boole cua Rn , n Z.
- oi x
`au?
(b) R l`a phan xa.? D
u.ng? Bac c
52

ma tra.n Boole

1 0
1 1 .
1 0

6. La.p la.i B`ai ta.p 5 vo.i

1 0 0
A := 0 1 1 .
1 0 1

7. Gia su. P l`a ta.p tat ca cac ngu.`o.i v`a khao sat quan he. R, trong do pRq neu p thch
q.
(a) Mo ta cac quan he. R R1 , R R1 , v`a R2 .
- oi x
`au?
(b) R l`a phan xa.? D
u.ng? Bac c
8. Cho v du. quan he. m`a
`au nhu.ng khong phan xa..
(a) Phan doi x
u.ng, bac c
- oi x
`au.
(b) D
u.ng nhu.ng khong phan xa. hay bac c
9. Vo.i anh xa. f : S T ta d.inh ngha quan he.
Rf := {(x, y) S T |y = f (x)}.
Xet cac anh xa. f, g : {1, 2, 3, 4} {1, 2, 3, 4} xac di.nh bo.i f (m) := max{2, 4 m} v`a
g(m) := 5 m.
(a) T`m cac ma tra.n Boole Af , Ag cua cac quan he. Rf v`a Rg tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac anh
xa. f, g.
(b) T`m cac ma tra.n Boole cua Rf , Rg , v`a Rf g v`a so sanh.
(c) T`m cac ma tra.n Boole cua Rf1 , Rg1 . Cac quan he. n`ay tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac anh xa.
n`ao?
10. Khao sat cac quan he. R1 v`a R2 tren ta.p S. Ch
u.ng minh hoa.c cho phan v du.:
(a) Neu R1 v`a R2 phan xa. th` R1 R2 phan xa..
(b) Neu R v`a R doi x
u.ng th` R R doi x
u.ng.
1

`au th` R1 R2 bac c

`au.
(c) Neu R1 v`a R2 bac c
11. Gia su. R1 , R2 l`a cac quan he. hai ngoi tren ta.p S.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R1 R2 l`a phan xa. neu R1 v`a R2 l`a phan xa..
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R R l`a doi x
u.ng neu R v`a R l`a doi x
u.ng.
1

`au neu R1 v`a R2 l`a bac c

`au.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R1 R2 l`a bac c
12. Gia su. R1 , R2 l`a cac quan he. hai ngoi tren ta.p S.
(a) R1 R2 l`a phan xa. neu R1 v`a R2 l`a phan xa.?
(b) R R l`a doi x
u.ng neu R v`a R l`a doi x
u.ng?
1

`au neu R1 v`a R2 l`a bac c

`au?
(c) R1 R2 l`a bac c
53

13. Gia su. R l`a quan he. t`

u. S := {1, 2, 3, 4} len T := {a, b, c} vo.i ma tra.n Boole
a
1 1
2 0
A :=
3 1
4 0

b
0
0
0
1

1
1
.
0
0

(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng RR1 l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng tren S.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R1 R l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng tren S.
`au?
(c) Cac quan he. RR1 , R1 R l`a phan xa.? Bac c
14. Gia su. R l`a quan he. t`
u. S len T.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng RR1 l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng tren S. (Khong su. du.ng ma tra.n
Boole do S hoa.c T co the khong h
u.u ha.n).
(b) Suy ra R1 R l`a doi x
u.ng tren T.
(c) Khi n`ao th` RR1 l`a phan xa.?
u. S len T, R2 l`a quan he. t`
15. Gia su. R1 l`a quan he. t`
u. T len U, trong do S, T, U l`a cac
.
.
ta.p h
u u ha.n. D`
ung ma tra.n Boole, ch
u ng minh ra` ng
(R1 R2 )1 = R21 R11 .
u. S := {1, 2, . . . , m} len T := {1, 2, . . . , n}, tu.o.ng u
16. Gia su. R1 , R2 l`a cac quan he. t`
.ng
.
.
vo i cac ma tra.n A1 , A2 . Ch
u ng minh r`a ng R1 R2 neu v`a ch neu A1 A2 .
17. Su. du.ng tnh ket ho..p cua cac quan he., ch
u.ng minh r`a ng tch Boole l`a mo.t phep toan
co tnh ket ho..p.
`an tu. ngu.o..c R1 ? Giai thch.
18. Gia su. S l`a ta.p, khi do P(S S) l`a mo.t nhom vo.i ph
`en u
.ng cua R. Ch
19. Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren S v`a R := n0 Rn l`a bao dong truy
u.ng
`au. Ho.n n
`au v`a
minh r`a ng R l`a phan xa. v`a bac c
u.a, neu R R0 , trong do R0 l`a bac c

doi x
u ng, th` R S.

2.3

Quan h
e. th
u. tu..

- i.nh ngha 2.3.1 Quan he. hai ngoi R tren ta.p S du.o..c go.i l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. (hay ro ho.n,
D
`au. Khi
u.ng v`a bac c
quan he. th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n) neu no co cac tnh chat: phan xa., phan doi x
.
.
.
.
do thay cho cach viet aRb, ngu `o i ta thu `o ng viet a b hoa.c b a v`a noi r`a ng a di tru.o.c b,
hoa.c b di sau a. Nhu. va.y
(a) a a vo.i mo.i a S.
54

(b) Neu a b v`a b a th` a = b.

(c) Neu a b v`a b c th` a c.
Neu a b v`a a 6= b ta k
y hie.u a < b hoa.c b > a v`a noi r`a ng a thu..c su.. di tru.o.c b hoa.c b
thu..c su.. di sau a.
K hie.u (S, ) co ngha l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. tren ta.p S; v`a (S, ) du.o..c go.i l`a ta.p co th
u.
.
tu. bo. pha.n.
`an tu. a, b S th` khong nhat thiet phai co a b hoa.c b a.
Nha.n xet r`a ng vo.i hai ph
`an tu. a v`a b go.i l`a so sanh du.o..c vo.i nhau. Neu A S
Neu hoa.c a b hoa.c b a th` cac ph
`an tu. bat k`
v`a hai ph
y cua A l`a so sanh du.o..c vo.i nhau th` A go.i l`a ta.p con sap thang cua S.
..
u.c C v`a quan he. x y, trong do x = a + ib v`a y = c + id, i =
V
du. 2.3.1 Xet tru `o ng so ph
- a.t
1, neu a c v`a b d. Hien nhien l`a quan he. th
u. tu... D
A := {x C | x = a + i0, a R}.
Vo.i quan he. ta.p A l`a ta.p con sap thang cua C. Ta co 2 + i3 < 2 + i5. Nhu.ng 2 + i3 khong
so sanh du.o..c vo.i 1 + i5.
- i.nh ngha 2.3.2 (a) Xet quan he. th
D
u. tu.. tren ta.p S. Ta noi r`a ng t phu s neu s < t v`a
`on ta.i u S sao cho s < u < t.
khong t
`om cac dnh l`a cac ph
`an tu. cua S
(b) Lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua (S, ) l`a mo.t d`o thi. co hu.o.ng g
.
v`a neu t phu s th` co mo.t cung noi t`
u s den t.
- a.t S := {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Ta viet m|n neu n l`a bo.i nguyen cua m. Khi do
V du. 2.3.2 (a) D
.
.
(S, |) l`a ta.p du o. c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n. Ta co lu.o..c d`o Hasse trong H`nh 2.2.
4
...............

.......
..... .........
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.
.....
.
.
.
.....
..
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..............
...........
........
.
.....
.
.....
.
.....
..... ........
.....
.........
..
.....
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.....
.....
.
.
.
.
.....
....
.
.
.....
.
..
..........
..............
.......
.....
.....
..... .........
................................................................................
..

H`nh 2.2:
u. tu..
(b) Tren S := P({a, b, c}) xet quan he. bao h`am . Khi do (S, ) l`a ta.p du.o..c sap th
.
.
bo. pha.n v`a co lu o. c d`o Hasse trong H`nh 2.3.
55

{a, b, c}

{a, b}

{a}

...........................
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.............
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.....
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..
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..
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...
...
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.
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...
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.
... ....... ..
..
.
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...
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..........
........
....
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.
.
.
.............
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.
.
.
.
..........
.
.............
.
...
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...
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.
.
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.
.
.
.
..
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
............. .. .......
...................

{a, c}

{b}

{b, c}

{c}

{}
H`nh 2.3:

e
c
d
...................................................................................................................................................................
..
...
.....
.....
...
...
.....
...
...
.....
.
...
.....
.
.
.....
.
.
.
........
....
......
.
.
.......
.
.
....
....
.....
.
.
.....
....
....
.....
..... ..
...
..... ...
..
..... ..
........................................................................
...

H`nh 2.4:
(c) Lu.o..c d`o trong H`nh 2.5 khong phai l`a lu.o..c d`o Hasse (ta.i sao?):
(d) Cac lu.o..c d`o trong H`nh ?? l`a lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua cac ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n
.
.
.
.
(du o. c suy tru. c tiep t`
u bieu d`o).

.....
.... ....
.... ........
....
....
....
....
.
.
.
....
.
....
....
.......
.........
.
.
.
.
....
...
.
....
.
.
....
...
.
.
.
....
...
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.
.
.
.
.....
....
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.
.
....
.
....
...
.
.
.
....
.
.....
....
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......
....
....
....
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.... ....
............................................
..

.....
..........
.... .. ....
.... .. .....
.... .... .......
.
.
.
....
.
.
....
....
...
.....
.........
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....
.......
....
....
...
....
....
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
...
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.....
....
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..
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....
.
....
....
..
.
.
....
.
.
.
....
...
.
.
.
.
.
....
..
..
.....
....
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.... .. ........
.... .. ...
.... .. ....
..........
.......

....................

.........
........
......
.....
..
....
....
....
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
...
...........
....
....
....
.
.
.
.
.........
......
......
.........
...........
......
....

H`nh 2.5:
u. tu.. bo. pha.n, ta co s t neu v`a ch neu
Noi chung vo.i lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua ta.p du.o..c sap th
hoa.c s = t hoa.c co mo.t du.`o.ng di d.inh hu.o.ng t`
u. s den t.
Gia su. (S, ) l`a ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n v`a A S, A 6= .
- .inh ngha 2.3.3 (a) Ph
`an tu. x S du.o..c go.i l`a ca.n tren cua A neu a x vo.i mo.i a A;
D
56

`an
khi do A du.o..c go.i l`a bi. cha.n tren. Neu x l`a ca.n tren cua A v`a x A th` x du.o..c go.i l`a ph
.
.
tu lo n nhat cua A, k
y hie.u
max A := max{a | a A}.
`an tu. y S du.o..c go.i l`a ca.n du.o.i cua A neu y a vo.i mo.i a A; khi do A du.o..c go.i
(b) Ph
`an tu. nho nhat cua
l`a bi. cha.n du.o.i. Neu y l`a ca.n du.o.i cua A v`a y A th` y du.o..c go.i l`a ph
A, k
y hie.u
min A := min{a | a A}.
(c) K
y hie.u As l`a ta.p ho..p tat ca cac ca.n tren cua A. Neu As =
6 (t
u.c l`a neu A bi. cha.n
`an tu. nho nhat x th` x du.o..c go.i l`a ca.n tren nho nhat hoa.c ca.n tren
tren) v`a neu As co ph
du
ng cua A, k
y hie.u
sup A := sup{a | a A}.
(d) K
y hie.u Ai l`a ta.p ho..p tat ca cac ca.n du.o.i cua A. Neu Ai 6= (t
u.c l`a neu A bi. cha.n
`an tu. lo.n nhat y th` y du.o..c go.i l`a ca.n du.o.i lo.n nhat hoa.c ca.n du.o.i
du.o.i) v`a neu Ai co ph
du
ng cua A, k
y hie.u
inf A := inf{a | a A}.
`an
V du. 2.3.3 Xet ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n trong V du. 2.3.2(a). Ta.p S khong co ph
.
.
.
`an tu nho nhat.
tu lo n nhat; 1 l`a ph
`an tu. lo.n nhat (nho nhat) cua A, neu t
`on ta.i, l`a duy nhat.
Nh
a.n x
et 4 (a) Ph
`on ta.i x = max A (tu.o.ng u
(b) Neu t
.ng y = min A) th` x = sup A (tu.o.ng u
.ng y = inf A).
.
.
- i
`eu ngu o. c la.i khong du
D
ng (cho v du.).
V du. 2.3.4 (a) Trong ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n ({1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, |) ta.p con {2, 3} co
du
ng mo.t ca.n tren l`a 6, v`a do do sup{2, 3} = 6. Tu.o.ng tu.. inf{2, 3} = 1. Ta.p con {4, 6}
khong co ca.n tren; inf{4, 6} = 2. Ta.p con {3, 6} co ca.n tren 6 v`a hai ca.n du.o.i l`a 1 v`a 3;
do do sup{3, 6} = 6 v`a inf{3, 6} = 3. Va.y cac ca.n tren du
ng v`a ca.n du.o.i du
ng cua A chu.a
.
`on ta.i, v`a neu ch
`on ta.i chu a chac ch
chac t
ung t
ung thuo.c ta.p con A.
(b) Xet ta.p con du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n co lu.o..c d`o Hasse trong H`nh 2.6. Ta co
`on ta.i.
sup{d, f } = h v`a inf{b, d, e, f } = a. Nhu.ng inf{b, c} v`a sup{d, e, f } khong t
g

.............................................................................................................................................................................................................
..... .....
...
..... .........
...
....
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H`nh 2.6:
57

- i.nh ngha 2.3.4 Ta.p du.o..c sap th

`on
D
u. tu.. bo. pha.n (S, ) du.o..c go.i l`a lattice (d`an) neu t
.
ta.i sup{x, y} v`a inf{x, y} vo i mo.i x, y S. Khi do ta di.nh ngha hai phep toan
x y := sup{x, y},

x y := inf{x, y}.

Hien nhien v`a l`a cac phep toan hai ngoi tren S. Ho.n n
u.a
x y = x x y x y = y.
`an tu. A cua lattice L
B`a ng quy na.p, ch
ung ta co the ch
u.ng minh mo.i ta.p con h
u.u ha.n ph
`on ta.i sup A, inf A.
luon t
V du. 2.3.5 (a) Ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. trong V du. 2.3.2(b) l`a lattice.
(b) Ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. trong V du. 2.3.2(a) khong l`a lattice do ta.p {3, 4} khong co ca.n
tren trong S.
Cac d.inh ngha cua v`a ch ra cac dang th
u.c sau:
xx
= x,
xy
= y x,
(x y) z = x (y z),

xx
= x,
xy
= y x,
(x y) z = x (y z).

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Ve lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua cac ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n sau:
(a) ({1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24}, |), trong do m|n ngha l`a n chia het cho m.
(b) Ta.p cac ta.p con cua {3, 7} vo.i quan he. .
`an tu. cu..c da.i
2. T`m cac ta.p con thu..c su.. cu..c da.i cua ta.p {a, b, c}. T
u.c l`a t`m cac ph
cua ta.p con du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n cua P({a, b, c}) l`a nh
u.ng ta.p con thu..c su.. cua
{a, b, c}.
3. Tren R R xet cac quan he. <, , xac d.inh bo.i
(x, y) < (z, w)
(x, y) (z, w)
(x, y) (z, w)

neu x2 + y 2 < z 2 + w2 ,
neu (x, y) < (z, w) hoa.c (x, y) = (z, w),
neu x2 + y 2 z 2 + w2 .

(a) Quan he. n`ao l`a quan he. th

u. tu.. bo. pha.n?
`an cua {(x, y) | (x, y) (3, 4)} trong R2 .
(b) Ve mo.t ph
`an cua {(x, y) | (x, y) (3, 4)} trong R2 .
(c) Ve mo.t ph
58

`an tu., vo.i

4. Gia su. E(N) l`a ta.p tat ca cac ta.p con h
u.u ha.n cua N m`a co mo.t so chan ph
quan he. th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n .
- a.t A := {1, 2} v`a B := {1, 3}. T`m bon ca.n tren cua {A, B}.
(a) D
(b) {A, B} co ca.n tren nho nhat trong E(N)? Giai thch.
(c) E(N) l`a lattice?
5. Mo.i ta.p con du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n cua mo.t lattice l`a mo.t lattice? Giai thch.
6. Bang trong h`nh sau cho quan he. th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n. No cho gia tri. x y doi vo.i lattice
(L, ). Chang ha.n b c = d.

a
b
c
d
e
f

b c
e a
d

d
e
d
d

e f
e a
e b
e c
e d
e

(a) Viet cac cho trong c`on la.i cua bang.

`an tu. lo.n nhat v`a nho nhat cua L.
(b) T`m cac ph
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng f c d e.
(d) Ve lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua L.
7. Xet R vo.i th
u. tu.. thong thu.`o.ng.
(a) R l`a lattice? Neu du
ng th` y
ngha cua a b, a b trong R.
(b) T`m v du. cua ta.p con khac trong cua R m`a khong co ca.n tren nho nhat.
(c) T`m sup{x R | x < 73}, sup{x R | x 73}, sup{x R | x2 73},
inf{x R | x2 < 73}.
u. tu.. bo. pha.n h
u.u ha.n co
ung quy na.p, ch
u.ng minh r`a ng mo.i ta.p du.o..c sap th
8. (a) D`
.
`an tu nho nhat.
ph
`an tu. lo.n nhat nhu.ng khong co ph
`an
u. tu.. bo. pha.n co ph
(b) Cho v du. ta.p du.o..c sap th
.

tu nho nha t.
59

9. Khao sat ta.p du.o..c sap th

u. tu.. bo. pha.n C co lu.o..c d`o Hasse sau:
z

..........
...... .. ......
...... ... ...........
......
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..

Ch
u.ng minh cac bat da ng th
u.c:
w (x y) 6= (w x) (w y),
w (x y) 6= (w x) (w y).
T`
u. do suy ra lattice C khong thoa man lua.t phan phoi.
u.ng minh ra` ng neu l`a mo.t th
10. (a) Ch
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren S th` quan he. ngu.o..c c
ung
.
.
l`a th
u tu. bo. pha.n tren S.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu l`a quan he. tren S thoa tnh chat (T) v`a s s sai vo.i mo.i
s S th` quan he. xac d.inh bo.i
x y neu v`a ch neu x y hoa.c x = y,
l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n.
`au tren ta.p S.
11. Gia su. R l`a quan he. phan doi x
u.ng v`a bac c
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng R E l`a th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren S.
(b) R \ E l`a th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren S?
12. Gia su. l`a mo.t bang cac k
y tu... Xet quan he. tren
y tu.. v`a l`a ta.p cac chuoi k
nhu. sau. Vo.i moi x, y k
y hie.u x y neu x l`a mo.t doa.n kho.i d`au cua y, t
u.c l`a

`on ta.i z sao cho xz = y. K

t
y hie.u length(w), w , l`a do. d`ai cua chuoi w.
`au.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng co tnh phan xa., phan doi x
u.ng v`a bac c
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu x phu y th` length(x) = 1 + length(y).
y hie.u w1 w2 , w1 , w2 , ngha l`a length(w1 )
13. Gia su. l`a mo.t bang cac k
y tu... K
length(w2 ). Quan he. l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren ? Ta.i sao?
60

14. Gia su. l`a mo.t bang cac k

y tu...
`on ta.i v, v 0 sao cho y = vxv 0 . Quan
(a) Vo.i moi x, y , d.inh ngha x y neu t

.
.
he. l`a th
u tu. bo. pha.n tren ? Giai thch.
(b) Tra l`o.i cau hoi tren neu ha.n che x, y .
15. K
y hie.u l`a ta.p tat ca cac chuoi k
y tu.. tren bang ch
u. cai := {a, b}. Xet quan he.

.
hai ngoi tren P( ) bo i A B neu v`a ch neu A B . K
y hie.u (R), (S), (AS) v`a
.
.

`au.
(T) l`a cac tnh chat phan xa., doi x
u ng, phan doi x
u ng v`a bac c
(a) Cac tnh chat n`ao trong so (R), (S), (AS), (T) m`a quan he. thoa?
(b) l`a th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n?
16. Gia su. x, y, z l`a cac chuoi tren bang k
y tu.. khac trong n`ao do. Quan he. hai ngoi
P (x, y) sau co tnh chat g`:
P (x, y) (z)(concat(x, z) = y),
trong do concat(x, z) l`a chuoi nha.n du.o..c ba` ng cach noi chuoi z sau chuoi x. Chang
ha.n, neu x = ANH, z = EM., th` concat(x, z) = ANH EM..
y hie.u J (N) l`a ho. tat ca cac ta.p con h
u.u ha.n cua N. Khi do (J (N), ) l`a mo.t ta.p
17. K
.
.
.
.
du o. c sap th
u tu. bo. pha.n.
`an tu. lo.n nhat? Neu co, hay t`m. Neu khong, giai thch.
(a) J (N) co ph
`an tu. nho nhat? Neu co, hay t`m. Neu khong, giai thch.
(b) J (N) co ph
(c) Gia su. A, B J (N), {A, B} co
Neu khong, cho v du..
(d) Gia su. A, B J (N), {A, B} co
Neu khong, cho v du..

ca.n tren nho nhat trong J (N)? Neu co, hay t`m.
ca.n du.o.i lo.n nhat trong J (N)? Neu co, hay t`m.

(e) J (N) l`a lattice? Giai thch.

ngha cua bieu th
u.c sau
18. Gia su. x, y, z l`a cac chuoi. Y
Q(x, y) (z)(concat(z, x) = y)?
u. tu.. bo. pha.n. Xet quan he. tren A : a b neu v`a
19. Gia su. (A, ) l`a ta.p du.o..c sap th
.
u. tu...
ch neu b a. Ch
u ng minh r`a ng (A, ) c
ung l`a mo.t ta.p du.o..c sap th
`an tu. cua ta.p bao g
`om ca ta.p trong. Ch ra
20. Gia su. l`a ta.p cac day h
u.u ha.n ph

.
.
.
.
u tu. bo. pha.n neu
( , ) co phai l`a ta.p du o. c sap th
(a) w w0 neu v`a ch neu l(w) l(w0 ), trong do l(w) l`a do. d`ai cua chuoi w.
`on ta.i cac chuoi w1 , w2 sao cho w1 w0 w2 = w.
(b) w w0 neu v`a ch neu t
61

21. La.p la.i b`ai ta.p tren, neu thay J (N) l`a ho. cac ta.p con vo ha.n cua N.
`an tu. x, y, z trong mo.t ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n. Ch
u.ng minh
(a) Khao sat cac ph
r`a ng neu sup{x, y} = a v`a inf{a, z} = b, th` sup{x, y, z} = b.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng mo.i ta.p con h
u.u ha.n cua mo.t lattice co ca.n tren nho nhat.
`an tu. cua mo.t lattice, th` (x y) z =
(c) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu x, y, z l`a cac ph
x (y z).
22. Gia su. Left l`a quan he. hai ngoi tren ta.p cac node cua cay nhi. phan T xac d.inh nhu.
sau: Left(x,y) neu v`a ch neu x v`a y co chung mo.t to tien z sao cho x l`a node tren cay
con ben trai t`
u. z; v`a y l`a node tren cay con ben phai t`
u. z.
z

.....
..... .....
..... .........
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Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng Left(x, y) v`a Left(y, w) suy ra Left(x, w).
`om n ph
`an tu. cua ta.p h
u.u ha.n A; R l`a mo.t th
23. Gia su. (a1 , . . . , an ) l`a day g
u. tu.. bo.
.
pha.n tren A. Ta noi ra` ng (a1 , . . . , an ) l`a sap xep to po cua A doi vo i R neu vo.i mo.i
ai , aj A, (ai , aj ) R suy ra i < j.
`on ta.i cac ph
`an tu. x, y A
(a) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu R l`a th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren A, th` t
`an tu. nho
sao cho khong co z A thoa (z, x) R v`a (y, z) R. (x, y go.i l`a cac ph
.
.
.
.
nhat v`a lo n nhat tu o ng u
ng).
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu R l`a th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren A, th` A co the sap xep to po doi
vo.i R.
24. Gia su. (A, ) nha.n du.o..c t`
u. (A, ) nhu. trong B`ai ta.p 19. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng b l`a
.
.
.
.
ca.n du o i lo n nhat doi vo i (ai |i I) trong (A, ) neu b l`a ca.n tren nho nhat doi vo.i
(ai |i I) trong (A, ).
`an b`
25. Gia su. a a
, a a
l`a hai phep toan lay ph
u tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i da.i so Boole
=a
, vo.i mo.i a A.
(A, , ). Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng a

2.4

u.o.ng
Quan h
e. tu.o.ng d

Trong mu.c n`ay ch

ung ta se nghien c
u.u cac quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng: l`a quan he. m`a nhom cac
.
.
`an tu co c`
ph
ung mo.t da. c tru ng hay tnh chat.
62

- i.nh ngha 2.4.1 Quan he. R tren S du.o..c go.i l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng neu no co cac tnh
D
`au. Khi do thay cho cach viet aRb, ta thu.`o.ng viet a b
chat: phan xa., doi x
u.ng v`a bac c
hoa.c a b.
V du. 2.4.1 (a) Tren ta.p cac so tu.. nhien N, quan he. sau l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng:
.
mRn m n .. p m = n (mod p), m, n N (p l`a so tu.. nhien > 2).
(b) Gia su. S l`a ta.p cac tam giac trong ma.t phang. Xet quan he. R tren S: T1 RT2 neu v`a
`on ta.i anh xa. mo.t-mo.t t`
ch neu t
u. tam giac T1 len tam giac T2 sao cho cac goc tu.o.ng u
.ng
.
.
.
.
b`a ng nhau. Th` R l`a quan he. tu o ng du o ng.
`on
(c) Hai ma tra.n vuong cap n : A v`a B du.o..c go.i l`a tu.o.ng du.o.ng, k hie.u A B, neu t

ta.i cac ma tra.n vuong ca p n kha nghi.ch P, Q sao cho B = P AQ. Khi do l`a quan he.
tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
(d) Xet P(S) cac ta.p con cua ta.p S. Vo.i A, B P(S), ta d.inh ngha A B neu hie.u doi
x
u.ng cua ch
ung A B := (A \ B) (B \ A) l`a mo.t ta.p h
u.u ha.n. Th` l`a quan he. tu.o.ng
du.o.ng.
Gia su. l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren ta.p S. Ta.p ho..p
[s] := {t S | s t}
du.o..c go.i l`a lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua s, v`a
[S] := {[s] | s S}
l`a ta.p cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
V du. 2.4.2 Gia su. l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng trong V du. 2.4.1(a) th`
[m] = {n Z | m = n (mod p)}.
Do do vo.i p = 3 ta co ba lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng: [0], [1] v`a [2].
`e 2.4.2 Gia su. l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren S; v`a s, t S. Cac kha ng d.inh sau
B
o d

l`
a tu.o.ng du.o.ng
(a) s t;
(b) [s] = [t];
(c) [s] [t] 6= .
63

Ch
u.ng minh. (a) (b) Gia su. s t v`a xet s0 [s]. Th` s s0 . Ta co t s (doi x
u.ng).
`au). Do do s0 [t]. Va.y [s] [t]. Tu.o.ng tu.. c
Suy ra t s0 (bac c
ung co [t] [s].
(b) (c) Hien nhien.
(c) (a) Lay u [s] [t]. Th` s u v`a u t. Va.y s t. 2
- i.nh ngha 2.4.3 Mo.t phan hoa.ch cua ta.p A l`a mo.t ho. cac ta.p con A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak cua A
D
sao cho
S
(a) ki=1 Ai = A; v`a
(b) Ai Aj = vo.i mo.i i, j = 1, 2, . . . , k, i 6= j.
V du. 2.4.3 Ho.

:= {{1, 2, 4}, {3, 5, 7}, {6, 8}}

l`a mo.t phan hoa.ch cua ta.p A := {1, 2, . . . , 8}.

- .inh l
D
y sau cho ch
ung ta moi quan he. gi
u.a phan hoa.ch v`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
- i.nh l
a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren ta.p khac trong S th` [S] l`
a mo.t
D
y 2.4.4 (a) Neu l`

ph
an hoa.ch cu a ta.p S.
a cac lo.p
(b) Ngu.o..c la.i, neu {Ai | i I} l`a mo.t phan hoa.ch cu a ta.p S th` cac ta.p Ai l`
tu.o.ng du.o.ng u
.ng vo.i quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng n`ao d
o tren S.
`an ch
Ch
ung minh. (a) Ta c
u.ng to
S
(i) sS [s] = S.
(ii) Vo.i mo.i s, t S ta co hoa.c [s] = [t] hoa.c [s] [t] = .
S
S
Tha.t va.y, hien nhien ra` ng sS [s] S. Lay s0 S ta co s0 [s0 ]. Do do S sS [s].
Va.y (i) du
ng.
Khang d.inh (ii) suy t`
u. Bo d`e 2.4.2.
(b) Gia su. {Ai | i I} l`a mo.t phan hoa.ch cua S. Tren S xet quan he. :
`on ta.i i I sao cho s, t Ai .
s t t
De d`ang kiem tra 0 l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng. 2
64

V du. 2.4.4 (a) Gia su. J l`a ho. cac ta.p n`ao do v`a vo.i moi S, T J ta d.inh ngha S T
`on ta.i anh xa. mo.t-mo.t t`
neu t
u. S len T. Th` 0 l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren J . Hien
`om tat ca cac ta.p con cua J co c`
`an tu.
nhien r`a ng neu S l`a ta.p h
u.u ha.n, th` [S] g
ung so ph
.
.
.
.
.
`om tat ca cac ta.p con dem du o. c (cua J ).
vo i ta.p S. Neu S l`a ta.p dem du o. c th` [S] g
(b) Tren N N ta d.inh ngha
(m, n) (j, k) neu m2 + n2 = j 2 + k 2 .
Hien nhien l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng. B`a ng cach xet anh xa.
(m, n) 7 m2 + n2 ,

f : N N N,

th` cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng chnh l`a cac ta.p con khac trong f 1 (u), u N.
- i.nh l
D
y 2.4.5 (a) Gia su. S 6= v`
a anh xa. f : S T. Ta d.inh ngha s t (s, t S) neu
.
.
f (s) = f (t). Th` l`a quan he. tu o ng du.o.ng tren S v`a cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng l`a cac ta.p khac
tr
ong f 1 (u), trong d
o u T.
(b) M
oi quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren S du.o..c xac d.inh bo.i mo.t anh xa. f thch ho..p nhu.
`an (a).
trong ph
ung ta kiem tra l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng:
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Ch
[Phan xa.]. Ta co f (s) = f (s). Va.y s s vo.i mo.i s S.
- oi x
[D
u.ng]. f (s1 ) = f (s2 ) f (s2 ) = f (s1 ). Va.y quan he. s1 s2 suy ra s2 s1 .
`au]. Neu f (s1 ) = f (s2 ) v`a f (s2 ) = f (s3 ) th` f (s1 ) = f (s3 ).
[Bac c
(b) Xet anh xa. tu.. nhien

f : S [S],

s 7 [s].

`eu kie.n d`oi hoi. 2

De d`ang kiem tra f thoa cac di

B`
ai t
a.p
1. K
y hie.u (R), (S), (AS) v`a (T) l`a cac tnh chat phan xa., doi x
u.ng, phan doi x
u.ng v`a
`au. T`m cac ma tra.n cua cac quan he. tren S := {0, 1, 2, 3} v`a kiem tra cac tnh
bac c
chat (R), (S), (AS) v`a (T), neu
(a) mR1 n neu m + n = 3.
(b) mR2 n neu m = n (mod 2).
(c) mR3 n neu m n.
65

(d) mR4 n neu m + n 4.

(e) mR5 n neu max{m, n} = 3.
Cac quan he. n`ao l`a th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n, quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
2. Cac quan he. sau tren Z, quan he. n`ao l`a tu.o.ng du.o.ng, khi do lie.t ke cac lo.p tu.o.ng
du.o.ng.
(a) n m (mod 4).
(c) mn > 0.
(b) mn = 0.
(d) n m.
3. Xet quan he. R tren Z xac d.inh bo.i mRn neu v`a ch neu m3 n3 0 (mod 5).
(a) R thoa cac tnh chat n`ao trong so (R), (S), (AS), (T).
(b) R l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng? th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n?
- a.t := {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}. Viet ma tra.n tu.o.ng u
4. D
.ng quan he. tren xac di.nh bo.i phan
hoa.ch {{a, d}, {c, e, f }, {b, g}}.
5. (a) Khao sat quan he. trong tren ta.p khac trong S. Cac tnh chat n`ao trong so (R),
(S), (AS), (T) m`a quan he. thoa?
(b) Nhu. tren doi vo.i quan he. U := S S tren S.
u.ng minh r`a ng giao cua hai quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
6. (a) Ch
(b) Ho..p hai quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
7. Gia su. S l`a ta.p cac ta.p con vo ha.n cua N. Vo.i A, B trong S, xet quan he.
A B A B l`a ta.p h
u.u ha.n.
- ay l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
D
8. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng quan he. R tren ta.p S l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng, neu v`a ch neu thoa
`eu kie.n
man ba di
(a) E := {(x, x) S S} R,
(b) R = R1 ,
(c) RR R.
9. Ta noi mo.t ho. cac ta.p con khac trong r`o.i nhau cua ta.p S l`a mo.t phan hoa.ch cua ta.p
u.ng minh r`a ng cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua mo.t
S neu ho..p cua cac ta.p n`ay ba` ng S. Ch
quan he. tren S la.p th`anh phan hoa.ch cua ta.p S. Ngu.o..c la.i, gia su. (Ai |i I) cac ta.p
con cua S sao cho Ai Aj = , i 6= j, v`a (Ai |i I) = S. Xet quan he. S tren S :
`on ta.i ch so i I sao cho a, b Ai .
a S b neu v`a ch neu t
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng S l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua S l`a cac khoi Ai cua phan hoa.ch
(Ai |i I).
66

10. Gia su. F l`a ta.p tat ca cac h`am t`

u. N len N. Vo.i f, g F, xet quan he. f g neu
f (n) = g(n) vo.i mo.i n N tr`
u. mo.t so h
u.u ha.n.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
(b) K
y hie.u lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua f bo.i [f ]. Ta noi, [f ] [g] neu f (n) g(n) vo.i mo.i
n N tr`
u. mo.t so h
u.u ha.n.
(c) K
y hie.u [k] l`a lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua f (n) = k vo.i mo.i n N. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng
`on ta.i vo ha.n cac ph
`an tu. [f1 ], [f2 ], . . . , [fm ], . . . , sao cho
t
[k] [f1 ] [f2 ] [fm ] [k + 1].
11. Cac quan he. sau, quan he. n`ao l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
(a) L1 ||L2 , doi vo.i cac du.`o.ng thang trong ma.t phang, neu L1 v`a L2 l`a tr`
ung nhau
hoa.c song song.
(b) L1 L2 , doi vo.i cac du.`o.ng thang trong ma.t phang, neu L1 v`a L2 vuong goc.
(c) p1 p2 , doi vo.i ngu.`o.i Vie.t Nam, neu p1 v`a p2 song trong c`
ung mo.t th`anh pho.
(d) p1 p2 , doi vo.i ngu.`o.i, neu p1 v`a p2 co chung cha me..
(e) p1 p2 , doi vo.i ngu.`o.i, neu p1 v`a p2 co chung me..
12. (a) Lie.t ke tat ca cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua Z doi vo.i quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng d`ong du.
modulo cho 4.
(b) Co bao nhieu lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng khac nhau cua Z tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i quan he. tu.o.ng
du.o.ng d`ong du. modulo cho 73.
13. Gia su. S l`a ta.p ho..p. Quan he. = l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
`on ta.i ma tra.n kha
14. Cac ma tra.n A v`a B trong Mat(n, n) l`a d`ong da.ng (similar) neu t
1
.
nghi.ch P sao cho B = P AP ; khi do ta k
y hie.u A B. Ch
u ng minh r`a ng l`a quan
.
.
.
.
he. tu o ng du o ng tren Mat(n, n).
15. Gia su. S l`a ta.p tat ca cac day (sn ) R, v`a d.inh ngha (sn ) (tn ) neu {n N | sn 6= tn }
l`a ta.p h
u.u ha.n. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren S.
16. Quan he. quen biet l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
u.c l`a,
17. Gia su. S l`a ta.p ho..p v`a G l`a nhom cac h`am mo.t-mo.t len f : S S, t
(a) h`am d`ong nhat 1S thuo.c G;
(b) neu f, g G th` f g G;
(c) neu f G th` f 1 G.
`on ta.i f G sao cho f (x) = y. Ch
Vo.i x, y S, d.inh ngha x y neu t
u.ng minh ra` ng
.
.
.
.
l`a quan he. tu o ng du o ng tren S.
67

18. Tren Z xet quan he. d.inh ngha bo.i m n neu m2 = n2 .

(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren Z.
(b) Mo ta cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng doi vo.i . Co bao nhieu lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng?
19. Tren N xet quan he. d.inh ngha bo.i m n neu m2 n2 l`a bo.i cua 3.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren N.
`an tu. trong lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng [0].
(b) Lie.t ke bon ph
`an tu. trong lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng [1].
(c) Lie.t ke bon ph
(d) Co lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng n`ao khac?
20. Khao sat ta.p P(S) cac ta.p con cua ta.p S. Vo.i A, B P(S), k
y hie.u A B neu hie.u
.
.
.
doi x
u ng A B := (A \ B) (B \ A) l`a ta.p h
u u ha.n. Ch
u ng minh ra` ng l`a quan he.
.
.
.
.
tu o ng du o ng tren P(S).
(a) Mo ta cac ta.p trong lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng ch
u.a ta.p trong .
(b) Mo ta cac ta.p trong lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng ch
u.a S.
21. Tren N N d.inh ngha (m, n) (k, l) neu m + l = n + k.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren N N.
`an cua N N de ch ra cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
(b) Ve mo.t ph
- i.nh ngha m n (mod p) van co ngha khi p = 1 hoa.c p = 0.
22. D
(a) Mo ta quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng n`ay doi vo.i p = 1 v`a cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng tu.o.ng u
.ng
trong Z.
(b) Nhu. tren vo.i p = 0.
23. Gia su. P l`a ta.p tat ca cac chu.o.ng tr`nh may tnh v`a hai chu.o.ng tr`nh p1 v`a p2 l`a
- ay l`a quan
tu.o.ng du.o.ng neu ch
ung cho c`
ung mo.t ket qua vo.i c`
ung d
u. lie.u ban d`au. D
.
.
.
.
he. tu o ng du o ng? Ta.i sao?
u. cai, v`a vo.i x, y , k
y hie.u x y neu length(x) = length(y).
24. Gia su. l`a bang ch
.
.
.
.
.
`
Ch
u ng minh ra ng l`a quan he. tu o ng du o ng v`a mo ta cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
25. Khao sat P P v`a d.inh ngha (m, n) (p, q) neu mq = np.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren P P.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i h`am P P Q cho
.
bo i f ((m, n)) = m/n.
26. Co bao nhieu quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren ta.p {0, 1, 2, 3}?
27. Tren Z xet quan he. d.inh ngha bo.i m n neu m2 = n2 .
(a) Sai (v` sao) neu d.inh ngha tren [Z] bo.i [m] [n] neu v`a ch neu m n?
(b) Sai (v` sao) neu d.inh ngha h`am f : [Z] Z, f ([m]) = m2 + m + 1?
68

(c) Nhu. tren, vo.i g([m]) = m4 + m2 + 1.

(d) Sai (v` sao) neu d.inh ngha tren Z, [m] [n] = [m + n]?

2.5

Bao d

ong cu a quan h
e.

- oi khi ch
D
ung ta muon xay du..ng mo.t quan he. mo.i t`
u. mo.t quan he. da co. Chang ha.n, ta co
.
.
.
.
hai quan he. tu o ng du o ng R1 v`a R2 tren S v`a ch
ung ta muon t`m quan he. nho nhat ch
u.a
- i
`eu n`ay xay ra do
ca R1 v`a R2 . Quan he. n`ay co the khong phai l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng. D

`
`

R1 R2 co the khong phai l`a bac cau. Va.y quan he. bac cau nho nha t ch
u.a R1 R2 l`a g`?
.
`an n`ay ch
Trong ph
ung ta se tra l`o i cau hoi n`ay.
Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren S. K hie.u r(R), s(R) v`a t(R) l`a cac quan he. phan xa., doi x
u.ng
`au nho nhat ch
v`a bac c
u.a R. Cac quan he. n`ay du.o..c go.i tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a cac bao dong phan
.
`au cua quan he. R.
xa., doi x
u ng v`a bac c
`e 2.5.1 (a) R = r(R) neu v`a ch neu R pha n xa..
M
e.nh d

(b) R = s(R) neu v`a ch neu R doi x

u.ng.
`au.
(c) R = t(R) neu v`a ch neu R b
ac c
Ho.n n
u.a
r(r(R)) = r(R),

s(s(R)) = s(R),

t(t(R)) = t(R).

Ch
u.ng minh. Suy t`
u. d.inh ngha. 2
V du. 2.5.1 Xet quan he. R tren {1, 2, 3, 4}

0
0
A=
0
1

tu.o.ng u
.ng ma tra.n Boole:

0 1 1
1 0 0
.
0 1 0
0 0 0

u. ma
(a) Quan he. R khong phan xa.. Ma tra.n Boole r(A) cua quan he. r(R) nha.n du.o..c t`
.
.
.
.
.
`an tu tren du `o ng cheo ba` ng mo.t v`a d`o thi. cua r(R) suy t`
tra.n A vo i tat ca cac ph
u d`o thi.
`
cua R ba ng cach them cac khuyen ta.i cac dnh:

1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0

r(A) =
0 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 1
69

- `o thi. cua quan he. s(R) suy t`

(b) Quan he. R khong doi x
u.ng. D
u. d`o thi. cua quan he. R
`on ta.i cung (i, j). Ma tra.n Boole s(A) co
b`a ng cach them (neu chu.a co) cac cung (j, i) neu t
da.ng

0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0

s(A) =
1 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 0
`au. Ma tra.n Boole t(A) co da.ng
(c) Quan he. R khong bat c

1
0
t(A) =
0
1

0
1
0
0

1
0
1
1

1
0
.
0
1

- .inh l
D
y 2.5.2 Neu R v`a E := {(x, x) | x S} l`
a cac quan he. tren S th`
(a) r(R) = R E.
(b) s(R) = R R1 .
S
i
(c) t(R) =
i=1 R .
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Ta biet r`a ng quan he. l`a phan xa. neu v`a ch neu no ch
u.a E. Do do R E
.
.
l`a phan xa. v`a do mo.i quan he. phan xa. ch
u a R phai ch
u a R E nen r(R) = R E.
(b) Nhac la.i r`a ng R1 l`a doi x
u.ng neu v`a ch neu R11 = R1 . Neu (x, y) R R1 th`
1
1
(y, x) R R = R R . Do do R R1 l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng.
Xet R1 l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng ch
u.a R. Neu (x, y) R1 th` (y, x) R R1 , v`a do R1 doi
x
u.ng nen (x, y) R1 . Suy ra R1 R1 . Va.y R R1 R1 .
S
i
- `au tien ta ch
`au. Tha.t va.y lay x, y, z S sao
(c) D
u.ng minh ho..p U :=
a bac c
i=1 R l`
`on ta.i i, j N sao cho (x, y) Ri v`a (y, z) Rj . Do do
cho (x, y) U, (y, z) U. Khi do t
(x, z) Ri+j U.
`au. Bay gi`o. lay R1 l`a quan he. bac c
`au ch
Va.y U l`a quan he. bac c
u.a R. Ta ch
u.ng minh
quy na.p theo k : Rk R1 .
ng den k. Ta co
Vo.i k = 1 l`a hien nhien. Gia su. du
Rk+1 = Rk R R1 R1 R1
70

`au).
(bao h`am th
u.c cuoi co du.o..c do R1 bac c
Va.y vo.i mo.i k > 1 ta co

R k R1 .

Hay U R1 . 2
`an tu. v`a A l`a ma tra.n Boole cua
V du. 2.5.2 (a) Gia su. R l`a quan he. tren ta.p S co n ph
- i.nh l
R. Nhu. trong D
y 2.5.3 du.o.i day ch ra:
t(R) =

n
[

Ri .

i=1

Du..a v`ao cac ket qua tru.o.c ta co

t(A) = A A2 . . . An ,

s(A) = A At ,

r(A) = A In .

Trong do In l`a ma tra.n do.n vi. cap n. T`

u. cac ma tra.n n`ay ch
ung ta de d`ang xac di.nh cac
quan he. t(R), s(R) v`a r(R).
(b) Xet quan he. R trong V du. 2.5.1, de d`ang kiem tra la.i cac da ng th
u.c tren.
- .inh l
`an tu., th`
D
y 2.5.3 Neu R l`a quan he. tren S co n ph
t(R) =

n
[

Ri .

i=1

S
`an ch
Ch
u.ng minh. Ch c
u.ng minh t(R) ni=1 Ri . Lay (x, y) t(R). Go.i m l`a so nguyen
`an xet tru.`o.ng ho..p m > 2. Khi do t
`on ta.i day
du.o.ng nho nhat sao cho (x, y) Rm . Ch c
.
`an tu trong S
cac ph
x1 , x2 , . . . , xm1 , xm = y,
sao cho
xRx1 , x1 Rx2 , . . . , xm1 Rxm .
`on ta.i i, j (i < j) sao cho xi = xj th` ta co the bo qua xi , xi+1 , . . . , xj1 v`a
Neu m > n th` t
.
.
du o. c mo.t xch ngan ho.n:
xRx1 , . . . , xi1 Rxj , . . . , xm1 Ry.
Mau thuan v` m nho nhat. 2
Ch
ung ta da xet cac bao dong tren quan he. R, bay gi`o. ta se lay mo.t quan he. mo.i co da.ng
l`a to ho..p cua bao dong.
71

V du. 2.5.3 Xet R trong V du. 2.5.1. Ma tra.n

1 0 1
0 1 0

1 0 1
1 0 0

Boole cua s(r(R)) l`a

1
0
.
0
1

- o c
D
ung l`a ma tra.n Boole r(s(A)) cua quan he. r(s(R)) v`a v` va.y s(r(R)) = r(s(R)). Ho.n
n
u.a quan he. trs(R) = tsr(R) l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i ma tra.n Boole

1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0

tsr(A) = trs(A) =
1 0 1 1 .
1 0 1 1
V du. 2.5.4 Xet quan he. R tren {1, 2, 3} co

1
A = 0
0

ma tra.n Boole

1 1
0 0 .
0 1

`au. Quan he. s(R)

V` A A = A nen R l`a bac c

s(A) = 1
1

co ma tra.n

1 1
0 0 .
0 1

`au!
De thay r`a ng quan he. s(R) khong bac c
`au st(R) cua quan he. R khong
V du. n`ay ch
u.ng to bao dong doi x
u.ng cua bao dong bac c

`au. Noi mo.t cach khac cac phep lay bao dong co the pha huy tnh
phai l`a quan he. bac c
.
`au.
phan xa., doi x
u ng hay bac c
`e 2.5.4 (a) Neu R pha n xa. th` s(R) v`a t(R) c
B
o d

ung pha n xa..

(b) Neu R d
oi x
u.ng th` r(R) v`
a t(R) c
ung d
oi x
u.ng.
`au th` r(R) c
`au.
(c) Neu R b
ac c
ung bac c
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Hien nhien v` neu E R th` E s(R) v`a E t(R).
(b) B`ai ta.p.
`au v`a (x, y), (y, z) r(R) = R E.
(c) Gia su. R bac c
72

+ Neu (x, y) E th` x = y v`a do do (x, z) = (y, z) R E.

+ Neu (y, z) E th` y = z v`a do do (x, z) = (x, y) R E.
+ Neu (x, y)
/ E v`a (y, z)
/ E th` (x, y), (y, z) R, do do (x, z) R R E.
Va.y ta luon luon co (x, z) R E. 2
- i.nh l
D
y 2.5.5 Gia su. R l`
a quan he. tren S th` tsr(R) l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng nho nhat
ch
u.a R.
Ch
u.ng minh. + T`
u. r(R) phan xa. v`a Bo d`e 2.5.4(a), suy ra tsr(R) phan xa..
+ T`
u. sr(R) doi x
u.ng v`a Bo d`e 2.5.4(b), suy ra tsr(R) doi x
u.ng.
`au.
+ Hien nhien tsr(R) bac c
Va.y tsr(R) l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng. Lay R1 l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng ch
u.a R. Th`
r(R) r(R1 ) = R1 .
Do do
sr(R) s(R1 ) = R1 .
Suy ra
tsr(R) t(R1 ) = R1 .
Noi cach khac tsr(R) l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng nho nhat ch
u.a R. 2
V du. 2.5.5 Gia su. R

1 1

r(A) = 0 1
0 0

l`a quan he. tren {1, 2, 3} trong V du. 2.5.4. Ta co

1 1 1
1 1 1
1
0 , s(r(A)) = 1 1 0 , t(s(r(A))) = 1 1 1 .
1 1 1
1 0 1
1

Va.y trs(R) = {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3}.

B`
ai t
a.p

0 1 0
1. Xet quan he. R tren {1, 2, 3} vo.i ma tra.n Boole A := 0 0 0 . T`m cac ma tra.n
0 0 1

Boole cua r(R), s(R), rs(R), sr(R) v`a tsr(R).

73

0 1 1
2. La.p la.i B`ai ta.p 1 vo.i A := 0 0 1 .
0 0 0
3. Vo.i B`ai ta.p 1, lie.t ke cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua tsr(R).
4. Vo.i B`ai ta.p 2, lie.t ke cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua tsr(R).
5. La.p la.i B`ai ta.p 1 vo.i quan he. R tren {1, 2, 3, 4}

0 1 0
1 0 1
A :=
0 1 1
1 0 1

tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i ma tra.n Boole

1
0
.
0
0

6. Vo.i B`ai ta.p 5, lie.t ke cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng cua tsr(R).
u. tu.. tren P : mRn neu m < n. T`m hoa.c mo ta
7. Gia su. R l`a quan he. tu..a th
r(R), sr(R), rs(R), tsr(R), t(R) v`a st(R).
8. La.p la.i B`ai ta.p 7 vo.i mRn, ngha l`a, m l`a u.o.c cua n.
u.ng tren S th` ho..p
9. (a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu (Rk ) l`a mo.t day cac quan he. doi x
k=1 Rk
.
l`a doi x
u ng.
(b) Gia su. R l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng tren S. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng Rn , n P, l`a doi x
u.ng.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu R l`a quan he. doi x
u.ng tren S th` r(R), t(R) l`a cac quan he.
doi x
u.ng tren S.
10. Xet quan he. R tren ta.p S.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng sr(R) = rs(R).
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng tr(R) = rt(R).
11. B`a ng phan v du., ch
u.ng minh r`a ng st(R) 6= ts(R).

1 0
.
.
.
.
. Ch
u.ng minh
12. Gia su R l`a quan he. tren S := {1, 2} tu o ng u
ng ma tra.n Boole
1 0
`on ta.i quan he. R0 nho nhat ch
r`a ng khong t
u.a R sao cho sR0 s sai vo.i mo.i s S.

`on ta.i x S sao cho

13. Ta noi quan he. R tren S l`a quan he. len neu vo.i mo.i y S t
.
`on ta.i mo.t quan he. len nho nhat ch
u.a quan he.
(x, y) R. Ch
u ng minh r`a ng khong t
R tren {1, 2} du.o..c xac d.inh trong B`ai ta.p 12.
14. Gia su. tnh chat p cua quan he. tren ta.p khac trong S thoa man
(i) Quan he. pho du.ng U := S S co tnh chat p;
(ii) p dong doi vo.i phep giao, t
u.c l`a, neu {Ri | i I} l`a mo.t ho. cac quan he. tren S co
tnh chat p th` giao iI Ri c
ung co tnh chat p.
74

`on ta.i mo.t quan he. nho nhat ch

(a) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng vo.i mo.i quan he. R, t
u.a R v`a co
tnh chat p.
`au thoa man ca hai tnh
(b) Nha.n xet r`a ng cac tnh chat phan xa., doi x
u.ng v`a bac c

cha t (i) v`a (ii).

(c) Tnh chat quan he. len khong thoa tnh chat n`ao trong so (i), (ii)?

2.6

Lattice cu a c
ac ph
an hoa.ch

Nha.n xet ra` ng ho. C = P(S S) tat ca cac quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren S l`a ta.p du.o..c sap
`an tu. nho nhat l`a quan he. d`ong nhat E v`a ph
`an tu. lo.n
th
u. tu.. vo.i quan he. bao h`am. Ph
nhat l`a quan he. pho du.ng U v` E R U vo.i mo.i quan he. R tren S. Ho. C l`a lattice vo.i
hai phep toan
R1 R2 := tsr(R1 R2 ),
R1 R2 := R1 R2 .
Ch
uy
ra` ng tsr(R1 R2 ) = t(R1 R2 ) v` R1 R2 l`a quan he. co tnh phan xa. v`a doi x
u.ng.
V du. 2.6.1 Xet ho.p S ch
u.a cac vien bi v`a hai quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng:
(s, t) R1 neu s v`a t co c`
ung m`au;
ung kch thu.o.c.
(s, t) R2 neu s v`a t co c`
Khi do (s, t) R1 R2 neu v`a ch neu s v`a t co c`
ung m`au v`a c`
ung kch thu.o.c. Ca.p (s, t)
`on ta.i day cac vien bi t1 , t2 , . . . , tm1 S sao cho
thuo.c R1 R2 neu t
(s, t1 ), (t1 , t2 ), . . . , (tm1 , t) R1 R2 .
V du. 2.6.2 Tren ta.p cac so nguyen du.o.ng P xet cac quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng R6 v`a R8 trong
do (m, n) R6 neu m = n (mod 6) v`a (m, n) R8 neu m = n (mod 8).
(a) Neu (m, n) R6 R8 th` m n l`a bo.i so cua 6 v`a 8, t
u.c l`a m n l`a bo.i so cua 24.
Do do (m, n) R6 R8 neu v`a ch neu m = n (mod 24).
(b) Ta se ch
u.ng minh R6 R8 = R2 trong do (m, n) R2 neu v`a ch neu m = n (mod 2).
Ch
uy
r`a ng 2 l`a u.o.c so chung lo.n nhat cua 6 v`a 8. De d`ang thay r`a ng R6 R8 R2 v`a do
`an ch ra
R2 l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng nen R6 R8 R2 . Ta c
R2 R6 R8 = t(R6 R8 R2 ).
Nha.n xet l`a

(k, k + 2) R6 R8
75

(2.1)

vo.i mo.i k P v` ca hai (k, k + 8) v`a (k + 8, k + 2) thuo.c R6 R8 . Gia su. (m, n) R2 , m < n.
Ta co the viet n = m + 2r vo.i r P n`ao do. T`
u. (2.1) suy ra tat ca cac ca.p
(m, m + 2), (m + 2, m + 4), . . . , (m + 2r 2, m + 2r)
`au, (m, m + 2r) = (m, n) c
thuo.c R6 R8 . Do do theo tnh bac c
ung thuo.c R6 R8 , suy ra
.
`eu c
`an ch
di
u ng minh.
Ta biet r`a ng, co mo.t tu.o.ng u
.ng gi
u.a cac quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren S v`a ta.p (S) tat
ca cac phan hoa.ch cua S. Ma.t khac ta.p cac quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng ta.o th`anh lattice. V` va.y
`on ta.i cau tr
t
uc lattice tren (S).
Tha.t va.y, xet cac quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng R1 v`a R2 tu.o.ng u
.ng cac phan hoa.ch 1 v`a 2 .
Khi do R1 R2 neu v`a ch neu (s, t) R1 th` (s, t) R2 . Noi cach khac, R1 R2 neu v`a
ch neu moi ta.p trong 1 l`a ta.p con n`ao do trong 2 ; trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay ta noi 1 mi.n
ho.n 2 v`a k
y hie.u 1 2 . Ta co l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. tren (S) v`a (S) l`a lattice vo.i cac
phep toan 1 2 v`a 1 2 tu.o.ng u
.ng cac quan he. R1 R2 v`a R1 R2 . Phan hoa.ch 1 2
`om tat ca cac ta.p con khac trong nha.n du.o..c b`a ng cach giao mo.t ta.p trong
de d`ang t`m: g
.
1 vo i mo.t ta.p trong 2 . Vie.c xac d.inh 1 2 kho ho.n.
V du. 2.6.3 (a) Xet ho.p du..ng cac vien bi trong V du. 2.6.1, moi ta.p trong phan hoa.ch
`om tat ca cac vien bi co c`
1 2 g
ung m`au v`a c`
ung kch thu.o.c. Phan hoa.ch 1 2 phu.
.
thuo.c v`ao cac vien bi trong S v`a moi quan he. gi
u a ch
ung (xem cac B`ai ta.p t`
u. 1 den 4).
`om cac lo.p tu.o.ng
(b) Phan hoa.h 6 8 cua P tu.o.ng u
.ng R6 R8 trong V du. 2.6.2 g
.
.
.
.
.
du o ng du o. c xac d.inh theo quan he. m = n (mod 24) (co 24 lo p).
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, phan hoa.ch 1 2 tu.o.ng u
.ng quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng R6 R8 = R2
v`a do do co hai lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng l`a [0] v`a [1].
`an cuoi tr`nh b`ay thua.t toan xac di.nh cac phan hoa.ch 1 2 v`a 1 2 khi S h
Ph
u.u
.
.
`an tu.
ha.n. Gia su S := {1, 2, . . . , n} v`a l`a phan hoa.ch cua S. Vo i moi A , cho.n mo.t ph
mA A v`a d.inh ngha (k) := mA , vo.i mo.i k A (chang ha.n mA l`a so nho nhat cua A).
`an tu. cua S thuo.c mo.t ta.p A n`ao do, bo.i va.y ta co h`am : S S thoa man
Moi ph
(i) (j) = (k) neu v`a ch neu j, k thuo.c c`
ung mo.t ta.p cua phan hoa.ch ;
(ii) ((k)) = (k), vo.i mo.i k.
Vo.i moi k S, ta.p A sao cho k A th` (k) A. Va.y A = 1 ((k)). Do do du.o..c
`an t`m cac h`am tu.o.ng u
xac d.inh bo.i . Nhu. va.y, de xac d.inh 1 2 v`a 1 2 , ta c
.ng
.ng vo.i phan hoa.ch th` tnh chat
thoa (i) v`a (ii). Neu R l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tu.o.ng u
(i) suy ra
76

(i) (j) = (k) neu v`a ch neu jRk.

V du. 2.6.4 Gia su. R l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren S := {1, 2, . . . , 10} m`a phan hoa.ch
cua no l`a
{{1, 4, 6}, {2}, {3, 7, 10}, {5, 9}, {8}}.
H`am cho.n so nho nhat trong moi lo.p l`a
k
1 2
(k) 1 2

3 4
3 1

5
5

6
1

7 8 9 10
3 8 5 3

Ch
uy
r`a ng thoa (i) v`a (ii). C
ung co the cho.n h`am
k
1 2
(k) 4 2

3 4
3 4

5
9

6
4

7 8 9 10
3 8 9 3

Vo.i hai phan hoa.ch 1 , 2 cua ta.p S := {1, 2, . . . , n}, gia su. , l`a hai h`am thoa man (i)
v`a (ii). Ch
uy
r`a ng, 1 mi.n ho.n 2 neu
(i) = (j) suy ra (i) = (j), vo.i mo.i i, j S.
Bay gi`o. ta tr`nh b`ay thua.t toan t`m h`am tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i 1 2 . Thua.t toan duye.t moi
.
.
`an. Khi ga.p ph
`an tu s trong mo.t khoi mo.i cua phan hoa.ch 1 2 ta
`an tu cua S mo.t l
ph
gan nhan cua khoi n`ay l`a s.

2.6.1

Thu
a.t to
an giao c
ac ph
an hoa.ch

- a.t (k) = 0, k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Bu.o.c 1. D
Bu.o.c 2. Cho.n k = 1.
Bu.o.c 3. Neu (k) 6= 0 th` chuyen sang Bu.o.c 4; ngu.o..c la.i, vo.i moi j = k, k + 1, . . . , n thoa
(j) = (k) v`a (j) = (k), da.t (j) = k.
Bu.o.c 4. Neu k = n, d`
u.ng; ngu.o..c la.i, k := k + 1 v`a chuyen sang Bu.o.c 3.
V du. 2.6.5 Gia su. 1 v`a 2 l`a cac phan
v`a :
1 2
k
(k) 3 2
(k) 5 4

hoa.ch cua S := {1, 2, . . . , 8} tu.o.ng u

.ng cac h`am
3
3
4

4
2
4

5
3
5

6 7 8
7 7 2
5 5 4

`om hai ta.p. Bang 2.1 minh ho.a thua.t toan cha.y
Ta co 1 = {{1, 3, 5}, {2, 4, 8}, {6, 7}}; 2 g
.
.
.
.
.
.
t`
u ng bu o c. Phan hoa.ch 1 2 tu o ng u
ng h`ang cuoi trong bang v`a do do co bon ta.p.
Thua.t toan ke tiep t`m h`am tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i 1 2 .
77

k
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

(1) (2)
0
0
1
0
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2

(3)
0
0
0
3
3
3
3
3
3

(4) (5)
0
0
0
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1

(6) (7)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
6
6
6
6
6

(8)
0
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

Bang 2.1:
k
0
1
2, 3, 4, 5, 6
7, 8

(1) (2)
1
2
5
2
5
4
5
4

(3) (4)
5
4
5
4
5
4
5
4

(5) (6)
5
1
5
5
5
5
5
5

(7)
7
7
7
5

(8)
4
[h`am ]
4
4
4

Bang 2.2:

2.6.2

Thu
a.t to
an tr
o.n c
ac ph
an hoa.ch

- a.t (k) = (k), k = 1, 2, . . . , n.

Bu.o.c 1. D
Bu.o.c 2. Vo.i k = 1, . . . , n neu (k) 6= ((k)) th` t`m tat ca j vo.i (j) = (k) thay (j)
b`a ng ((k)) vo.i mo.i j nhu. the.
V du. 2.6.6 Gia su. 1 v`a 2 l`a ca
v`a :
k
(k)
(k)

phan hoa.ch cua S := {1, 2, . . . , 8} tu.o.ng u

.ng cac h`am
1 2 3
1 2 5
3 4 3

4
4
4

5
5
5

6 7 8
1 7 4
6 6 8

Moi phan hoa.ch 1 v`a 2 co nam ta.p. Bang 2.2 minh ho.a thua.t toan cha.y t`
u.ng bu.o.c. Phan
.
.
.
hoa.ch 1 2 tu o ng u
ng h`ang cuoi trong bang v`a do do co hai ta.p.

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Gia su. mo.t ho.p du..ng 10 vien bi, trong do 6 vien nho m`au xanh, 3 vien lo.n m`au do
v`a 1 vien lo.n m`au xanh. Mo ta 1 2 v`a 1 2 . Co bao nhieu ta.p trong moi phan
hoa.ch n`ay?
78

2. Cau tra l`o.i cua ba.n nhu. the n`ao doi vo.i B`ai ta.p 1, neu vien bi lo.n m`au xanh bien
mat?
3. La.p la.i B`ai ta.p 1, neu ho.p bi co 10 vien, trong do 4 vien nho m`au v`ang, 3 vien v`
u.a
m`au xanh, 2 vien v`
u.a m`au trang v`a 1 vien lo.n m`au v`ang.
4. Cau tra l`o.i cua ba.n nhu. the n`ao doi vo.i B`ai ta.p 3, neu mo.t vien bi lo.n m`au xanh ro.i
v`ao ho.p?
5. Khao sat cac quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng R3 , R5 tren P, trong do (m, n) R3 neu m
.ng vo.i cac phan hoa.ch 3 , 5 .
n (mod 3) v`a (m, n) R5 neu m n (mod 5) tu.o.ng u
(a) Mo ta quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng R3 R5 .
(b) Mo ta phan hoa.ch 3 5 .
(c) Suy ra ra` ng, R3 R5 l`a quan he. pho du.ng tren P. Kiem tra la.i
(1, 2), (1, 30), (1, 73), (47, 73), (72, 73) R3 R5 .
(d) Mo ta quan he. phan hoa.ch 3 5 .
6. Vo.i moi phan hoa.ch du.o.i day cua S := {1, 2, . . . , 6} t`m h`am thoa man cac tnh
chat (i) v`a (ii):
(a) 1 = {{1, 3, 5}, {2, 6}, {4}}.
(b) 2 = {{1, 2, 4}, {3, 6}, {5}}.
(c) 3 = {{1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {5}, {6}}.
(d) 4 = {{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}}.
(e) Quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng n`ao tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i 3 , 4 ?
7. T`m cac phan hoa.ch 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 cua {1, 2, . . . , 8} du.o..c xac di.nh bo.i cac h`am 1 , 2 , 3 , 4
sau
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
k
1 (k) 1 1 3 1 5 6 3 5
2 (k) 2 2 6 8 5 6 7 8
3 (k) 4 4 3 4 5 3 3 4
4 (k) 3 2 3 8 2 3 7 8
8. T`m cac h`am tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i phan hoa.ch 1 2 v`a 1 2 trong B`ai ta.p 7.
9. Nhu. B`ai ta.p 8 cho 3 v`a 4 .
10. Nhu. B`ai ta.p 8 cho 2 v`a 3 .
ng neu hoan doi vai tr`o cua v`a ?
11. Thua.t toan tro.n cac phan hoa.ch van cha.y du
12. (a) Ch
u.ng minh quan he. xac d.inh tren (S) bo.i 1 2 neu v`a ch neu 1 mi.n
u. tu.. bo. pha.n tren (S).
ho.n 2 l`a th
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu 1 , 2 , 3 (S) v`a neu 3 1 , 3 2 th` 3 1 2 .
79

13. Phan tch thua.t toan t`m giao v`a tro.n cac phan hoa.ch trong tru.`o.ng ho..p 1 mi.n ho.n
2 qua v du. S := {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} v`a
k
1 2
(k) 1 4
(k) 5 4

3
3
5

4 5
4 1
4 5

6 7
6 7
4 7

14. Kiem tra tnh du

ng dan cua thua.t toan giao cac phan hoa.ch b`a ng cach ch ra r`a ng
`an vo.i moi j trong suot qua tr`nh thu..c hie.n
(a) Gia tri. (j) thay doi t nhat mo.t l
thua.t toan;
(b) Neu gia tri. (j) thay doi khi k k0 v`a neu (k 0 ) = (j) v`a (k 0 ) = (j) th` (k 0 )
thay b`a ng k0 ;
`an vo.i moi j trong suot qua tr`nh thu..c hie.n thua.t
(c) Gia tri. (j) thay doi du
ng mo.t l
toan;
(d) Neu 0 6= (a) = (j) th` (a) = (j) v`a (a) = (j);
(e) Neu (a) = (j) v`a (a) = (j) th` (a) = (j) v`ao l
uc ket th
uc thua.t toan.

80

Chu.o.ng 3
BOOLE

-A
D
I
S
O
.
- e tu.o.ng nho. nh`a toan ho.c G. Boole, mo.t v`ai khai nie.m du.o..c mang ten ong: da.i so Boole,
D
h`am Boole, bieu th
u.c Boole v`a v`anh Boole. G. Boole l`a mo.t trong nh
u.ng nh`a toan ho.c
.
.
.
quan tam den vie.c h`nh th
u c hoa v`a co che hoa tu duy logic (xem The law of thought cua
`eu dong gop trong vie.c phat trien l
ong xuat ban nam 1854). G. Boole co nhi
y thuyet logic
.
.
y hie.u thay cho cac t`
u.
su du.ng cac k
`eu nh`a toan ho.c (da. c bie.t C. E. Shannon) da nha.n ra r`a ng da.i so
Mo.t the ky sau, nhi
.
Boole co the su du.ng de phan tch cac ma.nh die.n tu.. Do do da.i so Boole tro. th`anh mo.t
cong cu. khong the thieu du.o..c trong vie.c phan tch v`a thiet ke cac may tnh die.n tu., chang
ha.n trong vie.c thiet ke cac ma.ch die.n tu. vo.i so linh kie.n t nhat.

3.1

Lattice

- i.nh ngha 3.1.1 Gia su. L l`a ta.p khac rong v`a , l`a cac phep toan hai ngoi tren L. Bo.
D
(L, , ) du.o..c go.i l`a lattice da.i so neu vo.i mo.i x, y, z L cac tien d`e sau thoa man
1L. Tnh giao hoan.
(a) x y = y x;
(b) x y = y x.
2L. Tnh ket ho..p
(a) (x y) z = x (y z);
(b) (x y) z = x (y z).
3L. Tnh hap thu. cua cac phep toan:
81

(a) x (x y) = x;
(b) x (x y) = x.
x y do.c l`a x tuyen y hoa.c tong cua x v`a y.
x y do.c l`a x ho.i y hoa.c tch cua x v`a y.
Nh
a.n x
et 5 (a) (1La)-(3La) doi ngau vo.i (1Lb)-(3Lb) theo ngha neu ta hoan vi. vai tr`o
cua hai phep toan , trong (1La)-(3La) th` ta se du.o..c (1Lb)-(3Lb) v`a ngu.o..c la.i.
(b) Do tnh ket ho..p cua cac phep toan , ta co the viet
xyz

v`a x y z.

`an tu.
Tong quat, co the viet cho tru.`o.ng ho..p n ph
x1 x2 . . . xn

v`a x1 x2 . . . xn .

a lattice da.i so th`

Tnh ch
at 3.1.2 Neu (L, , ) l`
(a) x x = x.
(b) x x = x.
(c) x y = y neu v`a ch neu x y = x.
- a.t y := x x. Khi do
Ch
u.ng mi nh. (a) D
x = (x y)
(theo 3La)
= [x (x x)]
= x
(theo 3Lb).
(b) Su. du.ng tnh chat doi ngau.
(c) Gia su. ra` ng x y = y. Ta co
x = x (x y)
=xy

(theo 3Lb)
(theo gia thiet).

Ngu.o..c la.i: b`ai ta.p. 2

- i.nh l
- a.t
D
y 3.1.3 Gia su. (L, ) l`
a lattice. D
x y := sup(x, y),
x y := inf(x, y).
Khi d
o (L, , ) l`a lattice da.i so.
82

Ch
u.ng minh. Ta kiem tra (L, , ) thoa man cac tien d`e cua lattice da.i so.
+ (1L). Hien nhien.
- a.t
+ (2La). Lay x, y, z L. D

u := (x y) z,
v := x (y z).

V`
y x y u,
z u.
Suy ra u l`a mo.t ca.n tren cua y, z. Nhu.ng y z l`a ca.n tren nho nhat cua y v`a z nen
y z u.
Ma.t khac

x x y u.

Nen u l`a ca.n tren cua x v`a y z. Va.y

x (y z) u.
T
u.c l`a v u.
Ch
u.ng minh tu.o.ng tu.. ta c
ung co u v. Va.y u = v.
+ (2Lb). Tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. ch
u.ng minh (2La).
- a.c bie.t, vo.i w := x y, ta co
+ (3La). Lay x, y L. V` x x w vo.i w t`
uy y
. D
x x (x y).
V` x x v`a x y x nen x l`a ca.n tren cua x v`a x y. Do do
x (x y) x.
Va.y

x (x y) = x.

+ (3Lb). Tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. ch

u.ng minh (3La). 2
- i.nh l
- .inh l
D
y 3.1.3 ch ra ra` ng lattice da.i so (L, , ) cam sinh t`
u. lattice (L, ). D
y sau
.
.
cho ch
ung ta khang d.inh ngu o. c la.i.
- i.nh l
D
y 3.1.4 Gia su. (L, , ) l`
a mo.t lattice da.i so. Ky hie.u
x y x y = y,
a (L, ) l`
a lattice tho a
v
o.i mo.i x, y L. Khi d
o l`
a quan he. th
u. tu.. tren L v`
x y = sup(x, y),
83

x y = inf(x, y).

Ch
u.ng minh. Ta ch
u.ng minh l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. tren L.
+ Tnh phan xa.: v` x x = x nen x x.
u.c l`a
+ Tnh phan doi x
u.ng: gia su. x y v`a y x, t
xy =y

v`a

y x = x.

Do phep toan giao hoan, nen x = y.

`au: gia su. x y v`a y z, t
+ Tnh bac c
u.c l`a
xy =y

v`a y z = z.

Suy ra
x z = x (y z)
= (x y) z
=yz
= z.
Ch
u.ng minh x y = sup(x, y). V`
x (x y) = (x x) y
= x y.
Nen
x x y.
Tu.o.ng tu.., ta co

y x y.

Va.y x y l`a mo.t ca.n tren cua x v`a y.

Gia su. u l`a mo.t ca.n tren cua x v`a y. Khi do
x u v`a y u.
Hay
x u = u v`a y u = u.
V` va.y

(x y) u = x (y u)
=xu
= u.

Suy ra
x y u.
Do do
x y = sup(x, y).
.
.
.
.
Ch
u ng minh tu o ng tu. cho x y = inf(x, y). 2
84

Nh
a.n x
et 6 (a) T`
u. Tnh chat 3.1.2, ch
ung ta co the d.inh ngha
x y x y = x, vo.i mo.i x, y L.
- i.nh l
(b) Hai D
y 3.1.3 v`a 3.1.4 cho ta moi quan he. gi
u.a lattice da.i so v`a lattice. Ho.n n
u.a,
neu cho lattice (L, ) th` quan he. th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n cam sinh bo.i lattice da.i so (L, , ) tr`
ung
.
.
.
.
vo i quan he. th
u tu. ban d`au; ngu o..c la.i neu cho lattice da.i so (L, , ) th` cac phep toan
ung vo.i cac phep toan , ban d`au.
hai ngoi cam sinh bo.i lattice (L, ) tr`
V du. 3.1.1 S l`a ta.p bat k`
y. Vo.i cac phep toan ho..p v`a giao, (P(S), , ) l`a mo.t lattice
- i.nh l
da.i so. Theo D
y 3.1.4, vo.i moi ta.p A, B trong P(S), ta d.inh ngha A B neu v`a ch
neu A B = B. Th` (P(S), ) l`a ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. bo. pha.n v`a
(
sup(A, B) = A B,
inf(A, B) = A B.
V du. 3.1.2 Gia su. L l`a ta.p ho..p cac me.nh d`e. Tren L ta xet quan he. du.o..c di.nh
ngha nhu. sau: p q neu v`a ch neu p q l`a mo.t me.nh d`e logic. Khi do l`a quan
he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren L. Go.i l`a ta.p ho..p cac lo.p tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren L xac d.inh bo.i .
T
u.c l`a
:= {[p] | p L}.
- a.t
D

[p] [q] := [p or q],

[p] [q] := [p and q].

Khi do (, , ) l`a mo.t lattice da.i so. K

y hie.u [p] [q] neu v`a ch neu [p] [q] = [q]. Ta co
.
.
.
.
(, ) l`a ta.p du o. c sap th
u tu. v`a
sup([p], [q]) = [p] [q],

inf([p], [q]) = [p] [q].

V du. 3.1.3 K
y hie.u Fun(R, R) l`a ta.p tat ca cac h`am so thu..c xac d.inh tren R. Tren
Fun(R, R) ta xet quan he. du.o..c d.inh ngha nhu. sau: f g, f, g Fun(R, R), neu v`a
ch neu f (x) g(x) vo.i moi x R.
`on ta.i
Khi do l`a quan he. th
u. tu.. tren Fun(R, R). De thay ra` ng sup(f, g) v`a inf(f, g) t
.
.
vo i mo.i f, g Fun(R, R). Vo i mo.i x R, da. t
(f g)(x) := max(f (x), g(x)),
(f g)(x) := min(f (x), g(x)).
Khi do (Fun(R, R), , ) l`a lattice da.i so v`a
f g = sup(f, g),
85

f g = inf(f, g).

- i.nh ngha 3.1.5 Cho lattice da.i so (L, , ) tu.o.ng u

D
.ng vo.i ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. (L, ).
`an tu. trong L, k hie.u 1, thoa man
(a) Ph
x 1 vo.i mo.i x L,

(3.1)

`an tu. lo.n nhat.

go.i l`a ph
`an tu. trong L, k
(b) Ph
y hie.u 0, thoa man
0 x vo.i mo.i x L,

(3.2)

`an tu. nho nhat.

go.i l`a ph
`on ta.i ph
`an tu. nho nhat, th` cac ph
`an tu. phu 0 go.i l`a cac nguyen tu. (atom).
(c) Neu t
`an tu. x trong lattice da.i so du.o..c go.i l`a bat kha quy (hay toi gian) doi vo.i phep
(d) Ph
tuyen neu x = y z th` hoa.c x = y hoa.c x = z.
Hien nhien (3.1) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i
x 1 = 1 v`a x 1 = x.
V`a (3.2) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i
0 x = x v`a 0 x = 0.
`an tu. nho nhat v`a lo.n nhat co the t
`on ta.i hoa.c khong
Nh
a.n x
et 7 (a) Trong lattice, cac ph
.
.
.
`on ta.i th` ch
`on ta.i. Trong tru `o ng ho. p t
ung duy nhat.
t
(b) Cac nguyen tu. l`a bat kha quy. Ho.n n
u.a ta co
- i.nh l
`an tu. c
`an tu., mo.i ph
D
y 3.1.6 Trong lattice da.i so h
u.u ha.n ph
o the bieu die n o. da.ng
`an tu. bat kha quy.
tuyen cac ph
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p! 2
V du. 3.1.4 (a) Lattice da.i so cho trong V du. 3.1.1 co
`an tu. nho nhat;
+ ta.p trong l`a ph
`an tu. lo.n nhat;
+ S l`a ph
+ {x}, x S, l`a cac nguyen tu..
86

(b) Gia su. S l`a ta.p con cua B. Xet lattice Fun(S, B). Theo V du. 3.1.3.
(f g)(x) = max(f (x), g(x)),
(f g)(x) = min(f (x), g(x)),
vo.i mo.i x S. Nen

(
1
(f g)(x) =
0
(
1
(f g)(x) =
0

neu f (x) = 1 hoa.c g(x) = 1,

neu ngu.o..c la.i,

neu f (x) = g(x) = 1,

neu ngu.o..c la.i.
Cac nguyen tu. trong Fun(S, B) l`a cac h`am da. c tru.ng 1{x} , x S.
V du. 3.1.5 Cac lu.o..c d`o Hasse trong H`nh 3.1 tu.o.ng u
.ng cac lattice da.i so.
...
........
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
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...
...
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...
...
...
...
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...................
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.
.
.
.
.
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......
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.
.
.
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.
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.
....
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.
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...
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....
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....
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..
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.
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.
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.
.
...
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....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
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....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
............
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .......
...... .
......
.
.
.......
.
.
.
.
.......
.....
.
.
.
.
.
....
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.
.....
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...
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...
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..............
.

..............
...... ...........
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.
.
.
.
.....
....
.
.....
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.
...
.....
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.
.
.
.....
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.
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....
.
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..
.
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....
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..
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.....
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.
.....
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.....
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.....
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..... ........
..... .....
...

H`nh 3.1:
`an tu. a, b
Lu.o..c d`o Hasse trong H`nh 3.2 khong tu.o..ng tru.ng cho mo.t lattice n`ao v` hai ph
khong co ca.n tren nho nhat, ma.c d`
u ch
ung co ca.n du.o.i lo.n nhat l`a e :
c

...
....
..............................
........... ......
.......
....... . .......
.......
.......
...
...
....... .............
...
...
.
.
.
.
...
...
...
...................
...
.......
.......
...
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.......
.....
...
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
...
.....
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.......
..
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....... .....
.. ...........
.
....... ..
.
..........
.............
.
.
..
...........
...........
........
.......
......
.....
......
.
.
.
.
.
......
.....
......
.....
......
......
......
......
......
......
.
.
......
.
.
......
.....
......
.....
......
......
...... ..........
..........

e
H`nh 3.2:
- i.nh ngha 3.1.7 Gia su. (L, , ) l`a lattice da.i so. Ta.p con M khac rong cua L du.o..c go.i
D
l`a lattice con (sublattice) cua L neu vo.i mo.i x, y M, ta co
x y M,

x y M.

T
u.c l`a M dong doi voi cac phep toan tuyen v`a ho.i.
87

...
......................
. .
... .....
...
...
.
.
.
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
.
...
..
.
.
...
..
.
...
.
..
...
.
.
...
..
.
.
..
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............
.
... ...
........
.
.
.. ....
.
.... .....
.
.. ...
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
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...
.
.
...
...
...
..
.
.
...
...
...
.
... .....
...
...
... ..
....
...
.....
.....
.
.
.......
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.
.
...
.
.
.
...
....
..
...
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...
...
...
...
...
...
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...
...
.
.
.
.
... ... ....
... .. ...
... .. ...
... .. ...
.........
..

..
..............
.......
... ..
... ....
.
.
..
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
.
...
..
.
.
...
..
.
.
....
...
.
.
.
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.
.
.
...
..
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...
.
...
.
.
... .....
... ....
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.....

..
..............
.......
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... ....
.
.
..
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
.
...
..
.
.
...
..
.
.
....
...
.....
.
.
.
.......
.........
.......
.
.
.
...
..
.
...
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....
..
...
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...
...
...
...
.
.
.
.
... ... ....
... .. ...
... .. ...
... .. ...
.........
..

(a)

(b)

(c)

H`nh 3.3:
V du. 3.1.6 Xet lattice da.i so (L, , ) co lu.o..c d`o Hasse trong H`nh 3.3(a). Ta co M1
trong H`nh 3.3(b) l`a lattice con cua L; c`on M2 trong H`nh 3.3(c) khong phai l`a lattice con
cua L.

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Viet du.o.i da.ng doi ngau cac phu.o.ng tr`nh sau (m`a khong phai l
uc n`ao c
ung du
ng):
(a) x (y z) = (x y) z.
(b) x (y z) = (x y) (x z).

`an tu. lo.n nhat 1 v`a ph

`an tu. nho nhat 0.
2. Gia su. L l`a lattice da.i so vo.i ph
(a) 1 l`a bat kha quy? Giai thch.
(b) 0 l`a bat kha quy? Giai thch.

`an tu.
3. Xet lattice h
u.u ha.n (P, ) v`a lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua no. Giai thch ta.i sao mo.t ph
.
`eu nhat mo.t ph
`an tu .
l`a bat kha quy neu v`a ch neu no phu nhi
88

4. Xet lattice trong cac h`nh du.o.i:

t

................
...................
...... ...... ...........
......
......
...
......
......
.
.
.
.
...
......
......
......
...
.....
.
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
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.
.
.
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.
.
......
...
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.
.
.
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......
.
.
.
.
....
......
.
.
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......
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...
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.
.
.
.
.
......
.
..
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...
.
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.
.
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.
.
......
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.
.
......
....
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.
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.
.
...
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.
.
.
.
.
......
...... ...........
.........

z
(a) Lie.t ke cac nguyen tu. cua lattice.
`an tu. bat kha quy.
(b) Lie.t ke cac ph
`an tu. cua lattice du.o.i da.ng tuyen cua cac ph
`an tu. bat kha quy.
(c) Viet cac ph
5. La.p la.i B`ai ta.p 4 cho h`nh du.o.i:
t

............
........ .............
......
......
......
......
......
.....
.
.
.
.
......
......
......
......
.
......
.
.
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......
....
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......
...
.
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......
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....
......
.
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......
....
.
.
.
......
.
..
.
................
................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..... .......
..... .........
.
.
.
......
.
...
...
.
.
......
.
.
..
....
.
..
......
...
...
......
......
......
......
...
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.....
.
......
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.
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...
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.
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.
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.... .
......
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..
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.
.
.
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..
......
....
......
......
.....
.
...... ... ..........
...... .. ......
...........

z
6. K
y hie.u P l`a ta.p cac so nguyen du.o.ng. Xet lattice (P, |), trong do m|n neu m l`a u.o.c
so cua n.
(i) Ca.n du.o.i du
ng cua P b`a ng may?
`on ta.i ca.n tren du
(b) T
ng cua P?
(c) Mo ta cac nguyen tu. cua P.
`an tu. bat kha qui theo phep tuyen cua P.
(d) Mo ta cac ph
`om 1 v`a 90. Ch
7. Gia su. D90 l`a ta.p tat ca cac u.o.c so cua 90 bao g
u.ng minh r`a ng D90 l`a
u. tu.. |.
lattice vo.i th
(a) Ve lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua lattice n`ay.
(b) Tnh 6 10, 6 10, 9 30, 9 30.
(c) Lie.t ke cac nguyen tu. cua D90 .
89

`an tu. bat kha qui cua D90 .

(d) Lie.t ke cac ph
`an tu. bat kha qui.
(e) Viet 90, 18, 5 da.ng tuyen cua cac ph
`an tu. bao g
`om 1 v`a 90.
8. T`m tat ca cac lattice con cua D90 m`a co bon ph
9. Vo.i moi x, y R, d.inh ngha x y := max{x, y} v`a x y := min{x, y}.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng (R, , ) l`a lattice da.i so.
(b) Th
u. tu.. cam sinh bo.i lattice n`ay l`a g`?
`an tu. cua R l`a bat kha qui theo phep tuyen?
(c) Ta.i sao cac ph
`on ta.i mo.t tu.o.ng u
.ng
10. Hai lattice (L1 , , ) v`a (L2 , , ) du.o..c go.i l`a da ng cau neu t
mo.t-mo.t len : L1 L2 sao cho
(x y) = (x) (y),

(x y) = (x) (y)

vo.i mo.i x, y L1 .
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay (x) (y) neu v`a ch neu x y.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu (L1 , , ) v`a (L2 , , ) da ng cau th` x l`a nguyen tu. cua L1
neu v`a ch neu (x) l`a nguyen tu. cua L2 .
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng hai lattice trong h`nh sau khong da ng cau:
................
........ .............
......
......
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..

`om cac u.o.c so cua 30 (ke ca 1 v`a 30) dang cau vo.i
(d) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng lattice D30 g
lattice P(S), trong do |S| = 3. (HD. Su. du.ng S = {2, 3, 5}).
11. Gia su. (P, ) l`a lattice. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu x y, th` x (z y) (x z) y vo.i
mo.i z P.

3.2

Latiice ph
an b
o

- i.nh ngha 3.2.1 Lattice da.i so (L, , ) du.o..c go.i l`a lattice phan bo (distributive) neu
D
cac phep toan , phan phoi doi vo.i nhau, t
u.c l`a vo.i mo.i x, y, z L ta co
90

(a) x (y z) = (x y) (x z);
(b) x (y z) = (x y) (x z).
V du. 3.2.1 (a) Lattice da.i so trong V du. 3.1.1 l`a phan bo.
(b) Lattice da.i so trong V du. 3.1.2 l`a lattice phan bo.
(c) R hoa.c N l`a ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. doi vo.i quan he. th
u. tu.. tuyen tnh thong thu.`o.ng.
- o l`a cac lattice phan bo, vo.i
D
x y = max(x, y) v`a x y = min(x, y).
V du. 3.2.2 Cac lattice da.i so trong H`nh 3.4 khong phan bo.
1

.
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.... ................
...
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(a)

(b)

H`nh 3.4: Cac lattice khong phan bo.

Chang ha.n, ch
u.ng minh (a). Ta co
B (C D) = B A = B.
Ma.t khac

(B C) (B D) = E E = E.

Va.y

B (C D) = B 6= E = (B C) (B D).
`eu th
Mo.t di
u vi. l`a co the ch
u.ng minh du.o..c mo.t lattice l`a phan bo neu v`a ch neu no khong
.
.
- i.nh l
`an
ch
u a lattice con giong nhu cac lattice trong V du. 3.2.2. D
y sau ch ra r`a ng ch c

kiem tra mo.t tieu chua n cua lua.t phan bo.

91

- i.nh l
D
a lattice da.i so. Hai kha ng d.inh sau l`a tu.o.ng du.o.ng
y 3.2.2 Gia su. L l`
(a) x (y z) = (x y) (x z), v
o.i mo.i x, y L.
(b) x (y z) = (x y) (x z), v
o.i mo.i x, y L.
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) (b).
(x y) (x z) =
=
=
=
=
=
=

[(x y) x] [(x y) z]
[x (x y)] [z (x y)]
x [z (x y)]
x [(z x) (z y)]
[x (z x)] (z y)
[x (x z)](y z)
x (y z)

(do (a))
(tnh giao hoan)
(tnh hap thu.)
(do (a))
(tnh ket ho..p)
(tnh giao hoan)
(tnh hap thu.)

(b) (a). Do nguyen l

y doi ngau. 2
- i.nh l
D
y 3.2.3 Gia su. (L, , ) l`
a lattice phan bo v`
a x, y, a L sao cho
x a = y a v`a

x a = y a.

Th` x = y.
Ch
u.ng minh. Ta co
x =
=
=
=
=
=
=

x (x a)
x (y a)
(x y) (x a)
(y x) (y a)
y (x a)
y (y a)
y.

2
`e sau ch
`an tu. lo.n nhat l`a 1 v`a ph
`an
ung ta luon gia su. (L, , ) l`a lattice co ph
T`
u. day v
.
tu nho nhat l`a 0 (1 khac 0).
- i.nh ngha 3.2.4 Hai ph
`an tu. x, y L du.o..c go.i l`a b`
u nhau (complement) neu
D
x y = 1 v`a x y = 0.
`an tu. cua L d`eu t
`on ta.i ph
`an tu.
u (complemented) neu mo.i ph
Lattice L du.o..c go.i l`a kha b`
b`
u.
92

`an tu. cua lattice L co the co hoa.c khong co ph

`an tu. b`
Nh
a.n x
et 8 (a) Mo.t ph
u. Trong
`on ta.i, co the duy nhat hoa.c khong duy nhat.
tru.`o.ng ho..p t
`an tu. b`
`an tu. 1 v`a 0 l`a b`
(b) Cac ph
u nhau v`a l`a ph
u duy nhat cua nhau.
`an tu. b`
V du. 3.2.3 (a) Lattice trong V du. 3.2.2(a) l`a kha b`
u. Cac ph
u khong nhat thiet
.
`an tu b`
duy nhat: B l`a ph
u cua ca C v`a D.
`an tu. b`
u c
ung khong duy nhat.
(b) Lattice L trong V du. 3.2.2(b) c
ung kha b`
u. Cac ph

Chang ha.n, ca A v`a C deu l`a b`

u cua B.
V du. 3.2.4 Lattice trong H`nh 3.5 l`a phan bo nhu.ng khong kha b`
u. V` neu co
x y = 1 v`a x y = 0.
Th` da ng th
u.c d`au cho y = 1 c`on dang th
u.c sau cho y = 0. Vo l
y.
0 x 1
H`nh 3.5:

- i.nh l
`an tu. x (neu co) l`a
`an tu. 1 v`a 0, b`
u cu a ph
o ph
D
y 3.2.5 Trong lattice phan bo L c
duy nh
at.
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. r`a ng
x y = 1,
Ta co

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

x y = 0,

x z = 1,

y0
y (x z)
(y x) (y z)
1 (y z)
(x z) (y z)
(x y) z
0z
z

x z = 0.

(v` 0 y)
(v` x z = 0)
(v` tnh phan bo)
(v` y x = x y = 1)
(v` x z = 1)
(v` tnh phan bo)
(v` x y = 0)
(v` 0 z).

2
`an tu. trong lattice t
`on ta.i duy nhat ph
`an tu. b`
`an tu. b`
u, th` ph
u cua x
Nh
a.n x
et 9 Neu ph
0
.
.
y hie.u l`a x .
du o. c k
93

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Xet lattice da.i so L1 vo.i lu.o..c d`o Hasse:
1

.........................
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(a) Lie.t ke cac nguyen tu. cua L1 .

`an tu. bat kha qui cua L1 .
(b) Lie.t ke cac ph
`an tu. bat kha qui.
(c) Viet 1 du.o.i da.ng tuyen cua cac ph
`an tu. b`
`on ta.i, cua a, b, d, 0.
(d) T`m cac ph
u, neu t
(e) L1 l`a lattice kha b`
u? Giai thch.
(f) L1 l`a lattice phan bo?
2. Xet lattice L2 vo.i lu.o..c d`o Hasse trong h`nh:
r
s
v

..........................
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.
.....
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.
.
.
..... ... .......
..... .. .....
..... .. .....
............
.

u
x

y
.
.
(a) T`m cac ca.n tren v`a du o i du
ng cua L2 .
(b) T`m v x, s v v`a u v.
(c) L2 l`a lattice kha b`
u? Giai thch.
`an tu. co hai ph
`an tu. b`
(d) T`m ph
u.
(e) L2 l`a lattice phan bo?

`an tu. 2 v`a 6 trong lattice D12 khong co ph

`an tu. b`
3. (a) Ch
u.
u.ng minh r`a ng cac ph
.
(b) Ch
u ng minh ra` ng Dm , m 2, l`a kha b`
u neu v`a ch neu m l`a tch cua cac so nguyen
.
u.a so nguyen to m = p1 1 .p2 2 pk k ,
to phan bie.t, t
u c l`a neu phan tch th`anh cac th`
th` 1 = 2 = = k = 1.
94

4. (a) Ve lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua lattice (D24 , |).

`on ta.i, cua 2, 3, 4, 6.
`an tu. kha b`
(b) T`m cac ph
u, neu t
(c) D24 l`a lattice kha b`
u? Giai thch.
(d) D24 l`a lattice phan bo? Giai thch.
5. (a) Ve lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua lattice (D36 , |).
(b) D36 l`a lattice kha b`
u? Giai thch.
(d) D36 l`a lattice phan bo? Giai thch.
6. Ch
u.ng minh cac d`o thi. trong h`nh sau l`a lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua lattice phan bo. No l`a
kha b`
u?
`om 1 v`a 70.
7. K
y hie.u D70 l`a ta.p tat ca cac u.o.c so cua 70 bao g
(a) Ve lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua lattice (D70 , |).
(b) Tnh 10 14, 10 14.
(c) Lie.t ke cac nguyen tu. cua D70 .
`an tu. bat kha qui cua D70 .
(d) Lie.t ke cac ph
`an tu. bat kha qui.
(e) Viet 70, 10, 5 da.ng tuyen cua cac ph
`an tu. b`
u cua 2, 5.
(f) D l`a lattice kha b`
u? T`m cac ph
70

8. La.p la.i B`ai ta.p 8 cho (D36 , |).

9. (a) Cac xch1 n`ao co ca.n tren v`a du.o.i?
(b) Cac xch n`ao l`a phan bo?
(c) Cac xch n`ao l`a kha b`
u?
u.ng minh ra` ng neu x, y L thoa x a = y a v`a
10. Gia su. L l`a lattice phan bo. Ch
x a = y a vo.i a L n`ao do, th` x = y.
- i.nh l
11. Su. du.ng D
y 3.2.5 ch
u.ng minh cac lattice trong h`nh sau khong phan bo:
1

............................
................
..... ... .........
.....
.....
.
.
.
....
.
.....
...
.....
...
.....
.....
.....
...
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....
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.
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.....
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...
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.....
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.....
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...
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.....
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...
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.....
.
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...
.....
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.....
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....
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.....
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...
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.....
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.....
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...
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.
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.
.
.
....
.
...........
.
.
.
........
.......
.........
.......
.....
.....
.....
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.
.
.
.
.....
....
....
.....
.....
.....
...
.....
.....
.....
...
.....
.....
.
.
.
.....
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.
.
.....
.....
....
.....
....
...
.....
.....
.....
.....
...
.....
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.
..
.....
.....
..... .... ........
..... .. .....
............
...

c
a

A
1

...............
.......... ................
.......
.......
.......
.......
........
........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
........
.
.......
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.......
.......
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.....
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........
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.
.......
.
..........
......
...
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....
..
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...
..
..
...
...
....
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...
...
..........
.
.
.......
..
.....
...
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...
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...
.....
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.
.....
..
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...
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...
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...
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.....
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..
.....
...
.....
...
.....
...
.....
.....
...
.
.
..... ...
........
..

`an tu. bat k`

u. tu.. m`a hai ph
Xch l`a ta.p du.o..c sap th
y co the so sanh du.o..c vo.i nhau.

95

`an tu. lo.n nhat 1, ph

`an tu. nho nhat 0. Ch
12. Gia su. L l`a lattice vo.i ph
u.ng minh ra` ng 0
l`a b`
u duy nhat cua 1 v`a ngu.o..c la.i.
13. Ch
u.ng minh, hoa.c b`a ng phan v du., r`a ng
(a) Mo.i lattice h
u.u ha.n l`a phan bo.
(a) Mo.i lattice h
u.u ha.n co ca.n tren.
14. Gia su. L l`a lattice phan bo kha b`
u.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu x y th` y 0 x0 .
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu y z = 0 th` y z 0 .
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu x y v`a y z = 0 th` z x0 .

3.3

- a.i s
D
o Boole

- .inh ngha 3.3.1 D

- a.i so Boole (c`on go.i l`a lattice Boole) l`a mo.t lattice phan bo kha b`
u.
D
- a.i so Boole l`a mo.t lattice phan bo co ph
`an tu. lo.n nhat 1, ph
`an tu. nho
Nh
a.n x
et 10 (a) D
.
.
`on ta.i duy nhat ph
`an tu b`
`an tu cua no luon t
u. Cac phep toan
nhat 0 (1 6= 0), v`a mo.i ph
hai ngoi
(x, y) 7 x y,
(x, y) 7 x y
v`a phep toan mo.t ngoi

x 7 x0

du.o..c go.i l`a cac phep toan Boole.

(b) Ta thu.`o.ng k
y hie.u (x0 )0 = x00 .
(c) Trong da.i so Boole : (x0 )0 = x.
V du. 3.3.1 Lattice P(S) trong V du. 3.1.1 l`a lattice phan bo, trong do 1 = S, 0 = v`a
vo.i mo.i A S ta co
A Ac = S,

A Ac = .

Nen P(S) l`a da.i so Boole.

V du. 3.3.2 Lattice trong V du. 3.1.2 l`a lattice phan bo trong do
`an tu. lo.n nhat l`a 1 = [True].
+ ph
96

`an tu. ph
`an tu. nho nhat l`a 0 = [False].
+ ph
+ vo.i mo.i me.nh d`e p,
[p] or [not p] = [True]; [p] and [not p] = [False].
T
u.c l`a
p0 = not p.
Nen l`a da.i so Boole.
V du. 3.3.3 (a) Xet lattice Fun(S, B) trong V du. 3.1.4 (b).
+ Fun(S, B) l`a lattice phan bo v` max, min phan bo vo.i nhau.
`an tu. lo.n nhat l`a 1 d.inh ngha bo.i 1(x) = 1 vo.i mo.i x S.
+ Co ph
`an tu. nho nhat l`a 0 d.inh ngha bo.i 0(x) = 0 vo.i mo.i x S.
+ Co ph
+ Vo.i mo.i f Fun(S, B) ta co [f (x)]0 = 1 neu v`a ch neu f (x) = 0 vo.i mo.i x S. V`
(f 0 f )(x) = max([f (x)]0 , f (x)) = 1,
(f 0 f )(x) = min([f (x)]0 , f (x)) = 0.
Nen Fun(S, B) l`a da.i so Boole.
(b) Tren Bn := {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) | xi B, i = 1, 2, . . . , n} xet cac phep toan
x y := (max(x1 , y1 ), max(x2 , y2 ), . . . , max(xn , yn )),
x y := (min(x1 , y1 ), min(x2 , y2 ), . . . , min(xn , yn )).
`an tu. lo.n nhat l`a 1 = (1, 1, . . . , 1) v`a ph
`an tu. nho nhat l`a
Khi do Bn l`a da.i so Boole vo.i ph
0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0).
- i.nh l
D
y 3.3.2 (Lua.t de Morgan) Neu A l`
a da.i so Boole th` vo.i mo.i x, y A ta co
(a) (x y)0 = x0 y 0 ;
(b) (x y)0 = x0 y 0 .
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Ta co
(x y) (x0 y 0 ) =
=
=
=
=

[(x y) x0 ] [(x y) y 0 ]
[y (x x0 )] [x (y y 0 )]
[y 1] [x 1]
11
1.
97

(do tnh phan bo)

(do tnh ket ho..p v`a giao hoan)

Tu.o.ng tu..

(x y) (x0 y 0 ) = 0.

(b) V`
x y = (x0 )0 (y 0 )0
= (x0 y 0 )0 .
Nen

(x y)0 = (x0 y 0 )00

= x0 y 0 .

2
- i.nh l
D
y 3.3.3 Gia su. A l`a da.i so Boole h
u.u ha.n vo.i ta.p cac nguyen tu. S := {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }.
V
o.i moi x A, x 6= 0, ta co the viet du.
o.i da.ng tuyen cac nguyen tu. kh
ac nhau nhu. sau
x = ai1 ai2 . . . aik .

(3.3)

u.c,
Ho.n n
u.a bieu th
u.c tren l`a duy nhat khong ke th
u. tu.. cu a cac nguyen tu. trong bieu th
v`
a ai1 , ai2 , . . . , aik l`
a cac nguyen tu. x.
- `au tien ta ch
`on ta.i.
Ch
u.ng minh. + D
u.ng minh tnh t
`on ta.i y A sao cho 0 < y < x.
Neu x = 0 hoa.c x l`a nguyen tu. th` hien nhien. Ngu.o..c la.i, t
Ta co
x=xy
= (x y) 1
= (x y) (y 0 y)
= (x y 0 ) y.
Ma.t khac x y 0 < x. V` neu ngu.o..c la.i, th` x y 0 = x. Do do
y < x = x y0 y0.
Va.y

0 < y = y y0.

M`a khong the.

`an tu. nho ho.n l`a x y 0 v`a y. (L
Va.y ta phan tch x da.ng tuyen cac ph
y lua.n n`ay ch
u.ng
`an tu. nho nhat 0 l`a bat kha quy). Neu ca hai y v`a x y 0
to ch co cac nguyen tu. v`a ph
l`a nguyen tu., ch
u.ng minh xong. Ngu.o..c la.i, b`a ng phu.o.ng phap tren ta phan tch ch
ung o.
.
.
`an tu nho ho n.
da.ng tuyen cac ph
V` A h
u.u ha.n, nen cuoi c`
ung qua tr`nh tren phai d`
u.ng v`a phan tch x da.ng tuyen cac
.
nguyen tu .
98

`an
Ch
uy
ra` ng phu.o.ng phap tren cho ch
ung ta thua.t toan de. quy t`m bieu dien cua mo.t ph
.
.
tu qua cac nguyen tu .
+ Ta ch
u.ng minh ra` ng vo.i mo.i x A d`eu thoa
x = {a S | a x}.

(3.4)

`an tu. l`a tuyen cac ph

`an tu. trong ta.p {a S | a x}. V` co the
K
y hie.u ben phai ch ph
.
`an tu 0 l`a tuyen cua ta.p trong cua cac nguyen tu., nen co the gia su. x 6= 0. T`
xem ph
u. (3.3)
ta de d`ang suy ra
1 = {a S | a 1} = a1 a2 . . . an .
Nen

x=x1
= x (a1 a2 . . . an )
= (x a1 ) (x a2 ) . . . (x an ).

Ma.t khac

(
x ai =

neu ai x,
neu ngu.o..c la.i,

ai
0

do ai l`a nguyen tu.. Va.y x co bieu dien da.ng (3.4).

+ Tnh duy nhat. Gia su. r`a ng
x = b1 b2 . . . bm ,
trong do bi l`a cac nguyen tu.. Khi do bi x, i = 1, 2, . . . , m.
Va.y

bi {a S | a x},

i = 1, 2, . . . , m.

Ma.t khac, neu a S, a x, th`

0 6= a = a x
= a (b1 b2 . . . bm )
= (a b1 ) (a b2 ) . . . (a bm ).
`on ta.i ch so i sao cho
Va.y t

a bi 6= 0.

Do a v`a bi l`a cac nguyen tu., nen

a bi = a = bi .
- i
`an tu. bi n`ao do. D
`eu phai ch
Noi cach khac, a l`a ph
u.ng minh. 2
Ket qua sau day se ch
u.ng to da.i so Boole du.o..c ho`an to`an xac d.inh bo.i so cac nguyen tu.
cua no.
99

- i.nh l
D
a cac da.i so Boole h
u.u ha.n vo.i ta.p cac nguyen tu. S := {a1 , a2 , . . . , an }
y 3.3.4 Cho A, B l`
`on ta.i mo.t d
v`
a T := {b1 , b2 , . . . , bn } tu.o.ng u
.ng. Khi d
o t
a ng cau da.i so Boole t`
u. A len B;
`on ta.i anh xa. m
t
u.c l`a t
o.t-m
o.t len f : A B sao cho
(a) f (x y) = f (x) f (y);
(b) f (x y) = f (x) f (y);
(c) f (x0 ) = [f (x)]0 .
Ngo`
ai ra
f (ai ) = bi ,

i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

- i.nh l
Ch
u.ng minh. Theo D
y 3.3.3, mo.i x A co the bieu dien duy nhat du.o.i da.ng
x = ai1 ai2 . . . aik .
Ta d.inh ngha

f (x) = bi1 bi2 . . . bik .

- a.c bie.t
D

f (ai ) = bi ,

i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

- i.nh l
Theo di.nh ngha cua f v`a do D
y 3.3.3, ta co
f (x) = {f (a) | a S, a x}
v`a
f (x) = {b T | b f (x)}.
V` bieu dien cua f (x) l`a duy nhat, nen vo.i mo.i a S ta co
ax

neu v`a ch neu f (a) f (x).

- e ch
D
u.ng minh (a), lay x, y A v`a ch
uy
ra` ng a S, ta co
f (a) f (x y) a (x y)
a x hoa.c a y
f (a) f (x) hoa.c f (a) f (y).
T
u.c l`a, vo.i moi b T ta co
b f (x y) b f (x) hoa.c b f (y)
b f (x) f (y).
du.ng D
- i.nh l
Ap
y 3.3.3, suy ra
f (x y) = f (x) f (y).
100

Va.y khang d.inh (a) du.o..c ch

u.ng minh. Tu.o.ng tu.. ta c
ung co (b).
Ch
u.ng minh (c). Ta co
f (x) f (x0 ) = f (x x0 ) = f (1) = 1,
f (x) f (x0 ) = f (x x0 ) = f (0) = 0.
Va.y [f (x)]0 = f (x0 ). 2
`an tu. th` P(S) l`a mo.t da.i so Boole (tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac phep toan
Neu S l`a ta.p co n ph
`an b`
ho..p, giao v`a lay ph
u) co n nguyen tu., cu. the {x}, x S. Va.y
H
e. qua 3.3.5 M
o.t da.i so Boole h
u.u ha.n co n nguyen tu. th` d
a ng cau da.i so Boole vo.i
`an tu..
P(S), #S = n, v`a v` va.y co du
ng 2n ph

B`
ai t
a.p
1. (a) Kiem tra B := {1, 0} vo.i hai phep toan , thong thu.`o.ng v`a 00 = 1, 10 = 0, l`a da.i
so Boole.
(b) Kiem tra ta.p Fun(S, B) cac h`am t`
u. S len B vo.i hai phep toan
(f g)(x) := f (x) g(x),
(f g)(x) := f (x) g(x),
(f 0 )(x) := [f (x)]0 ,
l`a da.i so Boole.
- a.t S := {a, b, c, d, e}. Viet {a, c, d} nhu. tuyen cua cac nguyen tu. trong P(S).
2. (a) D
`an tu. (1, 0, 1, 1, 0) da.ng tuyen cac nguyen tu. trong B5 .
(b) Bieu dien ph
(c) Gia su. f Fun(S, B) sao cho f (a) = f (c) = f (d) = 1, f (b) = f (e) = 0. Bieu dien
f da.ng tuyen cac nguyen tu. trong Fun(S, B).
3. Tren ta.p D6 := {1, 2, 3, 6} xet cac phep toan:
x + y := BSCNN(x, y),

x.y := USCLN(x, y),

x0 :=

6
.
x

`an tu. nho nhat 0 v`a ph

`an
Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng (D6 , +, ,0 ) l`a da.i so Boole. T`m cac ph
.
.
tu lo n nhat 1.
4. Tren ta.p D8 := {1, 2, 4, 8} xet cac phep toan + v`a nhu. trong B`ai ta.p 3 v`a x0 = 8/x.
Ch
u.ng minh (S, +, ,0 ) khong phai da.i so Boole.
101

5. Lattice (D30 , |) l`a da.i so Boole.

(a) Ve lu.o..c d`o Hasse cua lattice n`ay.
(b) Lie.t ke cac nguyen tu. cua D30 .
`an ch
(c) T`m tat ca cac da.i so Boole con cua D30 . Ch
uy
r`a ng, cac da.i so con c
u.a 1
v`a 30.
`an tu. nhu.ng khong phai l`a da.i so Boole con.
(d) T`m lattice con co bon ph
6. Lattice (D210 , |) l`a da.i so Boole. T`m ta.p S sao cho P(S) v`a D210 l`a dang cau da.i so
Boole v`a t`m da ng cau n`ay.
7. Vo.i nh
u.ng gia tri. m n`ao th` lattice (Dm , |) l`a da.i so Boole?
8. Tren ta.p Sn := {1, 2, . . . , n} xet cac phep toan:
x + y := max(x, y),

x.y := min(x, y).

(a) Ch
u.ng minh tren Sn cac phep toan n`ay thoa man cac tnh chat giao hoan, ket ho..p
v`a hap thu..
`an tu. lo.n nhat 1 v`a phep
`an tu. nho nhat 0, ph
(b) Ch
u.ng minh co the d.inh ngha ph
toan phu d.inh 0 sao cho Sn vo.i cac phep toan n`ay l`a da.i so Boole neu v`a ch neu n = 2.
u.ng minh S vo.i cac phep
9. Gia su. (A, , ) l`a da.i so Boole v`a S l`a ta.p con cua A. Ch
toan , cam sinh l`a da.i so Boole neu v`a ch neu 1 S v`a xy 0 S vo.i mo.i x, y S.
10. (a) Ch
u.ng minh trong da.i so Boole, [x(x0 + y))]0 = x0 y 0 vo.i mo.i x, y.
(b) Viet doi ngau v`a ch
u.ng minh bieu th
u.c tren.
11. Gia su. P l`a ta.p cac so nguyen du.o.ng v`a S l`a ho. cac ta.p con h
u.u ha.n cua P. Giai thch
`an b`
ta.i sao S vo.i cac phep ho..p, giao v`a lay ph
u khong l`a da.i so Boole.
12. T`m ta.p S sao cho P(S) v`a B5 l`a da ng cau da.i so Boole v`a t`m da ng cau n`ay.
- i
`eu n`ay c`on du
13. Mo ta cac nguyen tu. cua Fun(S, B), S := N. D
ng neu S := R.
`on ta.i da.i so Boole vo.i 6 ph
`an tu.? Giai thch.
14. (a) T
`an tu. dang cau vo.i da.i so Boole Jn cua cac h`am
(b) Mo.i da.i so Boole h
u.u ha.n ph
Boole? Giai thch.
15. (a) Mo ta cac nguyen tu. cua lattice P(N).
`an tu. cua lattice l`a tuyen cua cac nguyen tu.? Thao lua.n.
(b) Moi ph
`an tu. cua da.i so Boole, v`a a l`a mo.t nguyen tu..
16. Gia su. x, y l`a cac ph
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng a x y neu v`a ch neu a x hoa.c a y.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng a x y neu v`a ch neu a x v`a a y.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng hoa.c a x hoa.c a x0 v`a khong d`ong th`o.i ca hai.
102

`an tu. cua da.i so Boole h

17. Gia su. x, y l`a cac ph
u.u ha.n m`a du.o..c viet du.o.i da.ng tuyen
cac nguyen tu.
x = a1 a2 an , v`a y = b1 b2 bm .
18. (a) Giai thch cach viet x y v`a x y da.ng tuyen cac nguyen tu. phan bie.t. Minh ho.a
b`a ng v du..
(b) Viet s0 da.ng tuyen cac nguyen tu. phan bie.t.
19. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu l`a da ng cau da.i so Boole gi
u.a cac da.i so Boole A v`a B th`
x y neu v`a ch neu (x) (y).
`om ta.p trong v`a tat ca cac ta.p con cua S sao cho co the viet
20. Gia su. S := [0, 1] v`a A g
.
.
.
o da.ng ho. p h
u u ha.n cac khoang co da.ng [a, b).
`an tu. cua A co the viet nhu. ho..p h
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng moi ph
u.u ha.n cua cac khoang
r`o.i nhau da.ng [a, b).
(b) Ch
u.ng minh A l`a da.i so Boole tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac phep toan giao (), ho..p () v`a
`an b`
lay ph
u.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh A khong co nguyen tu..

3.4

H`
am Boole

`an n`ay ch
`e h`am Boole, d`ong th`o.i mo ta cac
Ph
ung ta se d.inh ngha mo.t cach tong quat v
.
da.ng chnh quy cua ch
ung. Nghien c
u u h`am Boole t
u.c l`a nghien c
u.u cac anh xa. Boole t`
u.
`an tu. cua da.i so Boole go.i l`a h`a ng so.
mo.t da.i so Boole v`ao chnh ban than no. Moi ph
`an tu. cua da.i so Boole go.i l`a bien Boole.
Moi mo.t k
y hie.u bieu dien mo.t trong cac ph

- .inh ngha 3.4.1 Anh

xa.
D
f : Bn B,

(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) 7 f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ),

du.o..c go.i l`a h`am Boole n bien neu no du.o..c cau ta.o theo nguyen tac sau day
`an th
(a) H`am h`a ng f (x) = a, a B, v`a phep chieu len th`anh ph
u. i : f (x) = xi l`a h`am
Boole.
(b) Neu f l`a h`am Boole th` h`am phu d.inh f 0 c
ung l`a h`am Boole.
(c) Neu f v`a g l`a cac h`am Boole th` f g v`a f g c
ung l`a h`am Boole.
`an cac quy lua.t ke tren
u.u ha.n l
(d) Mo.i h`am so du.o..c cau ta.o b`a ng cach ap du.ng mo.t so h
d`eu l`a h`am Boole.
103

Nh
a.n x
et 11 Theo d.inh ngha tren th` h`am Boole l`a mo.t h`am so du.o..c cau ta.o t`
u. cac h`a ng
`an cac phep toan ho.i, tuyen v`a
so v`a cac phep chieu b`a ng cach u
.ng du.ng mo.t so h
u.u ha.n l
phu d.inh.
V du. 3.4.1 (a) Cac h`am du.o.i day l`a cac h`am Boole theo ba bien x, y, z :
(x y) (x0 z) y,

y 0 (x z 0 ),

x y,

z.

(b) H`am Boole n bien

(x1 x2 . . . xn ) (x01 x2 . . . xn ) (x1 x02 . . . xn ).
- e gian tie.n, ta su. du.ng cac k
y hie.u + (co.ng) v`a . (nhan) thay cho v`a .
D
Mo.t trong nh
u.ng cach thua.n tie.n nhat de mo ta h`am Boole l`a cho tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t-mo.t
vo.i bang tran tri. (hay bang gia tri. tha.t), t
u.c l`a bang gia tri. cua h`am so u
.ng vo.i nh
u.ng to
ho..p gia tri. khac nhau cua cac bien.
V du. 3.4.2 Bang chan tri. cua h`am
f (x, y, z) = y 0 (x z)
l`a

x
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0

y
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0

z
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0

y0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

xz
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0

f
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0

Nh
a.n x
et 12 Moi h`am Boole co duy nhat mo.t bang chan tri.. Ngu.o..c la.i, ta luon luon co
`om 2n h`ang cho truo.c.
the xay du..ng du.o..c vo so h`am Boole n bien co bang chan tri. g
V du. 3.4.3 Xet bang chan tri.

x
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0

y
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0

z
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
104

f
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1

x
x
x

- e t`m h`am Boole f (x, y, z) co bang chan tri. tren, ch

D
ung ta tien h`anh theo cac bu.o.c sau
- `au tien, danh dau moi h`ang m`a co co.t cuoi b`a ng 1.
+D
+ Vo.i moi h`ang du.o..c danh dau, ta da. t tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t so ha.ng da.ng:
e1 e2 e3 ,
`an tu. trong co.t d`au cua h`ang n`ay ba` ng mo.t v`a e1 = x0 neu ngu.o..c
trong do e1 = x neu ph
.
.
.
`an tu. trong co.t th
la.i. Tu o ng tu. e2 = y neu ph
u. hai cua h`ang n`ay b`a ng 1 v`a e2 = y 0 neu
`an tu. trong co.t th
ngu.o..c la.i. Cuoi c`
ung e3 = z neu ph
u. ba cua h`ang n`ay ba` ng 1 v`a e3 = z 0
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
`an tu. tu.o.ng u
Do do cac ph
.ng vo.i bon h`ang du.o..c danh dau l`a
x y z,

x y 0 z,

x0 y z,

x0 y 0 z 0 .

+ Cuoi c`
ung, ta tuyen cac bieu th
u.c n`ay de co h`am
f (x, y, z) = (x y z) (x y 0 z) (x0 y z) (x0 y 0 z 0 ).
`om to`an so 0, th` phu.o.ng phap tren khong l`am vie.c; tuy
Neu co.t cuoi cua bang chan tri. g
nhien, h`am Boole f 0 l`a h`am co bang chan tri. nhu. va.y.
- i.nh ngha 3.4.2 Hai h`am Boole du.o..c go.i l`a tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i nhau neu ch
D
ung co c`
ung
mo.t bang chan tri..
V du. 3.4.4 Cac bieu th
u.c x(y z) v`a xy xz l`a tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
- i.nh l
`an tu. cua ta.p tat ca cac h`am Boole n bien: Fun(Bn , B) :=
D
y sau cho ch
ung ta so cac ph
n
{f : B B}.
n
- i.nh l
D
y 3.4.3 Co 22 anh xa. t`
u. Bn v`ao B.

Ch
u.ng minh. Ro r`ang #Bn = 2n . Moi h`am t`
u. Bn v`ao B co the lay mo.t trong hai gia tri.
n
n
do.c la.p l`a 0 v`a 1. Do va.y ta co 22 to ho..p kha nang khac nhau; ngha l`a co 22 anh xa. khac
nhau. 2
V du. 3.4.5 (a) Tru.`o.ng ho..p n = 1 ta co bon h`am Boole:
f1 = 0, f2 = x, f3 = x0 , f4 = 1.
105

(b) Tru.`o.ng ho..p n = 2 ta co 16 h`am so Boole du.o..c lie.t ke trong bang sau
STT
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

f
0
x1 x2
x1 x02
x1
x01 x2
x2
0
x1 x2 + x01 x2
x1 + x2
x01 x02
x1 x2 + x01 x02
x02
x1 + x02
x01
0
x1 + x2
x01 + x02
1

Ten go.i
H`am h`a ng 0
H`am AND
`eu kie.n
H`am keo theo khong di
Phep chieu len bien th
u. nhat
H`am keo theo khong dao
Phep chieu len bien th
u. hai
H`am co.ng modulo 2
H`am OR
H`am NOR
H`am tu.o.ng du.o.ng
H`am phu d.inh x2
H`am keo theo dao
H`am phu d.inh x1
`eu kie.n
H`am keo theo co di
H`am NAND (Sheffer)
H`am h`a ng 1

n
o.i cac phep toan +, ., l`a mo.t da.i so Boole d
H
e. qua 3.4.4 Fun(Bn , B) v
a ng cau vo.i B2 .

B`
ai t
a.p
u.ng minh cac bieu th
u.c du.o.i day l`a cac h`am Boole v`a t`m gia tri. cua cac h`am n`ay
1. Ch
khi x = 1, y = 1, z = 0 :
(a) (x y) (y 0 z).
(b) (x y)0 .
(c) x (y 0 z).
(d) (x y 0 ) (y z 0 ).
(e) (x (y (x y 0 ))) ((x y 0 ) (x z 0 )0 ).
2. Cac bieu th
u.c n`ao l`a h`am Boole:
(a) x (y z).
(b) x (y 0 z).
(c) (x).
(d) ((x y) z 0 .
(e) ((x)).
3. T`m h`am Boole f : B3 B neu f (0, 0, 0) = f (0, 0, 1) = f (1, 1, 0) = 1 v`a f (a, b, c) = 0
vo.i tat ca (a, b, c) B3 khac.
106

4. Kiem tra cac dang th

u.c sau:
(a) x x = x.
(b) x (x y) = x.
(c) x y 0 = (x0 y)0 .
(d) x (y z)0 = (x y 0 ) (x z 0 ).
(e) x0 ((y z) (x y z)) = x z.
-u
ng hay sai:
5. D
(a) (x y) (x0 z) (x0 y z 0 ) = y (x0 z).
(b) (x y z) (x z)0 = (x z) (x0 z 0 ).
6. Ch
u.ng minh neu f1 v`a f2 l`a cac h`am Boole theo cac bien x1 , x2 , . . . , xn th` f1 f2 v`a
f2 f1 tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
`om mo.t bien do.n hoa.c ph
`an b`
7. Cac h`am Boole nhu. x hay y 0 g
u cua no du.o..c go.i l`a
literal.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh x0 z y 0 z khong tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i tch cac literal.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh x0 z y 0 z khong tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i tuyen cua cac tch cua cac literal
`an (a) v`a (b) ch ra r`a ng x0 z y 0 z l`a toi
m`a trong do mo.t tch l`a mo.t literal do.n. (Ph
u.u).
(c) Nhom ba so ha.ng xyz xyz 0 xy 0 z da.ng cac ca.p de nha.n du.o..c mo.t bieu th
u.c
`om hai literal.
tu.o.ng du.o.ng da.ng tuyen cua hai tch m`a moi tch g

3.5

Bi
eu di
e n c
ac h`
am Boole qua h
e. tuy
en, h
o.i v`
a phu
d
i.nh

Nhu. ch
ung ta da biet, mo.t trong nh
u.ng cach cho h`am Boole l`a d`
ung bang chan tri.. Moi
.
`eu h`am so khac nhau, nhu ng cac h`am so n`ay phai tu.o.ng
bang chan tri. co the bieu dien nhi
du.o.ng vo.i nhau. Noi mo.t cach khac co the d`
ung bang chan tri. de kiem tra cac h`am Boole
.
.
.
.
.
co tu o ng du o ng vo i nhau hay khong?
Ngo`ai ra, de so sanh cac h`am Boole vo.i nhau ngu.`o.i ta du.a ra da.ng chnh quy (hay da.ng
chuan). Hai cach bieu dien khac nhau cua h`am Boole co c`
ung mo.t da.ng chnh quy neu v`a
ch neu ch
ung tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i nhau. Noi cach khac, da.ng chnh quy cua mo.t cach bieu
ung, do l`a da.ng tuyen chnh
dien h`am Boole l`a duy nhat. Co hai da.ng chnh quy thu.`o.ng d`

quy (hay da.ng to ng cua cac tch) v`a da.ng ho.i chnh quy (hay da.ng tch cua cac tong).
- e tie.n tr`nh b`ay, ta du.a v`ao quy u.o.c sau. Gia su. x l`a mo.t bien v`a e B. K
D
y hie.u
(
x neu e = 1,
xe :=
x0 neu ngu.o..c la.i.
107

T`
u. d.inh ngha ta co

xe = 1 neu v`a ch neu x = e.

- .inh ngha 3.5.1 Gia su. f l`a h`am Boole n bien. Ta.p
D
Tf := {x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Bn | f (x) = 1}
du.o..c go.i l`a ta.p da.c tru.ng cua f.
Tnh ch
at 3.5.2 (a) Tf 0 = [Tf ]0 = {x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Bn | f (x0 ) = 1}.
(b) Tf +g = Tf Tg .
(c) Tf g = Tf Tg .
Ch
u.ng minh. Hien nhien theo di.nh ngha. 2
Ho.n n
u.a co mo.t tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t-mo.t gi
u.a cac h`am Boole v`a ta.p da. c tru.ng cua no. Cac
tnh chat n`ay cho phep chuyen ch
u.ng minh tren da.i so logic sang cac ch
u.ng minh tu.o.ng
u
.ng tren da.i so ta.p ho..p.
- i.nh l
D
y 3.5.3 Co d.inh i {1, 2, . . . , n}. Khi d
o mo.i h`am Boole n bien f d`eu co the bieu
.
.

dien du o i da.ng tuye n chnh quy

X
f (x) =
f (e1 , e2 , . . . , ei , xi+1 , xi+2 , . . . , xn )xe11 xe22 . . . xei i ,
(3.5)
ho
a.c du.
o.i da.ng ho.i chnh quy
Y
f (x) =
f (e1 , e2 , . . . , ei , xi+1 , xi+2 , . . . , xn )xe11 xe22 . . . xei i ,

(3.6)

trong d
o tuyen, ho.i lay tren ta.p (e1 , e2 , . . . , ei ) Bi .
`an ch
Ch
u.ng minh. B`a ng lua.t doi ngau, ta ch c
u.ng minh bieu dien da.ng (3.5). Gia su.
.
.
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Tf . Khi do so ha.ng u
ng vo i bo. gia tri. e1 = x1 , e2 = x2 , . . . , ei = xi trong
tuyen ve phai cua (3.5)
xe11 xe22 . . . xei i f (e1 , e2 , . . . , ei , xi+1 , xi+2 , . . . , xn )
- i
`eu n`ay keo theo to`an bo. ve phai b`a ng 1.
se b`a ng 1. D
Ngu.o..c la.i, neu ve phai ba` ng 1 th` phai xay ra ta.i so ha.ng n`ao do, chang ha.n ta.i so ha.ng
tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i bo. gia tri. (e1 , e2 , . . . , ei ) v`a do do (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) Tf . 2
Cho i = 1 trong di.nh l
y v`a nha.n xet r`a ng vai tr`o cua cac bien xi l`a nhu. nhau, ta du.o..c
108

H
e. qua 3.5.4 H`
am Boole f c
o the du.o..c khai trien theo mo.t d
oi so xi
f (x) = x0i f (x1 , . . . , xi1 , 0, xi+1 , . . . , xn ) xi f (x1 , . . . , xi1 , 1, xi+1 , . . . , xn ),

(3.7)

f (x) = x0i f (x1 , . . . , xi1 , 0, xi+1 , . . . , xn ) xi f (x1 , . . . , xi1 , 1, xi+1 , . . . , xn ).

(3.8)

ho
a.c

`an tu. b`a ng 1 trong mo.t tch, ta du.o..c

Cho i = n trong d.inh l
y v`a bo di cac ph
H
e. qua 3.5.5 Mo.i h`am Boole co the du.o..c khai trien du.o.i da.ng tuyen chnh quy
X
f (x) =
xe11 x2e2 . . . xenn

(3.9)

eTf

ho
a.c du.
o.i da.ng ho.i chnh quy
f (x) =

xe11 xe22 . . . xenn

(3.10)

eTf

Cong th
u.c khai trien (3.9) c`on du.o..c go.i l`a da.ng tuyen chuan tac ho`an to`an cua f v`a moi
`an tu. toi thieu) cua f.
so ha.ng cua no du.o..c go.i l`a mo.t cau ta.o do.n vi. (hay ph
V du. 3.5.1 Da.ng tuyen chnh quy v`a da.ng ho.i chnh quy cua h`am Boole co bang chan tri.
x1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a

x2
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

x3
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

f (x1 , x2 , x3 )
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1

f = x01 x02 x03 + x01 x2 x03 + x01 x2 x3 + x1 x02 x3 + x1 x2 x3 ,

f = (x1 + x2 + x03 )(x01 + x2 + x3 )(x01 + x02 + x3 ).

Nhu. va.y da.ng chnh quy khong nh

u.ng gi
up ch
ung ta so sanh cac h`am so m`a c`on gi
up
.
.
.
.

u c da.i so t`
u bang chan tri. v`a
ch
ung ta trong vie.c bieu dien h`am Boole du o i da.ng bieu th
.
.

trong vie.c do n gian hoa toi thieu cac h`am Boole. T`

u He. qua ??, ta nha.n du.o..c
109

H
e. qua 3.5.6 Mo.i h`am Boole d`eu co the x
ay du..ng t`
u. c
ac bien nh`o. cac h`am OR, AND,
v`
a NOT.
`on ta.i nhi
`eu he. khac c
Ngo`ai he. tuyen, ho.i v`a phu d.inh, t
ung co tnh chat mo.i h`am Boole
d`eu bieu dien qua cac th`anh vien cua he.. Mo.t he. h`am nhu. va.y du.o..c go.i l`a he. d`ay du.
H
e. qua 3.5.7 C
ac he.
(a) {AND, NOT}; v`
a
(b) {OR, NOT} l`a nh
u.ng he. h`am d`
ay du hai bien.
Ch
u.ng minh. (a) Tha.t va.y, do

x y = (x0 )0 (y 0 )0
= (x0 y 0 )0

nen h`am OR du.o..c thay b`a ng hai h`am AND v`a NOT. Ket lua.n du.o..c suy t`
u. He. qua 3.5.6.
(b) B`ai ta.p. 2
Vie.c nghien c
u.u tnh d`ay du cua mo.t he. h`am co y
ngha thu..c tien quan tro.ng, no tra l`o.i
cau hoi co the xay du..ng mo.t h`am Boole t`
u. mo.t so h`am do.n gian cho.n tru.o.c hay khong?

B`
ai t
a.p
u.ng minh cac khai trien trong He. qua 3.5.5 l`a duy nhat.
1. Ch
2. T`m da.ng tuyen chnh quy cua h`am Boole ba bien:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

xy.
z0.
xz (y 0 y 0 z) xy 0 z 0 .
x yz.

(e) [(xy xyz) xz] z.

(f) xy z 0 .
(g) [(x y)0 z]0 .
(h) (x y)0 z x(yz y 0 z 0 ).

3. Tr`nh b`ay phu.o.ng phap t`m da.ng ho.i chnh quy. Cho v du. minh ho.a.
4. Su. du.ng cac phu.o.ng phap da.i so, t`m da.ng tuyen chnh quy cua cac h`am Boole sau:
(a) x xy.
(b) (x y)(x0 y 0 ).
(c) (yz xz 0 )(xy 0 z)0 .
(d) (x0 y x0 z 0 )(x yz)0 .
(e) x (y 0 (xy 0 xz 0 )).
110

5. Ch
u.ng minh neu m1 m2 mk l`a da.ng tuyen chnh quy cua f th` m01 m02 m0k
l`a da.ng ho.i chnh quy cua f 0 . Cho v du. minh ho.a.
6. Ch
u.ng minh cac he. h`am sau l`a d`ay du: {OR, NOT}, {NOR}, v`a {NAND}. (H`am
NAND v`a NOR c`on k
y hie.u tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a v`a ).
7. Ch
u.ng minh cac he. h`am sau khong d`ay du: {AND}, {OR }, {NOT}, v`a {AND, OR}.
8. Ch
u.ng minh hoa.c t`m phan v du.: x (y z) = (x y) z vo.i mo.i x, y, z B.
9. Bieu dien h`am XOR qua he. h`am NAND.

3.6
3.6.1

Bi
eu di
e n t
oi thi
eu cu a h`
am Boole
Kh
ai ni
e.m

Bieu dien h`am da.i so Boole qua mo.t he. h`am d`ay du H l`a khong duy nhat. V du. h`am
Sheffer,
(
0
neu x = y = 1,
x y :=
1
neu ngu.o..c la.i,
khi bieu dien qua he. tuyen, ho.i v`a phu d.inh, co the co cac cach
x y = x0 y 0 x0 y xy 0 = x0 y 0 .
Moi mo.t bieu dien f tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i mo.t cach ghep cac th`anh vien cua H (m`a ta go.i l`a
.
.
cac yeu to co ban) de thu du o..c f. Hien nhien, mo.t van d`e co y
ngha thu..c tien quan tro.ng
l`a t`m mo.t bieu dien sao cho vie.c ghep nhu. the ton t yeu to co. ban nhat. Theo mo.t ngha
`eu n`ay dan v
`e vie.c t`m mo.t cong th
n`ao do, di
u.c tren he. H bieu dien h`am f vo.i so k
y hie.u
.
.
cac yeu to n`ay l`a t nhat. Mo.t cong th
u c nhu va.y, du.o..c go.i l`a mo.t bieu dien toi thieu cua
h`am f trong he. H.
`e nguyen tac, so cong th
V
u.c bieu dien f l`a h
u.u ha.n, nen b`a ng cach duye.t tat ca cac kha
nang, ta luon t`m du.o..c bieu dien toi thieu cua f. Tuy nhien, so kha nang n`ay l`a rat lo.n v`a
`o, do do tren thu..c te kho m`a thu..c
vie.c duye.t no do`i hoi mo.t khoi lu.o..ng tnh toan khong l
.
.
.
.
u r`a ng ngay ca vo i nh
u.ng thua.t toan h
hie.n du o. c d`
u ng sieu may tnh. Vie.c xay du..ng nh
u.u
hie.u t`m bieu dien toi thieu cua cac h`am Boole, v` the c`ang tro. nen cap bach. Nhu.ng d`ong
ung l`a b`ai toan rat kho. Cho den nay van chu.a du.o..c gia quyet thoa dang ngay ca
th`o.i no c
trong mo.t so tru.`o.ng ho..p do.n gian v`a c`on dang du.o..c tiep tu.c nghien c
u.u.
`eu nhat l`a he. tuyen, ho.i v`a phu d.inh. B`ai toan t`m
Mo.t he. d`ay du du.o..c nghien c
u.u nhi
u.u trong v`ai chu.c nam
bieu dien toi thieu cua cac h`am Boole trong he. n`ay da du.o..c nghien c
`eu bieu th
`an day. Nhu. da biet, mo.t h`am Boole noi chung co the bieu dien theo nhi
u.c
g
.
.
.
`eu t c
Boole khac nhau, vo i do. ph
u c ta.p nhi
ung khac nhau. Thu. c chat cua van d`e toi thieu
111

y0
x0
x

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x0 y 0

x0 y

x y0

xy

H`nh 3.6: Ban d`o Karnaugh hai bien

u.c Boole. Nhu. va.y b`ai toan toi
hoa l`a t`m da.ng bieu dien do.n gian nhat cho mo.t bieu th
thieu cac bieu th
u.c Boole tro. th`anh b`ai toan so sanh m
u.c do. ph
u.c ta.p cua cac bieu th
u.c
tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
Noi chung, co hai nhom phu.o.ng phap de toi thieu hoa cac bieu th
u.c Boole. Nhom th
u.
`om cac phu.o.ng phap bien doi da.i so cac bieu th
nhat bao g
u.c Boole du..a tren co. so. cac da ng
.
.
`an cac tnh chat cua da.i so Boole. Cac phu.o.ng phap n`ay khong
th
u c da gio i thie.u trong ph
`eu th`o.i gian, da.c bie.t trong tru.`o.ng ho..p co nhi
`eu bien. Nhom th
tie.n lo..i, d`oi hoi nhi
u. hai
`om cac phu.o.ng phap thua.t toan, cac phu.o.ng phap n`ay cho phep de d`ang tu.. do. ng hoa
bao g
bieu th
u.c Boole.

3.6.2

`o Karnaugh
Phu.o.ng ph
ap ba n d

Nhu. da biet, thong qua V du. 3.4.3, ch

ung ta co the xay du..ng du.o..c mo.t h`am Boole da.ng
.
.
.
tuyen chnh quy tu o ng u
ng bang chan tri. do. Kho khan chnh l`a t`m mo.t h`am Boole da

cho co da.ng toi thieu. Du.o.i day ch

ung ta se du.a ra phu.o.ng phap ban d`o Karnaugh de giai
.
.
u.u ch vo.i so bien t, v`a ch
ung ta se ha.n che
quyet kho khan n`ay. Phu o ng phap n`ay ch h
.
.
.
cho cac tru `o ng ho. p hai v`a ba bien.

`o Karnaugh hai bi
Ban d

en
Ban d`o Karnaugh hai bien l`a mo.t h`nh vuong du.o..c chia th`anh bon h`nh vuong nho ho.n
nhu. trong H`nh 3.6.
`an tu. toi thieu v`a co
Nha.n xet l`a moi h`nh vuong con tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t-mo.t vo.i mo.t ph
.
.
.
.
`an tu toi thieu trong tru `o ng ho. p hai bien.
du
ng bon ph
`e nhau neu ch
Ta noi ra` ng hai h`nh vuong con l`a k
ung co chung mo.t ca.nh. V` mo.t h`nh
`an tu. toi thieu (l`a bieu th
vuong con tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t ph
u.c Boole hai bien) nen cac h`nh
`e nhau l`a bieu th
vuong con k
u.c Boole mo.t bien nhu. H`nh 3.7.
Ta minh ho.a phu.o.ng phap qua v du. sau.

112

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y0

x0

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1
1

`e nhau
H`nh 3.7: Ket ho..p cac h`nh vuong k
V du. 3.6.1 Xet h`am Boole
f (x, y) = (x0 y) (x y) (x y 0 ).
Ta chia l`am ba bu.o.c.
Bu.o.c 1. Ve mo.t ban d`o Karnaugh v`a da.t 1 v`ao moi h`nh vuong con tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i mo.t
`an tu. toi thieu cua f. Ta co H`nh 3.8.
ph
y

y0
x0
x

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H`nh 3.8:
`e nhau sao cho cac ellipse n`ay ch
Bu.o.c 2. Bay gi`o. ve cac ellipse ch
u.a cac so 1 k
u.a tat ca
`eu ho.n c
`an thiet. Ta co H`nh 3.9.
cac so 1. Ch
uy
l`a khong ve nhi
y

y0
x0
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H`nh 3.9:
113

y0z0
x0
x

yz

y0z

yz 0

......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
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x0 y 0 z 0

x0 y 0 z

x0 y z

x0 y z 0

x y0 z0

x y0 z

xyz

x y z0

H`nh 3.10:
y0z0
x0
x

yz 0

y0z0
x0

yz

y0z

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
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..
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.
.
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..
......................................................................................................................................................................................................................

y0z0
x0
x

yz

y0z

xyz x0 y 0

(a)

(b)
yz

y0z

yz 0

.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
..
..
.
....
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y0z0

x0

yz 0

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
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......................................................................................................................................................................................................................

y0z

yz

yz 0

.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
..
..
.
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..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1
1

x0 y z 0

(c)

(d)
H`nh 3.11:

Bu.o.c 3. Vo.i moi ellipse co du.o..c trong bu.o.c tru.o.c, ch

ung ta to ho..p la.i th`anh mo.t bieu
`oi tuyen cac bien n`ay la.i de co da.ng do.n gian g(x, y). Trong v du.
th
u.c Boole mo.t bien, v`a r
n`ay ta co
g(x, y) = x y.

`o Karnaugh ba bi
Ban d

en
Ban d`o Karnaugh ba bien l`a mo.t h`nh ch
u. nha.t du.o..c chia th`anh tam h`nh vuong con nhu.
.
.
.
.
H`nh 3.10. Nhu tru `o ng ho. p hai bien, moi h`nh vuong con du.o..c gan vo.i mo.t trong tam kha
`an tu. toi thieu ba bien. Mo.t trong nh
nang cua cac ph
u.ng l
y do de thua.t toan Karnaugh
.
.
.
.
`
`
thu. c hie.n l`a hai h`nh vuong con ke nhau tu o ng u
ng hai phan tu. toi thieu ch khac nhau
`an ch
ung
mo.t bien. Tuy nhien c
uy
ra` ng, cac h`nh vuong con o. co.t d`au v`a co.t cuoi (trong c`
.
.
.
.
.
.
`an
`e nhau. Trong tru `o ng ho. p ba bien, moi h`nh vuong con tu o ng u
ng mo.t ph
mo.t h`ang) l`a k
.
.
.
.
.

tu toi thieu m`a l`a bieu th

u c Boole ba bien. Do do hai h`nh vuong con ke nhau tu o ng u
ng
114

y0z0
x0
x

yz

y0z

yz 0

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
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................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

z0
H`nh 3.12:
`e nhau
u.a bon h`nh vuong k
mo.t bieu th
u.c Boole hai bien, chang ha.n nhu. H`nh 3.11. Ho.n n
.
.
.
.
.

(go.i l`a quadruple) tu o ng u

ng bieu th
u c mo.t bien nhu H`nh 3.12.
Ta minh ho.a phu.o.ng phap qua cac v du. sau.
V du. 3.6.2 Xet h`am Boole
f (x, y, z) = (x0 y 0 z) (x y 0 z 0 ) (x y z) (x0 y z).
- `au tien ve ban d`o Karnaugh v`a da.t trong moi h`nh vuong mo.t so 1 tu.o.ng u
.ng
Bu.o.c 1. D
`an tu. toi thieu trong f. Ta du.o..c H`nh 3.13
ph
y0z0
x0
x

y0z

yz

yz 0

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
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................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

H`nh 3.13:
`e nhau sao cho phu tat ca cac so 1
Bu.o.c 2. Ve cac ellipse hay quadruple ch
u.a cac so 1 k
.
.
`an thiet. Ta co H`nh 3.14.
v`a khong su du.ng cac ellipse hay quadruple ho n so c
y0z0
x0
x

y0z

yz

yz 0

................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...............................................................
..
....
....
......................
.
.......... ....
....
... .............
...
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...
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... ... ..
....
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.. ...
..
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.................
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

H`nh 3.14:
(Ch
uy
r`a ng, neu co the, hay su. du.ng cac quadruple nhu. V du. 3.6.3 du.o.i day).
115

Bu.o.c 3. Bay gi`o. vo.i moi ellipse (hoa.c quadruple) ta co tu.o.ng u

.ng mo.t bieu th
u.c mo.t
hoa.c hai bien. Tuyen cac bieu th
u.c n`ay ta du.o..c h`am toi thieu
g(x, y, z) = (x y 0 z 0 ) (x0 z) (y z).
V du. 3.6.3 Xet h`am Boole
f (x, y, z) = (x0 y 0 z 0 ) (x y z) (x y 0 z) (x0 y 0 z) (x0 y z) (x0 y z 0 ).
`an tu.
Bu.o.c 1. Ta co ban d`o Karnaugh v`a da.t so 1 v`ao cac h`nh vuong tu.o.ng u
.ng cac ph
toi thieu (H`nh 3.15).
y0z0
x0
x

y0z

yz

yz 0

.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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..
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

H`nh 3.15:
`e nhau sao cho phu tat ca cac so
Bu.o.c 2. Ve cac ellipse hay cac quadruple cua cac so 1 k
.
.
1 v`a khong ve th`
u a. Co the l`am ba cach nhu sau
Su. du.ng H`nh 3.16(a) ta co
g1 (x, y, z) = x0 (x z).
Su. du.ng H`nh 3.16(b) ta co
Su. du.ng H`nh 3.16(c) ta co

g2 (x, y, z) = z (x0 z 0 ).
g3 (x, y, z) = x0 z.

Hien nhien h`am g3 l`a h`am do.n gian nhat!

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Ve cac ban d`o Karnaugh v`a t`m da.ng tuyen chnh tac toi thieu cua cac h`am Boole hai
bien:
(a) xy + xy 0 .

(b) xy + x0 y + x0 y 0 .

(c) xy + x0 y 0 .

2. Ve cac ban d`o Karnaugh v`a t`m da.ng tuyen chnh tac toi thieu cua cac h`am Boole ba
bien:
116

y0z0
x0
x

yz

y0z

yz 0

.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................
......
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(a)
y0z0
x0
x

yz

y0z

yz 0

..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........
.
.....................................
................
......
........
.......... ....
.... ...............................
....
..
.....
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.....
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....
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..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

(b)
y0z0
x0
x

yz

y0z

yz 0

...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................
....
.......
...
....
...
...
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..........................
......
......
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..
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.....
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...
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..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

(c)
H`nh 3.16:
(a) x x0 yz.
(b) (x yz)0 .
(c) y 0 z xyz.
(d) (y z).
(e) xz yz.
(f) xy xz yz.
(g) xyz xy 0 z 0 x0 yz 0 x0 y 0 z.

117

118

Chu.o.ng 4
TUYE
N TINH
MA
u.ng ket qua rat co. ban
L
y thuyet ma bat d`au h`nh th`anh v`a phat trien t`
u. nam 1940 vo.i nh
cua M. J. E. Golay, R. W. Hamming v`a C. E. Shannon. Ma.c d`
u ban d`au l`a b`ai toan cua
.
.
.
.
.

k
y su , nhu ng va n de da du o. c phat trien su du.ng ra t nhieu cong cu. toan ho.c. Chu.o.ng n`ay
u.c do. do.n gian nhat. Qua do ngu.`o.i
tr`nh b`ay l
y thuyet cac ma phat hie.n v`a su.a sai o. m
do.c co the thay ro moi lien he. ma.t thiet vo.i nh
u.ng b`ai toan da.t ra do su.. phat trien cong
nghe. vien thong.

4.1
4.1.1

`au
Mo. d

Kh
ai ni
e.m

`en thong tin l`a su. du.ng chuoi cac bit, t

u.c
Cach thong thu.`o.ng de bieu dien, lu.u tr
u. v`a truy
l`a day cac so 0 v`a 1. Tha.t l`a kho khan v`a thu.`o.ng khong the ngan ng`
u.a cac loi xay ra khi
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
`oi, xu l
`en t`
d
u lie.u du o. c lu u tr
u , phu.c h
y hay du o. c truy
u no i n`ay sang no.i n`ay khac. Cac
loi co the xuat hie.n do tieng `on cua kenh thong tin, do nhie u, do con ngu.`o.i hay do thiet bi..
Cac loi c
ung co the xay ra khi d
u. lie.u du.o..c lu.u tr
u. trong th`o.i gian d`ai tren cac bang t`
u.
- o. tin ca.y cua d
D
u. lie.u nha.n du.o..c t`
u. cac ta.p tin lo.n hay khi d
u. lie.u du.o..c gu.i t`
u. mo.t no.i
`oi d
u. lie.u du.o..c lu.u tr
u. khap no.i tren bang t`
u.
rat xa l`a quan tro.ng. Tu.o.ng tu.., vie.c phu.c h
c
ung l`a van d`e dang quan tam.
`oi d
L
y thuyet ma nay sinh t`
u. b`ai toan dam bao do. tin ca.y hay phu.c h
u. lie.u. Cac ban tin
u. ma. Bo. ma l`a ta.p ho..p cac
o. da.ng chuoi bit du.o..c ma hoa th`anh chuoi bit d`ai ho.n go.i l`a t`
.
t`
u ma.
Ch
ung ta co the phat hie.n cac loi khi su. du.ng cac bo. ma n`ao do. T
u.c l`a, neu khong co
.
.
`en d
`eu loi, ch
u. lie.u. Ho.n n
qua nhi
ung ta co the xac d.inh du o. c cac loi xay ra khi truy
u.a,
119

vo.i mo.t v`ai bo. ma, ch

ung ta co the su.a du.o..c cac loi do. Noi cach khac, neu khong co qua
`eu loi xay ra trong du.`o.ng truy
`en, ch
`oi t`
nhi
ung ta co the phu.c h
u. ma t`
u. chuoi bit nha.n
du.o..c.
`om phat hie.n v`a su.a
L
y thuyet ma ra do`.i t`
u. nam 1940 nha` m nghien c
u.u cac bo. ma, bao g
`en v`a lu.u d
sai cac loi. Su.. phat trien cong nghe. mo.i nh`a m truy
u. lie.u khien cho vie.c nghien
`e vie.c phat hie.n
c
u.u l
y thuyet ma c`ang tro. nen quan tro.ng. Chu.o.ng n`ay gio.i thie.u so. lu.o..c v
.
.
loi v`a su a sai loi vo i hai gia thiet:
`en bit 0 nha.n bit 1 v`a
`en bit 1 v`a nha.n du.o..c bit 0 ba` ng xac suat truy
1. Xac suat truy
.
b`a ng p vo i 0 p < 12 (go.i l`a kenh doi x
u.ng nhi. phan).
`en mo.t cach do. c la.p.
2. Cac bit du.o..c truy

4.1.2

i
M
a ph
at hi
e.n l
o

`en l`a them mo.t bit kiem

Cach do.n gian de phat hie.n cac loi khi mo.t chuoi bit du.o..c truy

tra chan le v`ao cuoi chuoi: ch

ung ta ma hoa ban tin x1 x2 . . . xn th`anh t`
u. ma x1 x2 . . . xn+1 ,
trong do
xn+1 = (x1 + x2 + + xn ) mod 2.
Vie.c them bit chan le bao dam r`a ng so cac so 1 trong t`
u. ma phai l`a so chan. De d`ang thay
r`a ng trong bo. ma n`ay, cac t`
u. ma l`a cac chuoi bit vo.i mo.t so chan cac so 1.
Nh
a.n x
et 13 Neu mo.t loi xuat hie.n, so cac so 1 trong chuoi nha.n du.o..c l`a mo.t so le, do
do loi n`ay du.o..c phat hie.n. Neu hai loi xuat hie.n, so cac so 1 trong chuoi nha.n du.o..c l`a mo.t
so chan, do do cac loi n`ay khong du.o..c phat hie.n. Tong quat mo.t so le cac loi co the du.o..c
phat hie.n, trong khi mo.t so chan cac loi th` khong.
V du. 4.1.1 Neu nha.n du.o..c chuoi bit 1110011 th` day l`a t`
u. ma khong ho..p le..
u. ma ho..p le., hoa.c co
V du. 4.1.2 Neu nha.n du.o..c chuoi bit y = 10111101 th` hoa.c y l`a t`
mo.t so chan loi xay ra.
`an nhu.
Mo.t cach do.n gian khac de phat hie.n loi l`a la.p moi bit trong mo.t thong bao hai l
v du. sau.
u. ma 001111000011.
V du. 4.1.3 Chuoi 011001 du.o..c ma hoa th`anh t`
120

Nh
a.n x
et 14 Ch
ung ta co the phat hie.n cac loi trong bit th
u. 2, 3 v`a th
u. 8 cua cac t`
u.
ma co 8 bit (nhu. khi t`
u. ma 00001111 go.i v`a nha.n du.o..c 01101110 l`a co loi). Ma.t khac,
khong the phat hie.n ra loi neu bit th
u. 3, 4 bi. thay doi (nhu. khi 00111111 nha.n du.o..c t`
u. ma
00001111 l`a co loi).
Ch
ung ta da thao lua.n hai bo. ma co the d`
ung de phat hie.n loi. Khi cac loi du.o..c phat
`au truy
`en la.i v`a hy vo.ng r`a ng khong co loi n`ao xuat hie.n. Tuy
hie.n, ch
ung ta co the yeu c

nhien, co cac bo. ma khong ch phat hie.n sai m`a c`on su.a ch
u.a cac loi sai (neu co).

4.1.3

M
a su.a sai

- e phat hie.n loi, trong cac v du. tru.o.c, ch

D
ung ta xay du.ng t`
u. ma ba` ng cach them cac bit
.
thch ho. p v`ao ban tin. Ch
ung ta khong ch phat hie.n cac loi m`a c`on su.a ch
ung neu them
.
.
`eu bit ho n v`ao ban tin. Chnh xac ho n, neu cac loi l`a du t, ch
nhi
ung ta co the xac d.inh t`
u.
`en.
ma n`ao du.o..c truy
`an. Chang ha.n, neu
ung ta co the d`
ung ma la.p ba l
V du. 4.1.4 Ma hoa mo.t ban tin, ch
.
thong bao l`a x1 x2 x3 , ch
ung ta ma hoa no th`anh t`
u ma x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 , trong do x1 =
x4 = x7 , x 2 = x6 = x8 , x 3 = x5 = x9 .
Cac t`
u. ma ho..p le. l`a
000000000, 001001001, 010010010, 011011011,
100100100, 101101101, 111111111.
Ch
ung ta phat hie.n mo.t chuoi bit nha.n du.o..c co loi ba` ng cach su. du.ng lua.t so lo.n.
Chang ha.n de xac d.inh x1 , xet cac bit x1 , x4 , x7 . Neu hai trong ba bit ba` ng 1, ta ket lua.n
x1 = 1, ngu.o..c la.i ket lua.n x1 = 0.

B`
ai t
a.p
ng (su. du.ng bit kiem tra chan le):
1. Cac chuoi bit nha.n du.o..c sau co the l`a du
(a) 1000011.
(b) 111111000.
(c) 10101010101.
(d) 110111011100.
`an):
ng (la.p moi bit trong thong bao hai l
2. Cac chuoi bit nha.n du.o..c sau co the l`a du
(a) 110011.
121

(b) 1100000011.
(c) 101111.
`an. Su.a sai cac chuoi bit nha.n du.o..c sau (neu sai):
3. Cac ban tin du.o..c la.p ba l
(a) 111000101.
(b) 110000001.
(c) 111011111000.

4.2

C
ac kh
ai ni
e.m

u. ma x Bn , n > k.
Trong chu.o.ng n`ay, gia thiet moi ban tin u Bk du.o..c ma hoa th`anh cac t`
- e do.n gian, ta se d`ong nhat moi vector x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )t vo.i t`
D
u. ma x1 x2 . . . xn .
- i.nh ngha 4.2.1 [n, k]-ma tuyen tnh tren Bn l`a mo.t khong gian vector con k chi
`eu cua
D
n
.
.
.
.
`eu. He. so
khong gian vector B tren tru `o ng B; n du o. c go.i l`a do. d`ai cua bo. ma v`a k l`a chi
cua bo. ma l`a t so k/n.
Noi cach khac, ta.p con C cua Bn l`a mo.t ma tuyen tnh neu
(a) x + y C vo.i mo.i x, y C; v`a
(b) x C vo.i mo.i x C, B.
T`
u. d.inh ngha ta thay r`a ng, [n, k] ma tuyen tnh C ho`an to`an du.o..c xac di.nh bo.i ta.p bat
k`
y cac t`
u. ma do. c la.p tuyen tnh x1 , x2 , . . . , xk v` moi t`
u. ma x C d`eu co the bieu dien
da.ng
k
X
x=
i xi
(mod 2),
i=1

trong do i B. Neu ch
ung ta sap xep cac t`
u. ma n`ay th`anh mo.t ma tra.n Boole G cap k n
.
.
ta se du o. c mo.t ma tra.n sinh cua ma C. Chnh xac ho.n:
- i.nh ngha 4.2.2 Gia su. C l`a [n, k]-ma tuyen tnh. Ma tra.n Boole G cap k n m`a cac
D
h`ang cua no sinh ra khong gian vector C go.i l`a ma tra.n sinh cua C. Ngu.o..c la.i, neu G l`a ma
tra.n Boole cap k n th` khong gian vector sinh bo.i cac h`ang cua no go.i l`a ma sinh bo.i G.
`eu ma tra.n sinh khac nhau. Chang ha.n cac ma tra.n
Nh
a.n x
et 15 Mo.t ma co the co nhi

1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
,
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
122

c`
ung l`a cac ma tra.n sinh cua ma C :
c1
c2
c3
c4

=
=
=
=

0
0
1
1

0
1
1
0

0
0
1
1

0
1
0
1

V du. 4.2.1 [5, 1]-ma tuyen tnh C1 vo.i ma tra.n sinh

G1 := 1 1 1 1 1 ,
ch
u.a hai t`
u. ma l`a 00000 v`a 11111.
V du. 4.2.2 [5, 3]-ma tuyen tnh C2 vo.i ma tra.n

1 1 1
G2 := 0 0 1
1 1 1
V du. 4.2.3 [7, 4]-ma tuyen tnh C3 vo.i

1
0
G3 :=
0
0

sinh

0 0
1 0 .
1 1

ma tra.n sinh
0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1

0
1
1
1

1
0
1
1

1
1
.
0
1

`en di toi da 2k ban tin khac

Do [n, k]-ma tuyen tnh C co 2k t`
u. ma nen ta co the truy
nhau; neu gia thiet cac h`ang cua ma tra.n G do. c la.p tuyen tnh th` ban tin u Bk se du.o..c
ma hoa th`anh vector
x = ut G.
(4.1)
Chang ha.n, su. du.ng ma tra.n sinh G2 cua V du. 4.2.2 ta co

x 1 = u1 + u3 ,

x 2 = u1 + u3 ,
x 3 = u1 + u2 + u3 ,

x 4 = u2 + u3 ,

x = u .
5
3
`an tu. cua ma C (do. d`ai n). Ta bieu dien cac ph
`an tu. cua C b`a ng mo.t
K
y hie.u M l`a so ph
.
.
.
mang kch thu o c M n m`a cac h`ang l`a cac t`
u ma.
123

Gia su. l`a hoan vi. cua ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n} v`a vo.i moi t`
u. ma x C ta ap du.ng phep bien
doi, go.i l`a hoan vi. vi. tr,
: x 7 x0
xac d.inh bo.i
x0i := x(i) ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Tu.o.ng tu.., neu l`a hoan vi. cua cac k
y hie.u {0, 1}, ta noi cam sinh mo.t phep hoan vi. k
y
.
.
.
hie.u neu vo i ch so i n`ao do, v`a vo i moi t`
u ma x C ta ap du.ng phep bien doi
x 7 x0 ,
trong do x0 xac d.inh bo.i

(
x0j :=

neu i 6= j,
neu i = j.

xj
(xi )

Neu ma C 0 co the nha.n du.o..c t`

u. ma C b`a ng mo.t day cac phep hoan vi. vi. tr hoa.c phep
hoan vi. k
y hie.u th` ta noi hai ma C v`a C 0 l`a tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
V du. 4.2.4 (a) Hai ma sau l`a tu.o.ng
{1, 3, 2, 4} :
0 0 0
0 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
(b) Ma

tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i ma

qua phep hoan vi.

du.o.ng b`a ng cach su. du.ng hoan vi. ({1, 2, 3, 4}) =

0
0 0
1
0 1
v`a
0
1 0
1
1 1

0
0
1
1

0
C :=
1

0
0
1
1

1
0
1
0

0
1
1
0

0
1
1
0

0
C 0 :=
1

0
1
1
0

0
1
0
1

0
0
1
1

0
1
1
0

0
1
.
0
1

0 1

1 0

cac k
y hie.u o. vi. tr th
u. ba trong C v`a sau do hoan vi. hai vi. tr th
u. 2 v`a th
u. 4.
`e 4.2.3 Hai ma tra.n Boole c`
ung cap k n sinh ra hai ma tuyen tnh tu.o.ng du.o.ng
B
o d

.
.
.
u nhau ba` ng day cac phep toan:
neu ch
ung nha.n du o. c t`
124

(a) hoan vi. cac h`ang;

(b) co.ng hai h`ang; v`a
(c) hoan vi. c
ac co.t.
Ch
u.ng minh. Cac phep toan tren h`ang (a) v`a (b) khong thay doi ha.ng cua ma tra.n sinh
(ch thay doi cac vector co. so.). Phep toan (c) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i hoan vi. vi. tr cac t`
u. ma.
2
V du. 4.2.5 (a) Ma tra.n sinh G1 v`a G3 co da.ng ba.c thang, t
u.c ma tra.n co cac tnh chat:
`an tu. khac khong ben trai nhat trong moi h`ang ba` ng 1.
1. Ph
`an tu. ben trai nhat b`a ng 1 co tat ca cac ph
`an tu. khac b`a ng 0.
2. Co.t ch
u.a ph
`an tu. b`a ng 1 ben trai nhat trong h`ang th
3. Neu ph
u. i xuat hie.n o. co.t th
u. ti th` t1 <
t2 < < tn .
`e ma tra.n ba.c thang
(b) Ma tra.n G2 co the du.a v

1 1 0 0 1
G02 := 0 0 1 0 0 .
0 0 0 1 1
Su. du.ng G02 cho bo. ma C2 , ma hoa (4.1) co da.ng

x 1 = u1 ,

x 2 = u1 ,
x 3 = u2 ,

x 4 = u3 ,

x = u + u + u .
5
1
2
3
- i
`eu n`ay ch ra r`a ng cac k
D
y hie.u ban tin u1 , u2 , u3 xuat hie.n tu.`o.ng minh trong cac t`
u. ma;
t
.
.
.
`an tu ben trai
noi chung, k
y hie.u ui se xuat hie.n ta.i vi. tr th
u ti cua t`
u ma x = u G neu ph
.
.
nhat cua h`ang th
u i cua G xuat hie.n trong co.t th
u ti .
Nha.n xet r`a ng, cac ma tra.n ba.c thang cua ma C1 v`a C3 co da.ng G = (Ik A), trong do Ik
du.ng phu.o.ng phap cua Bo d`e 4.2.3, ma tra.n G0 co the du.a v
`e
l`a ma tra.n do.n vi. cap k. Ap
2

1 0 0 1 1
00
G2 := 0 1 0 0 1 .
0 0 1 0 1
Tong quat ta co
125

- i.nh l
`on ta.i ma C 0 tu.o.ng du.o.ng C vo.i ma tra.n
D
a. Khi d
o t
y 4.2.4 Gia su. C l`a [n, k]-m
sinh da.ng (Ik A).
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
- i.nh ngha 4.2.5 Gia su. C l`a [n, k]-ma tuyen tnh v`a H l`a ma tra.n Boole cap (n k) n.
D
H go.i l`a ma tra.n kiem tra chan le cua C neu vo.i mo.i t`
u. ma x C ta co
Hx = 0

(mod 2).

(4.2)

He. (4.2) du.o..c go.i l`a he. phu.o.ng tr`nh kiem tra chan le.
`an 4.1.2: Ban
V du. 4.2.6 [4, 3]-ma C4 ba` ng cach them mo.t bit kiem tra chan le trong Ph
tin u1 u2 u3 du.o..c ma hoa th`anh t`
u. ma x = x1 x2 x3 x4 , trong do
x 1 = u1 , x 2 = u2 , x 3 = u3 ,
v`a
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 0.
Do do neu ban tin l`a u = 101 th` t`
u. ma l`a x = 1010. Co 23 = 8 t`
u. ma l`a
0000 0011 0101 1001
1010 0110 1100 1111.
T
u.c l`a tat ca cac vector co mo.t so chan so bit b`a ng 1. De d`ang thu. la.i ma tra.n kiem tra
chan le cua C4 l`a H5 = (1 1 1 1).
V du. 4.2.7 Xet [6, 3]-ma la.p C5 : Ban tin u1 u2 u3 du.o..c ma hoa th`anh t`
u. ma x = x1 x2 . . . x6 ,
trong do
x 1 = u1 , x 2 = u2 , x 3 = u3 ,
v`a

x2 + x3 + x4 = 0,
x1 + x3 + x5 = 0,

x1 + x2 + x6 = 0.

Ma C5 co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le:

0 1 1 1 0 0
H := 1 0 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 0 0 0 1

- i.nh l
o.c la.p tuyen tnh co kch
D
y 4.2.6 Gia su. G v`a H l`a cac ma tra.n vo.i cac h`ang d
.
.
.
.
.
ng k n v`a (n k) n. Khi d
o G v`a H l`a cac ma tra.n sinh v`a ma tra.n kiem
thu o c tu o ng u
t
tra ch
an le cu a mo.t ma neu v`a ch neu GH = 0.
126

Ch
u.ng minh Gia su. GH t = 0. Khi do moi h`ang cua G l`a nghie.m cua he. phu.o.ng tr`nh (4.2)
v`a do do khong gian sinh bo.i tat ca cac to ho..p tuyen tnh cua cac h`ang cua G ch
u.a trong
`eu b`a ng k nen ch
khong gian cac nghie.m cua (4.2). Nhu.ng ca hai khong gian n`ay co chi
ung
.
.
.
.
.
`eu ngu o. c la.i. 2
b`a ng nhau. Ba` ng cach suy lua.n tu o ng tu. ta co chi
V du. 4.2.8 Cac ma C1 , C2 , C3
u
.ng l`a

1 1
1 0
H1 :=
1 0
1 0
v`a

trong cac v du. tren co cac ma tra.n kiem tra chan le tu.o.ng
0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
,
0
1

H2 :=

1 1 0 0 0
,
1 0 1 1 1

0 1 1 1 1 0 0
H3 := 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 0 1 0 0 1

Nha.n xet ra` ng neu G = (Ik A) th` ma tra.n kiem tra chan le co da.ng H = (At Ink ). Khi
do he. phu.o.ng tr`nh kiem tra chan le (4.2) cho mo.t phu. thuo.c h`am tu.`o.ng minh gi
u.a cac k
y

hie.u ban tin (cac bit thong tin) v`a cac k

y hie.u kiem tra. Ma tra.n sinh v`a ma tra.n kiem tra
`e ma.t l
chan le cua cac ma tuyen tnh khong ch co y
ngha v
y thuyet m`a no c`on co nh
u.ng
u
.ng du.ng chu yeu trong vie.c ma hoa v`a giai ma. Tha.t va.y, moi ban tin u Bk du.o..c ma
hoa duy nhat th`anh t`
u. ma x = ut G. V` cac h`ang cua ma tra.n sinh do.c la.p tuyen tnh nen
t
anh xa. u 7 u G l`a song anh t`
u. Bk len C. Vie.c giai ma kho khan ho.n se du.o..c tr`nh b`ay
trong mu.c tiep theo.
V du. 4.2.9 (a) Ma C1 co x1 = u1 l`a bit thong tin v`a cac k
y hie.u c`on la.i l`a cac bit kiem
.
tra: x2 = x3 = x4 = x5 = x1 . Do do C1 co hai t`
u ma l`a 00000 v`a 11111.
(b) Ma C2 co x1 , x3 , x4 l`a cac bit thong tin v`a cac k
y hie.u c`on la.i l`a cac bit kiem tra:
3
.
x2 = x1 , x5 = x1 + x3 + x4 . Do do C2 co 2 = 8 t`
u ma l`a
00000 10000 01000 00100
11000 10100 01100 11100.
(c) Ma C3 co x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 l`a cac bit thong tin v`a cac k
y hie.u c`on la.i l`a cac bit kiem tra:

x5 = x2 + x3 + x4 ,
x6 = x1 + x3 + x4 ,

x = x + x + x ,
7
1
2
4
Do do C3 co 24 = 16 t`
u. ma (hay lie.t ke ch
ung!).
127

Tren Bn xet tch vo hu.o.ng cua hai vector di.nh ngha bo.i
hx, yi :=

n
X

xi y i

(mod 2).

i=1

Ch
uy
ra` ng, khac vo.i tch vo hu.o.ng thong thu.`o.ng tren khong gian Euclide, co the xay ra
hx, xi = 0 vo.i vector x 6= 0 n`ao do.
- i.nh ngha 4.2.7 Ma doi ngau hay ma tru..c giao C cua ma tuyen tnh C xac d.inh bo.i
D
C := {y Bn | hx, yi = 0 vo.i mo.i x C}.
De d`ang thay ra` ng C l`a ma tuyen tnh thoa dim C + dim C = n. Ho.n n
u.a
- i.nh l
D
y 4.2.8 Vo.i mo.i ma tuyen tnh C, ma tra.n kiem tra chan le cu a C b
a` ng ma tra.n
.
.
sinh cu a C v`
a ngu o. c la.i.
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2

B`
ai t
a.p
u.ng minh ta.p C := {x B n |Hx = 0} l`a ma
1. Gia su. H l`a ma tra.n Boole cap r n. Ch
tuyen tnh.
2. Ch
u.ng minh neu C l`a [n, k]-ma th`
C := {(x, xn+1 ) Bn B1 |x = x1 x2 . . . xn C, xn+1 := x1 + x2 + + xn }
c
ung l`a ma tuyen tnh (go.i l`a ma mo. ro.ng). T`m moi lien he. gi
u.a cac ma tra.n kiem

tra chan le cua C v`a C.

3. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng trong mo.t ma nhi. phan tuyen tnh, hoa.c tat ca cac t`
u. ma bat d`au
b`a ng so 0, hoa.c co chnh xac mo.t nu.a bat d`au b`a ng so 0, v`a mo.t nu.a bat d`au b`a ng
so 1.
- u.a cac ma tra.n sinh sau v
`e
4. D

1
0 1 1
,
1
1 0 1
0

da.ng chuan (Ik A) :

1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 1
,
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1
128

0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 0 1 1

5. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng cac ma tra.n sinh

1 1 0 0
G := 0 1 1 0 ,
0 0 1 1

1 0 0 1
G0 := 0 1 0 1 ,
0 0 1 1

sinh ra cac ma tu.o.ng du.o.ng.

6. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng cac

G := 0
0

ma tra.n sinh

1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 ,
0 0 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1
G0 := 0 1 1 0 1 1 ,
0 0 1 0 0 1

sinh ra cac ma tu.o.ng du.o.ng.

7. Gia su. C co ma tra.n sinh

1 0 1 1 1
G := 0 1 1 0 1 .
1 1 0 0 0
T`m ma tra.n A sao cho ma co ma tra.n sinh (I3 A) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i C. Lie.t ke tat ca
cac t`
u. ma cua C.

u.ng minh hoan vi. cac h`ang cua

8. Gia su. ma C co ma tra.n sinh da.ng chuan (Ik A). Ch
.
.
.
.
A cho ma tra.n sinh cua ma tu o ng du o ng C.
u.ng minh ra` ng quan he. ma tu.o.ng du.o.ng l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
9. Ch
`on ta.i ma C 0 ch
u.ng minh r`a ng t
10. Gia su. C l`a [n, k]-ma v`a a Bn . Ch
u.a a v`a tu.o.ng
du.o.ng vo.i C.
u.ng minh so cac ma khong tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i do. d`ai n v`a ch
u.a hai t`
u. ma l`a n.
11. Ch
12. Gia su. C l`a [7, 4]-ma tuyen tnh vo.i ma

1 0
0 1
G :=
0 0
0 0

tra.n sinh
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1

1
1
1
0

0
1
1
1

1
1
.
0
1

Ma hoa cac ban tin: 0000, 1000 v`a 1110.

13. T`m ma tra.n sinh v`a cac t`
u. ma cua [6, 3]ma co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le

0 1 1 1 0 0
H := 1 0 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 0 0 0 1
129

14. (Ma la.p) T`m ma tra.n sinh v`a cac t`

u. ma cua [5, 1]ma co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le

1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0

H :=
1 0 0 1 0 .
1 0 0 0 1
15. (Ma tro.ng lu.o..ng chan) Cho ma tra.n kiem tra chan le

H := 1 1 1 1 1 .
T`m ma tra.n sinh v`a cac t`
u. ma.
16. T`m ma tra.n sinh v`a cac t`
u. ma co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le

1 0 1 0
H :=
.
1 1 0 1
17. Cho ma tra.n kiem tra chan le

0 1 1 1 1 0 0
H := 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Lie.t ke tat ca cac t`
u. ma.
18. Cho ma tra.n kiem tra chan le:

1 0 1 0 0
H := 1 1 0 1 0 .
0 1 0 0 1
T`m ma tra.n sinh v`a cac t`
u. ma.
19. T`m ma tra.n kiem tra chan le tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i ma du.o..c thiet la.p ba` ng cach them mo.t
.
bit kiem tra chan le doi vo i chuoi bit do. d`ai 4.
20. T`m ma tra.n kiem tra chan le tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i ma la.p ba doi vo.i chuoi bit do. d`ai 3.
21. T`m ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H neu

1
0
G :=
0
0

ma tra.n sinh l`a

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1

1
1
0
1

1
0
1
1

1
1
.
1
0

22. T`m cac ma doi ngau cua cac ma C2 v`a C3 trong cac V du. 4.2.2 v`a 4.2.3.
130

23. T`m cac ma doi ngau cua cac ma sau:

0000

1100
C1 :=
,

0011

1111

000

110
C2 :=

011

101

u.ng minh r`a ng (C ) = C.

24. (a) Ch
- a.t C + D := {x + y|x C, y D}. Ch
(b) D
u.ng minh (C + D) = C + D .
25. K
y hie.u En l`a ta.p tat ca cac vector do. d`ai n co tro.ng lu.o..ng chan.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh En l`a ma tuyen tnh. T`m cac tham so [n, k], ma tra.n kiem tra chan
le v`a ma tra.n sinh cua En .
(b) T`m ma En .

4.3

Khoa ng c
ach Hamming

- i.nh ngha 4.3.1 Khoang cach Hamming, k

y hie.u d(x, y), gi
u.a hai vector x = x1 x2 . . . xn
D
v`a y = y1 y2 . . . yn l`a so cac vi. tr i m`a xi 6= yi , i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
`an thay doi c
`an thiet t`
Nha.n xet r`a ng d(x, y) chnh l`a so l
u.ng bit t`
u. x sang y.
V du. 4.3.1 d(10111, 00101) = 2,

d(0111, 0000) = 3.

- i.nh l
D
y 4.3.2 Khoa ng cach Hamming d(x, y) l`
a mo.t metric, t
u.c l`a
(a) d(x, y) 0 v
o.i mo.i x, y C; dau b`a ng xa y ra khi v`a ch khi x = y.
(b) d(x, y) = d(y, x).
(c) d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) v
o.i mo.i x, y, z C.
Ch
u.ng minh. Hai khang d.inh d`au suy tru..c tiep t`
u. d.inh ngha.
Ch
u.ng minh (c): Nha.n xet r`a ng
{i | xi 6= yi } {i | xi 6= zi } {i | zi 6= yi },
v` neu xi 6= yi th` hoa.c xi 6= zi hoa.c zi 6= yi . Suy ra
#{i | xi 6= yi } #{i | xi 6= zi } + #{i | zi 6= yi }.
131

 du.ng nguyen l
Ap
y bao h`am-loa.i tr`
u. v`a bat da ng th
u.c:
#(A B) = #A + #B #(A B) #A + #B
`eu c
`an ch
ta co di
u.ng minh. 2
Gia su. r`a ng mo.t ban tin du.o..c ma hoa th`anh t`
u. ma x C du.o..c gu.i di v`a nha.n du.o..c
vector y. Co hai tru.`o.ng ho..p xay ra
(a) Hoa.c khong co loi, khi do y = x.
(b) Hoa.c co loi, khi do vector loi e := y x 6= 0.
`oi du.o..c t`
u. ma x
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p (b), van d`e da. t ra l`a l`am sao su.a du.o..c loi sai, phu.c h
.
.
.
t`
u vector nha.n du o. c y?
`an nhat, nha` m tnh
Phu.o.ng phap giai ma du.a ra o. day, go.i l`a giai ma theo lan ca.n g
.
.
.

khoang cach Hamming gi

u a y vo i moi t`
u ma trong C. De giai ma y, ch
ung ta t`m t`
u. ma x
co khoang cach Hamming den y nho nhat. Neu
`an nhat trong C du lo.n; v`a
+ khoang cach gi
u.a hai t`
u. ma g
+ neu cac loi du t;
th` x l`a duy nhat-chnh l`a t`
u. ma du.o..c gu.i.
V du. 4.3.2 Gia su. C = {0000, 1110, 1011, 1111}. Th`
d(0000, 0110) = 2,

d(1110, 0110) = 1,

d(1011, 0110) = 3.

`an nhat)
Do do neu nha.n du.o..c y = 0110
/ C th` ch
ung ta ket lua.n (giai ma theo lan ca.n g
.
.
t`
u ma gu i l`a 1110.
Gia su. moi bit go.i di co c`
ung xac xuat sai p, 0 p < 1/2. Ch
ung ta go.i kenh nhu. the l`a
kenh doi x
u.ng nhi. phan.
y hie.u P (X) l`a xac suat xay ra bien co X. Ta co trong kenh doi x
u.ng nhi.
V du. 4.3.3 K
phan
P ({e = 00000}) = (1 p)5 ,
P ({e = 01000}) = p(1 p)4 ,
P ({e = 10010}) = p2 (1 p)3 .
132

Mo.t cach tong quat, neu v l`a vector co a bit b`a ng 1 th`
P ({e = v}) = pa (1 p)na .
V` p < 1/2 nen 1 p > p; do do
(1 p)n > p(1 p)n1 > p2 (1 p)n2 >
y nhat nhu. sau: Gia su. nha.n du.o..c vector y, ch
ung ta t`m t`
u.
Phu.o.ng phap giai ma ho..p l
.
.
.
.
.
`en t`
`eu kie.n nha.n du o. c y l`a cu..c
ma x sao cho xac suat P (x|y) cua su. kie.n truy
u ma x vo i di
da.i. Noi cach khac, t`m mo.t t`
u. ma ho..p l
y nhat trong bo. ma tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i thong bao nha.n
du.o..c.
- i.nh l
`en vo.i c`
D
y 4.3.3 Gia su. t
at ca c
ac t`
u. m
a du.o..c truy
ung kha n
ang v`a su. du.ng kenh
`an nhat.
d
oi x
u.ng nhi. ph
an. Khi d
o gia i ma ho..p ly nhat tr`
ung vo.i gia i ma theo lan ca.n g
Ch
u.ng minh. Trong kenh doi x
u.ng nhi. phan, neu d(x, y) = d th` co d loi khi thay doi
`eu kie.n P (y|x) cua su.. kie.n nha.n du.o..c y vo.i di
`eu kie.n t`
t`
u. x sang y; do do xac suat co di
u.
d
nd
.
.
.
`en l`a p (1 p) . Ma.t khac, theo gia thiet, xac suat truy
`en t`
ma x du o. c truy
u ma x l`a
1
P (x) = #C . Do do
P (x : y) = pd (1 p)nd (1/#C)P (nha.n du.o..c y),
`an vo.i y nhat. 2
l`a h`am giam theo d. Do do P (x : y) cu..c da.i khi x l`a t`
u. ma g
- i.nh ngha 4.3.4 Khoang cach (Hamming) cua bo. ma C, k
D
y hie.u d(C), l`a khoang cach
.
.
.
nho nhat gi
u a hai t`
u ma khac nhau, t
u c l`a
d(C) := min{d(x, y) | x, y C, x 6= y}.
[n, k]-ma C vo.i khoang cach d du.o..c k
y hie.u l`a [n, k, d]-ma.
V du. 4.3.4 (a) Vo.i C = {00000, 01110, 10011, 11111}, th` d(C) = 2.
(b) Vo.i C = {000000, 111111}, th` d(C) = 6.
Khoang cach Hamming xac di.nh kha nang phat hie.n v`a/hoa.c su.a sai cac loi.
- .inh l
o the phat hie.n du.o..c k loi neu v`a ch neu d(C) k + 1.
D
y 4.3.5 Ma C c
133

Ch
u.ng minh. B`a ng phan ch
u.ng. Gia su. C co the phat hie.n k loi v`a d(C) k. Khi do
`on ta.i a, b C sao cho d(a, b) = d(C) k. Noi cach khac a v`a b ch khac nhau nhi
`eu nhat
t
.
.
.
.

`en t`
k vi. tr. Do do se xuat hie.n k loi khi truy
u ma a v`a nha.n du o. c t`
u ma b. V` va.y ngu.`o.i
.
.
nha.n khong the phat hie.n du o. c cac loi n`ay.
`en t`
Gia su. d(C) k + 1, v`a khi truy
u. ma x ta nha.n du.o..c y vo.i d(x, y) k. Do khoang
`en phai l`a x. V` va.y ngu.`o.i nha.n co the
cach gi
u.a hai t`
u. ma t nhat l`a k + 1, th` t`
u. ma truy
.
.
phat hie.n du o. c cac loi n`ay. 2
`on ta.i
Gia su. k N. Ta noi C co the su.a k loi neu vo.i mo.i thong bao nha.n du.o..c y Bn t
- i
`eu nhat mo.t t`
`eu n`ay co ngha ra` ng, neu mo.t t`
nhi
u. ma x sao cho d(x, y) k. D
u. ma du.o..c
`en v`a co nhi
`eu nhat k loi th` giai ma theo lan ca.n g
`an nhat se thu du.o..c du
truy
ng mo.t t`
u.
`en.
ma du.o..c truy
- i.nh l
D
y 4.3.6 Ma C c
o the su.a k l
oi neu v`a ch neu d(C) 2k + 1.
`on ta.i hai t`
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. C co the su.a du.o..c k loi. Neu d(C) 2k th` t
u. ma a
.
v`a b khac nhau l vi. tr, vo i l 2k. Thay doi [l/2] bit trong a sao cho co vector c ch khac
vector b du
ng [l/2] vi. tr. Khi do
d(a, c) = d(b, c) = [l/2].
Do do khong the su.a du.o..c [l/2] k loi khi nha.n du.o..c c, mau thuan!
`en v`a nha.n du.o..c vector z
u. ma x du.o..c truy
Ngu.o..c la.i gia su. d(C) 2k + 1. Gia su. t`
vo.i d(x, z) k. De thay neu y l`a t`
u. ma khac x th` d(z, y) k + 1, v` neu d(z, y) k ta se
co
d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) k + k = 2k.
- i
`eu phai ch
Mau thuan vo.i d(C) 2k + 1. D
u.ng minh. 2
- a.t
V du. 4.3.5 D
C := {00000000, 11111000, 01010111, 10101111}.
Ta co d(C) = 5 v`a do do co the phat hie.n du.o..c 51 = 4 loi v`a co the su.a du.o..c [(51)/2] = 2
loi.
Co mo.t cach de d`ang de t`m khoang cach toi thieu cua bo. ma. Tru.o.c het ta co khai nie.m
sau:
- i.nh ngha 4.3.7 Tro.ng lu.o..ng Hamming, k
y hie.u wt(x), cua vector x = x1 x2 . . . xn l`a so
D
cac ch so i sao cho xi 6= 0.
134

V du. 4.3.6 wt(00000) = 0, wt(10111) = 4, wt(11111) = 5.

`e 4.3.8 Gia su. x, y l`a cac t`
B
o d

u. ma cu a ma tuyen tnh C. Khi d

o d(x, y) = wt(x y).
Ch
u.ng minh. Cac vi. tr ba` ng 1 trong vector x y chnh l`a nh
u.ng vi. tr m`a hai vector x v`a
y khac nhau. Do do d(x, y) = wt(x y). 2
- i.nh l
D
y 4.3.9 Khoa ng cach cu a ma C b
a` ng tro.ng lu.o..ng toi thieu cu a t`
u. ma khac khong
trong C.
`on ta.i x, y C, x 6= y, sao cho d(x, y) = d. Do do
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. d(C) = d th` t
wt(x y) = d.
Nhu.ng C l`a ma tuyen tnh nen x y C.
u. ma khac khong vo.i tro.ng lu.o..ng toi thieu. Do C l`a tuyen
Ngu.o..c la.i gia su. x C l`a t`
tnh nen 0 C. Va.y
wt(x) = wt(x 0) = d(x, 0) d(C).
2

B`
ai t
a.p
1. T`m khoang cach Hamming cua cac ca.p chuoi bit sau:
(a) 00000, 11111;
(b) 1010101, 0011100;
(c) 000000001, 111000000;
(d) 1111111111, 0100100011.
2. Co bao nhieu loi co the phat hie.n v`a bao nhieu loi co the su.a sai trong cac ma sau:
(a) {0000000, 1111111}.
(b) {00000, 00111, 10101, 10010}.
(c) {00000000, 11111000, 01100111, 10011111}.
3. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu khoang cach toi thieu gi
u.a cac t`
u. ma l`a bon, th` co the su.a sai
du
ng mo.t loi v`a phat hie.n sai ba loi.
u.ng minh ra` ng mo.t ma co the su.a sai d`ong th`o.i a loi v`a phat hie.n a + 1, . . . , b
4. Ch
loi neu v`a ch neu no co khoang cach toi thieu t nhat a + b + 1.
135

`en, khong
5. Ch
u.ng minh neu mo.t ma co khoang cach toi thieu l`a d, t`
u. ma x du.o..c truy
.
.
co qua (d 1)/2 loi xuat hie.n v`a y nha.n du o. c, th`
d(x, y) < d(y, z)
vo.i tat ca cac t`
u. ma z 6= x.
6. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng:
wt(x + y) wt(x) wt(y).
Dau b`a ng xay ra neu v`a ch neu xi = 1 khi yi = 1.
7. Gia su. ra` ng x v`a y l`a cac chuoi bit co do. d`ai n, v`a m l`a so cac vi. tr m`a o. do ca x v`a
y b`a ng 1. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
wt(x + y) = wt(x) + wt(y) 2m.
8. Cho cac ma tra.n sinh

G1 :=

1 1 1 1 0
,
0 0 1 1 1

1 0 0 1 1 0 1
G2 := 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 .
0 0 1 0 1 1 1

(a) Lie.t ke cac t`

u. ma tu.o.ng u
.ng cac ma tra.n sinh tren.
(b) T`m khoang cach toi thieu cua cac bo. ma.
9. Tch cua hai vector nhi. phan x v`a y l`a vector, k
y hie.u x y, xac d.inh bo.i
x y = (x1 y1 , . . . , xn yn ),
m`a b`a ng 1 ta.i vi. tr th
u. i neu v`a ch neu xi = yi = 1. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
(a) wt(x + y) = wt(x) + wt(y) 2wt(x y).
(b) wt(x + z) + wt(y + z) + wt(x + y + z) 2wt(x + y + x y) wt(z). Dau b`a ng xay
ra neu v`a ch neu khong xay ra d`ong th`o.i xi = 0, yi = 0, zi = 1.
10. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng trong mo.t ma nhi. phan tuyen tnh, hoa.c tat ca cac t`
u. ma co tro.ng
.
.
.
.
.
.
lu o. ng chan, hoa.c co chnh xac mo.t nu a tro.ng lu o. ng chan v`a mo.t nu a tro.ng lu.o..ng le.
`om tat ca vector do. d`ai n co tro.ng lu.o..ng chan).
11. Tnh khoang cach cua ma En (g
12. Ch
u.ng minh vo.i mo.i x, y Bn ta co:
" n
#1/2
X
p
(xi yi )2
= d(x, y).
i=1

13. Gia su. x v`a y l`a cac vector nhi. phan vo.i d(x, y) = d. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng so cac vector z
sao cho d(x, z) = r v`a d(y, z) = s l`a C(d, i)C(n d, r i), trong do i = (d + r s)/2.
Neu d + r s le th` so n`ay b`a ng 0, trong khi neu r + s = d, no b`a ng C(d, r).
136

14. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng
hx, yi :=

n
X

xi y i = 0

(mod 2)

i=1

neu v`a ch neu wt(x y) chan v`a b`a ng 1 neu v`a ch neu wt(x y) le. Suy ra hx, xi = 0
neu v`a ch neu wt(x) chan.
15. Gia su. u, v, w, x l`a bon vector doi mo.t co khoang cach d (d phai l`a so chan).
`on ta.i chnh xac mo.t vector m`a khoang cach den cac vector
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng t
`
u, v, w ba ng d/2.
`on ta.i nhi
`eu nhat mo.t vector m`a khoang cach den cac vector
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng t
`
u, v, w, x ba ng d/2.
16. Gia su. C l`a [n, k]-ma vo.i ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H = (A Ink ) v`a 1 t k. Ma
Ct tu.o.ng u
.ng ma tra.n kiem tra chan le Ht = (At Ink ) trong do At l`a ma tra.n cap
(n k) (k t) nha.n du.o..c t`
u. A b`a ng cach xoa di t co.t d`au tien.
`om tat ca cac t`
(a) Ch
u.ng minh Ct g
u. ma cua C vo.i t to.a do. d`au tien ba` ng 0 bi. xoa.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh Ct l`a [n t, k t]-ma.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh d(C ) d(C).
t

`on ta.i duy nhat

17. Vo.i moi n N, mieu ta ma C vo.i he. so k/n lo.n nhat v`a d(C) = 2. T
C?
18. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng hai ma tu.o.ng du.o.ng co c`
ung khoang cach.
`on ta.i
y hie.u [n, k, d]-ma co ngha [n, k]-ma vo.i do. d`ai d. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu t
19. K
.
.
.
`on ta.i ma vo i c`
[n, k, 2d]-ma th` t
ung tham so nhu ng tat ca cac t`
u ma co do. d`ai chan.
20. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu H l`a ma tra.n kiem tra chan le cua ma C co do. d`ai n th` C co
`om d 1 co.t cua H do. c la.p tuyen
khoang cach toi thieu d neu v`a ch neu mo.i ta.p g
.
`on ta.i ta.p g
`om d co.t phu. thuo.c tuyen tnh. T`
tnh, nhu ng t
u. do suy ra:
(a) Neu C l`a [n, k, d]-ma th` d n k + 1.
(b) Khoang cach toi thieu cua ma co ma tra.n

I
7

1
137

sinh:
1
0
1
1
1
1
0

0
1
1
1
0
0
0

0
0

1
.
1

1
1

`on ta.i ma tuyen tnh g

`om M ph
`an tu., co do. d`ai n, nhi
`eu nhat
21. (a) Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng t
r bit kiem tra chan le, v`a khoang cach toi thieu d, neu
d2
X
(M 1)i C(n 1, i) < M r .
i=0

(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu
k

d2
X

C(n 1, i) < 2n .

i=0

`on ta.i ma tuyen tnh [n, k] vo.i khoang cach toi thieu d.
th` t
22. Gia su. C l`a [n, k, d]-ma C vo.i n < 2d. Ch
u.ng minh
X
2k (2k 1)d
d(x, y) n22k1 .
x,yC

23. Neu cach xay du..ng [30, 11, 6]-ma? Bo. ma n`ay co bao nhieu t`
u. ma v`a kha nang phat
hie.n loi l`a bao nhieu?
y hie.u (n, M, d)-ma ngha l`a [n, k, d]-ma, trong do M := 2k l`a so cac t`
u. ma. Xay
24. K
`on ta.i, cac (n, M, d)-ma vo.i cac tham so sau:
du..ng, neu t
(6, 2, 6), (3, 8, 1), (4, 8, 2), (5, 3, 4), (8, 4, 5), (8, 30, 3).
`on ta.i, giai thch ta.i sao).
(Neu khong t
`on ta.i (n, M, d)-ma neu v`a ch neu t
`on ta.i (n+1, M, d+1)u.ng minh t
25. (a) Gia su. d le. Ch
ma.
`on ta.i (n, M, d)-ma th` t
`on ta.i (n 1, M 0 , d)-ma vo.i M 0 M/2.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh neu t
26. (To ho..p hai ma) Gia su. G1 , G2 l`a hai ma tra.n sinh tu.o.ng u
.ng cac ma [n1 , k, d1 ] v`a
[n2 , k, d2 ]. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng cac ma tra.n

G1 0
0 G2
v`a (G1 |G2 ) l`a cac ma tra.n sinh cua cac [n1 +n2 , 2k, min(d1 , d2 )]-ma v`a [n1 +n2 , 2k, d]-ma
(d d1 + d2 ).
27. Vo.i x = x1 x2 . . . xm Bm , y = y1 y2 . . . yn Bn ta k
y hie.u
(x, y) := x1 x2 . . . xm y1 y2 . . . yn Bm+n .
- a.t
Gia su. C1 l`a (n, M1 , d1 )-ma v`a C2 l`a (n, M2 , d2 )-ma. D
C3 := {(x, x + y)|x C1 , y C2 }.
Ch
u.ng minh C3 l`a (2n, M1 M2 , d)-ma tuyen tnh vo.i d = min{2d1 , d2 }.
28. Gia su. C := {x = x1 x2 . . . xn Bn | x1 = x2 = = xn }.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh C l`a [n, 1, n]-ma.
(b) Ch
u.ng minh C l`a [n, n 1, 2]-ma.
138

4.4

H
o.i ch
u.ng

- i.nh ngha 4.4.1 Gia su. C l`a [n, k]ma tuyen tnh. Vo.i moi vector a Bn ta.p ho..p
D
Ca := a + C = {a + x | x C}
du.o..c go.i l`a coset (modulo hay ti.nh tien) cua C.
Nh
a.n x
et 16 (a) Mo.i vector b Bn thuo.c mo.t coset n`ao do.
(b) Hai vector a v`a b thuo.c c`
ung mo.t coset neu v`a ch neu (a b) C.
(c) Moi coset ch
u.a 2k vector.
`e 4.4.2 Hai coset hoa.c r`o.i nhau ho
a.c tr`
ung nhau.
M
e.nh d

`on ta.i x, y C sao cho

Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. v (a + C) (b + C). Khi do t
v = a + x = b + y.
Va.y

b = a + x y = a + x0 ,

trong do x0 = x y C.
Suy ra
b + C a + C.
Tu.o.ng tu..

a + C b + C.

2
T`
u. Me.nh d`e 4.4.2 ta co the phan tch Bn th`anh ho..p cac coset r`o.i nhau cua C :
Bn = C (a1 + C) (at + C),
trong do t = 2nk 1, ai C, i = 1, 2, . . . , t, (ai + C) (aj + C) = , i 6= j.
`on ta.i i sao cho
Gia su. ngu.`o.i giai ma nha.n du.o..c vector y. Khi do t
y = ai + x,

x C.

`en th` vector loi

Neu x0 l`a t`
u. ma truy
e = y x0 = ai + x x0 = ai + x00 ai + C,
139

(4.3)

trong do x00 := x x0 C. Noi cach khac vector loi chnh l`a vector trong coset ch
u.a y.
Do do quyet di.nh cua ngu.`o.i giai ma l`a, neu nha.n du.o..c vector y th` cho.n mo.t vector co
tro.ng lu.o..ng nho nhat e trong coset ch
u.a y v`a giai ma y l`a x = y e. Vector tro.ng lu.o..ng
.
.
nho nhat trong coset du o. c go.i l`a coset leader (neu co ho.n mo.t vector vo.i tro.ng lu.o..ng nho
nhat, th` cho.n ngau nhien mo.t v`a go.i l`a coset leader).
Gia su. r`a ng ai trong (4.3) l`a coset leader. Cach thong thu.`o.ng de giai ma l`a su. du.ng bang
`om chnh bo. ma, vo.i t`
chuan du.o..c d.inh ngha nhu. sau. H`ang d`au tien g
u. ma khong da.t ben
trai:
x(1) = 0, x(2) , . . . , x(s) ,
s = 2k ;
cac h`ang tiep theo l`a cac coset ai + C du.o..c sap xep theo c`
ung th
u. tu.. vo.i coset leader da. t
ben trai:
ai + x(1) , ai + x(2) , . . . , ai + x(s) .

V du. 4.4.1 [4, 2]Ma vo.i ma tra.n sinh G =

1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1

Ban tin

00

Bo. ma C

0000 1011

0101 1110

Coset a1 + C

1000

0011

1101 0110

Coset a2 + C

0100

1111

0001 1010

Coset a3 + C

0010

1001

0111 1100

10

01

11

co bang chuan
.
Ho.ich
u ng
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0

coset
leader

4.4.1

Gia i m
a d`
ung ba ng chu
an

Neu nha.n du.o..c vector y, gia su. 1111, ta se t`m du.o..c vi. tr cua no trong bang. Khi do
vector loi e l`a coset leader n`a m o. vi. tr ben trai nhat c`
ung h`ang vo.i y, trong tru.`o.ng ho..p
.
.
.
`en l`a:
n`ay e = 0100, v`a t`
u ma du o. c truy
x = y e = 1011
n`a m tren dnh cua co.t ch
u.a y, ban tin tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a 10.
- e t`m coset ch
y cu..c da.i. D
u.a
Nh
a.n x
et 17 (a) Giai ma d`
ung bang chuan l`a giai ma ho..p l
nk
.
.
.
u ng (syndrome) cua y.
y, ch
ung ta t`m vector s := Hy B , du o. c go.i l`a ho.i ch
140

(b) Neu y l`a t`

u. ma th` s = 0. Tha.t va.y neu y = x + e, s C, th`
s = Hy = Hx + He = He

(4.4)

(c) Neu cac loi xuat hie.n ta.i cac vi. tr a, b, c . . . t

u.c l`a
e = 00 . . . 0 100 . . . 00 . . . 0 100 . . . 00 . . . 0 100 . . .
a

th` t`
u. (4.4) ta co
s=

ej Hj = Ha + Hb + Hc +

trong do Hj l`a vector tu.o.ng u

.ng co.t th
u. j cua ma tra.n H. Va.y
- i.nh l
u.ng ba` ng tong cac co.t xuat hie.n loi cu a ma tra.n H.
D
y 4.4.3 Ho.i ch
Ho.n n
u.a, hai vector c`
ung mo.t coset cua C neu v`a ch neu ch
ung co c`
ung ho.i ch
u.ng.
Tha.t va.y u v`a v c`
ung coset neu v`a ch neu (u v) C; t
u.c l`a H(u v) = 0; hay tu.o.ng
.
.
du o ng Hu = Hv. Do do
- i.nh l
`on ta.i tu.o.ng u
D
y 4.4.4 T
.ng mo.t-mo.t len gi
u.a coset v`a ho.i ch
u.ng trong ma C.
V du. 4.4.2 Su. du.ng ma tra.n kiem tra chan le trong V du. 4.2.7 de xac d.inh t`
u. ma du.o..c
`eu nhat mo.t loi xuat hie.n). Ta co
gu.i neu nha.n du.o..c thong bao 001111 (gia thiet co nhi

0

0 1 1 1 0 0
0
1

Hy = 1 0 1 0 1 0 = 0 .
1
1 1 0 0 0 1
1
1
1
- ay l`a co.t th
`en l`a
D
u. sau cua H. Do do bit th
u. sau cua 001111 l`a sai. Va.y t`
u. ma du.o..c truy
001110.

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Gia su. C l`a [n, k]-ma v`a a Bn . Ch
u.ng minh coset Ca = C neu v`a ch neu a C. T`
u.
do suy ra
`an tu. cua ta.p {x C|d(x, a) = i} b`a ng Ai -so cac t`
(a) So ph
u. ma co tro.ng lu.o..ng i.
(b) So cac ca.p t`
u. ma (x, y) sao cho d(x, y) = i b`a ng 2k Ai .
141

2. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu C l`a ma tuyen tnh v`a a 6 C, th` C Ca c
ung l`a ma tuyen tnh.
3. (a) Xay du..ng mang chuan doi vo.i cac ma co cac ma tra.n sinh

1 0
1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
G1 :=
, G2 :=
, G3 :=
.
0 1
0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
(b) Su. du.ng mang chuan th
u. ba de giai ma cac vector 11111 v`a 01011.
(c) Cho cac v du.: Hai loi xuat hie.n trong t`
u. ma v`a su.a du
ng; hai loi xuat hie.n trong
.
.
t`
u ma v`a su a khong du
ng.
4. Gia su. C l`a [4, 2]-ma vo.i ma tra.n sinh

1 0 0 1
G :=
.
0 1 0 1
(a) T`m cac t`
u. ma.
(b) T`m cac coset, coset leader cua C.
(c) Xay du..ng mang chuan. T`
u. do giai ma khi nha.n du.o..c cac vector 0011, 0001, 0100.
5. . Xay du..ng mang chuan doi vo.i ma co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le

0 1 1 1 0 0
H := 1 0 1 0 1 0 .
1 1 0 0 0 1
Su. du.ng mang n`ay de giai ma cac vector 110100 v`a 111111.
6. (a) Xay du..ng mang chuan doi vo.i ma co ma tra.n sinh

1 0 1 0
.
G :=
0 1 1 1
(b) T`m vector ho.i ch
u.ng cua y = 1111. T`
u. do
7. Gia su. [7, 4]-ma co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le

1 1 0 0

H := 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1

giai ma.

1 0 0
0 1 0 .
0 0 1

Xay du..ng mang chuan. T`

u. do giai ma cac vector nha.n du.o..c: 1111111, 1101011, 0110111
v`a 0111000.
8. Neu C C , ta noi r`a ng C l`a tu.. doi ngau yeu, viet tat w.s.d (weakly self dual). C l`a
tu.. doi ngau neu C = C . V du. ma la.p [n, 1, n] l`a w.s.d neu v`a ch neu n chan. Khi
n = 2, ma la.p {00, 11} l`a tu.. doi ngau. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng
(a) C l`a w.s.d neu hx, yi = 0, vo.i mo.i x, y C.
`eu k = n/2 (do do n chan).
(b) C tu.. doi ngau neu no l`a w.s.d v`a co chi
142

9. Xay du..ng cac ma tu.. doi ngau co do. d`ai 4 v`a 8.

10. Gia su. n chan v`a C l`a [n, (n 1)/2] ma w.s.d. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng C = C Ca , trong
do a l`a vector co tat ca cac to.a do. b`a ng 1.
11. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng ma vo.i ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H = (A I) tu.. doi ngau neu v`a ch
neu A l`a ma tra.n vuong sao cho AAt = I.
12. Gia su. C l`a ma w.s.d. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng mo.i t`
u. ma co tro.ng lu.o..ng chan. Ho.n n
u.a,
neu moi h`ang cua ma tra.n sinh cua C co tro.ng lu.o..ng chia het cho 4 th` mo.i t`
u. ma
.
.
c
ung co tro.ng lu o. ng chia het cho 4.
13. Gia su. C l`a [8, 4, 4]-ma vo.i ma tra.n

1
0
H :=
0
1

kiem tra chan le

1
0
1
0

1
0
1
1

1
1
0
0

1
1
0
1

1
1
1
0

1
1
1
1

1
0
.
0
0

Ch
u.ng minh C l`a ma tu.. doi ngau.

4.5

M
a ho`
an hao

- e co the su.a cac loi xuat hie.n khi truy

`en d
`an xay du..ng bo. ma C co
D
u. lie.u, ch
ung ta c
`eu do se l`am gio.i ha.n so lu.o..ng t`
`an
khoang cach d(C) lo.n. Nhu.ng di
u. ma trong bo. ma. Ph
.
.
.

n`ay se ch ra moi lien he. gi

u a d(C) v`a so phan tu cua ta.p ho. p C, k
y hie.u #C.
`e 4.5.1 Gia su. x Bn , 0 k n. Khi d
o
B
o d

#{y Bn | d(x, y) k} = C(n, 0) + C(n, 1) + + C(n, k).

Ch
u.ng minh. Vo.i moi i {0, 1, . . . , n} co d.inh, ta co
#{y Bn | d(x, y) = i}

b`a ng so cac cach cho.n i vi. tr sao cho x v`a y khac nhau ta.i cac vi. tr do v`a b`a ng C(n, i).

`e 4.5.2 Gia su. C l`a bo. m

`om cac t`
B
o d

a g
u. ma co d
o. d`ai n v`a
d(C) 2k + 1.
`on ta.i nhi
`eu nhat mo.t ph
`an tu. x C, sao cho
Khi d
o vo.i moi y Bn , t
y B(x, k) := {z Bn | d(x, z) k}.
143

Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. y B(x, k) B(x0 , k), x, x0 C (x 6= x0 ). Khi do
d(x, x0 ) d(x, y) + d(x0 , y) 2k.
Mau thuan vo.i gia thiet. 2
- i.nh l
`om cac t`
D
y 4.5.3 Gia su. C l`a bo. m
a g
u. ma d
o. d`
ai n v`
a d(C) 2k + 1. Th`
#C

2n
.
[C(n, 0) + C(n, 1) + + C(n, k)]

Ch
u.ng minh. Du..a tren cac nha.n xet sau
+ Co 2n vector do. d`ai n (do #Bn = 2n ).
`au B(x, k), x C, ch
+ Moi qua c
u.a
C(n, 0) + C(n, 1) + + C(n, k)
vector (xem Bo d`e 4.5.1).
+ Vo.i moi x, x0 C, x 6= x0 , th` B(x, k) B(x0 , k) = . 2
V du. 4.5.1 Neu C co do. d`ai 7 v`a d(C) = 3 th`
#C

27
= 128/8 = 16.
[C(7, 0) + C(7, 1)]

- i.nh ngha 4.5.4 Ma ho`an hao (perfect code) l`a bo. ma C sao cho d(C) = 2k + 1 v`a
D
#C =

2n
.
[C(n, 0) + C(n, 1) + + C(n, k)]

`an tu. nhi

`eu nhat trong tat ca cac ma co khoang
Noi cach khac, ma ho`an hao l`a ma co so ph
.
.
cach 2k + 1 cho tru o c.
`om hai t`
V du. 4.5.2 Ma g
u. ma 00000 v`a 11111 l`a ma ho`an hao.

B`
ai t
a.p
u. ma trong mo.t ma m`a cac t`
1. T`m so cu..c da.i cac t`
u. ma l`a chuoi cac bit co do. d`ai chn
.
.
v`a khoang cach toi thieu gi
u a cac t`
u ma l`a nam.
144

`om to`an
`om hai t`
2. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu n l`a so tu.. nhien le, th` ma g
u. ma co do. d`ai n g
so 0 v`a 1 l`a mo.t ma ho`an hao.
`am thu.`o.ng vo.i khoang cach toi thieu
3. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu C l`a ma ho`an hao khong t
7 th` do. d`ai t`
u. ma l`a 23.
4. Gia su. G24 co ma tra.n sinh G = (I12 A) trong do

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1

1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
A :=
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0

1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0

1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0

1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1

(a) Ch
u.ng minh G24 tu.. doi ngau, t
u.c l`a: G24
= G24 .
(b) Ch
u.ng minh (A I12 ) c
ung l`a ma tra.n sinh cua G24 .
(c) Ch
u.ng minh mo.i t`
u. ma cua G24 co tro.ng lu.o..ng chia het cho 4.
(d) Ch
u.ng minh G24 khong co t`
u. ma vo.i tro.ng lu.o..ng 4.
(e) Ch
u.ng minh G24 l`a [24, 12, 8]-ma (go.i l`a ma Golay).
(f) Gia su. G23 nha.n du.o..c t`
u. G24 b`a ng cach bo tat ca cac to.a do. cuoi trong cac t`
u. ma.
Suy ra cac tham so cua ma G23 v`a do do G23 l`a ma ho`an hao.

5. Gia su. x, y Bn . Ta noi vector x phu vector y neu x y = y. Chang ha.n, 111001 phu
101000.
`on ta.i duy nhat t`
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu vector y B23 tro.ng lu.o..ng 4 th` t
u. ma
x G23 phu y.
(b) Suy ra so cac t`
u. ma tro.ng lu.o..ng 7 trong G23 l`a 253.
`on ta.i [90, 278 , 5]-ma tuyen tnh.
6. Ch
u.ng minh khong t
`on ta.i [13, 64, 5]-ma tuyen tnh. (HD. Gia su. C l`a [13, 6, 5]-ma
7. Ch
u.ng minh khong t
.ng ma tra.n sinh
tu.o.ng u

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
.

G1
G1
- i.nh l
Ch
u.ng minh G2 sinh ra [8, 5, 3]-ma, mau thuan vo.i D
y 4.5.3).
145

4.6

M
a Hamming

`an n`ay nghien c

u.ng bo. ma co the de d`ang ma hoa
Ph
u.u cac ma Hamming l`a mo.t trong nh
- ay l`a bo. ma co the su.a sai mo.t loi. Theo D
- i.nh l
v`a giai ma. D
y 4.4.3, ho.i ch
u.ng cua vector
.
.
.
.
nha.n du o. c b`a ng tong cac co.t cua ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H u
ng vo i loi xuat hie.n. Do do
.
.
de xay du. ng bo. ma su a sai mo.t loi, ch
ung ta phai co (ta.i sao?) cac co.t cua H khac khong

v`a doi mo.t khac nhau. Neu H co r h`ang th` se co 2r 1 vector co.t co do. d`ai r thoa gia
thiet tren.
V du. 4.6.1 Neu r = 3 th` co 23 1 = 7 co.t
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
l`a bieu dien nhi. phan cua cac so t`
u. 1 den 7.
- i.nh ngha 4.6.1 Ma Hamming ba.c r l`a ma co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H cap r (2r 1)
D
sao cho cac co.t cua H khac khong v`a doi mo.t khac nhau.
V du. 4.6.2 Ma tra.n H cua ma Hamming ba.c 2

1 1
H=
1 0

co da.ng

0
.
1

- ay l`a ma la.p tuyen tnh ba.c 3.

Bo. ma n`ay co hai t`
u. ma l`a 000 v`a 111. D
V du. 4.6.3 Ma tra.n H cua ma Hamming ba.c 3

0 1 1 1

H= 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1

co da.ng

1 0 0
0 1 0 .
0 0 1

Bo. ma n`ay co 16 t`
u. ma.
`e 4.6.2 Ma Hamming ba.c r ch
B
o d

u.a 2nr t`
u. m
a vo.i n = 2r 1.
Ch
u.ng minh. Hien nhien theo di.nh ngha. 2
`e 4.6.3 Khoa ng cach toi thieu cu a ma Hamming ba.c r b`a ng 3.
B
o d

146

Ch
u.ng minh. V` ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H co cac co.t khac 0 v`a khong co hai co.t
- i.nh l
n`ao giong nhau nen ma Hamming ba.c r co the su.a sai mo.t loi. Theo D
y 4.3.6 ta co
d(C) 3. Trong so cac co.t cua ma tra.n H co ba co.t sau

1
1

0

C1 = 0 ,

..
.
0

1
0

0

C2 = 0 ,

..
.
0

0
1

0

C3 = 0 .

..
.
0

Ch
uy
r`a ng
C1 + C2 + C3 = 0

(mod 2).

- a.t x l`a vector b`a ng 1 o. vi. tr cua cac co.t n`ay v`a b`a ng 0 neu ngu.o..c la.i. Khi do Hx = 0.
D
- i.nh l
Noi cach khac, x l`a t`
u. ma. Nhu.ng wt(x) = 3. Do do, theo D
y 4.3.9 th`
d(C) wt(x) = 3.
2
- i.nh l
D
y 4.6.4 Ma Hamming ba.c r l`
a ma ho`an ha o.
- a.t n := 2r 1. Theo Bo d`e 4.6.2 th` #C = 2nr . Theo Bo d`e 4.6.3 th`
Ch
u.ng minh. D
d(C) = 3. Va.y
2nr [C(n, 0) + C(n, 1)] = 2nr (1 + n) = 2nr (1 + 2r 1) = 2n .
2
- i.nh l
D
y 4.6.4 ch ra r`a ng ma Hamming l`a ma ho`an hao. Nghien c
u.u ma ho`an hao l`a mo.t
trong nh
u.ng lnh vu..c quan tro.ng nhat cua l
y thuyet ma v`a da co nh
u.ng ket qua nhat d.inh.

B`
ai t
a.p
1. [7, 4]ma C co ma tra.n kiem tra chan le

1 1 1 0 1 0 0
H := 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 .
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
`om hai ban tin u = 0000 1101.
(a) Ma hoa thong bao g
(b) Giai ma khi nha.n du.o..c vector 0000111 0001110.
(c) T`m cac tham so n, k, d cua C.
147

2. Gia su. [7, 4, 3]-ma Hamming co ma tra.n

0 0

H := 0 1
1 0

kiem tra chan le

0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 .
1 0 1 0 1

(a) T`m ma tra.n sinh da.ng chuan.

`eu nhat mo.t loi sai).
(b) Giai ma vector nha.n du.o..c y = 1010110 (gia thiet co nhi
3. T`m ma tra.n kiem tra chan le cua ma Hamming [15, 11, 3]. Giai ma cac vector nha.n
`eu nhat mo.t loi sai):
du.o..c (gia thiet co nhi
(a) 100 000 000 000 000.
(b) 111 111 111 111 111.
u.ng minh ra` ng cac ma tra.n
4. Ch

0 0 0 1 1 1 1
H := 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 ,
1 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 1 1 1 0 0
H 0 := 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1

sinh ra c`
ung ma Hamming H3 .
5. Lie.t ke ba da.ng cua ma tra.n kiem tra chan le H cua ma Hamming H4 . Viet H du.o.i da.ng
(A Ir ). T`
u. do ma hoa ban tin u = 11111100000, v`a giai ma vector 111000111000111.
u.ng minh ra` ng ma Hamming Hr duy nhat theo ngha: Bat k
6. Ch
y ma vo.i cac tham so
[2r 1, 2r 1 r, 3] tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i Hr .
7. T`m ma tra.n sinh G cua ma Hamming Hr v`a su. du.ng no de ch
u.ng minh mo.i t`
u. ma
`on ta.i t`
khac khong co tro.ng lu.o..ng 3. (HD. Neu t
u. ma co tro.ng lu.o..ng 2 th` no
`eu nhat hai h`ang cua G).
phai l`a tong cua nhi
8. T`m ma tra.n kiem tra chan le cua [15, 11, 3]-ma Hamming. Giai thch cach giai ma
neu co du
ng mo.t loi xuat hie.n. Neu co ho.n hai loi th` sao?
u.ng minh so cac ma Hamming khac nhau co do. d`ai n = 2r 1 l`a
9. Ch
(2r 1)!
.
Qm1 m
i
i=0 (2 2 )

148

Chu.o.ng 5
THI.
-`
D
O
`e l
B`ai bao d`au tien v
y thuyet d`o thi. xuat hie.n v`ao nam 1736 t`
u. mo.t cong tr`nh cua L.
.
Euler. Sau do, mo.t v`ai ket qua quan tro.ng cua lanh vu. c n`ay nha.n du.o..c trong The ky 19.
y thuyet d`o thi. mo.i thu..c su.. phat trien ma.nh me v`a
Tuy nhien phai den nam 1920 tro. di, l
.
`eu nh`a toan ho.c. Hien nhien, mo.t trong nh
thu h
ut su. quan tam cua nhi
u.ng l
y do cua su..
`eu lnh vu..c bao g
`om Tin
quan tam n`ay l`a nh
u.ng u
.ng du.ng cua l
y thuyet d`o thi. trong nhi
.

ho.c, Hoa ho.c, Ngon ng

u ho.c, Kinh te.

5.1

C
ac kh
ai ni
e.m

- i.nh ngha 5.1.1 D

- `o thi. vo hu.o.ng G, hay do.n gian graph, g
`om mo.t ta.p V cac dnh (hay
D
.
.

node) v`a mo.t ta.p E cac ca.nh sao cho mo i ca.nh e E tu o ng u

.ng vo.i mo.t ca.p cac dnh
.
.
.
.
.
khong sap th
u tu. . Neu co du
ng mo.t ca.nh e tu o ng u
ng cac dnh a v`a b, ta viet e := (a, b)
hoa.c e := (b, a).
- `o thi. co hu.o.ng G, hay do.n gian digraph, g
`om mo.t ta.p V cac dnh (hay node) v`a mo.t
D
.
.
ta.p E cac cung sao cho moi cung e E tu o ng u
.ng vo.i mo.t ca.p cac dnh du.o..c sap th
u. tu...
.ng cac dnh du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. (a, b), ta se viet e := (a, b).
Neu co du
ng mo.t cung e tu.o.ng u
`e nhau khi ch
Hai dnh a v`a b cua d`o thi. (vo hu.o.ng hoa.c co hu.o.ng) G := (V, E) go.i l`a k
ung
.
.
.
`

khac nhau v`a l`a hai dau m

ut cua c`
ung mo.t ca.nh (hoa.c cung) e E. Trong tru `o ng ho. p n`ay
ta noi ca.nh (cung) e lien thuo.c a v`a b.
Trong giao tr`nh n`ay ta se gia thiet cac ta.p V v`a E l`a h
u.u ha.n v`a V 6= .
- `o thi. vo hu.o.ng G trong H`nh 5.1 co ta.p cac dnh
V du. 5.1.1 D
V := {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 }
149

v`a ta.p cac ca.nh

E := {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 , e5 }.

`e nhau (du.o..c lien thuo.c bo.i

Ca.nh e1 lien thuo.c cac dnh v1 v`a v2 . Cac dnh v5 v`a v6 l`a k
ca.nh e5 ).
e3
v2

e1

v5
......

...........
....... ...........
....
...
...
...
.....
...
...
..
...
...
.....
.
.
.
.
........ .........
.......... ........................................................................................................................................
. .
.... .......
...
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......

e4

..
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..

v3

e2

v1

v4

e5

v6

H`nh 5.1:
- `o thi. co hu.o.ng G trong H`nh 5.2 co ta.p cac dnh
V du. 5.1.2 D
V := {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 }
v`a ta.p cac cung

E := {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 , e5 , e6 , e7 }.

ui ten. Cung e1 lien thuo.c ca.p dnh (v2 , v1 ) v`a cung e7

Cac cung du.o..c bieu dien bo.i cac m
`e nhau trong khi v4 v`a v5 khong k
`e nhau.
lien thuo.c ca.p dnh (v6 , v6 ). Hai dnh v3 v`a v6 k

v1

e1

e3
...
v2 .......................................................................................................................................v3

.
......
...........................................................................................
....
........ .......
... ..............
......... .....
...........
...
...........
..............
...
.........................................................................
....
..
...
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
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...
...
...
....
...
...
.
...
................. .....
.
.
.
.
........
.
.
.
.
..........
....
..
.
.
.
.
..............................................................................
.
.
...
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...
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.
...
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..
...
..
.
.
....
..
.
.
.....
.
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......................

e2

e4

e5

e6

v5

v6

e7

H`nh 5.2:

150

v4

Nha.n xet r`a ng cac ca.nh e1 v`a e2 trong H`nh 5.1 tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i c`
ung ca.p dnh v1 v`a v2 .
.
.
.
Nh
u ng ca.nh nhu va.y go.i l`a song song. Ca.nh lien thuo.c vo i mo.t dnh go.i l`a khuyen. Chang
ha.n, trong H`nh 5.1 ca.nh e3 = (v2 , v2 ) l`a khuyen. Mo.t dnh nhu. v4 trong H`nh 5.1 khong
- `o thi. vo hu.o.ng khong khuyen v`a ca.nh
du.o..c lien thuo.c vo.i ca.nh n`ao go.i l`a dnh co la.p. D
song song go.i l`a do.n d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng.
`eu khien may
V du. 5.1.3 Trong cac xu.o.ng che ta.o, ch
ung ta thu.`o.ng d`
ung may tnh di
.
.
khoan de khoan cac lo tren nh
u ng tam kim loa.i nhu H`nh 5.3(a).
b

...........
....................
.......... ........ .... ....
..........
.
..........
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.
.
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.
.
....... .... .. ......
....... .. .. ....
....... ... .......
.............

(a)

(b)
H`nh 5.3:

- e tiet kie.m th`o.i gian v`a ti

`en ba.c, ta c
`an di chuyen m
D
ui khoan sao cho nhanh nhat. B`ai
toan co the mo h`nh hoa da.ng d`o thi. nhu. sau: Cac dnh cua d`o thi. tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac lo
`an khoan (xem H`nh 5.3(b)); moi ca.p dnh du.o..c noi b`a ng mo.t ca.nh. Vo.i moi ca.nh ta gan
c
- `o thi. vo.i cac so
mo.t so thu..c tu.o.ng u
.ng th`o.i gian de di chuyen m
ui khoan gi
u.a hai lo. D
.
.
.
.
du o. c gan tren cac ca.nh go.i l`a d`o thi. co tro.ng so. Neu ca.nh e du o. c gan nhan k ta noi r`a ng
tro.ng lu.o..ng cua e l`a k. Chang ha.n, tro.ng lu.o..ng cua G cho bo.i ma tra.n tro.ng lu.o..ng
a b c d e

a 0 8 2 4 6

b
8 0 6 12 9

c 2 6 0 3 5
.

d 4 12 3 0 4
e 6 9 5 4 0

`en l`a tong cua cac tro.ng lu.o..ng cua cac ca.nh
Trong d`o thi. co tro.ng so, do. d`ai cua day chuy
`en. V du., trong H`nh 5.3(b) do. d`ai cua day chuy
`en t`
tren day chuy
u. a vieng tham b v`a
`en xuat phat t`
ket th
uc ta.i c l`a 14. Trong b`ai toan n`ay, do. d`ai cua day chuy
u. v1 v`a di qua
v2 , v3 , . . . , theo th
u. tu.. n`ay v`a ket th
uc ta.i vn l`a th`o.i gian de di chuyen m
ui khoan kho.i d`au
.
.
.
uc ta.i hn , trong do ta k
y hie.u
u tu. n`ay v`a ket th
t`
u lo h1 v`a sau do den h2 , h3 , . . . , theo th
.
.
.
.
`en vo i do. d`ai nho nhat di qua mo.i dnh cua d`o thi. tu.o.ng
lo hi tu o ng u
ng dnh vi . Day chuy
.
.
.
.
u
ng du `o ng di toi u u de di chuyen m
ui khoan.
151

`en
Day chuy
a, b, c, d, e
a, b, d, c, e
a, c, b, d, e
a, c, d, b, e
a, d, b, c, e
a, d, c, b, e

- o. d`ai
D
21
28
24
26
27
22

Bang 5.1:
Chu.o.ng tr`nh
1
2
3
4
5

n1
66
41
68
90
75

n2
20
10
5
34
12

n3
1
2
8
5
14

Bang 5.2:
`en d`oi hoi bat d`au t`
Gia su. trong b`ai toan tren day chuy
u. a v`a ket th
uc ta.i e. Ch
ung ta co
`en co do. d`ai nho nhat b`a ng cach lie.t ke tat ca cac day chuy
`en co the gi
the t`m day chuy
u.a
`an v`a cho.n day chuy
`en ngan
hai dnh n`ay v`a di qua tat ca cac dnh khac, moi dnh mo.t l
.
.

nha t (xem Bang 5.1). Ta co day chuyen qua cac dnh a, b, c, d, e theo th
u tu. n`ay co do. d`ai
`en
nho nhat. D nhien vo.i nh
u.ng ca.p dnh xuat phat v`a ket th
uc khac co the co day chuy
.
.
vo i do. d`ai nho ho n.
`eu th`o.i gian de t`m day chuy
`en co do.
Lie.t ke tat ca cac kha nang nhu. v du. tren l`a ton nhi
.
.
d`ai ngan nhat. Tuy nhien, b`ai toan n`ay-mo.t da.ng cua b`ai toan ngu `o i du li.ch-trong tru.`o.ng
ho..p tong quat khong co thua.t toan th`o.i gian da th
u.c!
V du. 5.1.4 V du. n`ay t`m hieu b`ai toan nhom cac doi tu.o..ng tu.o.ng tu.. th`anh cac lo.p
du..a tren cac tnh chat cua nh
u.ng doi tu.o..ng. Chang ha.n, xet mo.t thua.t toan du.o..c viet b`a ng
.
.
ngon ng
u PASCAL bo i mo.t so ngu.`o.i v`a ch
ung ta muon nhom cac chu.o.ng tr`nh tu.o.ng tu..
th`anh cac lo.p du..a tren nh
u.ng tnh chat n`ao do cua chu.o.ng tr`nh (xem Bang 5.2). Gia su.
ta cho.n cac tnh chat
1. So cac d`ong le.nh trong chu.o.ng tr`nh: n1 .
2. So cac le.nh IF trong chu.o.ng tr`nh: n2 .
3. So l`o.i go.i thu tu.c con trong chu.o.ng tr`nh: n3 .
- `o thi. vo hu.o.ng tu.o.ng tu.. G du.o..c xay du..ng nhu. sau: Cac dnh tu.o.ng u
D
.ng vo.i cac chu.o.ng
.
.
.
tr`nh. Moi dnh tu o ng u
ng bo. (p1 , p2 , p3 ), trong do pi l`a gia tri. cua tnh chat i. Ta d.inh
152

ngha h`am phan loa.i s nhu. sau: Vo.i moi ca.p dnh v = (p1 , p2 , p3 ) v`a w = (q1 , q2 , q3 ) da. t
s(v, w) := |p1 q1 | + |p2 q2 | + |p3 q3 |.
Neu k
y hie.u vi l`a dnh tu.o.ng u
.ng chu.o.ng tr`nh i th`
s(v1 , v2 ) = 36, s(v1 , v3 ) = 24, s(v1 , v4 ) = 42, s(v1 , v5 ) = 30,
s(v2 , v3 ) = 38, s(v2 , v4 ) = 76, s(v2 , v5 ) = 48,
s(v3 , v4 ) = 54, s(v3 , v5 ) = 20, s(v4 , v5 ) = 46.
Neu v, w l`a cac dnh tu.o.ng u
.ng hai chu.o.ng tr`nh th` s(v, w) danh gia su.. khac nhau cua hai
.
.
`eu v`a ngu.o..c la.i.
chu o ng tr`nh n`ay. Gia tri. s(v, w) c`ang lo.n th` su.. khac nhau c`ang nhi
Vo.i S co d.inh cho tru.o.c, ch`en ca.nh e gi
u.a hai dnh v v`a w neu s(v, w) < S. Ta noi r`a ng
.
`on ta.i mo.t day chuy
`en t`
v v`a w thuo.c c`
ung mo.t lo p neu hoa.c v = w hoa.c t
u. v den w. H`nh
5.4 tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac chu.o.ng tr`nh trong Bang 5.2 vo.i S = 25.
v1
...............

v2

.....
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.....
.....
..

v3

v4

v5

H`nh 5.4:
Trong d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng n`ay, cac chu.o.ng tr`nh du.o..c nhom th`anh ba lo.p {1, 3, 5}, {2} v`a
{4}. Trong cac b`ai toan thu..c te gia tri. S thu.`o.ng du.o..c cho.n thong qua phep thu. du
ng sai
hoa.c du.o..c cho.n tu.. do.ng theo tieu chuan thu..c nghie.m tru.o.c do.
V du. n`ay minh ho.a u
.ng du.ng cua d`o thi. trong vie.c nha.n da.ng mau: nhom cac d
u. lie.u
u. lie.u.
th`anh cac lo.p du..a tren cac tnh chat cua d

Nh
a.n x
et 18 (a) Theo d.inh ngha, cac ca.nh (cung) cua d`o thi. thang hay cong, d`ai hay
`eu quan tro.ng, m`a di
`eu ban chat l`a d`o thi.
ngan, cac dnh o. vi. tr n`ao d`eu khong phai l`a di
.
.
.

co bao nhieu dnh, bao nhieu ca.nh (cung) v`a dnh n`ao du o. c noi vo i dnh n`ao.
`on ta.i tu.o.ng u
(b) T
.ng mo.t-mo.t len gi
u.a d`o thi. (vo hu.o.ng hoa.c co hu.o.ng) G = (V, E) v`a
quan he. hai ngoi tren ta.p V.
153

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Graph Kn , go.i l`a graph d`ay du n dnh, co n dnh v`a mo.i dnh du.o..c noi vo.i dnh khac
b`a ng mo.t ca.nh (khong co khuyen v`a ca.nh song song).
(a) Ve K3 , K4 v`a K5 .
(b) T`m cong th
u.c lien he. gi
u.a so ca.nh v`a so dnh cua Kn .
2. Graph co cac dnh du.o..c phan hoa.ch th`anh hai ta.p r`o.i nhau V1 v`a V2 trong do moi
`an. Cho
ca.nh lien thuo.c mo.t dnh thuo.c V1 v`a mo.t dnh thuo.c V2 go.i l`a graph hai ph
`an.
mo.t v du. graph hai ph
`an Km,n = (V1 V2 , E) co m = #V1 , n = #V2 ; moi dnh cua V1 du.o..c noi
3. Graph hai ph
.
vo i mo.t dnh cua V2 bo.i mo.t ca.nh (khong co khuyen v`a ca.nh song song).
(a) Ve K2,3 , K2,4 v`a K3,3 .
(b) T`m cong th
u.c lien he. gi
u.a so ca.nh v`a so dnh cua Km,n .
`en co do. d`ai nho nhat t`
4. T`m day chuy
u. v den w cua graph trong H`nh 5.3(b) di qua
`an neu
moi dnh chnh xac mo.t l
(a) v = b, w = e.
(b) v = c, w = d.
(c) v = a, w = b.
5. Ve graph tu.o.ng tu.. trong V du. 5.1.4 neu S = 40. Co bao nhieu
6. Ve graph tu.o.ng tu.. trong V du. 5.1.4 neu S = 50. Co bao nhieu
7. Noi chung, quan he. tu.o.ng tu.. l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng?

5.2

lo.p khac nhau?

lo.p khac nhau?

`en v`
D
ay chuy
a chu tr`nh

- i.nh ngha 5.2.1 Gia su. v0 , vk l`a cac dnh cua d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng G := (V, E). Day chuy
`en
D
.
.

u v0 v`a ket th
uc
t`
u v0 den vk do. d`ai k l`a mo.t day xen ke k + 1 dnh v`a k ca.nh bat dau t`
ta.i vk ,
:= {v0 , e1 , v1 , e2 , v2 , . . . , vk1 , ek , vk },
trong do ca.nh ei lien thuo.c cac dnh vi1 v`a vi , i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
- `o thi. vo hu.o.ng trong H`nh 5.5 co
V du. 5.2.1 D
(1, e1 , 2, e2 , 3, e3 , 4, e4 , 2)
`en co do. d`ai 4 t`
l`a day chuy
u. dnh 1 den dnh 2.
154

e1
e2
2
1 .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
.
.....
...
.....
... ...
.....
.....
... ...
.....
..... e
.....
... ....
e
..... 4
3
.....
..
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
.....
...
..
...
.....
...
.....
.....
.....
...
...
.....
.....
...
...
.....
.....
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.
...
.....
.....
...
...
.....
.....
...
...
.....
.....
...
...
..... .........
......
...
...
.
...
...
...
...
...
..
..
...
.
.
...
...
.
...
..
.
...
..
.
...
..
...
.
.
.
...
.
...
...
.
...
..
.
...
..
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

e5

e6

e7

e8

H`nh 5.5:
`en
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng G khong co ca.nh song song, de do.n gian, day chuy
.
.
du o. c viet
:= {v0 , v1 , . . . , vk }.
- i.nh ngha 5.2.2 D
- `o thi. vo hu.o.ng G du.o..c go.i l`a lien thong neu vo.i hai dnh a, b bat k`
D
y
`on ta.i mo.t day chuy
`en noi a vo.i b.
d`eu t
V du. 5.2.2 De kiem tra r`a ng d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng trong H`nh 5.6(a) lien thong; c`on d`o thi. vo
hu.o.ng trong H`nh 5.6(b) khong lien thong.

v1 ...................

v2
.....
.. ...
... ..

v3

.......
..... ..
... .....
..... ..
.....
..... ....
...
.....
.....
...
.
.
...
.
.....
..
....
...
.....
.....
.....
...
...
.....
.....
.....
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.....
...
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
...
...
.
.
.
.
.....
.
.
..... .....
...
.
.
...
.
.
.........
...
...
.
.
.
...
... .......
.
.
.
....
...
.
.....
...
.
.
.
...
...
.
.
.
.....
...
.
.
...
...
.
.
.
.
.....
...
.
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.....
...
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
...
...
....
.
.
.
.
.
.....
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.
.
.....
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
... .....
..... ....
..... ..
... ......
.......
.......
..

v2

.
... ....
...
...
...
...
...
..
.
...
.
.
...
.
...
...
.
...
..
.
...
..
.
...
..
...
.
.
...
.
.
...
...
.
...
..
.
...
..
...
.
..
...
.
.
...
.
.
...
...
.
...
..
...
.
..
...
.
..
..
.
............................................................................................................

e1

v4

v1

(a)

e2

e3

v3

v6
......
v4

v5

(b)
H`nh 5.6:

- i.nh ngha 5.2.3 Ta noi (V 0 , E 0 ) l`a d`o thi. con cua d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng G := (V, E) neu
D
(a) V 0 V v`a E 0 E;
(b) Neu ca.nh e0 E 0 lien thuo.c a v`a b th` a, b V 0 .
155

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e4

- `o thi. con Ga cua G g

`om tat ca cac ca.nh
Gia su. G := (V, E) l`a d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng v`a a V. D
.
.
`en n`ao do xuat phat t`
`an
v`a cac dnh trong G m`a ch
u a trong day chuy
u a go.i l`a th`anh ph
.
lien thong cua G ch
u a a.
- `o thi. vo hu.o.ng G trong H`nh 5.7 co mo.t th`anh ph
`an lien thong. Tha.t va.y,
V du. 5.2.3 D
.
.
`

`an lien thong.

do thi. vo hu o ng lien thong neu v`a ch neu no co du
ng mo.t th`anh ph
v2

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v1

v4

v3

H`nh 5.7:
- `o thi. vo hu.o.ng G trong H`nh 5.6(b) g
`om ba th`anh ph
`an lien thong. Th`anh
V du. 5.2.4 D
`an lien thong ch
ph
u.a v3 l`a d`o thi. con
G1 := (V1 , E1 ),

V1 = {v1 , v2 , v3 },

E1 = {e1 , e2 , e3 }.

`an lien thong ch

Th`anh ph
u.a v4 l`a d`o thi. con
G2 := (V2 , E2 ),

V2 = {v4 },

E2 = .

`an lien thong ch

Th`anh ph
u.a v5 l`a d`o thi. con
G3 := (V3 , E3 ),

V3 = {v5 , v6 },

E3 = {e4 }.

`an cua d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng G := (V, E) bo.i mo.t quan he. R
Ta co the da. c tru.ng cac th`anh ph
.
`on ta.i day chuy
`en t`
tren ta.p V nhu sau: aRb neu t
u. a den b. De d`ang thay ra` ng R l`a quan
`an lien thong ch
he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren V v`a vo.i moi a V, ta.p cac dnh trong th`anh ph
u.a
.
.
.
.
.
a l`a lo p tu o ng du o ng
[a] = {b V | aRb}.
- i.nh ngha 5.2.4 Day chuy
`en du.o..c go.i l`a do.n gian neu no khong di hai l
`an qua c`
D
ung mo.t
.
`en trong do dnh d`au tr`
ca.nh. Chu tr`nh l`a mo.t day chuy
ung vo i dnh cuoi. Chu tr`nh l`a
.

do n gian neu no l`a mo.t chu tr`nh v`a l`a mo.t day chuyen do.n gian.
`e day chuy
`en v`a chu tr`nh cua d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng trong H`nh 5.5
V du. 5.2.5 Cac v du. v
.
.
du o. c lie.t ke trong Bang 5.3.
156

`en
Day chuy
(6, 5, 2, 4, 3, 2, 1)
(6, 5, 2, 4)
(2, 6, 5, 2, 4, 3, 2)
(5, 6, 2, 5)
(7)

`en do.n?
Day chuy
Khong
-u
D
ng
Khong
Khong
-u
D
ng

Chu tr`nh?
Khong
Khong
-u
D
ng
-Du
ng
Khong

Chu tr`nh do.n?

Khong
Khong
Khong
-u
D
ng
Khong

Bang 5.3:
a
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(a)

(b)

- `o thi. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.

H`nh 5.8: (a) Ban d`o cua th`anh pho Konigsberg. (b) D
`an ba tram nam, nhi
`eu ngu.`o.i dan th`anh pho
V du. 5.2.6 (B`ai toan Euler) Cach day g
.
.
u.ng thac mac van d`e nhu.
Konigsberg cua nu o c Nga (sau n`ay l`a th`anh pho Kaliningrat) da t`
`au
sau: Th`anh pho co song Pregel chay qua, gi
u.a song co c`
u lao Kneiphof, v`a co 7 chiec c
.
`au nhu.ng moi c
`au ch di
bac qua song nhu tren H`nh 5.8(a); co the di da.o qua khap cac c
`an thoi khong? Neu ta coi moi khu vu..c a, b, c, d cua th`anh pho nhu. mo.t dnh, moi c
`au
mo.t l
.
.

qua la.i hai khu vu. c nhu mo.t ca.nh noi hai dnh, th` ban do th`anh pho Konigsberg l`a mo.t d`o
thi. vo hu.o.ng (H`nh 5.8(b)). Thac mac cua ngu.`o.i dan th`anh pho chnh l`a: co the ve du.o..c
`en hay khong? Noi cach khac: t
`on ta.i chu tr`nh do.n
d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng b`a ng mo.t net b
ut li
.
gian (go.i l`a chu tr`nh Euler) ch
u a mo.i dnh v`a ca.nh cua G?
Nh`a toan ho.c L. Euler (1707-1783) l`a ngu.`o.i d`au tien da ch
u.ng minh b`ai toan khong co
`e cac c
`au o.
l`o.i giai (nam 1736), v`a v` va.y b`ai toan thu.`o.ng du.o..c go.i l`a b`ai toan Euler v
Konigsberg.
V du. 5.2.7 Co the ve d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng tren H`nh 5.9(a) m`a khong nhac b
ut khoi ma.t giay
.
`
`

u khong co kinh
v`a khong ve mo.t ca.nh n`ao qua hai lan khong? Sau khi thu nhieu cach ve, d`
nghie.m ba.n do.c c
ung co the ket lua.n r`a ng b`ai toan do khong the giai du.o..c. Trai la.i, d`o thi.
vo hu.o.ng o. H`nh 5.9(b) co the ve b`a ng mo.t net. Ta.i sao?
157

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(b)

(a)
H`nh 5.9:

- i.nh ngha 5.2.5 So cac ca.nh lien thuo.c vo.i dnh a, vo.i khuyen du.o..c dem hai l
`an, du.o..c
D
- nh ba.c mo.t go.i l`a dnh treo, ca.nh lien thuo.c dnh treo
go.i l`a ba.c cua dnh a, k
y hie.u d(a). D
go.i l`a ca.nh treo.
- i.nh l
- `
D
y 5.2.6 D
o thi. vo hu.
o.ng G co chu tr`nh Euler neu v`a ch neu G lien thong v`a mo.i
dnh cu a no d`eu co ba.c chan.
- i
`eu kie.n c
`an. Tha.t va.y, t`
Ch
u.ng minh. D
u. d.inh ngha cua chu tr`nh Euler suy ra ngay ra` ng
G lien thong. Khi ta va.ch ra mo.t chu tr`nh Euler th` moi khi di to.i mo.t dnh n`ao theo mo.t
`an di to.i v`a so l
`an di ra o. moi
ca.nh ta la.i di ra khoi dnh ay theo mo.t ca.nh khac, do do so l
`an d`au ta ra khoi a, l
`an cuoi ta di
dnh luon luon ba` ng nhau; rieng vo.i dnh xuat phat a, l
.

to i a khi ket th
uc chu tr`nh. V` va.y mo.i dnh cua G d`eu co ba.c chan.
- i
`eu kie.n du. Ch
D
u.ng minh du..a v`ao bo d`e sau. 2
`e 5.2.7 Neu d`
o thi. v
o hu.
B
o d

o.ng H co tat ca cac dnh ba.c chan th` t`

u. bat c
u. dnh n`ao
cu a no c
ung co the va.nh du.o..c mo.t chu tr`nh do.n gia n.
`oi t`
Ch
u.ng minh. Tha.t va.y, t`
u. dnh a ta di theo mo.t ca.nh (a, b), r
u. b di theo mo.t ca.nh
`an di theo mo.t ca.nh mo.i. V` mo.i dnh cua d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng d`eu ba.c chan, nen
khac..., moi l
neu ta di theo du.o..c mo.t ca.nh de to.i dnh n`ao th` ta c
ung co mo.t ca.nh khac de di ra khoi
.
.
.
dnh do. Do so ca.nh cua H l`a h
u u ha.n nen du `o ng di phai tro. la.i a (no.i ta xuat phat theo
u.ng minh. 2
ca.nh (a, b)) v`a ta co mo.t chu tr`nh do.n gian. Bo d`e du.o..c ch
Nh
a.n x
et 19 Neu d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng G ch
u.a mo.t chu tr`nh xuat phat t`
u. a th` no ch
u.a chu
tr`nh do.n gian t`
u. a (ta.i sao?).
`an dao cua d.inh l
Bay gi`o. ta ch
u.ng minh ph
y.
Theo Bo d`e 5.2.7, v` G co tat ca cac dnh ba.c chan nen co the va.ch du.o..c mo.t chu tr`nh
do.n gian 1 t`
u. mo.t dnh a t`
uy y
. Ta danh so 1 tat ca cac ca.nh cua 1 . Neu 1 ch
u.a tat ca
158

`an t`m. Gia su. c`on mo.t so ca.nh cua G chu.a du.o..c
cac ca.nh cua G th` do l`a chu tr`nh Euler c
danh so. Cac ca.nh chu.a du.o..c danh so c`
ung vo.i cac dnh cua ch
ung la.p th`anh mo.t d`o thi.
0
.
.
vo hu o ng G co cac tnh chat:
+ Mo.i dnh cua G0 d`eu chan (v` mo.i dnh cua G d`eu chan, v`a ta danh so mo.t so chan
ca.nh co d`au m
ut ta.i moi dnh).
+ G0 v`a G co t nhat mo.t dnh chung, b chang ha.n (neu ngu.o..c la.i th` G khong lien thong,
trai gia thiet).
- anh so
Do do, theo Bo d`e 5.2.7, t`
u. b ta va.ch du.o..c mo.t chu tr`nh do.n gian 0 trong G0 . D
0
.
.
.
.
.
`oi
2 tat ca cac ca.nh cua . Ta du o. c mo.t chu tr`nh mo i 2 nhu sau: di tren 1 t`
u a den b, r
0
.
`e b, sau do tiep tu.c di theo 1 de tro v
`e
di theo (cac ca.nh danh so 2) cho den khi quay v
.
.
.
.

a. Neu van c`on co ca.nh cua G chu a du o. c danh so th` cac ca.nh n`ay, c`
ung vo i dau m
ut cua
ch
ung, la.p th`anh mo.t d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng G00 co cac dnh d`eu chan v`a co chung vo.i G t nhat
du.ng Bo d`e 5.2.7, ta la.i va.ch du.o..c mo.t chu tr`nh do.n gian 00
mo.t dnh (c chang ha.n). Ap
00
- anh so 3 tat ca cac ca.nh cua 00 . Ta du.o..c mo.t chu tr`nh mo.i 3 t`
trong G (qua c). D
u. a
`e c th` tiep tu.c
di theo 2 cho den dnh c th` theo 00 (ca.nh danh so 3) cho to.i khi quay v
.

theo 2 de tro ve a. Tiep tu.c qua tr`nh tren cho den khi mo.i ca.nh cua G d`eu du.o..c danh
`eu n`ay phai xay ra v` so ca.nh cua G l`a h
so (di
u.u ha.n), ta du.o..c mo.t chu tr`nh k ch
u.a mo.i
- i.nh l
`an t`m. D
ca.nh cua G v`a do l`a chu tr`nh Euler c
y du.o..c ch
u.ng minh. 2
Cach ch
u.ng minh di.nh l
y cho ta mo.t thua.t toan de va.ch du.o..c mo.t chu tr`nh Euler trong
mo.t d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng co cac dnh ba.c chan: cho.n dnh xuat phat (a); danh so cac chu tr`nh
1 , 0 , 2 , . . . nhu. tren, cho den khi mo.i ca.nh cua G d`eu du.o..c danh so. Luon theo quy tac:
moi khi di ra mo.t dnh n`ao th` di theo mo.t ca.nh du.o..c danh so cao nhat trong tat ca cac
ca.nh chu.a du.o..c d`
ung, cho den khi tro. la.i dnh xuat phat m`a khong the di tiep du.o..c n
u.a
.
.
`oi).
(mo.i ca.nh co d`au m
ut ta.i dnh xuat phat da du o. c d`
ung het r
V du. 5.2.8 Cho d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng trong H`nh 5.10. Ta co
d(v1 ) = d(v2 ) = d(v3 ) = d(v5 ) = 4,
d(v4 ) = 6, d(v6 ) = d(v7 ) = 2.
- i.nh l
Theo D
y 5.2.6, G co chu tr`nh Euler, cu. the l`a
(v6 , v4 , v7 , v5 , v1 , v3 , v4 , v1 , v2 , v5 , v4 , v2 , v3 , v6 ).
- i.nh l
D
y 5.2.8 Gia su. G l`
a d`
o thi. v
o hu.o.ng vo.i m ca.nh v`a cac dnh {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }. Khi
d
o
n
X
d(vi ) = 2m.
i=1

Do d
o, tong tat ca cac ba.c cu a cac dnh trong d`
o thi. v
o hu.
o.ng l`a mo.t so ch
an.
159

v1

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v2

v4

v3

v5

v6

v7

H`nh 5.10:
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
H
e. qua 5.2.9 S
o cac dnh ba.c le l`a mo.t so chan.
Ch
u.ng minh. K
y hie.u V (c) (tu.o.ng u
.ng V (l)) l`a ta.p cac dnh co ba.c chan (tu.o.ng u
.ng, le)
.
.
- i.nh l
cua d`o thi. vo hu o ng G := (V, E). Theo D
y 5.2.8,
X
X
d(a).
d(a) +
2#E =
aV (l)

aV (c)

M`a ve trai l`a mo.t so chan v`a tong d`au cua ve phai c
ung l`a mo.t so chan, do do tong th
u.
hai cua ve phai l`a mo.t so chan. 2
- i.nh l
T`
u. D
y 5.2.6 ta de d`ang ch
u.ng minh
- i.nh l
- `o thi. v
`en do.n gia n t`
D
y 5.2.10 D
o hu.o.ng G c
o day chuy
u. a den b (a 6= b) ch
u.a tat
ca cac ca.nh v`a cac dnh neu v`a ch neu G lien thong v`a mo.i dnh cu a no d`eu co ba.c chan
ngoa.i tr`
u. a v`
a b co ba.c le .

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Xet graph G trong h`nh sau:
`en do.n gian t`
(a) T`m tat ca cac day chuy
u. a den e cua graph G.
(b) T`m tat ca cac chu tr`nh do.n gian cua graph G.
(c) Tnh ba.c cua cac dnh cua G.
(d) G co the ve b`a ng may net b
ut? Nhu. the n`ao?
160

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u.a chu tr`nh Euler?

2. Khi n`ao cac d`o thi. Kn v`a Km,n ch
3. Cho v du. mnh ho.a graph co chu tr`nh Euler v`a t`m chu tr`nh n`ay.
`on ta.i mo.t day chuy
`en
4. Xet graph G v`a hai dnh phan bie.t v, w. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu t
.
.
.
`on ta.i mo.t day chuy
`en do n gian t`
t`
u v den w th` t
u v den w.
u.ng
5. Gia su. G := (V, E) l`a graph lien thong v`a ca.nh e thuo.c mo.t chu tr`nh n`ao do. Ch
.
.
- i
`eu n`ay c`on
minh ra` ng neu loa.i ca.nh e ra khoi G th` graph thu du o. c van lien thong. D
du
ng neu ca.nh e khong thuo.c chu tr`nh n`ao cua G?
`an di chuyen t`
6. Mo.t con ma co the di den tat ca cac o cua b`an c`o. quoc te, moi l
u. o n`ay
.
`e vi. tr xuat phat?
`an, sau do tro v
sang o khac du
ng mo.t l
7. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu G0 l`a graph con lien thong cua G th` G0 ch
u.a trong mo.t th`anh
`an lien thong cua G.
ph
8. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu G du.o..c phan hoa.ch th`anh cac graph con lien thong sao cho moi
ca.nh v`a moi dnh cua G thuo.c mo.t graph con n`ao do th` cac graph con l`a cac th`anh
`an lien thong cua G.
ph
u.ng minh ra` ng so cu..c da.i cac ca.nh trong do.n graph lien thong n dnh l`a (n 1)(n
9. Ch
2)/2.
`an n dnh l`a n2 /4.
10. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng so cu..c da.i cac ca.nh trong graph do.n hai ph
11. Neu G l`a do.n graph lien thong, th` chu tr`nh co do. d`ai ngan nhat b`a ng bao nhieu?
Chu tr`nh so. cap co do. d`ai d`ai nhat b`a ng bao nhieu?
12. Gia su. graph G co n dnh thoa d(v) + d(w) n 1 vo.i mo.i ca.p dnh v v`a w khong
`e nhau. Ch
k
u.ng minh ra` ng G lien thong.
`an neu mo.i chu tr`nh cua no co do. d`ai chan.
13. Ch
u.ng minh graph lien thong G l`a hai ph
`en co do. d`ai k trong Kn ?
14. Co bao nhieu day chuy
`on ta.i
15. Ch
u.ng minh t
n(n 1)[(n 1)k 1]
n2
.
`en do. d`ai t`
day chuy
u 1 den n trong Kn , n 2.
161

`en
16. Gia su. v v`a w l`a cac dnh phan bie.t cua Kn , n 2. Ch
u.ng minh so cac day chuy
.
.
do n gian t`
u v den w l`a
n2
X
1
(n 2)!
.
k!
k=0
`en do.n gian trong Kn . Ch
u.c cho so N cac day chuy
u.ng minh
17. T`m cong th
n! N 3n!.
18. Gia su. G := (V, E) l`a graph. Xet quan he. R tren V nhu. sau: vRw neu v`a ch neu
`on ta.i day chuy
`en t`
t
u. v den w. Ch
u.ng minh R l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng tren V.
`en t`
19. Ch
u.ng minh so cac day chuy
u. v1 den v1 do. d`ai n trong graph sau:
....
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v1

v2

b`a ng so Fibonacci th
u. n, trong do day Fibonacci

1
fn := 2

fn1 + fn2

fn d.inh ngha quy na.p nhu. sau:

neu n = 1,
neu n = 2,
neu n > 2.

- u.a v
`e d`o thi. v`a ch
20. D
u.ng minh b`ai toan sau: Trong mo.t cau la.c bo. hai ho.i vien bat k`
y
.
.
.
.
.
`on ta.i mo.t ngu `o i quen vo i tat ca cac ho.i vien khac.
co chung mo.t ngu `o i quen th` t

5.3

o.i du li.ch
Chu tr`nh Hamilton v`
a b`
ai to
an ngu.`

Nam 1859, nh`a toan ho.c ngu.`o.i Ailen W. R. Hamilton (1805-1865) da cho ban mo.t d`o cho.i
`an chnh l`a mo.t khoi nhi. die.n d`eu (khoi da die.n co 12 ma.t ng
do.c dao, ph
u giac d`eu v`a 20
.

dnh, moi dnh co 3 ca.nh) l`am ba` ng go. O moi dnh co ghi ten mo.t th`anh pho lo.n: Beruych,
Quang chau, Deli, Frangfua, v.v... Cach cho.i l`a t`m mo.t du.`o.ng di do.c theo cac ca.nh cua
`an. Mo.t du.`o.ng di nhu. the
tha.p nhi. die.n d`eu v`a qua moi dnh (th`anh pho) v`
u.a du
ng mo.t l
go.i l`a mo.t h`anh tr`nh Hamilton. Muon tr`o cho.i du.o..c hap dan ho.n co the quy d.inh tru.o.c
tr`nh tu.. qua mo.t v`ai th`anh pho d`au tien, v`a de gi
up nho. de d`ang cac th`anh pho da di qua,
.
u to, quanh do co the
o moi dnh cua khoi tha.p nhi. die.n d`eu co dong mo.t chiec dinh m
.
.
.
.

`e sau de do n gian, Hamilton da thay

quan so. i day nho de ch doa.n du `o ng da di qua. V
`

`
khoi tha.p nhi. die.n deu ba ng mo.t h`nh phang. B`ai toan du.o..c phat bieu du.o.i da.ng d`o thi.
162

vo hu.o.ng nhu. sau. Ta biet ra` ng h`nh tha.p nhi. die.n d`eu co 12 ma.t, 30 ca.nh, 20 dnh; moi
ma.t l`a mo.t ng
u giac d`eu, moi dnh l`a d`au m
ut cua 3 ca.nh. Cac dnh v`a cac ca.nh cua h`nh
tha.p nhi. die.n d`eu la.p th`anh mo.t d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng nhu. H`nh 5.11. B`ai toan da. t ra l`a hay
t`m mo.t chu tr`nh (go.i l`a chu tr`nh Hamilton) di qua tat ca cac dnh cua d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng
`an.
G, moi dnh du
ng mo.t l

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....

H`nh 5.11: H`anh tr`nh xung quanh the gio.i (khoi tha.p nhi. die.n d`eu) cua Hamilton.
V du. 5.3.1 := (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, a) l`a mo.t chu tr`nh Hamilton trong d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng cua
H`nh 5.12.
a
b
.....................................................................................................................................................................

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.............................................................................................................................................

H`nh 5.12:
u.a chu tr`nh Hamilton.
V du. 5.3.2 Cac d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng trong H`nh 5.13 khong ch
Lien quan den b`ai toan t`m chu tr`nh Hamilton trong mo.t d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng ta co b`ai toan
ngu.`o.i du li.ch sau: Gia su. G := (V, E) l`a d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng co tro.ng so. T`m mo.t chu tr`nh
Hamilton trong G co do. d`ai toi thieu:
X
w(e) min .
e

163

c
b
d
a ............................................................................................................................................................................................ e
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b
...........
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.....

H`nh 5.13:
Ma.c d`
u co su.. giong nhau n`ao do gi
u.a chu tr`nh Euler v`a chu tr`nh Hamilton, song b`ai
`eu, c`on b`ai toan ngu.`o.i du li.ch la.i c`ang kho ho.n
toan t`m chu tr`nh Hamilton kho ho.n rat nhi
.
n
u a.
Du..a v`ao nha.n xet l`a moi dnh trong chu tr`nh Hamilton d`eu lien thuo.c vo.i du
ng hai ca.nh
trong chu tr`nh n`ay, ta suy ra cac quy tac t`m chu tr`nh Hamilton (neu co) nhu. sau:

5.3.1

c t`m chu tr`nh Hamilton

Quy t
a

`on ta.i dnh a sao cho d(a) 1 th` G khong co chu tr`nh Hamilton.
1. Neu t
2. Neu dnh a co ba.c l`a 2 th` ca hai ca.nh to.i a d`eu phai thuo.c chu tr`nh Hamilton.
u.a bat k`
y chu tr`nh con thu..c su.. n`ao.
3. Chu tr`nh Hamilton khong ch
4. Trong qua tr`nh xay du..ng chu tr`nh Hamilton, sau khi da lay hai ca.nh to.i mo.t dnh a
`oi th` khong the lay them ca.nh n`ao to.i a n
da. t v`ao chu tr`nh Hamilton r
u.a, do do co
.
the xoa mo.i ca.nh to i a.
V du. 5.3.3 T`m chu tr`nh Hamilton cua d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng trong H`nh 5.14.
3
4 ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
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...
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................................................................................................................................................................

H`nh 5.14:
Xet dnh 0. Ta co the cho.n hai ca.nh to.i dnh n`ay l`a
(a) (0, 1), (0, 5) : xoa cac ca.nh to.i 0 khac (theo Quy tac 4), ta c`on la.i d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng
trong H`nh 5.15.
164

3
4 ............................................................................................................................................................ 2
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5
6

1
8

H`nh 5.15:
Cac dnh 2, 3, 4 c`on la.i ba.c 2, va.y phai lay cac ca.nh (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 5), nhu.ng nhu.
va.y ta.o ra chu tr`nh con thu..c su.., vo l
y.
(b) (0, 1), (0, 2) : xoa cac ca.nh to.i 0 khac (theo Quy tac 4), ta c`on la.i d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng
trong H`nh 5.16.
3
4 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
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................................................................................................................................................

H`nh 5.16:
Cac dnh 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 c`on la.i ba.c 2, ta nha.n du.o..c chu tr`nh Hamilton
(0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 1, 0).
(c) La.p lua.n tu.o.ng tu.., cac tru.`o.ng ho..p cho.n (0, 1), (0, 3) v`a (0, 1), (0, 4) d`eu khong du.o..c.
- `o thi. vo hu.o.ng d`ay du Kn (co n dnh v`a hai dnh bat k`
`e nhau) co chu
V du. 5.3.4 D
y l`a k
tr`nh Hamilton.
- i.nh l
D
y 5.3.1 (O. Ore) Gia su. do.n d`
o thi. v
o hu.o.ng G c
o n dnh, v`a tong cac ba.c cu a hai
`e nhau t nhat b`a ng n. Khi d
`on ta.i mo.t chu tr`nh Hamilton.
dnh bat k`y a, b kh
ong k
o t
Ch
u.ng minh. Ngu.o..c la.i vo.i ch
u.ng minh d.inh l
y Euler, ch
u.ng minh n`ay khong kien thiet
cho ch
ung ta mo.t thua.t toan de t`m chu tr`nh Hamilton.
`eu kie.n cua d.inh l
B`a ng phan ch
u.ng, gia su. r`a ng G l`a d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng thoa man di
y,
.
`on ta.i chu tr`nh Hamilton. Ch
nhu ng khong t
ung ta c
ung co the gia su. r`a ng G l`a cu..c da.i
theo ngha
`eu kie.n d.inh l
+ G thoa di
y; v`a
165

+ neu them mo.t ca.nh (khong phai l`a khuyen) bat k`

y v`ao G, th` d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng thu du.o..c
l`a Hamilton.
`on ta.i hai dnh a, b khong k
`e nhau. Them ca.nh e := (a, b) v`ao
V` G khong d`ay du, nen t
0
.
.
.
.
.
.
d`o thi. vo hu o ng G, ta thu du o. c d`o thi. vo hu o ng G co chu tr`nh Hamilton G0 . Chu tr`nh
`en Hamilton:
n`ay ch
u.a ca.nh e. Do do G ch
u.a mo.t day chuy
:= {a = v1 , v2 , . . . , vn = b}.
- a.t A l`a ta.p tat ca cac dnh cua G k
`e vo.i dnh a; v`a
D
`e vo.i dnh b}.
B = {vi | dnh vi1 k
Theo gia thiet ta co
#A + #B n.
Nhu.ng dnh vn = b khong thuo.c ta.p A B, nen
#(A B) n 1.
Suy ra
#(A B) 1,
`on ta.i mo.t dnh vi n`a m trong A B.
do do t
Bay gi`o. ch
ung ta nha.n du.o..c mau thuan ba` ng cach xay du..ng mo.t chu tr`nh Hamilton
trong G nhu. sau:
`en v2 , v3 , . . . , vi1 .
+ Bat d`au t`
u. a = v1 , ch
ung ta di theo day chuy
`e vo.i dnh b).
+ T`
u. dnh vi1 ch
ung ta di tiep den dnh b = vn (do vi1 k
`e vo.i dnh a).
+ T`
u. dnh vn ch
ung ta quay ngu.o..c tro. la.i vn1 , vn2 , ..., vi (do vi k
`e v1 . 2
+ T`
u. dnh vi ch
ung ta v
- i.nh l
T`
u. D
y 5.3.1 de d`ang suy ra:
H
e. qua 5.3.2 (Dirac) Gia su. G l`a d`
o thi. v
o hu.
o.ng lien thong n dnh (n 3) sao cho
o G co chu tr`nh Hamilton.
d(a) n2 , vo.i mo.i a V. Khi d

5.3.2

M
a Gray

`o do. Co nh
`an
u.ng vi. tr m`a ta.i do mo.t v`ai ch
Khao sat su.. hoa.t do. ng cua mo.t d`ong h
u. so c
.
.
.

phai thay do i dong th`o i. Do gio i ha.n cua bo. pha.n co kh, cac thay do i n`ay khong ho`an
166

to`an d`ong th`o.i. Do do, so ghi ta.i cac vi. tr n`ay co the xay ra loi. Chang ha.n, trong qua
`o do co the l`a 36000 hoa.c l`a 37999;
tr`nh thay doi t`
u. 36999 den 37000, so ghi tren d`ong h
.
.
`
`an tu.. t`
v`a tha.m ch neu ch
ung ta gia su ra ng cac ch
u so thay doi tu
u. phai sang trai, th` gia
`o do.
tri. 36000 van co the xuat hie.n tren d`ong h
- e loa.i tr`
`an sap xep cac so theo th
D
u. loi loa.i n`ay, ch
ung ta c
u. tu.. (khac vo.i th
u. tu.. thong
`eu do thu..c hie.n du.o..c, th`
thu.`o.ng) sao cho ch co mo.t ch
u. so thay doi ta.i moi bu.o.c. Neu di
`eu nhat l`a mo.t loi. Trong
cac loi ch co the xay ra khi cac thao tac cua may bi. tre, v`a nhi
.
.
.
.
.
.

tru `o ng ho. p bieu dien nhi. phan, mo.t day nhu va.y du o. c go.i l`a ma Gray.
`eu
.ng vo.i mo.t vector n chi
Xet d`o thi. vo hu.o.ng Qn := (V, E), trong do moi dnh tu.o.ng u
n
.
.
.
`e nhau neu hai vector tu o ng u
trong B ; hai dnh k
ng ch khac nhau du
ng mo.t vi. tr. (Ch
u
n
.
.
.

y
ra ng do thi. vo hu o ng n`ay co 2 dnh, m`a ch
ung ta viet nhu bieu dien nhi. phan cua cac
so nguyen t`
u. 0 den 2n 1).
- i.nh l
- `
u.a chu tr`nh Hamilton.
D
y 5.3.3 D
o thi. v
o hu.o.ng Qn , n 2, ch
Ch
u.ng minh. Ch
u.ng minh d.inh l
y ba` ng quy na.p.
+ Vo.i n = 2 : ta co chu tr`nh Hamilton {00, 01, 11, 10, 00}.
+ Gia su. d.inh l
y du
ng den n : Qn co chu tr`nh Hamilton (v0 , v1 , ..., vk ), vo.i k = 2n 1.
Khi do
0v0 , 0v1 , . . . , 0vk2 , 0vk1 , 1vk1 , 1vk2 , 1v1 , 1v0 , 0v0
l`a chu tr`nh Hamilton trong Qn+1 . 2
- a.c bie.t, ch
Chu tr`nh Hamilton trong Qn cho ta ma Gray. D
ung ta co the ma hoa v`a
.
giai ma bo. ma n`ay. Tha.t va.y ta co the tnh so ha.ng th
u N, 2n N, trong bo. ma Gray,
v`a vi. tr (bieu dien nhi. phan) cua N trong bo. ma.
- i.nh l
a bieu dien nhi. ph
an cu a N, v`
a
D
y 5.3.4 Gia su. xn1 xn2 . . . x0 l`
yi = xi + xi+1 (mod 2), i = 0, 1, . . . , n 1

(xn = 0).

u. N trong ma Gray l`a M.

Neu yn1 yn2 . . . y0 l`
a bieu die n nhi. ph
an cu a M th` so o. vi. tr th
a.t yn1 yn2 . . . y0 l`a bieu dien nhi. ph
an cu a M. Gia su. xi l`
Ngu.o..c la.i d
a so c
ac so m
o.t
trong ta.p {yn1 , yn2 , . . . , yi } (lay mod 2); v`a d
a.t xn1 xn2 . . . x0 l`a bieu dien nhi. ph
an cu a
u. N trong ma Gray.
N. Khi d
o so M xuat hie.n o. vi. tr th
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
167

B`
ai t
a.p
1. T`m chu tr`nh Hamilton trong d`o thi. sau:

.......................................................................................................................................................................................
............
... ......
... .......
..... .. .....
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.....
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..... ... ....... ...........
.....
.....
..... .. ..... ........
..... .........
..... .. ............
... ...
..................
........................................................................................................................................................................

2. Ch
u.ng minh cac d`o thi. sau khong ch
u.a chu tr`nh Hamilton:

...........................................................................................................................................................................................

......
..... .........
.....
.....
.....
.....
.
.
.
.
.....
.....
.....
.....
.
..
.
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.
.....................................................................
.
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.
... ...
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.... ........
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.... ...
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.... .........
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.....
...
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...
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....................................
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.
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.....
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....
....
....
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..
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.....
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.
.
..
..... ...
.... .........
....
..... ..
.
......
..
......................................................................
.....
...
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.
.....
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.....
....
.....
.....
.....
.....
..... .........
..........
..

.
...
...
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...
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...
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..
..
...
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..
...
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...
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...
.
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.. ....
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...
..
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...
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.
.
.
........................................................

3. Cho v du. d`o thi. co chu tr`nh Euler nhu.ng khong co chu tr`nh Hamilton.
4. Cho v du. d`o thi. co cac chu tr`nh Euler v`a chu tr`nh Hamilton v`a hai chu tr`nh n`ay
khac nhau.
5. Ch
u.ng minh Kn , n 3, co chu tr`nh Hamilton.
6. Vo.i nh
u.ng gia tri. m, n n`ao th` Km,n co chu tr`nh Hamilton.
7. Ch
u.ng minh chu tr`nh (e, b, a, c, d, e) l`a mo.t l`o.i giai cua b`ai toan ngu.`o.i du li.ch trong
d`o thi. sau
..................................................................
.
............
.........
..
.......
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.....
......
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..
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...
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..
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.... ...
... .... .......
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..
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... ... .......
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..... ......... ..............
....... .... ..
....... .... ..
.... ..................
........... ..
.................
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

5
168

8. Giai b`ai toan ngu.`o.i du li.ch trong d`o thi.:

a
........................
..
...... . ...... ............................
..... ... .....
..

.
.....
..............
.....
..............
....
......
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...
.......
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..
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3........................

4
7

e
6

9. Gia su. m, n N sao cho 1 m 2n . Ch

u.ng minh d`o thi. Qn co chu tr`nh do. d`ai m
neu v`a ch neu m 4 v`a m chan.
`an n dnh l`a n2 /4.
10. Ch
u.ng minh so cu..c da.i cac ca.nh trong do.n d`o thi. hai ph
`an vo.i hai ta.p dnh r`o.i nhau V1 v`a V2 . Ch
11. Xet d`o thi. hai ph
u.ng minh neu G co chu
`an tu..
tr`nh Hamilton th` V1 v`a V2 co c`
ung so ph
- u.a v
`e d`o thi. b`ai toan sau: Co the co cac hoan vi. cua ta.p {1, 2, . . . , n} du.o..c sap
12. (a) D
`e nhau
xep th`anh mo.t day sao cho hai hoan vi. k
p : p1 , p2 , . . . , pn
v`a
q : q1 , q 2 , . . . , q n
.
thoa man pi 6= qi vo i mo.i i = 1, 2, . . . , n?
`on ta.i vo.i n 5).
(b) Giai b`ai toan tren vo.i n = 1, 2, 3, 4. (Cau tra l`o.i l`a t

5.4

- u.`
o.ng d
i v`
a ma.ch
D

- i.nh ngha 5.4.1 Gia su. v0 , vk l`a cac dnh cua d`o thi. co hu.o.ng G := (V, E). D
- u.`o.ng di
D
t`
u. v0 den vk do. d`ai k l`a mo.t day xen ke k + 1 dnh v`a k cung bat d`au t`
u. v0 v`a ket th
uc ta.i
vk ,
:= {v0 , e1 , v1 , e2 , v2 , . . . , vk1 , ek , vk },
trong do cung ei lien thuo.c cac dnh vi1 v`a vi , i = 1, 2, . . . , k.
- `o thi. co hu.o.ng trong H`nh 5.17 co
V du. 5.4.1 D
(1, e1 , 2, e2 , 3, e3 , 4, e4 , 2)
l`a du.`o.ng di co do. d`ai 4 t`
u. dnh 1 den dnh 2.
169

e1

e2

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...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

e4

e5

e6

e7

e3

e8

H`nh 5.17:
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p d`o thi. co hu.o.ng khong co cung song song, de do.n gian, du.`o.ng di
trong du.o..c viet la.i
:= {v0 , v1 , . . . , vk }.
- i.nh ngha 5.4.2 So cac cung di khoi dnh a du.o..c go.i l`a ba.c ngo`ai cua dnh a, k
D
y hie.u
+

.
.
.
d (a). So cac cung di to i dnh a du o. c go.i l`a ba.c trong cua dnh a, k
y hie.u d (a). Dnh co
ba.c ngo`ai (hay trong) ba` ng mo.t du.o..c go.i l`a dnh treo; cung lien thuo.c dnh treo du.o..c go.i l`a
- nh co ba.c ngo`ai
- nh co ba.c trong b`a ng khong du.o..c go.i l`a dnh v`ao (source). D
cung treo. D
.
.
`

ba ng khong du o. c go.i l`a dnh ra (sink).

- `o thi. co hu.o.ng trong H`nh 5.18 co
V du. 5.4.2 D
d+ (v1 ) = d (v1 ) = 1,
d+ (v3 ) = d (v3 ) = 1,

d+ (v2 ) = 2, d (v2 ) = 1,
d+ (v4 ) = 2, d (v4 ) = 3.
v3

v1

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v4

v2

H`nh 5.18:

- i.nh l
D
y 5.4.3 Trong d`o thi. co hu.o.ng tong cac ba.c trong b`a ng tong cac ba.c ngo`ai.
`an di ra khoi
Ch
u.ng minh. V` trong d`o thi. co hu.o.ng G moi cung lien thuo.c hai dnh, moi l
.

mo.t dnh th` phai di to i mo.t dnh khac. 2

170

Ma.ch l`a mo.t du.`o.ng di trong do dnh d`au tr`

ung vo.i dnh cuoi. Ma.ch l`a do.n gian (so. cap)
neu no l`a mo.t ma.ch v`a l`a mo.t du.`o.ng di do.n gian (so. cap).
- i.nh l
D
y 5.4.4 Mo.i d`
o thi. c
o hu.o.ng khong ma.ch, luon luon co the d
anh so th
u. tu.. cac dnh
.
.
.
sao cho mo.i du `
o ng di t`
u dnh a den dnh b co a < b.
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
- i.nh l
`on ta.i ma.ch do.n gia n di qua tat ca cac cung cu a d`
o thi. co hu.o.ng G, go.i
D
y 5.4.5 T
l`
a ma.ch Euler, neu v`a ch neu graph nha.n du.o..c b`a ng cach bo qua tat ca c
ac hu.
o.ng cu a cac
cung cu a G l`a lien thong v`a G tu..a doi x
u.ng, t
u.c l`a
d+ (a) = d (a)
v
o.i mo.i dnh a V.
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
`eu ro.ng xac d.inh du.`o.ng di
Ch
ung ta ket th
uc mu.c n`ay vo.i thua.t toan t`m kiem theo chi
.
.
.
gi
u a hai dnh cho tru o c s, t V.

5.4.1

Thu
a.t to
an

`an d
`an ta se cho moi dnh v mo.t
Gan moi dnh cua G mo.t ch so. B`a ng phu.o.ng phap la.p, d
.
.
.
.
ch so n`ao do b`a ng do. d`ai du `o ng di ngan nhat t`
u s to i v.
- anh dau dnh s b`a ng ch so 0.
Bu.o.c 1. D
Bu.o.c 2. Neu cac dnh du.o..c danh dau b`a ng ch so m la.p th`anh mo.t ta.p ho..p V (m) da biet,
th` ta danh dau ch so m + 1 cho mo.i dnh cua ta.p ho..p:
`on ta.i i V (m) vo.i (i, j) U }.
V (m + 1) := {j chu.a du.o..c danh dau | t
Ta d`
u.ng la.i khi khong the danh dau du.o..c n
u.a.
Co hai tru.`o.ng ho..p xay ra:
- nh t du.o..c danh dau. Neu t V (m), th` xet cac dnh v1 , v2 , . . . , sao cho
(a) D
v1 V (m 1), v2 V (m 2), . . . , vm V (0).
Ta co := {s = vm , vm1 , ..., v1 , t} l`a du.`o.ng di phai t`m.
- nh t khong du.o..c danh dau. Khi do khong t
`on ta.i du.`o.ng di t`
(b) D
u. s den t.
171

v3

v5

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v1

v4

v2

v6

H`nh 5.19:
du.ng thua.t toan tren cho d`o thi. co hu.o.ng trong H`nh 5.19, ta co du.`o.ng
V du. 5.4.3 Ap
di t`
u. s = v1 den t = v5 l`a
:= (v1 , v3 , v4 , v5 ).

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Xet cac digraph cho trong h`nh sau
..
....................................................................
...........
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...

(a) T`m ba.c trong, ba.c ngo`ai.

(b) Xac di.nh dnh v`ao, dnh ra (neu co).
2. Xet digraph cho trong h`nh sau
v4

v2

v1

.....................................................................................
..............
.... .. ....
....... . ....
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v3

v5

v7

172

v6

(a) T`m cac du.`o.ng di t`

u. dnh v1 den v6 .
(b) T`m du.`o.ng di ngan nhat t`
u. dnh v1 den v6 .
u. dnh v1 den v6 .
(c) T`m cac du.`o.ng di do.n gian t`
(d) T`m ma.ch di qua dnh v3 .
3. Cho digraph G := (V, E). Xet quan he. hai ngoi tren V d.inh ngha nhu. sau: x y
`on ta.i du.`o.ng di t`
neu v`a ch neu x = y hoa.c t
u. x den y.
`au.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh quan he. co cac tnh chat phan xa. v`a bac c
(b) G khong co ma.ch neu v`a ch neu t`
u. x y v`a y x suy ra x = y, vo.i mo.i x, y V.
(c) Neu hai dnh bat k`
y co du.`o.ng di noi ch
ung th` vo.i mo.i x, y V, bao gi`o. c
ung co
x y hoa.c y x.
4. Day de Bruijin ba.c n l`a mo.t day
a1 , a2 , . . . , a2n
`on ta.i m sao cho
cac bit co tch chat: Neu s l`a chuoi bit do. d`ai n th` t
s = am am+1 am+n1 .
Trong bieu th
u.c tren, ta di.nh ngha a2n +i = ai vo.i i = 1, 2, . . . , 2n 1.
(a) Kiem tra 00011101 l`a day de Bruijn ba.c n = 3.
(b) Gia su. G l`a digraph vo.i cac dnh tu.o.ng u
.ng tat ca cac chuoi bit do. d`ai n 1. Mo.t
`on ta.i v`a du.o..c d.inh hu.o.ng t`
cung t
u. dnh x1 x2 . . . xn1 den dnh x2 x3 . . . xn . Ch
u.ng
.
.
.
.
minh ma.ch Euler trong G tu o ng u
ng vo i day de Bruijn.
`on ta.i day de Bruijn vo.i mo.i n = 1, 2, . . . .
(c) Ch
u.ng minh t

5.5
5.5.1

`o thi.
Ma tr
a.n bi
eu di
en d

`e
Ma tr
a.n k

Xet graph G := (V, U ), V := {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }, khong co ca.nh song song.

- i.nh ngha 5.5.1 Ma tra.n k
`e (adjacency matrix) cua graph G, k
D
y hie.u A(G) := (aij ), l`a
.

ma tra.n boole vuong ca p n, xac d.inh bo i

(
1
neu co mo.t ca.nh noi dnh vi vo.i dnh vj ,
aij :=
0
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
173

V du. 5.5.1 Graph G trong H`nh 5.20 co ma tra.n

0 1 1
1 1 1

A(G) =
1 1 0
0 1 1
0 1 1

`e l`a
k

0 0
1 1

1 1
.
0 0
0 0

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.....
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.............................................................................................................................................................................

H`nh 5.20:
T`
u. d.inh ngha, de d`ang suy ra
Tnh ch
at 5.5.2 (a) aii = 1 neu v`a ch neu G co khuyen ta.i dnh i.
(b) A(G) l`a ma tra.n d
oi x
u.ng.
(c) Neu graph khong khuyen (v`a khong co ca.nh song song) th` ba.c cu a mo.t dnh ba` ng so
c
ac so 1 trong h`ang hay co.t tu.o.ng u
.ng.
d. Hoan vi. c
ac h`ang v`a cac co.t tu.o.ng u
.ng tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i vie.c d
anh so la.i cac dnh.
.
.
`an ch
`an du o. c sap xep theo c`
Tuy nhien c
u y r`a ng, cac h`ang v`a cac co.t c
ung mo.t th
u. tu... Do
.
.
.
`an pha i thay d
ng c
ung c
oi.
d
o neu hai h`ang thay d
oi th` hai co.t tu o ng u
`an lien thong G1 v`
e. Graph G co the t
ach th`anh hai th`anh ph
a G2 neu v`a ch neu ma tra.n
.

ke A(G) c
o the viet o da.ng

A(G1 )
0
A(G) =
,
0
A(G2 )
`e tu.o.ng u
`an lien thong G1
trong d
o A(G1 ) v`a A(G2 ) l`
a cac ma tra.n k
.ng cu a cac th`anh ph
v`
a G2 .
f. Cho tru.
o.c ma tra.n Q boole vuong d
oi x
u.ng cap n, ch
ung ta co the x
ay du..ng mo.t graph
`e cu a graph G.
n dnh (khong co ca.nh song song) sao cho Q l`
a ma tra.n k
- a.t A = A1 := A(G), Ak := (akij ) := Ak1 A, k 2. Ta co
D
- i.nh l
`en khac nhau co d
`an tu. akij , k 1, l`a so cac day chuy
D
y 5.5.3 Ph
o. d`ai k, n
oi dnh vi
.

v
o i d nh vj .
174

Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
V du. 5.5.2 Graph G trong H`nh 5.21 co ma tra.n

0 1 0
1 0 1

A(G) =
0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
Do do

2
0

A2 =
2
0
1

0
3
1
2
1

2
1
3
0
1

0
2
0
2
1

1
1

1
,
1
2

`e
k
1
0
1
0
0

0
1

1
.
0
0

9 3 11 1 6
3 15 7 11 8

A =
11 7 15 3 8 .
1 11 3 9 6
6 8 8 6 8

a ............................................................................................................................................................................. b
....
...
...
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...
...
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...
...
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.
.
c
.
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.
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...
.
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...
.................
..

.......
..
.......
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...
.......
...
.......
.
.......
....... ....
.........

H`nh 5.21:
`en co d
o. d`
ai ngan nhat gi
u.a hai dnh
H
e. qua 5.5.4 (a) Trong graph lien thong, day chuy
vi v`a vj , i 6= j, b`a ng k neu v`a ch neu k l`
a so tu.. nhien nho nhat sao cho akij 6= 0.
- a.t B := A + A2 + + An1 . Khi d
`on ta.i t
(b) D
o G kh
ong lien thong neu v`a ch neu t
.
`a ng khong.
`an tu trong ma tra.n B b
nh
at mo.t ph

5.5.2

Ma tr
a.n li
en thu
o.c

Gia su. graph G := (V, E) khong khuyen, trong do

V := {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }, E := {e1 , e2 , . . . , em }.
- i.nh ngha 5.5.5 Ma tra.n lien thuo.c (incidence matrix) cua G, k
D
y hie.u I(G) = (aij ), l`a
.
ma tra.n boole cap n m, xac d.inh bo i
(
1 neu ca.nh th
u. j lien thuo.c dnh th
u. i,
aij :=
0 neu ngu.o..c la.i.
175

V du. 5.5.3 Graph G trong H`nh 5.22 co

1
0

I(G) =
0
1
0
v1

e1

ma tra.n lien thuo.c

1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 1
.
1 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1

e3

v2

................................................................................................................................................................
...
.
.... ..
.......
.... ..
...
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.. ....
.
.......
...
.
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.
..
.
.
...
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.....
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....
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...
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... ..
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.
.
.....
.
.... ...
.
.
.
.
....
.
.... .. ..........
..
.
.
.............
....
.........................................................................

e2

e5

e4

v4

v5

e6

v3

H`nh 5.22:
Nhu. va.y, cho mo.t bieu dien h`nh ho.c cua graph G, khong khuyen, ch
ung ta co the viet
.
.
.
.
.
.
du o. c ma tra.n lien thuo.c cua no. Ngu o. c la.i, cho tru o c ma tra.n lien thuo.c I(G), ch
ung ta
.

co the xay du. ng da.ng h`nh ho.c cua mo.t graph khong khuyen. Noi cach khac, ma tra.n lien
thuo.c v`a bieu dien h`nh ho.c ch
u.a c`
ung mo.t thong tin-ch
ung l`a hai cach do.n gian de bieu
dien c`
ung mo.t graph khong khuyen.
Tnh ch
at 5.5.6 (a) Do moi ca.nh cu a graph lien thuo.c chnh xac hai dnh, nen moi co.t
`a ng 1.
`an tu. b
cu a ma tra.n I(G) c
o du
ng hai ph
(b) So cac so 1 trong h`ang th
u. i b`a ng ba.c cu a dnh tu.o.ng u
.ng.
(c) H`ang vo.i to`an so 0, tu.o.ng u
.ng dnh co la.p.
(d) Cac ca.nh song song cu a graph tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i hai co.t tr`
ung nhau cu a ma tra.n lien
thu
o.c.
`om hai th`anh ph
`an lien thong G1 v`a G2 th` ma tra.n
(e) Neu graph G khong lien thong, v`a g
lien thu
o.c I(G) c
o da.ng

I(G1 )
0
I(G) =
,
(5.1)
0
I(G2 )
`an lien thong
trong d
o I(G1 ) v`a I(G2 ) l`a cac ma tra.n lien thuo.c tu.o.ng u
.ng cu a cac th`anh ph
G1 v`
a G2 .
.ng vo.i vie.c thay d
oi
(f ) Hoan vi. hai h`ang hay co.t bat k`y trong ma tra.n lien thuo.c tu.o.ng u
nh
an cu a cac dnh hay cac ca.nh.
Ket qua sau cho biet ha.ng cua ma tra.n lien thuo.c cua cac graph tren tru.`o.ng B.
176

- i.nh l
D
y 5.5.7 Ha.ng cu a ma tra.n lien thuo.c cu a graph n dnh ba` ng n 1.
Ch
u.ng minh. Moi h`ang trong ma tra.n lien thuo.c I(G) co the du.o..c xem nhu. mo.t vector
`eu tren B. K
cua khong gian vector m chi
y hie.u vector Ii , i = 1, 2, . . . , n, l`a h`ang th
u. i cua
ma tra.n I(G). Do moi co.t cua ma tra.n I(G) co chnh xac hai so 1, nen tong cua tat ca cac
vector Ii b`a ng 0 (modulo 2). Va.y cac vector h`ang Ii phu. thuo.c tuyen tnh tren B. Suy ra
ha.ng Rank I(G) cua ma tra.n I(G) nho ho.n hoa.c b`a ng n 1.
Bay gi`o. khao sat tong cua k, k n 1, vector trong n vector n`ay. Neu graph lien thong,
th` ma tra.n I(G) khong the tach nhu. trong (5.1), sao cho I(G1 ) tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i k h`ang v`a
.
.
.
.
`on ta.i ma tra.n con cap k k
I(G2 ) tu o ng u
ng vo i n k h`ang. Noi mo.t cach khac, khong t

`
cua I(G) sao cho to ng cua k h`ang n`ay (modulo 2) ba ng 0.
V` B = {0, 1}, nen to ho..p tuyen tnh t`
uy y
cua tat ca k vector (trong {I1 , I2 , . . . , In })
.
khac khong, vo i k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1. Va.y Rank I(G) n 1. 2
- e ket th
- `e nghi. ba.n do.c tu.. giai quyet: Neu
D
uc mu.c n`ay, ch
ung ta neu ra cau hoi sau. D
.
`e v`a ma tra.n lien thuo.c cua d`o thi. G c`
ung ch
u.a tat ca cac
G l`a do n graph th` cac ma tra.n k
`e G. V` va.y cau hoi da. t ra l`a hay t`m moi lien quan gi
thong tin v
u.a hai ma tra.n n`ay?

B`
ai t
a.p
`e cua cac graph sau:
1. Viet ma tra.n k
a
b
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......

`e sau:
2. Ve cac graph tu.o.ng u
.ng cac ma tra.n k
a
a 1
b
0
c
0
d 1
e 0

b
0
0
1
0
1

c
0
1
1
1
1

d
1
0
1
0
0

0
1

1
,
0
0
177

a
a 0
b
1
c
0
d 1
e 0

b
1
0
0
0
0

c
0
0
0
1
1

d
1
0
1
0
1

0
0

1
.
1
1

3. Tnh ma tra.n l
uy th`
u.a hai cua K5 v`a cac d`o thi. trong B`ai ta.p 2.
`e cua graph trong B`ai ta.p 1. T`m ph
`an tu. o. h`ang a co.t d cua
4. Gia su. A l`a ma tra.n k
A5 .
5. Ve cac graph tu.o.ng u
.ng cac ma tra.n lien thuo.c sau:

a 1
b
0
c
1
d 0
e 0

0
1
0
1
0

0
1
0
0
1

0
0
1
1
0

0
1
0
0
1

1
0

0
,
0
1

a 0
b
0
c
0
d 1
e 1

1
1
0
0
0

0
1
0
1
0

0
0
0
1
1

1
0
1
0
0

1
0

1
.
0
0

`e cua K5 .
6. Gia su. A l`a ma tra.n k
`an tu. tren
(a) Giai thch ta.i sao vo.i mo.i n nguyen du.o.ng, trong ma tra.n An cac ph
`an tu. ngo`ai du.`o.ng cheo c
du.`o.ng cheo ba` ng nhau (ba` ng dn ); v`a cac ph
ung ba` ng nhau
`
(ba ng an ).
(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
dn+1 = 4an ;

an+1 = dn + 3an ;

(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng

an+1 = 3an + 4an1 .

1
an = [4n + (1)n+1 ].
5

(d) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng

4
dn = [4n1 + (1)n ].
5

7. Tong quat hoa B`ai ta.p 8 vo.i Kn .

`e cua Km,n . T`m cong th
`an tu. cua Aj .
u.c doi vo.i tat ca cac ph
8. Gia su. A l`a ma tra.n k
`e cua digraph G khong khuyen v`a cung song song vo.i ta.p dnh V :=
9. Ma tra.n k
`an tu. xac d.inh bo.i
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } l`a ma tra.n vuong A(G) := (aij ) cap n co cac ph
(
`e nhau,
1
neu hai dnh vi v`a vj k
aij =
.
.
0
neu ngu o. c la.i.
`e cua cac digraph trong h`nh sau:
T`m cac ma tra.n k
v5
v1
v6
.......
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... ......
...... ..
...
..... ...
..... ........
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v3

v2

v5

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................................................................
...

v4

v4

v6

v1

178

v3
v2

`e sau:
10. Ve digraph tu.o.ng u
.ng cac ma tra.n k

0
0 1 1 0

0
0 0 0 0

0
0 1 1 1

0
0 1 0 0
0
`e
11. (a) Ve digraph tu.o.ng u
.ng ma tra.n k

0
0

0
A :=
1

0
0

0
0
0
1
0
0

0
1
0
0
1
0

sau
1
0
1
0
0
1

1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
1
0
1
1

1
1
1
0
0
0

1
0
0
0
0
1

0
0
0
0
0
0

1
0

1
.
0

1
0

1
0

1
.
0

1
0

(b) T`m tat ca cac ma.ch co do. d`ai 3.

`an tu. ij cua ma tra.n Ak cua digraph G l`a so cac du.`o.ng di co do. d`ai
12. Ch
u.ng minh ph
.
k t`
u dnh vi den dnh vj .
`on ta.i du.`o.ng di t`
`on ta.i du.`o.ng di do.n gian t`
u.ng minh ra` ng neu t
13. Ch
u. v den w th` t
u.
`eu nhat l`a n 1 trong do n l`a so dnh cua digraph.
v den w vo.i do. d`ai nhi
`e cua digraph vo.i n dnh. Xet ma tra.n pha.m vi
14. Gia su. A l`a ma tra.n k
R = (rij ) := A + A2 + + An1 .
`on ta.i du.`o.ng di t`
Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng t
u. dnh vi den vj , i 6= j, neu v`a ch neu rij 6= 0.

5.6

-
`o thi.
D
a ng c
au gi
u.a c
ac d

- i.nh ngha 5.6.1 Hai graph G1 := (V1 , E1 ) v`a G2 := (V2 , E2 ) go.i l`a dang cau, k
D
y hie.u
`on ta.i cac anh xa. mo.t-mo.t len f : V1 V2 v`a g : E1 E2 sao cho ca.nh e
G1 ' G2 , neu t
lien thuo.c hai dnh a v`a b neu v`a ch neu ca.nh g(e) lien thuo.c hai dnh f (a) v`a f (b).
De d`ang thay r`a ng, neu G1 ' G2 th` #V1 = #V2 v`a #E1 = #E2 . Noi cach khac, so dnh
v`a so ca.nh l`a nh
u.ng bat bien.
V du. 5.6.1 Cac graph trong H`nh 5.23 l`a da ng cau qua cac anh xa. f v`a g xac d.inh bo.i:
f (a) = A,

f (b) = B,

f (c) = C,

f (d) = D,

g(xi ) = yi , i = 1, 2, . . . , 5.

179

f (e) = E

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.................................................................................................................................................

e
x5

x1

x2

x4

....
... ...
... .....
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.
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x3

y4

y1

y2

y3

y5

H`nh 5.23:
Nha.n xet r`a ng quan he. tren ta.p cac graph xac di.nh bo.i G1 RG2 neu v`a ch neu G1 v`a G2
dang cau l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
- i.nh l
a hai do.n graph. Cac kha ng d.inh
D
y 5.6.2 Gia su. G1 := (V1 , E1 ) v`a G2 := (V2 , E2 ) l`
sau l`
a tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
(a) G1 v`a G2 d
a ng cau;
`on ta.i cac anh xa. m
`e nhau trong G1 neu v`a
(b) T
o.t-mo.t len f : V1 V2 sao cho: a v`
a b k

`
ch neu f (a) v`a f (b) ke nhau trong G2 ;
`e A(G1 ) v`a A(G2 ) l`
(c) Co the d
anh la.i so th
u. tu.. cac dnh sao cho cac ma tra.n k
a tr`
ung
nhau.
(d) C
ac ma tra.n lien thuo.c I(G1 ) v`
a I(G2 ) ch kh
ac nhau bo.i cac hoan vi. h`
ang hay co.t.
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
`e cua graph G1 trong H`nh 5.23 tu.o.ng u
.ng th
u. tu.. a, b, c, d, e b`a ng
V du. 5.6.2 Ma tra.n k
`e cua graph G2 tu.o.ng u
ma tra.n k
.ng th
u. tu.. A, B, C, E, E v`a ba` ng

0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 .

0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Ta noi tnh chat P l`a bat bien neu vo.i hai graph dang cau G1 v`a G2 th` G1 co tnh
chat P suy ra G2 c
ung co tnh chat P. Ch
u.ng minh cac tnh chat sau l`a bat bien:
(a) Co chu tr`nh do.n gian do. d`ai k.
180

(b) Co n dnh ba.c k.

(c) Tnh lien thong.
(d) Co n chu tr`nh do.n gian do. d`ai k.
(e) Co mo.t ca.nh (v, w) sao cho d(v) = i, d(w) = j.
2. Cac tnh chat sau l`a bat bien? Neu du
ng, ch
u.ng minh; ngu.o..c la.i cho phan v du.:
(a) Co chu tr`nh Euler.
(b) Co mo.t dnh n`a m trong chu tr`nh do.n gian n`ao do.
`an.
(c) Graph l`a hai ph
3. Ve tat ca cac do.n graph ba dnh khong dang cau.
4. Ve tat ca cac do.n graph bon dnh khong da ng cau.
5. Ve tat ca cac graph lien thong khong chu tr`nh nam dnh khong dang cau.
6. Ve tat ca cac graph lien thong khong chu tr`nh sau dnh khong dang cau.
7. Cho G = (V, E) l`a do.n graph. Ta go.i d`o thi. b`
u cua G l`a do.n graph Gc = (V, E c )
`on ta.i ca.nh trong Gc neu v`a ch neu khong t
`on ta.i ca.nh trong G. Ch
trong do t
u.ng
minh r`a ng neu G l`a do.n graph th` hoa.c G hoa.c Gc lien thong.
- o.n graph G go.i l`a tu.. b`
8. D
u neu G v`a Gc l`a dang cau. T`m cac graph tu.. b`
u co nam
dnh.
9. Gia su. G1 v`a G2 l`a do.n graph. Ch
u.nh minh r`a ng G1 dang cau vo.i G2 neu v`a ch neu
Gc1 da ng cau vo.i Gc2 .
- `ong phoi f t`
u. graph G1 den graph G2 l`a mo.t anh xa. t`
u. ta.p cac dnh cua G1 den ta.p
10. D
`e nhau trong G1 th` f (v) k
`e vo.i f (w) trong G2 .
cac dnh cua G2 sao cho neu v v`a w k
.
.
.
Ch
u ng minh ra` ng neu f l`a d`ong phoi gi
u a hai do n graph G1 v`a G2 v`a f l`a mo.t-mo.t
len th` G1 v`a G2 dang cau.

5.7

- `
D
o thi. ph
a ng

V du. 5.7.1 (B`ai toan ba bie.t thu.. v`a ba nh`a may). Co ba bie.t thu.. A, B, C v`a ba nh`a may:
mo.t nh`a may nu.o.c D, mo.t nh`a may ho.i dot E v`a mo.t nh`a may die.n F. Moi bie.t thu.. noi
vo.i cac nh`a may b`a ng nh
u.ng ong dan nu.o.c, ong dan ho.i v`a du.`o.ng day die.n. Va.y co the ve
tren ma.t phang ba bie.t thu.. v`a ba nh`a may v`a tat ca cac du.`o.ng va.n chuyen sao cho khong
ut cua ch
ung hay khong? Ta co
co hai du.`o.ng n`ao cat nhau o. mo.t diem khac cac d`au m
.
.
.
.
mo h`nh hoa bo i graph K3,3 : Cac dnh cua graph tu o ng u
ng cac nh`a v`a cac nh`a may (xem
.ng vo.i mo.t nh`a v`a mo.t nh`a may.
H`nh 5.24); mo.t ca.nh lien thuo.c hai dnh tu.o.ng u
181

a
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- `o thi. Kuratowski K3,3 .

H`nh 5.24: D
- i.nh ngha 5.7.1 Graph G du.o..c go.i l`a phang neu t
`on ta.i mo.t phep bieu dien G len mo.t
D
ma.t phang sao cho hai ca.nh bat k`
y cua graph khong cat nhau ngoa.i tr`
u. ta.i dnh cua ch
ung.
- i
`eu n`ay se du.o..c tra l`o.i
Nhu. va.y V du. 5.7.1 du.a den cau hoi: Graph K3,3 l`a phang? D
`an sau.
trong ph
Cau hoi tu.. nhien da.t ra l`a: cho tru.o.c mo.t d`o thi., th` co mo.t da. c tru.ng n`ao cho ch
ung ta
.
.

biet du o. c d`o thi. l`a phang hay khong?

V du. 5.7.2 Graph K5 trong H`nh 5.25 l`a khong phang (ta.i sao?).
d

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- `o thi. Kuratowski K5 .
H`nh 5.25: D

Cac graph K5 v`a K3,3 co nh

u.ng tnh chat:
(a) ca hai l`a khong phang;
(b) neu xoa mo.t ca.nh hoa.c mo.t dnh cua graph th` se nha.n du.o..c mo.t graph phang.
182

(c) K5 l`a graph khong phang co so dnh nho nhat; K3,3 l`a graph khong phang co so ca.nh
nho nhat.
- i.nh l
D
y 5.7.2 (I. Fary) Mo.i graph pha ng co the du.o..c nh
ung trong mo.t ma.t pha ng sao cho
c
ac ca.nh l`a cac doa.n tha ng.
Ch
u.nh minh. Xem [I. Fary, On straight Line Repesentation of Planar Graphs, Acta Sci.
Math. Szeged, Vol. 11, 229-293 (1948).]. 2
Ho.n n
u.a,
- i.nh l
`au sao cho cac ca.nh khong tu.. c
D
y 5.7.3 Mo.t graph co the nh
ung tren ma.t c
at neu v`a

ch neu no co the nh
ung trong ma.t pha ng.
- i.nh l
Ch
u.nh minh. Su. du.ng phep chieu noi v`a D
y 5.7.2. 2
- i.nh ngha 5.7.4 (a) Die.n cua graph phang G l`a mo.t mi
`en cua ma.t phang gio.i ha.n bo.i
D
`en m`a khong ga.p mo.t dnh
cac ca.nh cua G v`a sao cho co the noi hai diem ba` ng mo.t net li
.
hay mo.t ca.nh n`ao o ben trong.
(b) Bien cua die.n z l`a ta.p cac ca.nh gio.i ha.n die.n z.
`e nhau neu bien cua ch
(c) Hai die.n z v`a z 0 du.o..c go.i l`a k
ung co t nhat mo.t ca.nh chung
.

`e nhau).

(cac die.n tiep x

uc vo i nhau ch ta.i mo.t dnh th` khong phai l`a k
(d) Chu tuyen cua die.n z l`a cac chu tr`nh so. cap ch
u.a mo.i ca.nh khac cua bien o. ben trong
no.
Ch
uy
r`a ng luon luon ch co mo.t die.n vo ha.n: no khong co chu tuyen, mo.i die.n khac du.o..c
`om: mo.t hay
go.i l`a die.n h
u.u ha.n v`a co chu tuyen. Trong graph phang, bien cua die.n z g
.
.
`

nhieu chu tr`nh so ca p r`o i nhau, cac ca.nh treo hay cac ca.nh noi hai chu tr`nh r`o.i nhau (cac
`au).
c
V du. 5.7.3 Xet graph trong H`nh 5.26. Die.n A co bien l`a chu tr`nh (5, 2, 3, 4, 5) v`a die.n
C co bien l`a chu tr`nh (1, 2, 5, 1). Die.n vo ha.n D co bien l`a chu tr`nh (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 1).
- i.nh l
D
y 5.7.5 Mo.t graph pha ng co the nh
ung trong mo.t ma.t pha ng sao cho die.n bat k`y
.
.
o c l`a die.n vo ha.n.
cho tru
- i.nh l
Ch
u.ng minh. D`
ung phep quay v`a D
y 5.7.3. 2
183

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D
H`nh 5.26:
V du. 5.7.4 Ban d`o d.ia l
y l`a mo.t graph phang. Graph do co tnh chat da.c bie.t l`a ba.c cua
`e vo.i mo.t die.n khac o. nhi
`eu ca.nh.
moi dnh 3. Mo.t die.n co the k
- i.nh l
D
y 5.7.6 (Cong th
u.c Euler, 1752) Gia su. G l`a graph pha ng lien thong n dnh, m
ca.nh, d die.n. Khi d
o
d = m n + 2.
(5.2)
Ch
u.ng minh. Cach 1: Ch
u.ng minh quy na.p theo so ca.nh m.
+ Tru.`o.ng ho..p m = 1. Khi do G hoa.c l`a mo.t ca.nh, hoa.c l`a mo.t khuyen v`a do do di.nh l
y
du
ng.
u.c du
+ Gia su. cong th
ng vo.i mo.i graph lien thong phang m ca.nh.
`on
+ Xet tru.`o.ng ho..p G vo.i m + 1 ca.nh. Tru.o.c het gia su. G khong co chu tr`nh. Khi do t
0
.
.
.

`
ta.i ca.nh treo e. Go.i G l`a graph (phang, lien thong) nha.n du o. c t`
u G ba ng cach xoa ca.nh e
v`a dnh treo lien thuo.c e. Theo gia thiet quy na.p, (5.2) du
ng vo.i G0 v`a do do suy ra c
ung
.
du
ng doi vo i G.
- a.t e l`a mo.t ca.nh trong chu tr`nh. Khi do e thuo.c
Bay gi`o. gia su. G ch
u.a mo.t chu tr`nh. D
du
ng hai die.n cua G. Xoa ca.nh e (khong xoa dnh) khoi G ta nha.n du.o..c graph phang, lien
thong G0 co m ca.nh. Do do (5.2) du
ng doi vo.i G0 . Mo.t kiem tra do.n gian ch ra dang th
u.c
.
.
.
.
- i.nh l
u ng minh.
c
ung du
ng doi vo i G. D
y du o. c ch
`an ch
Cach 2: Nha.n xet r`a ng ch c
u.ng minh cho mo.t do.n graph, v` vie.c them mo.t khuyen
hoa.c them mo.t ca.nh song song ch do.n gian l`a tang so die.n v`a so ca.nh cua graph len mo.t
do.n vi.. Ch
ung ta c
ung co the xoa tat ca cac dnh treo v`a cac ca.nh lien thuo.c no. Neu them
.
(hoa.c bo t) mo.t ca.nh v`a mo.t dnh th` hie.u so m n khong doi.
V` moi do.n graph phang co the bieu dien tren ma.t phang sao cho moi ca.nh l`a mo.t doa.n
- i.nh l
thang (D
y 5.7.2), nen mo.t graph phang co the du.o..c ve tren ma.t phang sao cho cac die.n
l`a cac da giac. K
y hie.u d l`a so die.n v`a kp l`a so cac die.n co p ca.nh. V` moi ca.nh thuo.c bien
184

cua du
ng hai da giac, nen
3k3 + 4k4 + 5k5 + + rkr = 2m,
trong do kr l`a so cac da giac vo.i so ca.nh cu..c da.i.
Ma.t khac

k3 + k4 + + kr = d.
.ng graph l`a 2n. Nhac la.i r`a ng tong
Tong tat ca cac goc ta.i moi dnh trong da giac tu.o.ng u
tat ca cac goc trong mo.t da giac p ca.nh l`a (p 2) v`a tong tat ca cac goc ngo`ai l`a (p + 2).
Do do
2n = (3 2)k3 + (4 2)k4 + + (r 2)kr + 4
= (2m 2d) + 4.
.
.
T`
u cac da ng th
u c tren, ta suy ra
2(m d) + 4 = 2n.
Va.y d = m n + 2. 2
H
e. qua 5.7.7 Trong mo.t do.n graph pha ng, lien thong co d die.n, n dnh, m ca.nh (m 2),
c
ac bat da
ng th
u.c sau luon nghie.m du
ng

2m
3d,
(5.3)
3n 6 m.
Ch
u.ng minh. Moi die.n co bien t nhat l`a ba ca.nh, moi ca.nh l`a chung cua chnh xac hai
die.n, do do
2m 3d.
Thay the d = m n + 2 trong cong th
u.c Euler, ta co bat da ng th
u.c th
u. hai. 2
`eu kie.n c
`an m`a khong du v
`e tnh
Ch
ung ta lu.u y
r`a ng bat dang th
u.c th
u. hai ch l`a mo.t di
`an phai thoa man
phang cua mo.t graph phang. Noi mo.t cach khac, mo.i do.n graph phang c
`eu ngu.o..c la.i l`a khong du
(5.3), nhu.ng di
ng. Chang ha.n graph Kuratowski K3,3 thoa (5.3),
v`
m = 9,
3n 6 = 3.6 6 = 12.
- e ch
`an ch ra r`a ng trong graph n`ay khong
Nhu.ng K3,3 khong phang. D
u.ng minh ch
ung ta c
.
`on ta.i die.n m`a bien cua no co so ca.nh nho ho n 5. Tha.t va.y, neu graph l`a phang th`
t
2m 4d.
Theo cong th
u.c Euler
2m 4(m n + 2).
Va.y

2.9 4(9 6 + 2).

Hay 18 20! Mau thuan. Va.y graph K3,3 khong phang.
185

H
e. qua 5.7.8 M
oi ba n d`
o d.ia ly co t nhat mo.t die.n m`a so ca.nh cu a chu tuyen nho ho.n
ho
a.c ba` ng 5.
Ch
u.ng minh. Tha.t va.y, trong ban d`o d.ia l
y, moi dnh l`a d`au m
ut cua t nhat 3 ca.nh; neu
.
la.p do n graph lien thuo.c dnh-ca.nh th` so ca.nh mo.t ma.t 2m, ma.t khac la.i 3n, va.y
`om t nhat 6 ca.nh v`a neu la.p do.n
n 2m/3. Neu gia thuyet ra` ng moi die.n co chu tuyen g
graph lien thuo.c die.n-ca.nh, th` so ca.nh cua no, mo.t ma.t 2m, ma.t khac la.i 6d. Va.y
d 2m/6. Ta luon luon co the gia thiet l`a graph lien thong (neu khong th` ch
u.ng minh he.
.
`an), v`a do do co the viet
qua cho t`
u ng th`anh ph
2 = n m + d 2m/3 m + m/3 = 0.
- i
`eu do khong the xay ra. 2
D
`on ta.i dnh a V sao
H
e. qua 5.7.9 Gia su. G l`
a do.n graph pha ng lien thong. Khi d
o t
cho d(a) 5.
Ch
u.ng minh. Tha.t va.y, trong graph G, moi die.n du.o..c bao t nhat bo.i 3 ca.nh khac nhau;
`om ta.p X cac diem d`
neu la.p graph H lien thuo.c die.n-ca.nh (t
u.c l`a graph g
ung de bieu thi.
.

cac die.n, ta.p ho. p Y cac diem d`

ung de bieu thi. cac ca.nh v`a cac ca.nh noi diem x X vo.i
y Y neu die.n x lien thuo.c ca.nh y) th` so ca.nh cua graph H, mo.t ma.t 2m, ma.t khac la.i
3d, va.y d 2m/3. Neu moi dnh l`a d`au m
ut t nhat l`a cua 6 ca.nh, th` c
ung b`a ng cach
.
.
.
.
nhu va.y ta thu du o. c n 2m/6, ngha l`a (theo cong th
u c Euler)
2 = n m + d m/3 m + 2m/3 = 0.
Vo l
y! 2
- i.nh ngha 5.7.10 (a) Trong mo.t graph, hai ca.nh du.o..c go.i l`a trong mo.t chuoi, neu ch
D
ung

co du
ng mo.t dnh chung v`a neu dnh n`ay co ba.c 2.
(b) Hai graph du.o..c go.i l`a d`ong phoi neu graph n`ay co the nha.n du.o..c t`
u. graph kia b`a ng
cach ta.o them cac ca.nh trong chuoi (t
u.c l`a ch`en them cac dnh ba.c hai) hay ho..p nhat cac
ca.nh trong chuoi.
`e c`
ung
V du. 5.7.5 Cac graph G1 v`a G2 trong H`nh 5.27 l`a d`ong phoi, do co the du.a v
0
graph G .
Hien nhien r`a ng graph l`a phang neu v`a ch neu mo.i graph d`ong phoi vo.i no l`a phang.
u.a, quan he. R tren ta.p cac graph xac di.nh bo.i G1 RG2 neu v`a ch neu G1 v`a G2 d`ong
Ho.n n
phoi l`a quan he. tu.o.ng du.o.ng.
186

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G1

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G2

G0

H`nh 5.27:
- i.nh l
a pha ng neu v`a ch neu G kh
ong ch
u.a
D
y 5.7.11 (K. Kuratowski, 1930) Graph G l`
graph con d`
ong phoi vo.i hoa.c K5 ho
a.c K3,3 .
Ch
u.ng minh. Ro r`ang, v` G khong the nh
ung trong ma.t phang neu no ch
u.a graph con
khong the nh
ung du.o..c.
Xem [1]. 2

- i.nh l
V du. 5.7.6 B`a ng cach ap du.ng D
y Kuratowski ta co d`o thi. trong H`nh 5.28 khong
.
.

phang. Tha.t va.y, tru o c het xoa cac ca.nh (a, b), (e, f ) v`a (g, h); sau do r
ut go.n cac chuoi
.
.
.
- `o thi. thu du.o..c l`a K3,3 .
(a, g), (g, d) v`a (f, h), (h, c) de du o. c cac ca.nh mo i (a, d) v`a (f, c). D
Suy ra G ch
u.a mo.t d`o thi. con d`ong phoi vo.i K3,3 v`a do do khong phang.

..........
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H`nh 5.28:

187

B`
ai t
a.p
1. B`a ng cach ve la.i, ch
u.ng minh cac graph sau l`a phang:
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2. Ch
u.ng minh cac graph sau khong phang:
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3. Mo.t graph lien thong phang co chn dnh co cac ba.c tu.o.ng u
.ng 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4,
v`a 5. Graph n`ay co bao nhieu ca.nh? Co bao nhien die.n?
u.ng minh ra` ng them hoa.c xoa cac khuyen, cac ca.nh song song, cac ca.nh trong chuoi
4. Ch
khong anh hu.o.ng den tnh phang cua graph.
`eu nhat bon dnh l`a phang.
5. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng graph co nhi
`eu nhat nam dnh v`a mo.t dnh ba.c hai l`a phang.
6. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng graph co nhi
u.ng minh K khong phang.
7. Ch
5

`an b`
8. Ch
u.ng minh neu do.n graph G co t nhat 11 dnh th` hoa.c G hoa.c ph
u Gc khong
phang.
9. Kiem tra tnh phang cua cac d`o thi. sau

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(a)

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(b)

(c)
188

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(d)

10. Kiem tra tnh phang cua cac graph sau:

A

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11. Kiem tra tnh phang cua cac graph sau:

D

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C
(a)

189

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D
(b)

190

Chu.o.ng 6

CAY
6.1

`au
Mo. d

Cay l`a mo.t trong nh

u.ng khai nie.m quan tro.ng nhat cua l
y thuyet d`o thi., v`a thu.`o.ng xuat
`e cay nhu. mo.t thu..c the
hie.n trong nh
u.ng lanh vu..c t co lien quan den d`o thi.. Khai nie.m v
`an d`au tien bo.i Kirchhoff [13] khi lien he. vo.i d.inh ngha cac
cua toan ho.c du.o..c du.a ra l
.
.
.
.
ma.ch co ban du o. c su du.ng trong phan tch cac ma.ng die.n. Khoang 10 nam sau do, mo.t
cach do.c la.p, Cayley [2] da phat hie.n la.i cac cay v`a nh
u.ng tch chat cua no khi nghien c
u.u
cac tnh chat hoa ho.c cua cac chat d`ong phan cua hydrocarbon.
Trong chu.o.ng n`ay, tru.o.c het se nghien c
u.u cay Huffman v`a nh
u.ng u
.ng du.ng cua no trong
vie.c nen d
u. lie.u. Ke tiep ch
ung ta xet tr`nh b`ay cac thua.t toan t`m cay bao tr`
um, cay
bao tr`
um co tro.ng lu.o..ng nho nhat khi cac ca.nh cua d`o thi. du.o..c gan vo.i cac chi ph (tro.ng
`eu u
lu.o..ng). Cay bao tr`
um nho nhat cua d`o thi. co nhi
.ng du.ng trong nh
u.ng tru.`o.ng ho..p cac
du.`o.ng dan (ong dan ga, day dan trong ma.ng die.n, v.v) du.o..c su. du.ng de noi n diem vo.i
nhau theo cach tot nhat: tong khoang cach cua cac du.`o.ng dan l`a nho nhat. Neu n diem
du.o..c noi vo.i nhau tren mo.t ma.t phang, ta co the bieu dien bo.i mo.t d`o thi. d`ay du trong do
cac chi ph ca.nh l`a khoang cach gi
u.a hai diem tu.o.ng u
.ng. Khi do cay bao tr`
um vo.i tro.ng
lu.o..ng nho nhat se cho ma.ng giao thong vo.i chi ph t nhat.

6.1.1

C
ac kh
ai ni
e.m

- i.nh ngha 6.1.1 Cac di.nh ngha sau cua cay (vo hu.o.ng) l`a tu.o.ng du.o.ng:
D
- `o thi. lien thong co n dnh v`a (n 1) ca.nh.
1. D
- `o thi. lien thong khong co chu tr`nh.
2. D
191

- `o thi. m`a mo.i ca.p dnh du.o..c noi vo.i nhau bo.i mo.t v`a ch mo.t day chuy
`en so. cap.
3. D
- `o thi. lien thong v`a khi bo.t mo.t ca.nh bat k`
4. D
y th` mat tnh lien thong.
H`nh 6.1 minh ho.a cay co bay dnh v`a sau ca.nh.
v2

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v3

v1

v4

v6

v5

v7

`e cay.
H`nh 6.1: Mo.t v du. v
Cay co goc (c`on go.i l`a cay gia pha) du.o..c d.inh ngha tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. sau:
- i.nh ngha 6.1.2 Cay co goc T l`a d`o thi. co hu.o.ng khong ma.ch m`a mo.i dnh, ngoa.i tr`
D
u.
mo.t dnh (chang ha.n v1 ), co ba.c trong b`a ng mo.t: ba.c trong cua dnh v1 (go.i l`a goc cua cay)
`on ta.i duy nhat mo.t du.`o.ng di t`
b`a ng khong; noi cach khac, mo.i dnh v T t
u. goc den v.
H`nh 6.2 minh ho.a mo.t d`o thi. l`a cay co goc vo.i dnh v1 l`a goc. T`
u. d.inh ngha suy ra ra` ng
cay co goc n dnh co (n 1) cung v`a l`a d`o thi. lien thong (khi bo qua hu.o.ng tren cac cung).
`an ch
C
uy
r`a ng, co the d.inh hu.o.ng tren mo.t cay (vo hu.o.ng) sao cho d`o thi. thu du.o..c l`a
`an cho.n mo.t dnh tu`
cay co goc: Ta ch c
yy
, chang ha.n v1 , l`am goc v`a di.nh hu.o.ng cac cung
.
`en t`
theo day chuy
u v1 den cac dnh treo. Ngu.o..c la.i, neu bo qua cac hu.o.ng tren cay co goc
ta thu du.o..c mo.t cay.
Cay gia pha m`a trong do moi ngu.`o.i d`an ong bieu thi. mo.t dnh v`a cac cung du.o..c ve t`
u.
.
cac cha den cac con cua ho. l`a mo.t v du. quen thuo.c cua cay co goc, goc cua cay l`a ngu `o.i
d`au tien trong d`ong ho. m`a co the xac d.inh du.o..c.

6.1.2

M
a Huffman

Phu.o.ng phap thu.`o.ng d`

ung de bieu dien cac k
y tu.. trong may tnh l`a su. du.ng cac bit co do.
d`ai co d.inh. Chang ha.n, ma ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
bieu dien moi k
y tu.. bo.i mo.t chuoi bay bit.
192

v1

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v2

v4

v3

v5

v6

v8

v10

v12

v7

v9

v11

v13

`e cay co goc.
H`nh 6.2: Mo.t v du. v
Co nh
u.ng bo. ma khac bieu dien cac k
y tu.. b`a ng cac chuoi bit co do. d`ai thay doi nhu. Ma
.
.
.
tu o ng l`a su du.ng cac chuoi bit ngan de bieu dien cac k
y tu.. thu.`o.ng xuyen xuat
Huffman. Y
hie.n v`a ngu.o..c la.i. Theo cach n`ay, noi chung, vie.c lu.u tr
u. cac chuoi van ban se co lo..i ho.n
.
khi su du.ng ma ASCII.
Phu.o.ng phap xay du..ng ma Huffman du..a tren hai quan sat sau:
`an so
1. Trong mo.t bo. ma tot u.u, cac k
y hie.u xuat hie.n thu.`o.ng xuyen (co xac suat hay t
.
.
.

u ma ngan ho n cac k
y hie.u t xua t hie.n.
xua t hie.n lo n) se co cac t`
2. Trong mo.t bo. ma tot u.u, hai k
y hie.u xuat hie.n t nhat se co cac t`
u. ma c`
ung do. d`ai.
- e xay du..ng ma Huffman, ch
D
ung ta co the bieu dien qua cay nhi. phan m`a cac n
ut la
.
.
.
tu o ng u
ng cac k
y hie.u. Duye.t cay nhi. phan se cho ta cac t`
u. ma cua bo. ma: xuat phat t`
u.
`an qua nhanh trai v`a bit 0 moi l
`an
n
ut goc v`a di den cac n
ut la, them bit 1 v`ao t`
u. ma moi l
.
qua nhanh phai. Vo i cay trong H`nh 6.3, ta co bieu dien cac k
y tu.. qua cac t`
u. ma nhu. sau:
K
y tu..
A

Ma hoa
1

00

010

0110

0111

193

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1.....................

H`nh 6.3:
- e giai ma mo.t chuoi bit, ch
D
ung ta bat d`au t`
u. goc v`a di chuyen do.c theo cay cho den khi
ga.p k
y tu..: di theo nhanh trai neu do l`a bit 1, ngu.o..c la.i di theo nhanh phai. Chang ha.n,
chuoi bit
01010111
tu.o.ng u
.ng t`
u. RAT. Vo.i mo.t cay xac di.nh ma Huffman nhu. H`nh 6.3, chuoi bit bat k`
y du.o..c
.
.
.
.
.
.
ng vo i nh
u ng chuoi bit co do. d`ai thay doi.
giai ma duy nhat ma.c d`
u cac k
y tu. tu o ng u
`an so xuat hie.n cua cac
Huffman da ch ra thua.t toan xay du..ng ma Huffman t`
u. bang cac t
.
.
k
y tu. nhu sau:
a Huffman
Thu
a.t to
an x
ay du..ng m
`an ma hoa s t`
Xet chuoi c
u. n k
y tu.. vo.i n 2.
`an so fi , i = 1, 2, . . . , n, xuat hie.n cua cac k
Bu.o.c 1. Xay du..ng day t
y tu.. trong chuoi s.
Bu.o.c 2. Neu n = 2 (gia su. f1 f2 ), xuat cay nhu. trong H`nh 6.4 v`a d`
u.ng.

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f1

f2

H`nh 6.4:
`an so nho nhat v`a f f 0 . Ta.o mo.t danh sach t
`an so mo.i
Bu.o.c 3. Gia su. f v`a f 0 l`a hai t
0
0
.
.
`an so mo.i
b`a ng cach thay f v`a f bo i f + f . Go.i thua.t toan n`ay su du.ng danh sach t
de ta.o cay T 0 . Thay dnh du.o..c gan nhan f + f 0 de nha.n du.o..c cay T trong H`nh 6.5.
Xuat T.
194

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f0

H`nh 6.5:

`an so
V du. 6.1.1 Cho bang t

K
y tu..
A

`an so
t

12

Khi do cay Huffman tu.o.ng u

.ng cho trong H`nh 6.6.

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2
A

3
B

7
C

8
D

H`nh 6.6:

195

12
E

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Giai ma cac chuoi bit su. du.ng cay Huffman sau:
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(a) 011000010.
(b) 01110100110.
(c) 01111001001110.
(d) 1110011101001111.
u. sau su. du.ng cay Huffman trong B`ai ta.p 1:
2. Ma hoa cac t`
(a) DEN.
(b) NEED.
(c) LEADEN.
(d) PENNED.
3. Xay du..ng cay Huffman vo.i cac so lie.u sau:
`an so
K
y tu.. T

11

20
4. Xay du..ng cay Huffman vo.i cac so lie.u sau:
`an so
K
y tu.. T
I
7.5
U
20.0
B
2.5
S
27.5
C
5.0
H
10.0
M
2.5
P
25.0
196

5. Su. du.ng cac t`

u. ma trong B`ai ta.p 4 de ma hoa cac chuoi k
y tu.. sau: BUS, MUSH,
PUSS, SIP, PUSH, CUSS, HIP, PUP, PUPS, HIPS.
6. Ch
u.ng minh cay co t nhat hai dnh th` co mo.t dnh treo.
7. Ch
u.ng minh cay l`a graph phang.
`an.
8. Ch
u.ng minh cay l`a graph hai ph
`e
9. Ch
ung hai m`au de to m`au cac dnh cua cay sao cho hai dnh k
u.ng minh co the d`
nhau co m`au khac nhau.
u.c hoa ho.c sau: CH4 , C2 H6 v`a C6 H6 .
10. Ve d`o thi. cua cac cong th
11. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng graph G vo.i n dnh v`a t ho.n n 1 ca.nh khong lien thong.
12. Gia su. G lien thong. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng G l`a cay neu v`a ch neu mo.i dnh ba.c lo.n ho.n
.
hoa.c b`a ng hai l`a kho p, t
u.c l`a bo dnh n`ay di th` G mat tnh lien thong.

6.2

C
ay bao tr`
um

Ch
ung ta da nghien c
u.u rieng bie.t cac tnh chat cua mo.t cay, trong mu.c n`ay ch
ung ta se
.
nghien c
u u cay khi gan no nhu. mo.t d`o thi. con cua mo.t d`o thi. khac. Ch
ung ta biet r`a ng
cho d`o thi. co m ca.nh, co the xay du..ng du.o..c 2m d`o thi. con khac nhau; ro r`ang l`a trong so
do co mo.t v`ai d`o thi. con l`a mo.t cay. Ch
ung ta quan tam den mo.t loa.i cay da.c bie.t: cay
`e
`an d`au tien du.o..c su. du.ng v`a phat trien l
y thuyet v
bao tr`
um. Khai nie.m cay bao tr`
um l
.
.
.
.
.
`
y ngu `o i Du
um nha m
c Kirchoff nam 1847. Kirchoff da su du.ng cay bao tr`
cay bo i nh`a va.t l
giai he. cac phu.o.ng tr`nh tuyen tnh de xac d.inh cu.`o.ng do. d`ong die.n trong moi nhanh v`a
xung quanh ma.ch cua mo.t ma.ng die.n.
- `o thi. trong H`nh 6.7(a) co cay bao tr`
V du. 6.2.1 D
um trong H`nh 6.7(b).
- i.nh ngha 6.2.1 Cay T du.o..c go.i l`a cay bao tr`
D
um cua d`o thi. lien thong G neu T l`a d`o
thi. con cua G v`a T ch
u.a tat ca cac dnh cua G.
- i.nh l
- `
D
y 6.2.2 D
o thi. G = (V, E) co d`
o thi. bo. pha.n l`a mo.t cay neu v`a ch neu G lien thong.
.
.
o thi. lien thong v`a co n dnh, bao gi`o. ta c
ung co the bo di
N
oi cach khac, cho tru o c mo.t d`
.
.
.
m
o.t so ca.nh cu a G de du o. c mo.t cay ch
u a tat ca c
ac dnh cu a G (cay co n dnh).
- i
`eu kie.n c
`an. Neu G lien thong th` ta thu. t`m xem co ca.nh n`ao m`a khi xoa
Ch
u.ng minh. D
di khong l`am cho d`o thi. mat tnh lien thong khong. Neu khong co mo.t ca.nh n`ao nhu. va.y
th` G l`a mo.t cay; neu co mo.t ca.nh nhu. va.y th` xoa no di, v`a ta la.i di t`m mo.t ca.nh mo.i de
197

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......................................................................................................

(a)

(b)
H`nh 6.7:

xoa... Cho to.i khi khong the xoa mo.t ca.nh n`ao du.o..c n
u.a th` ta co mo.t cay m`a ta.p ho..p cac
dnh cua no du
ng ba` ng V.
- i
`eu kie.n du. Gia su. a, b l`a hai dnh trong G v`a do do thuo.c cay bao tr`
D
um T cua G. Khi
.
`on ta.i day chuy
`en trong T t`
do t
u a den b. Suy ra c
ung thuo.c G. Va.y G lien thong. 2
`eu ro.ng de xay du..ng cay bao tr`
Ch
ung ta se su. du.ng thua.t toan t`m kiem theo chi
um cua
d`o thi. lien thong.

6.2.1

`eu r
Thu
a.t to
an t`m ki
em theo chi
o.ng x
ac d
i.nh c
ay bao tr`
um

Trong thua.t toan n`ay, S k

y hie.u l`a mo.t day.
- `o thi. lien thong G := (V, E) vo.i cac dnh du.o..c danh so th
Nha.p: D
u. tu..
v1 , v2 , . . . , vn .
Xuat: Cay bao tr`
um T.
- a.t S := [v1 ] v`a T l`a d`o thi. g
`om dnh v1 v`a khong co ca.nh. K
y hie.u
Bu.o.c 1. [Kho.i ta.o] D

v1 l`a dnh goc.

Bu.o.c 2. [Them ca.nh] Vo.i moi x S, theo th
u. tu.., them ca.nh (x, y) E v`a dnh y (theo
th
u. tu..) v`ao T neu T (x, y) khong ta.o th`anh chu tr`nh. Neu khong co ca.nh nhu. va.y,
um.
d`
u.ng. T l`a cay bao tr`
Bu.o.c 3. [Ca.p nha.t S] Thay S bo.i con (trong T ) cua S theo th
u. tu... Chuyen sang Bu.o.c 2.
- e t`m cay bao tr`
D
um cua d`o thi. lien thong ta c`on co the d`
ung thua.t toan t`m kiem theo
.
`
chieu sau (c`on go.i l`a quay lui) nhu sau:
198

`eu s
Thu
a.t to
an t`m ki
em theo chi
au x
ac d
i.nh c
ay bao tr`
um

6.2.2

- `o thi. lien thong G := (V, E) vo.i cac dnh du.o..c danh so th

Nha.p: D
u. tu..
v1 , v2 , . . . , vn .
Xuat: Cay bao tr`
um T.
- a.t w := v1 v`a T l`a d`o thi. g
`om dnh v1 v`a khong co ca.nh. K
Bu.o.c 1. [Kho.i ta.o] D
y hie.u v1
l`a dnh goc.
Bu.o.c 2. [Them ca.nh] Cho.n ca.nh (w, vk ) vo.i ch so k nho nhat sao cho vie.c them ca.nh n`ay
`on ta.i, chuyen sang Bu.o.c 3. Ngu.o..c la.i,
v`ao T khong ta.o ra chu tr`nh. Neu khong t
them ca.nh (w, vk ) v`a dnh vk v`ao T ; da.t w := vk v`a chuyen sang Bu.o.c 2.
Bu.o.c 3. [Ket th
uc?] Neu w = v1 , thua.t toan d`
u.ng, T l`a cay bao tr`
um.
- a.t x l`a cha cua w (trong T ); gan w := x v`a chuyen sang Bu.o.c 2.
Bu.o.c 4. [Quay lui] D
- `o thi. trong H`nh 6.8(a) co cac cay bao tr`
um, H`nh 6.8(b) v`a 6.8(c), du.o..c xay
V du. 6.2.2 D
`eu ro.ng v`a chi
`eu sau tu.o.ng u
du..ng theo cac thua.t toan t`m kiem theo chi
.ng.
a

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k
(a)

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(b)

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k
(c)

- `o thi. G. (b) Cay bao tr`

`eu ro.ng. (c)
H`nh 6.8: (a) D
um sinh bo.i thua.t toan t`m kiem theo chi
.
`eu sau.
Cay bao tr`
um sinh bo i thua.t toan t`m kiem theo chi

B`
ai t
a.p
`eu ro.ng
1. Cho cac v du. minh ho.a su.. hoa.t do.ng cua cac thua.t toan t`m kiem theo chi
`eu sau (k
(k
y hie.u BFS) v`a chi
y hie.u DFS) t`m cay bao tr`
um cua graph.
2. Sap tam con Ha.u tren b`an c`o. quoc te sao cho khong con n`ao an con n`ao.
199

`on ta.i l`o.i giai b`ai toan hai v`a ba con ha.u.
3. Ch
u.ng minh khong t
4. T`m mo.t l`o.i giai cua b`ai toan nam con ha.u v`a sau con ha.u.
5. Khang d.inh sau du
ng hay sai, neu du
ng hay ch
u.ng minh; ngu.o..c la.i, cho phan v du.:
`on ta.i mo.t cach danh so th
Neu G lien thong v`a T l`a cay bao tr`
um cua G th` t
u. tu.. cac
.
.
.
dnh cua G sao cho thua.t toan BFS (tu o ng u
ng, DFS) ta.o ra cay bao tr`
um T.
6. B`a ng v du. ch
u.ng minh ra` ng thua.t toan BFS (tu.o.ng u
.ng, DFS) sinh ra c`
ung mo.t cay
.
bao tr`
um t`
u hai dnh phan bie.t cua graph lien thong G.
7. Ch
ng dan cua cac thua.t toan BFS v`a DFS t`m cay bao tr`
um.
u.ng minh tnh du
`eu kie.n n`ao th` mo.t ca.nh trong graph lien thong G du.o..c ch
8. Vo.i nh
u.ng di
u.a trong mo.i
cay bao tr`
um cua G?
9. Gia su. T v`a T 0 l`a hai cay bao tr`
um cua graph lien thong G. Gia su. x l`a ca.nh trong T
0
.
.
`on ta.i mo.t ca.nh y trong T 0 nhu.ng khong thuo.c
nhu ng khong trong T . Ch
u ng minh t
T sao cho (T \ {x}) {y} v`a (T 0 \ {y}) {x} l`a cac cay bao tr`
um cua G.
`en trong
10. Xay du..ng thua.t toan du..a tren BFS t`m do. d`ai toi thieu cua moi day chuy
.
graph khong co tro.ng so t`
u mo.t dnh v co d.inh den tat ca cac dnh khac.
11. Xay du..ng cac thua.t toan BFS, DFS kiem tra tnh lien thong cua graph.

6.3

C
ay bao tr`
um nho nh
at

- i.nh ngha 6.3.1 Gia su. G l`a d`o thi. co tro.ng so. Cay bao tr`
um toi thieu cua G l`a mo.t
D
.
.
.
cay bao tr`
um cua G vo i tro.ng lu o. ng nho nhat.
B`ai toan n`ay rat hay ga.p trong thong tin lien la.c v`a trong cac ng`anh khac. Chang ha.n
`an thiet de noi n th`anh pho da di.nh
ta da.t cau hoi nhu. sau: do. d`ai day die.n ngan nhat c
l`a bao nhieu? Khi do coi cac th`anh pho l`a cac dnh cua d`o thi. v`a w(a, b) l`a khoang cach
`an phai lien thong, v`a v` do. d`ai
tnh ba` ng km gi
u.a cac th`anh pho a v`a b. Ma.ng day die.n c
`an
`an ngan nhat nen no khong co chu tr`nh: va.y ma.ng do l`a mo.t cay. O. day ta c
day die.n c
.
.
t`m mo.t cay toi thieu co the du o. c v`a l`a mo.t d`o thi. bo. pha.n cua d`o thi. d`ay du co n dnh.
Mo.t u
.ng du.ng gian tiep: b`ai toan t`m cay bao tr`
um toi thieu l`a bu.o.c trung gian trong vie.c
.
.
.
t`m l`o i giai cua b`ai toan ngu `o i du li.ch-mo.t b`ai toan thu.`o.ng xuat hie.n trong thu..c te.
`an ch
C
uy
r`a ng, cay bao tr`
um toi thieu cua d`o thi. khong lien quan den cay sinh bo.i tat
`en ngan nhat t`
ca cac day chuy
u. mo.t dnh cho tru.o.c. Do do, d`o thi. trong H`nh 6.9(a), vo.i
.
.
.
ng cac tro.ng lu.o..ng ca.nh, cay sinh ra bo.i du.`o.ng di ngan nhat
cac so tren cac ca.nh tu o ng u
um toi thieu cho
t`
u. dnh cho tru.o.c, chang ha.n v1 , trong H`nh 6.9(b); ngu.o..c la.i, cay bao tr`
trong H`nh 6.9(c).
200

v1

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v4

v5

v3

v2

v1

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v4

(a)

v5

v3

v2

v1
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v4

(b)

v5

v2

v3

(c)

- `o thi. G. (b) Cay sinh bo.i du.`o.ng di ngan nhat xuat phat t`
u. v1 . (c) Cay bao
H`nh 6.9: (a) D
tr`
um nho nhat.

6.3.1

Thu
a.t to
an Kruskal

tu.o.ng cua thua.t toan Kruskal t`m cay bao tr`

Y
um trong d`o thi. lien thong co tro.ng so G
`om tat ca cac dnh cua G v`a khong co ca.nh. Ta.i moi bu.o.c
nhu. sau: Kho.i ta.o vo.i d`o thi. T g
la.p ch
ung ta them mo.t ca.nh co tro.ng lu.o..ng nho nhat len cay T m`a khong ta.o th`anh chu
tr`nh trong T. Thua.t toan d`
u.ng khi T co (n 1) ca.nh.
`om n dnh v`a khong co ca.nh.
Bu.o.c 1. [Kho.i ta.o] Gia su. T l`a d`o thi. g
Bu.o.c 2. [Sap xep] Sap xep th
u. tu.. cac ca.nh cua d`o thi. G theo th
u. tu.. tro.ng lu.o..ng tang
`an.
d
Bu.o.c 3. [Them ca.nh] Them ca.nh (bat d`au t`
u. ca.nh d`au tien) trong danh sach cac ca.nh
du.o..c sap xep v`ao cay T sao cho khong ta.o th`anh chu tr`nh trong T khi them. (Ca.nh
du.o..c them v`ao go.i l`a chap nha.n du.o..c).
uc] Neu T co (n 1) ca.nh th` thua.t toan d`
u.ng; T l`a cay bao tr`
um toi
Bu.o.c 4. [Ket th

thieu.

`an
V du. 6.3.1 Xet d`o thi. trong H`nh 6.10(a). Sap xep cac ca.nh theo tro.ng lu.o..ng tang d
.
.
.

(su du.ng hai mang tuyen tnh v`a ) ta du o. c

201

Tro.ng lu.o..ng

Cac ca.nh (khong ta.o th`anh chu tr`nh) du.o..c them v`ao cay T theo th
u. tu.. l`a
(c, d), (a, c), (e, f ), (a, e), (a, b).
T l`a cay bao tr`
um nho nhat co tro.ng lu.o..ng 12 (H`nh 6.10(b)).
a

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(a)

(b)
H`nh 6.10:

`e 6.3.2 Neu Kn = (V, E) l`

a d`
o thi. d`
ay du , v`a neu tat ca c cac tro.ng lu.o..ng cu a cac
B
o d

`on ta.i duy nhat mo.t cay bao tr`

ca.nh khac nhau th` t
um toi thieu T = (V, ET ).
Ch
u.ng minh. K
y hie.u Ek := {e1 , e2 , . . . , ek } l`a ta.p cac ca.nh du.o..c them v`ao cay T trong
Thua.t toan 6.3.1 o. bu.o.c la.p th
u. k, 1 k n 1. Hien nhien theo cach xay du..ng, T l`a d`o
thi. co (n 1) ca.nh v`a khong co chu tr`nh nen T l`a cay bao tr`
um cua Kn .
Gia su. T 0 = (V, ET 0 ) l`a cay bao tr`
um toi thieu, ta ch
u.ng minh ET 0 = En1 . Tha.t va.y, gia
`on ta.i ch so k nho nhat sao cho ca.nh ek khong thuo.c ET 0 . Khi do theo tnh
su. ngu.o..c la.i t

`on ta.i t
`on ta.i mo.t v`a ch mo.t chu tr`nh trong T 0 {ek }. Tren chu tr`nh
cha t cua cay, t
`on ta.i mo.t chu tr`nh, l`a , trong cay
n`ay co mo.t ca.nh e0 m`a e0
/ En1 , v` neu ngu.o..c la.i t
T mau thuan. Neu da.t ET 00 := (ET 0 {ek }) \ {e0 }) th` d`o thi. T 00 := (V, ET 00 ) khong co chu
tr`nh v`a co (n 1) ca.nh nen no l`a mo.t cay.
Ma.t khac Ek1 {e0 } ET 00 nen Ek1 {e0 } khong ch
u.a chu tr`nh. Suy ra
w(e0 ) > w(ek ).
202

Nhu.ng cay T 00 nha.n du.o..c t`

u. cay T 0 b`a ng cach thay ca.nh e0 th`anh ca.nh ek nen W (T 00 ) <
W (T 0 ). Mau thuan v` T 0 l`a cay bao tr`
um toi thieu. 2
- i.nh l
D
y 6.3.3 Thua.t toan Kruskal l`a du
ng; t
u.c l`a, ket th
uc thua.t toan T l`
a cay bao tr`
um
t
oi thieu.
Ch
u.ng minh. Tha.t va.y tru.o.c het ta thu xep de mo.i ca.nh d`eu co do. d`ai khac nhau; chang
ha.n neu w(e1 ) = w(e2 ) = = w(es ) th` thu..c hie.n phep bien doi:
w(e1 ) = w(e1 ) + ,
w(e2 ) = w(e2 ) + 2 ,
..
.
w(es ) = w(es ) + s ,
`e quan he. gi
u. tu.. v
u.a tro.ng lu.o..ng
trong do l`a so du.o.ng du be sao cho khong l`am dao lo.n th
cua cac ca.nh.
P
C
ung the, ta c
ung co the them cac ca.nh f vo.i tro.ng lu.o..ng du lo.n w(f ) > eE w(e) v`a
khac nhau sao cho d`o thi. nha.n du.o..c Kn = (V, E 0 ) l`a d`ay du.
`on ta.i duy nhat mo.t cay bao tr`
Theo Bo d`e 6.3.2 t
um toi thieu T P
trong d`o thi. Kn . Ma.t
.
.
.
.
khac, mo.i cay bao tr`
um cua d`o thi. G co tro.ng lu o. ng khong vu o. t qua eE w(e) v`a mo.i cay
bao tr`
um cua G c
ung l`a cay bao tr`
um cua Kn . Suy ra T l`a cay bao tr`
um toi thieu cua G. 2
`an cac ca.nh co tro.ng lu.o..ng lo.n
Nha.n xet ra` ng, co the d`
ung phu.o.ng phap doi ngau: loa.i d
nhat cua d`o thi. m`a khong l`am mat tnh lien thong cua no cho den khi khong the loa.i ca.nh
du.o..c n
u.a.
- o. ph
D
u.c ta.p tnh toan cua thua.t toan Kruskal phu. thuo.c v`ao Bu.o.c 2: d`o thi. co m ca.nh
`an m log2 m phep toan de thu..c hie.n sap xep mang theo tro.ng lu.o..ng tang d
`an. Tuy nhien,
c

noi chung ta khong can duye.t to`an bo. mang v` cay bao tr`
um toi thieu gom (n 1) ca.nh
`an kiem tra r < m ph
`an tu. d`au tien cua mang.
chap nha.n du.o..c nen ch c
Thua.t toan Kruskal ch thch ho..p vo.i nh
u.ng d`o thi. tu.o.ng doi thu.a. Vo.i nh
u.ng d`o thi.
khac, chang ha.n d`o thi. d`ay du co so ca.nh m = n(n 1)/2, Prim [20] v`a Dijkstra [4] da du.a
ra nh
u.ng thua.t toan khac hie.u qua ho.n.

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Gia su. graph G lien thong co tro.ng so; v l`a dnh trong G v`a e l`a mo.t ca.nh lien thuo.c v
u.ng minh r`a ng e du.o..c ch
u.a trong cay bao tr`
um toi thieu
co tro.ng lu.o..ng toi thieu. Ch
n`ao do.
203

2. Gia su. graph G lien thong co tro.ng so; v l`a dnh trong G. Gia su. tat ca cac ca.nh lien
thuo.c v co tro.ng lu.o..ng phan bie.t. Gia su. e l`a mo.t ca.nh lien thuo.c v co tro.ng lu.o..ng
toi thieu. Ca.nh e du.o..c ch
u.a trong mo.i cay bao tr`
um toi thieu?
ung tro.ng lu.o..ng. Ch
u.ng
3. Gia su. graph co tro.ng so Kn trong do tat ca cac ca.nh co c`
minh r`a ng thua.t toan t`m cay bao tr`
um toi thieu cua Kn phai kiem tra tat ca cac ca.nh
cua Kn .
4. Gia su. graph G lien thong co tro.ng so trong do tat ca cac ca.nh co tro.ng lu.o..ng khac
nhau. Ch
u.ng minh G co duy nhat cay bao tr`
um toi thieu.
5. Gia su. G l`a graph lien thong co tro.ng so. Cac khang di.nh sau du
ng hay sai?
du
ng, ch
ung minh; ngu.o..c la.i, cho phan v du.:
um
(a) Neu tat ca cac tro.ng lu.o..ng cua cac ca.nh khac nhau th` cac cay bao tr`
.
.

nhau co to ng tro.ng lu o. ng khac nhau.

(b) Neu e l`a ca.nh co tro.ng lu.o..ng nho ho.n tat ca cac tro.ng lu.o..ng cua cac ca.nh
th` e thuo.c mo.i cay bao tr`
um toi thieu.
`on ta.i cach danh so th
(c) Neu T l`a cay bao tr`
um nho nhat cua G th` t
u. tu.. cac
cua G sao cho thua.t toan Kruskal sinh ra du
ng cay bao tr`
um n`ay.

Neu
khac
khac
ca.nh

6. Xay du..ng thua.t toan doi ngau thua.t toan Kruskal: xoa cac ca.nh co tro.ng lu.o..ng lo.n
nhat m`a khong l`am mat tnh lien thong cua d`o thi..
7. Xay du..ng thua.t toan t`m cay bao tr`
um lo.n nhat trong graph lien thong co tro.ng so.
8. Gia su. V := {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } l`a ta.p n dnh v`a s l`a h`am phan loa.i tren V V (xem V
du. 5.1.4). Gia su. G l`a graph d`ay du co tro.ng so trong do ta.p dnh l`a V v`a cac tro.ng
lu.o..ng l`a s(vi , vj ). Su.a la.i thua.t toan Kruskal de nhom d
u. lie.u th`anh cac lo.p (thua.t
.
.
`an nhat).
toan n`ay go.i l`a phu o ng phap lan ca.n g
9. Cho cac v du. minh ho.a su.. hoa.t do.ng cua thua.t toan Kruskal.

6.4

Li
e.t k
e c
ay

Nam 1857, nh`a toan ho.c ngu.`o.i Anh, A. Caylay (do. c la.p vo.i G. Kirchoff) da kham pha cac
cay khi co gang lie.t ke tat ca cac chat d`ong phan cua hydrocarbon. Cac phan tu. hydrocarbon
u. cac nguyen tu. hydrogen v`a carbon, trong do moi nguyen tu. carbon co the
du.o..c cau ta.o t`
lien ket hoa ho.c vo.i bon nguyen tu. khac v`a moi nguyen tu. hydrogen co the lien ket hoa
ho.c vo.i mo.t nguyen tu. khac. Mo.t hydrocarbon bao ho`a l`a hydrocarbon ch
u.a so cu..c da.i
cac nguyen tu. hydrogen (vo.i so cac nguyen tu. carbon cho tru.o.c). A. Caylay da ch
u.ng
`an co 2k + 2 nguyen tu.
minh r`a ng, neu hydrocarbon bao ho`a co k nguyen tu. carbon th` no c
.

hydrogen v`a do do co cong th

u c hoa ho.c Ck H2k+2 . Ong
da d`
ung graph lien thong de bieu
.
dien cau tr
uc cua mo.t phan tu hydrocarbon Ck H2k+2 : cac dnh l`a cac nguyen tu. carbon v`a
hydrogen; cac ca.nh tu.o.ng u
.ng cac lien ket hoa ho.c gi
u.a cac nguyen tu.. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p
204

n`ay, mo.t nguyen tu. carbon tu.o.ng u

.ng vo.i mo.t dnh ba.c bon v`a mo.t nguyen tu. hydrogen
tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i mo.t dnh ba.c mo.t (dnh treo). Tong so cac dnh trong graph tu.o.ng u
.ng nhu.
va.y l`a: n = k + (2k + 2) = 3k + 2; v`a tong so cac ca.nh l`a:
1
(tong cac ba.c) = (4k + 2k + 2)/2 = 3k + 1.
2
Graph n`ay lien thong v`a co so ca.nh t ho.n so dnh l`a 1 nen no l`a mo.t cay. Nhu. va.y van d`e
`e b`ai toan dem cac cay (d nhien
dem cac cau tr
uc d`ong phan cua mo.t hydrocarbon du.a v

co c`
ung cac tnh cha t xac d.inh).
Cau hoi d`au tien cua Cayley da. t ra nhu. sau: So cac cay khac nhau co the xay du..ng t`
u. n
dnh (hay nhan) khac nhau l`a bao nhieu?
Neu n = 4, th` ch
ung ta co 16 cay (ta.i sao?).
- e tra l`o.i cau hoi tren, ta xet graph m`a moi dnh co mo.t ten hay nhan duy nhat (t
D
u.c l`a
.
.
.
.
khong co hai dnh mang c`
ung mo.t nhan) du o. c go.i l`a graph du o. c gan nhan (labeled graph).
`an d`au tien du.o..c du.a ra v`a ch
`eu ch
Ket qua sau l
u.ng
u.ng minh bo.i Cayley. Sau do nhi
minh khac c
ung du.o..c cong bo. Ch
u.ng minh sau day cua H. Pr
ufer nam 1918.
- i.nh l
D
y 6.4.1 (A. Cayley) So cac cay du.o..c gan nhan n dnh (n 2) l`
a nn2 ; t
u.c l`a so
n2
c
ac cay bao tr`
um cu a graph d`
ay du Kn l`a n .
Ch
ung minh. Gia su. V = {1, 2, . . . , n}. Vo.i moi cay bao tr`
um T cua d`o thi. Kn ta thiet la.p
.
.
.
.
tu o ng u
ng mo.t-mo.t vo i vector a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an2 ), trong do cac so nguyen ai thoa man
1 ai n, nhu. sau:
u. tu.. V sao
+ K
y hie.u b1 l`a dnh treo d`au tien (co ch so nho nhat) trong ta.p du.o..c sap th
.
.
.
`on ta.i do mo.i cay co t nhat mo.t dnh treo).
cho e1 = (a1 , b1 ) l`a ca.nh treo cua T tu o ng u
ng (t
.
.
Loa.i ca.nh e1 v`a dnh b1 ra khoi cay T ta du o. c cay T1 mo.i.
+ K
y hie.u b2 l`a dnh treo d`au tien (co ch so nho nhat) trong ta.p du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. V sao
.
.
.
`on ta.i do mo.i cay co t nhat mo.t
cho e2 = (a2 , b2 ) l`a ca.nh treo tu o ng u
ng trong cay T1 (t
.
dnh treo). Loa.i ca.nh e2 v`a dnh b2 ra khoi cay T1 ta du o.c cay T2 mo.i.
`om du
ng
+ La.p la.i theo quy na.p cho den khi loa.i ca.nh en2 = (an2 , bn2 ) ta du.o..c cay g
mo.t ca.nh en1 = (an1 , bn1 ) noi hai dnh c`on la.i.
Khi do vector a = (a1 , a1 , . . . , an2 ) V n2 du.o..c xac d.inh duy nhat bo.i cay T v`a vo.i
hai cay khac nhau T v`a T 0 , ta co tu.o.ng u
.ng hai vector khac nhau. Moi dnh ai xuat hie.n
`an trong vector a.
d(ai ) + 1 l
Ngu.o..c la.i, vo.i moi vector a V n2 , ta co the xay du..ng mo.t cay T nhu. sau:
205

`an
+ Lay dnh d`au tien (co ch so nho nhat) b1 V m`a khong xuat hie.n trong th`anh ph
.
`an tu d`au tien a1 trong vector a; da.t ca.nh e1 = (a1 , b1 ). Loa.i a1 khoi
cua vector a. Lay ph
vector a v`a dnh b1 ra khoi ta.p V.
+ Tiep tu.c la.p la.i theo thu tu.c tren vo.i cac so c`on la.i, cuoi c`
ung ta se thu du.o..c cay T.
- i.nh l
Nha.n xet r`a ng #V = nn2 . D
y du.o..c ch
u.ng minh. 2
.ng cay bao tr`
um trong H`nh 6.11.
V du. 6.4.1 Xac di.nh vector do. d`ai nam tu.o.ng u
v1 .............

.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
...
...
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
...
..............................................................................................................
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.....
....
.....
.....
.
.
.
..
........................................

v7

v2

v6

v3

v5

v4

H`nh 6.11:
Ch
uy
r`a ng v1 l`a dnh treo vo.i ch so nho nhat v`a v2 lien thuo.c vo.i v1 , do do a1 = 2. Xoa
ca.nh (v1 , v2 ). Graph c`on la.i co v2 l`a dnh treo vo.i ch so nho nhat; do do a2 = 3. Xoa ca.nh
(v2 , v3 ) v`a la.p la.i tien tr`nh tren ta co vector tu.o.ng u
.ng cay l`a (2, 3, 4, 3, 6).
um cua K7 tu.o.ng u
V du. 6.4.2 T`m cay bao tr`
.ng vector (7, 2, 1, 2, 1).
L`o.i giai cho trong H`nh 6.12. Tha.t va.y, bat d`au vo.i danh sach {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. So 3 l`a
so nho nhat trong danh sach nhu.ng khong thuo.c vector a := (7, 2, 1, 2, 1) v`a 7 l`a so d`au tien
trong vector a. B`a ng cach noi, ta co ca.nh (v3 , v7 ). Loa.i bo 3 ra khoi danh sach v`a 7 ra khoi
vector a ta co danh sach v`a vector a mo.i tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7} v`a a = (2, 1, 2, 1).
So 4 l`a so nho nhat trong danh sach nhu.ng khong thuo.c vector a v`a 2 l`a so d`au tien trong
vector a. B`a ng cach noi, ta co ca.nh (v4 , v2 ). La.p la.i thu tu.c tren cho den khi ta co ca.nh cuoi
c`
ung (v1 , v7 ).
V du. 6.4.3 Co bao nhieu cach de xay du..ng ma.ng die.n vo.i 12 n
ut noi tat ca cac n
ut su.
du.ng so day dan t nhat co the.
Ch
ung ta xay du..ng graph con cua K12 nhu. sau: moi n
ut tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i mo.t dnh v`a moi
day dan tu.o.ng u
.ng cac ca.nh. Graph T bieu dien ma.ng die.n vo.i 12 n
ut noi tat ca cac n
ut
.
su du.ng so day dan t nhat phai l`a graph lien thong khong chu tr`nh. V` va.y T l`a cay bao
- i.nh l
tr`
um cua K12 . Theo D
y 6.4.1, co 1210 cay bao tr`
um cua K12 . Do do co 1210 cach de xay
.
du. ng ma.ng die.n.
206

v1

................
........ .. .....
....... .... ........
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.
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.
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..
.
.
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.
.
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.
.
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.
.......
.
.
.
..
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.
..........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......... .. ..............
..
.
..................
.
.. . ..
...
.......... ... ....................
..........
.
.......... .....
..........
...........
...
..........
..
.. ..........
..........
.
.
.
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
..
.
.
..
...
..
...
...
...
...

v7

v2

v6

v3

v5

v4

H`nh 6.12:
- i.nh l
y 6.4.1 khong cho ta chnh xac so cac chat d`ong phan cua Ck H2k+1 .
Nh
a.n x
et 20 D
-De ha.n che v
`e ba.c cua cac dnh, ta nha.n xet r`a ng:
(a) V` cac dnh bieu dien hydrogen l`a cac dnh treo, ch
ung se ket ho..p vo.i cac nguyen tu.
carbon theo c`
ung mo.t cach v`a do do khong dong gop v`ao hie.n tu.o..ng d`ong phan. V` va.y ta
`an quan tam den cac dnh hydrogen.
khong c
`e cay co k dnh, moi dnh bieu dien mo.t nguyen
(b) Suy ra cay bieu dien Ck H2k+1 du.a v
.
.

tu carbon. Vo i cay n`ay ta khong phan bie.t cac dnh, v`a do do no l`a cay khong du.o..c gan
nhan.
Va.y vo.i butane C4 H10 ch co hai cay khac nhau (hay ve ch
ung). (Trong hoa ho.c, ta biet
`
ra ng co chnh xac hai loa.i buttane khac nhau l`a: n-buttan v`a isobuttane).
Vie.c phan bie.t gi
u.a graph du.o..c gan nhan v`a graph khong du.o..c gan nhan l`a rat quan
tro.ng trong b`ai toan dem so cac graph khac nhau. B`ai toan lie.t ke cac cay khong du.o..c gan
nhan lien quan den mo.t so khai nie.m khac v`a vu.o..t ra pha.m vi cua giao tr`nh, ba.n do.c quan
tam co the xem t`ai lie.u dan [6].

B`
ai t
a.p
1. Ve tat ca cac cay du.o..c gan nhan n dnh vo.i n = 1, 2, 3, 4 v`a 5.
2. Ve tat ca cac cay khong du.o..c gan nhan n dnh vo.i n = 1, 2, 3, 4 v`a 5.
3. Ve tat ca cac cay co goc khong du.o..c gan nhan n dnh vo.i n = 1, 2, 3, 4 v`a 5.
4. Ch
u.ng minh ch co sau cay khac nhau (khong dang cau), moi cay co sau dnh. Ve cac
cay n`ay.
5. (a) Ve hai cay butane C4 H10 khac nhau.
(b) Co bao nhieu chat d`ong phan cua hydrocarbon bao ho`a C6 H14 ?
6. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng so cac cay co goc du.o..c gan nhan n dnh khac nhau l`a nn1 . Ve tat
ca cac cay co goc du.o..c gan nhan trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n = 1, 2 v`a 3.
207

- .inh l
7. Vo.i moi cay sau, xac di.nh cac vector trong ch
u.ng minh cua D
y Caylay.
v1
v1
.........
...........
.....
....... ...................
.
.
.
.
.
... .......
.
.
..
.....
...
.....
.....
...
.....
...
.....
..
.....
.
.....
..
.
...
.
.
.
.....
...
.. ..
..
...
.
.. ....
..
...
.
.
.
.
...
.. ....
.
.
.
.
...
.
...
... ....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
..
...
..... .....
.
.
.
.
..... ..
.
.
.
.
..... ...
..... ...
...
...
..... .. ...
...
........ ...
...
........ .
...
........
.
.
.

... ... .....

... ... ......
... ... ......
... .... .......
..
...
...
... .........
...
... ...........
...
... ......................
.
...
............
...
.......... ....
...
..........
....
..........
...
..........
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.......
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
....
..
...
...
...
...
...
.
.....................................

....
........
........
........
........
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
........

v7

v2

v7

v2

v6

v3

v6

v3

v5

v4

v5

v4

- .inh l
um cua K7 trong ch
u.ng minh cua D
y
8. Vo.i moi vector sau, xac di.nh cac cay bao tr`
Caylay:
(a) (7, 2, 4, 4, 1).
(b) (2, 2, 2, 4, 6).

6.5

C
ay nhi. ph
an

Cay nhi. phan (binary tree) l`a mo.t trong nh

u.ng lo.p quan tro.ng nhat cua cay co goc. Moi
`eu nhat hai con (xem H`nh 6.13). Ho.n n
dnh trong cay nhi. phan co nhi
u.a, moi dnh con
.
.
du o. c k
y hie.u hoa.c l`a con trai hoa.c l`a con phai. Khi ve cay nhi. phan, dnh con trai
.
.
du o. c ve ben trai v`a dnh con phai du.o..c ve ben phai.
a
...........
........ ...............
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.....
....
........
........
........
........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.. .......
................
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
........
........

........
........
........
........
........
........
...........
............
..
......
......
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
......
......
......
.........
............
.
.
.. ..
... .....
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
.
...
..
.
... .
.
........
..........
.
...
.

H`nh 6.13:
- i.nh ngha 6.5.1 Cay nhi. phan l`a mo.t cay co goc trong do moi dnh hoa.c khong co con,
D
hoa.c co mo.t con, hoa.c co hai con. Neu dnh co mo.t con, th` con n`ay du.o..c xem l`a con trai
hoa.c con phai; neu mo.t dnh co hai con, th` mo.t con ben trai v`a mo.t con ben phai.
V du. 6.5.1 Trong cay nhi. phan H`nh 6.13, dnh b l`a con trai cua a v`a dnh c l`a con phai
- nh d l`a con phai cua b; dnh b khong co con trai. D
- nh e l`a con trai cua c; dnh c
cua a. D
khong co con phai.
208

V du. 6.5.2 Mo.t cay xac di.nh bo.i ma Huffman l`a cay nhi. phan. Chang ha.n, vo.i cay
Huffman trong H`nh 6.3, di chuyen t`
u. mo.t dnh den dnh con ben trai tu.o.ng u
.ng su. du.ng
bit 1 v`a di chuyen t`
u. mo.t dnh den dnh con ben phai tu.o.ng u
.ng su. du.ng bit 0.
Cay nhi. phan d`ay du l`a cay nhi. phan m`a moi dnh hoa.c co hai con hoa.c khong co con.
- i.nh l
D
y 6.5.2 Neu T l`a cay nhi. ph
an d`
ay du vo.i i dnh trong th` T co i + 1 dnh treo v`a
c
o tat ca 2i + 1 dnh.
`om nh
u.ng dnh l`a cac dnh con (mo.t v`ai dnh l`a cha)
Ch
u.ng minh Ta.p cac dnh cua T g
`on ta.i duy nhat mo.t dnh khong phai l`a con-dnh
v`a nh
u.ng dnh khong phai l`a dnh con. T

`on ta.i 2i dnh con. Va.y so cac dnh

goc. Do co i dnh trong v`a moi dnh co hai con nen t
cua T l`a 2i + 1 v`a so cac dnh treo b`a ng
(2i + 1) i = i + 1.
2
- .inh l
D
y 6.5.3 Neu T l`a cay nhi. phan co d
o. cao h v`a t dnh treo th`
log t h.

(6.1)

Ch
u.ng minh Ta se ch
u.ng minh quy na.p theo h bat dang th
u.c tu.o.ng du.o.ng:
t 2h .

(6.2)

`om mo.t dnh; suy ra t = 1. Do do (6.2) du

Neu h = 0 th` cay T g
ng.
ng vo.i mo.i cay nhi. phan co do. cao nho ho.n h. Gia su. T l`a cay nhi.
Gia su. khang di.nh du
phan co do. cao h > 0 vo.i t dnh treo. Xet tru.`o.ng ho..p dnh goc cua T ch co mo.t con. Neu
ta khu. goc v`a ca.nh lien thuo.c vo.i goc th` ta du.o..c cay nhi. phan co do. cao h 1 v`a c`
ung so
h1
h
.
< 2 v`a do va.y (6.2) du
ng.
dnh treo nhu T. Theo quy na.p, t 2
Bay gi`o. gia su. goc cua T co hai con l`a v1 v`a v2 . K
y hie.u Ti , i = 1, 2, l`a cay con vo.i goc ta.i
vi v`a gia su. Ti co do. cao hi v`a ti dnh treo. Theo gia thiet quy na.p
ti 2hi ,

i = 1, 2.

(6.3)

`om cac n
Nha.n xet r`a ng cac dnh treo cua T g
ut la cua T1 v`a T2 . Do do
t = t1 + t2 .
T`
u. (6.3) v`a (6.4) ta co
t = t1 + t2 2h1 + 2h2 2h1 + 2h1 = 2h .
2
209

(6.4)

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H`nh 6.14:
V du. 6.5.3 Cay nhi. phan trong H`nh 6.14 co do. cao h = 3 v`a so cac n
ut la l`a t = 8. Trong
.
.
.
.
.

tru `o ng ho. p n`ay, (6.1) tro th`anh dang th

u c.
`an tu. cua no du.o..c sap th
Gia su. ta co mo.t ta.p S m`a cac ph
u. tu... Chang ha.n, neu S R
.
.
.
.
.
.
vo i th
u tu. thong thu `o ng; neu S l`a cac chuoi k
y tu. , ta co the su. du.ng th
u. tu.. t`
u. dien. Cay
`eu trong tin ho.c nh`a m lu.u tr
`an tu. cua mo.t ta.p du.o..c
nhi. phan du.o..c su. du.ng rat nhi
u. cac ph
sap th
u. tu... Gia su. ta.i moi dnh v ta lu.u tr
u. d
u. lie.u d(v). Khi do neu v l`a con trai (hoa.c
.
con phai) cua w th` se co mo.t moi quan he. th
u tu.. gi
u.a d(v) v`a d(w).
- i.nh ngha 6.5.4 Cay t`m kiem nhi. phan (binary seach tree) l`a mo.t cay nhi. phan trong
D
do d
u. lie.u lien ket vo.i moi dnh. D
u. lie.u du.o..c sap xep sao cho vo.i moi dnh v d
u. lie.u trong
.
.
.
cay con ben trai cua v nho ho n d
u lie.u trong v; v`a moi d
u lie.u trong cay con ben phai cua
.
.
.
v lo n ho n d
u lie.u trong v.
V du. 6.5.4 Chuoi S
OLD PROGRAMMERS NEVER DIE
THEY JUST LOSE THEIR MEMORIES
co the da. t trong mo.t cay t`m kiem nhi. phan nhu. H`nh 6.15.
`eu cach da.t d
Noi chung, co nhi
u. lie.u v`ao cay t`m kiem nhi. phan. H`nh 6.16 minh ho.a cay
.
.
.
nhi. phan khac lu u tr
u cac t`
u trong chuoi S.
Du.o.i day l`a thua.t toan xay du..ng cay t`m kiem nhi. phan.

6.5.1

Thu
a.t to
an x
ay du..ng c
ay t`m ki
em nhi. ph
an

Nha.p: Day cac t`

u. phan bie.t: S.
Xuat: Cay t`m kiem nhi. phan T.
210

OLD

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NEVER

PROGRAMMERS

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DIE

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JUST

THEY

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LOSE

THEIR

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MEMORIES

H`nh 6.15:
u. d`au tien trong day S. Neu S = , da.t T l`a cay
Bu.o.c 1. [Xay du..ng n
ut goc] Gia su. w l`a t`
.
.
.
khong dnh v`a ca.nh v`a d`
u ng; ngu o. c la.i, thiet la.p T l`a cay co du
ng mo.t dnh (l`a goc)
.
.
v`a lu u tr
u w trong goc.
`on ta.i, d`
y tu.. ke tiep trong S. Neu khong t
Bu.o.c 2. [Lay k
y tu.. tiep] Gia su. w l`a k
u.ng.
Bu.o.c 3. [Bat d`au t`m kiem de lu.u tr
u. vi. tr] Gia su. v l`a goc cua T.
Bu.o.c 4. [Ket th
uc?] Neu w nho ho.n t`
u. trong v v`a v khong co cay con ben trai th` them
dnh con ben trai v`ao v v`a lu.u w v`ao cay con trai sau do chuyen sang Bu.o.c 2. Neu w
lo.n ho.n t`
u. trong v v`a v khong co cay con ben phai, them dnh con ben phai v`ao v v`a
.
lu u w v`ao sau do chuyen sang Bu.o.c 2.
Bu.o.c 5. [Tiep tu.c t`m] Neu w nho ho.n t`
u. trong v da. t v l`a con ben trai cua v v`a chuyen
.
.
.
.
.
sang Bu o c 4. Neu w lo n ho n t`
u trong v da.t v l`a con ben phai cua v v`a chuyen sang
.
.
Bu o c 4.
u. lie.u. T
Cay t`m kiem nhi. phan rat tie.n lo..i trong vie.c t`m kiem d
u.c l`a neu cho d
u. lie.u
- e xac d.inh
D ta co the xac d.inh vi. tr cua no D trong cay t`m kiem nhi. phan (neu co). D
.
.
ung ta bat d`au t`
u goc. Sau do ta la.p la.i tien
d
u lie.u D trong cay t`m kiem nhi. phan, ch
.
.
u lie.u ta.i n
ut hie.n h`anh. Neu D b`a ng d
u. lie.u ta.i n
ut hie.n h`anh, t
u.c
tr`nh so sanh D vo i d
da t`m thay D v`a thua.t toan d`
u.ng. Neu D nho ho.n (tu.o.ng u
.ng, lo.n ho.n) d
u. lie.u ta.i n
ut
.
.
.
ng, ben phai) cua v v`a la.p la.i qua
hie.n h`anh v ta di chuyen xuong n
ut con ben trai (tu o ng u
u.a th` ket lua.n D khong
tr`nh n`ay. Ta.i th`o.i diem n`ao do, ta khong the di chuyen du.o..c n
co trong cay.
211

NEVER

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PROGRAMMERS

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DIE

OLD

LOSE

THEIR
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MEMORIES

THEY

H`nh 6.16:
Th`o.i gian t`m kiem d
u. lie.u trong cay t`m kiem nhi. phan l`a toi da khi d
u. lie.u khong n`a m
`en d`ai nhat t`
trong cay v`a theo do ta co day chuy
u. n
ut goc. Do do th`o.i gian toi da de t`m
.
`eu cao cua cay. He. qua l`a do. cao cua cay t`m kiem nhi. phan c`ang nho th`
kiem t le. vo i chi
.
`eu cach de cu..c tieu hoa do. cao cua cay (xem [9]).
th`o i gian t`m kiem c`ang t. Co nhi
- e phan tch tru.`o.ng ho..p xau nhat trong cay t`m kiem nhi. phan T (co n dnh, t dnh
D
treo v`a do. cao h) ta go.i T l`a cay nhi. phan d`ay du nha.n du.o..c t`
u. T b`a ng cach them cac
`an). Chang ha.n, H`nh 6.17 l`a cay nhi. phan d`ay du t`
n
ut con ben trai v`a ben phai (neu c
u.
.
.
cay T trong H`nh 6.15. Cac dnh them v`ao du o. c danh dau . Vie.c t`m kiem khong th`anh
- i.nh l
cong trong T tu.o.ng u
.ng den cac dnh danh dau trong T . Theo D
y 6.5.3, log t h.

.
.
`

Nhu ng theo cach xay du. ng, cay nhi. phan day du T co n dnh trong v`a t dnh treo, nen
- i.nh l
theo D
y 6.5.2, t = n + 1. Do do trong tru.`o.ng ho..p xau nhat th`o.i gian t`m kiem t nhat
l`a log t = log(n + 1). B`ai ta.p 3 ch ra r`a ng neu do. cao cua T toi thieu th` tru.`o.ng ho..p xau
nhat th`o.i gian t`m kiem b`a ng [log(n + 1)].

B`
ai t
a.p
- a.t cac t`
1. D
u. FOUR SCORE AND SEVEN YEARS AGO OUR FOREFATHERS BROUGHT
ung v`ao cay t`m kiem nhi. phan.
FORTH theo th
u. tu.. xuat hie.n cua ch
2. Viet thua.t toan t`m kiem tren cay t`m kiem nhi. phan.
3. Viet thua.t toan lu.u tr
u. n t`
u. khac nhau v`ao cay t`m kiem nhi. phan T vo.i tro.ng lu.o..ng
.
toi thieu. Ch
u ng minh ra` ng cay d`ay du T nha.n du.o..c t`
u. cay T b`a ng cach them cac
`an thiet) co tro.ng lu.o..ng [log(n + 1)].
n
ut con ben trai v`a ben phai (neu c
4. Khang d.inh sau du
ng hay sai: Gia su. T l`a cay nhi. phan. Vo.i moi dnh v trong T,
212

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H`nh 6.17:

.ng, nho ho.n) d

u. lie.u trong con trai (tu.o.ng u
.ng, con
d
u. lie.u trong v lo.n ho.n (tu.o.ng u
phai) cua v th` T l`a cay t`m kiem nhi. phan. Giai thch.
`on ta.i) tu.o.ng u
5. Ve cac graph (neu t
.ng vo.i nh
u.ng tnh chat da neu:
(a) Cay nhi. phan d`ay du co bon dnh trong v`a nam dnh treo.
(b) Cay nhi. phan d`ay du co do. cao 3 v`a chn dnh treo.
(c) Cay nhi. phan d`ay du co do. cao 4 v`a chn dnh treo.
6. Cay m-phan d`ay du l`a cay co goc sao cho moi dnh trong co m dnh con co th
u. tu...
Cay m-phan d`ay du T vo.i i dnh trong th` co bao nhieu dnh? Co bao nhieu dnh
treo? Giai thch.
7. T`m thua.t toan xay du..ng cay nhi. phan d`ay du vo.i n > 1 dnh treo.
8. Viet thua.t toan de. quy xay du..ng cay t`m kiem nhi. phan.
9. T`m do. cao cu..c da.i cua cay nhi. phan d`ay du co t dnh treo.
10. Viet thua.t toan kiem tra mo.t cay nhi. phan vo.i cac d
u. lie.u du.o..c lu.u tr
u. ta.i moi dnh
l`a cay t`m kiem nhi. phan.
`en do.n gian
11. Gia su. T l`a cay nhi. phan d`ay du; I l`a tong cac do. d`ai cua cac day chuy
`en do.n gian t`
t`
u. goc den cac dnh trong v`a E l`a tong cac do. d`ai cua cac day chuy
u.
goc den cac dnh treo. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng neu T co n dnh trong th` E = I + 2n.
12. Cay nhi. phan T go.i l`a can b`a ng neu vo.i moi dnh v, do. cao cua cac cay con ben trai
- o. cao cay rong di.nh ngha l`a 1). K
`eu nhat l`a 1. (D
v`a ben phai sai khac nhau nhi
y
.
hie.u Nh l`a so toi thieu cac dnh trong cay nhi. phan can ba` ng vo i do. cao h v`a f1 , f2 , . . .
l`a day Fibonacci.
(a) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng N = 1, N = 2, v`a N = 4.
0

213

(b) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng Nh = 1 + Nh1 + Nh2 vo.i mo.i h 0.
(c) Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng Nh = fh+2 1 vo.i mo.i h 0.
- i
`eu
13. Ch
u.ng minh r`a ng do. cao h cua cay nhi. phan can ba` ng thoa man h = O(log 2). D
.
.
.
.
n`ay ch ra r`a ng trong tru `o ng ho. p xau nhat, th`o i gian t`m kiem trong cay nhi. phan
can b`a ng n dnh l`a O(log 2).
14. Ch
u.ng minh ra` ng neu cay nhi. phan can ba` ng do. cao h co n 1 dnh th` log n < h + 1.

214

T`
ai li
e.u tham khao
[1] C. Berge, Ly thuyet d`
o thi. v`
au
.ng du.ng, NXB Khoa ho.c v`a k
y thua.t H`a No.i, 1971.
[2] A. Cayley, Collected papers, Quart. Jl. of Mathematics, 13 Cambridge, 26 (1897).
[3] N. Biggs, Discrete mathematic, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1989.
[4] Dijkstra, E. W., A note on two problems in connection with graphs, Numerische Mathematik, 1, 269 (1959).
[5] P. J. Cameron, Combinatorics: topics, techniques, algorithms, Cambridge University
Press, 1994.
[6] N. Deo, Graph theory with applications to engineering and computer science, PrenticeHall Inc., 1974.
[7] R. J. MC Eliece, M. Kac, The theory of information and coding, Addison-Wesley, 1977.
[8] C. M. Goldie, R. G. E. Pinch, Communication theory, Cambridge University Press,
1991.
[9] R. W. Hamming, Coding and information theory, Prentice Hall, 1980.
[10] R. Hill, A first course in coding theory, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1985.
[11] R. Johnsonbaugh, An introduction to discrete mathematic, Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992.
[12] A. R. Kenneth, C. R.B. Wright, Discrete mathematics, Prentice-Hall International Editions, 1978.
[13] Kirchhoff G., in Annalen der Physik and Chemie 72, 497 (1847).
[14] S. Lipschutz, Essential computer mathematic, McGraw-Hill, 1992.
[15] S. Lipschutz, M. L. Lipson,2000 sloved problems in discrete mathematics, McGraw-Hill,
1992.
[16] C. L. Liu, Introduction to combinationnal mathematic, McGraw-Hill, 1985.
215

[17] F. J. MacWilliams, N. J. A. Soane, The theory of error-correcting codes, North-Holland,

1981.
[18] A. A. Michael, A. J. Kfoury, R. N. Moll, D. Gries, A basis for theoretical computer
science, Springer-Verlag NewYork Inc., 1981.
[19] J. G. Michaels, K. H. Rosen, Applications of discrete mathematics, McGraw-Hill, 1991.
[20] Prim R. C., Shortest connection networks and some generalizations, Bell Syst. Tech.
Jl., 36, 1389 (1957).
[21] S. Roman, An introduction to discrete mathematic, Saunders College, 1982.
[22] K. H. Rosen, Discrete mathematics and its applications, McGraw-Hill, 1995.
[23] B. M. Stephen, A. Ralston, Discrete algorithmic mathematics, Addision-Wesley Publishing Company, 1991.
[24] D. Welsh, Codes and cryptography, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1987.

216