AN964

Software PID Control of an Inverted Pendulum Using the PIC16F684

Author: John Charais Ruan Lourens Microchip Technology Inc.

INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this application note is to describe how a PIC16F684 can be used to implement a positional Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) feedback control in an inherently unstable system. An inverted pendulum is used to demonstrate this type of control. The inverted pendulum consists of three main parts: the base platform, the pendulum and the controller board, as shown in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1:

INVERTED PENDULUM

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AN964
BASE PLATFORM
The base platform is a 3-point platform, 2 wheels (one of which is geared and attached to a DC motor) and an audio jack. When the DC motor is turned on, the base platform will rotate around in a circle with the center of the axis of rotation being the audio jack. The audio jack serves 2 purposes; first it is used as the axis of rotation for the base platform and second, it is used to bring commutated power to the controller board.

FIGURE 2:

MOTOR

PENDULUM
The pendulum is attached to the base platform by a 360 free rotating potentiometer. The pendulums base is attached to the potentiometer in such a fashion that when the pendulum is balanced (completely vertical), the potentiometer center tap is biased to VREF/2. For the rest of this application note will be used to denote the displacement angle of the pendulum with respect to the vertical axis.

CONTROLLER BOARD
FIGURE 3: CONTROLLER BOARD

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AN964
The controller board has 2 main functions, to measure and to drive the DC motor. The power supply needed to run the system is dictated by the selection of the motor. The motor is controlled by an H-bridge which is driven by the PIC16F684 Enhanced Capture/Compare/ PWM Module (ECCP). The outputs of the ECCP are connected to FET drivers that produce the proper drive voltages and reduce the transition times for the FETs in the H-bridge. There are 5 potentiometers located on the controller board, 3 of which are used for adjusting the PID constants (KP, KI and KD) and one to measure . The fifth potentiometer is used in conjunction with the input filters reference. The input filter is a low-pass Bessel filter with a cut-off frequency of 60 Hz and has a voltage gain of 6. A low-pass filter is needed to eliminate any high frequency noise on the angle measurement which the derivative term of the PID controller is extremely sensitive to. The Bessel filter is used because it has the best response to a step function. (Once the pendulum is balanced, a sudden displacement that causes it to become unbalanced will look like a step function.) The cut-off frequency was chosen to be at least twice the expected frequency of the pendulum. The gain of the filter was chosen to increase the resolution of the Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter. With the 360 potentiometer and a 10-bit A/D converter, with no gain, one LSb equals 0.35. With the gain set to 6, the displacement angle is limited to 30 which gives a resolution of 0.059 per LSb. The fifth potentiometer controls the input filters reference to produce a true 0 displacement angle when the pendulum is vertical. Without this potentiometer, any slight offset angle will cause the base to slowly increase its speed and eventually take the system into an unstable state. For more information on the controller board, see the schematics in Appendix A: Schematics. The desired set point R(t) of this system occurs when = 0. In this state, the pendulum is balanced. Since the desired response of the system is 0, any angle measured other than 0 is the error or Y(t) = E(t). In implementing the PID controller, there are 3 terms which are based off the error measurement. Proportional Term: KPE(t) where KP is the proportional constant Integral Term: KI E(t)dt KI is the integral 0 constant Derivative Term: KDdE(t)/dt KD is the derivative constant
t

EQUATION 1:
C(t) = KPE(t) + KI

0 E(t)dt + KDdE(t)/dt

In this system, the sign of the controllers output, C(t), will determine the direction in which the motor will turn. The magnitude of C(t) directly corresponds to the duty cycle of the PWM in the ECCP module, determining the speed at which the motor will turn.

PID IN A DIGITAL SYSTEM

Converting over to a digital system, Y(t) is measured by an A/D converter. In order to implement the PID controller, the PICmicro microcontroller will have to do some approximations of integral and derivative terms. Starting with the derivative term, we can use the following difference equations for our approximation.

EQUATION 2:
dE(t)/dt ~ [E(n)-E(n-1)]/Ts Where E(n) is the current error, E(n-1) is the previous error and TS is our sampling period. Equation 2 is the approximate slope of the tangent line at E(t) (rise/run). For the integral term use the approximation in Equation 3.

PID
For the positional PID control system, Figure 4 is used to model the system.

FIGURE 4:

PID CONTROL SYSTEM MODEL

C(t) Motor Output Y(t)

EQUATION 3:

R(t)

E(t)

E(n) 0 E(t)dt ~ Ts 0
t
N

With these approximations we can rewrite C(t) as shown in Equation 4.

Feedback

EQUATION 4:
C(n) = KPE(n) + KITs E(n) + KD[E(n)- E(n-1)]/Ts
N 0

R(t) = Reference of desired set point Y(t) = Measured response E(t) = Error C(t) = Controller response

OR C(n) = K(E(n) + (Ts/TI) E(n) + (TD/Ts)[E(n)- E(n-1)])

0 N

Where KP = K, KI = K/TI & KD = K TD

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AN964
MODELING THE INVERTED PENDULUM
In order to properly implement the control algorithm, the user needs to look at how the mechanical and electrical systems are going to interface together. Dynamic modeling the inverted pendulum is not a simple task. Here are some of the variables which need to be looked at in order to model the system: Bases position Bases velocity Bases acceleration Bases moment of inertia Bases coefficient of friction Bases mass Bases length Earths gravitational constant Pendulums position Pendulums velocity Pendulums moment of inertia Pendulums coefficient of friction Pendulums mass Pendulums length With a pendulum length of 0.5 meters and MAX set to 20 or 0.349 radians. From Equation 5: MAX = (g/R) MAX = (9.81/0.5)0.349 MAX = 6.845 radians/sec2 MAX = 3.425 meters/sec2 The motor used in this system that meets this criterion is from MAXX Products, Inc. The model number is EPU9, with an 8.6 to 1 gear ratio attached to a 2 inch wheel. The rated voltage for this motor is 4.8 to 7.2V, but for this example the motor will run at 12V. This is done to get a better response out of the motor at small duty cycles from the PWM. Running at approximately double the designated input voltage is not a concern because the motor will never be in a constant state where the duty cycle of the PWM is greater than 50%. If finding a motor that meets this criterion is difficult, there are a few solutions. One solution is to decrease MAX in the software or increase the length of the pendulum; this will reduce the maximum acceleration of the pendulum. Another possible solution is to increase the coefficient of friction between the drive wheel and the base. If the motor is of ample size, the coefficient of friction of the drive wheel will be the limiting factor in how fast the base can accelerate. Change the coefficient of friction by changing the drive wheel to a different material or add an abrasive surface to the platform. To get a rough estimate of how fast the PID loop needs to be updated, place an object, similar in length of the pendulum, on end in the palm of one hand and try balancing it. The object may or may not be possible to balance. The shorter the object, the harder it is to balance. In testing this method, the shortest length balanced for a sustained period was 0.5 meters in length. Balancing an object in such a fashion predominantly relies on the sense of sight. Since human vision can only process information at approximately 30 Hz, 30 Hz will be the baseline for the minimum speed the control loop needs to run at. The frequency of the PID control loop is also going to be selected to simplify the math routines. The Integral term, in Equation 3, shows that each error term needs to be multiplied by the sampling period (which is the same as dividing by the sampling frequency). By choosing a sampling frequency in powers of 2s, a very fast divide routine can be done by using the right shift command, where each right shift is a divide by 2. It is very similar for the Derivative term, except the left shift would be used for a multiply by 2. Knowing this, choose 256 Hz as the sampling frequency. This is 8 times faster than the estimated minimum frequency and should allow plenty of room to vary the length of the pendulum, if desired.

In order to simplify all this, use one simple rule of thumb. Select a motor (with proper torque, rpms and gear ratio to the drive wheel) that can accelerate the base platform as fast as the pendulum can fall. The angular acceleration of the pendulum with respect to the displacement angle is:

EQUATION 5:
= (g/R)

Note:

See Appendix B: Derivation of Equation 5 for the derivation of this equation.

Since the acceleration of the pendulum is not constant, use the maximum acceleration of the pendulum when using this rule of thumb. The maximum acceleration of the pendulum will occur when is at the largest angle, the controller will try and correct for (MAX). MAX is controlled by both hardware and software. The hardware boundary for MAX is set by the gain of the Bessel Filter; with a gain of 6, the limit is 30 or 0.523 radians. This can be further limited in the software. The software, accompanying this application note, further limits MAX to 20 or 0.349 radians. This is done to eliminate the possibility of hitting the hardware boundary.

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AN964
C CODE FLOW CHART
The following flow charts show a simplified version of the C code for the inverted pendulum. For a full description of the code, see the AN964 Source Code file.

FIGURE 5:

FLOW CHART
Interrupt Service Routine Reset TMR0

Main Routine Reset of PIC16F684

Initialization Routine

Read Error Angle

Read KP, KI, KD

Set PID Loop Flag

PID Flag set? Yes Calculate Integral Term

No

Error to big? No

Yes

Error to small? No Return

Yes

Clear PID Loop Flag

Limit if too big or small Calculate Deriv. Term Limit if too big or small Sum terms & mult. by KP Set PWM DC & direction

Stop PWM, Reset terms

Shift errors clear PID flag

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AN964
SUBTLETIES IN THE SOFTWARE
The interrupt service routine is used to control the speed of the PID loop. The interrupt service routine is set to run off the Timer0 Interrupt. Timer0 is an 8-bit timer that will increment the TMR0 register every instruction clock. When the TMR0 register overflows, the Timer0 Interrupt Flag is set. The speed at which the interrupt should occur is every 3.9 milliseconds (1/256 Hz). Since we are using the internal 8 MHz internal oscillator, we will have a 2 MHz instruction clock or 0.5 s per instruction. This yields that the interrupt should run every 7812 instructions. By setting the TMR0 prescaler to 32 and reloading 11 into the TMR0 register, in the interrupt service routine, the Timer0 interrupt occurs every 3.9 milliseconds or every 7808 instructions (255-11)*32. As stated previously in this application note, there are 2 basic form of the PID that can be implemented and they are:

FIGURE 6:

C CODE

//Calculate the differential term derivative_term = en0 - en3; if(derivative_term > 120){ derivative_term = 120; } if(derivative_term < -120){ derivative_term = -120; } derivative_term = derivative_term * kd; derivative_term =derivative_term>>5; //divide by 32 } if(derivative_term > 120){ derivative_term = 120; } if(derivative_term> -120){ derivative_term = -120; }

EQUATION 6:
C(n) = KPE(n) + KITs

When the approximation was made for the derivative term, it stated that the approximation would be:

0 0

E(n) + KD[E(n)- E(n-1)]/TS

EQUATION 7: KDdE(t)/dt = TD [E(n)- E(n-1)]/Ts

Where TD = KD/KP By reviewing the code in Figure 6, one can determine that the approximation, shown in Equation 7, is not the approximation used. The actual equation that was used for calculating the derivative term is as follows:

OR

C(n) = K(E(n) + (1/TI)

E(n) + TD[E(n)- E(n-1)]/TS

Where KP = K, KI = K/TI & KD = K TD The later is used because a change in the proportional constant will not affect the pole response of the controller. If variations in the supply voltages were expected, such as battery powered applications, it would be possible to change the proportional constant on the fly to compensate for these supply variations. The relationship to the proportional constant and the supply voltage to the motor would be inversely proportional. The derivative term is crucial in order to bring the inherently unstable system into stability. In any PID control the derivative terms acts as an anticipator. By checking the current error against the previous error, the controller can tell if the error term is getting bigger or smaller. If the error term is getting larger, the derivative term adds to the output of the controller much like that of the proportional and integral terms, but to a lesser effect. If the error term is getting smaller, this term will subtract from the output of the control in anticipation of an overshoot condition. Without the derivative term the system will always be unstable because there is no way to compensate for the overshoot condition. The following is the actual C code used to calculate the derivative term.

EQUATION 8: KDdE(t)/dt = KD [E(n)- E(n-3)]/32

Equation 8 more accurately written would be:

EQUATION 9: KDdE(t) = TD[E(n)- E(n-3)]/(X3Ts) =KD[E(n) -E(n-3)]/(KPX3TS)

Where X is an unknown scaling factor

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AN964
With a 10-bit A/D, KD is measured as an integer between 0 and 1023. The X term allows for a fractional representation of KD, not just a integer. (Similar scaling factors are also used when calculating the integral and proportional terms). The 3*TS comes from the fact that we are tripling our sampling period by using E(n) E(n3) not E(n) E(n-1). Why use E(n) E(n-3) instead of E(n) E(n-1)? The main reason for doing this is to limit the variation in the error angle measurement. There will always be an amount of uncertainty associated with the error measurement, some of which can be attributed to A/D error, Bessel filter throughput, mechanical vibration, etc. Since the uncertainty of the error measurements will be the same for all error terms, this uncertainty can be decreased by effectively tripling the sampling period. The real key is that the derivative term is still updated at 256 Hz rate. Doing so gives the benefit of the slower rate a more accurate derivative term, but at the desired faster sampling rate. The side affect of doing this is adding approximately 4 milliseconds of lag to the derivative term, which in this case is acceptable. KP*X*3*TS has been precalculated to be 32 to increase the speed of the PID loop. 7. Start increasing the KI the same way as KP until the pendulum can be balanced for several seconds under a constant oscillating condition. When the KI is added, the base will now accelerate faster than the pendulum causing to change from a positive angle to a negative angle (or vice versa). The pendulum will begin to fall backwards. The base should change directions and, again, accelerate faster than the pendulum until changes signs and the whole cycle repeats. This is known as the Overshoot condition. Increase KD in the same manner as KP and Ki until the Overshoot condition is gone and the pendulum remains balanced. Once all overshoot is gone, the PID controller is tuned.

8.

9.

CODE CONVERSION TO ASSEMBLY

For those who prefer to program in assembly, there is an assembly file which can be used also. When programming in assembly, it is essential to make sure that the results of the math functions have the proper sign and the math registers never overflow. In order to speed up the PID loop, all the multiply routines have been limited to an 8x8 signed multiply routine with a 16bit signed result. To do this, was measured by the 10bit A/D with the 2 LSb being ignored. The 8-bit A/D result was then converted to an 8-bit signed number by adding 128 decimal and ignoring the carry flag. The constants, KP, KI and KD are all limited to a positive 8bit signed number, or 0-127. Other than these 2 key changes, the assembly program follows the same flow chart as the C code. Note: By limiting the multiply routines to 8x8 bit signed math, the Assembly code can execute the PID loop in approximately 215 s where as the C code takes 1.4 ms.

TUNING THE PID CONTROLLER

Use the following steps to tune the PID constants: 1. Turn the KP, KI and KD potentiometers counter clockwise as far as they will turn. This sets all the constants to zero. Power the device using a 12V (minimum of a 3 amp) power supply. Holding the Reset button down, lift the pendulum to the vertical position and release the Reset button and pendulum at the same time. The pendulum should free fall and the base will not move. This verifies that all constants are properly read as zeros. Increase the KP constant by turning the potentiometer counter clockwise and repeat step 3. Keep repeating steps 3-5 until there is a little oscillation in the base. If the KP term is too small, the base platform will chase the top of the pendulum while continues to increase. KP will be too large if the drive wheel breaks free or the base oscillates at a high rate of speed.

2. 3.

4.

5. 6.

CONCLUSION
By using the PIC16F684 devices ECCP and A/D modules we are able to demonstrate how to implement a positional PID controller to bring an inherently unstable system into stability. The keys to implementing this control is to have a basic understanding of the mechanical system, and identifying the derivative term would be a critical factor in the overall stability of the system. The other keys, with respect to the software, were making sure our registers never overflow, and picking the frequency of the PID loop that is a power of 2 so we could have a fast multiply and divide routine using the left and right shift.

2004 Microchip Technology Inc.

DS00964A-page 7

U3 R5 1K ICSPDATA SENSOR

FIGURE 7:

+5_SWITCHED C9 100 nF MCLR P1A P1B P1C PIC16F684/P +15V C8 100 nF BUTTON VDD RA5/OSC1 RA4/OSC2 RA3/MCLR RC5/ECCP RC4 RC3/AN7 VSS RA0/AN0 RA1/AN1 RA2/AN2 RC0/AN4 RC1/AN5 RC2/AN6

DS00964A-page 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14 13 12 ICSPCLK 11 P-POT 10 I-POT 9 D-POT 8 P1D

AN964

APPENDIX A:

SCHEMATICS

+15V

C1 100 nF +15V 3 Q1:B +15V C7 4 C6 C5 10 pF D3 BAT54S MOTOR C3 10 pF 1 2 J1 1 C4 10 pF 100 pF 6 5 IRF7389 D2 BAT54S C2 10 pF +15V +15V 5 6 100 nF 4 +15V +15V

Q2:B 3 IRF7389 7

6 U2:A TC4428A 3

P1A

P1C R3 100 k

R1 100 k

3 U1:A TC4428A

8 7

P1B 1

Q1:A IRF7389

Q2:A 7 8 IRF7389 2

U2:B 5 TC4428A

R2 100 k

2 5 U1:B TC4428A

P1D R4 100 k

2004 Microchip Technology Inc.

Note 1: 2: 3:

Unless otherwise specified, resistance values are in . Resistors are 5% tolerance. Capacitance values are in F. Device names and numbers shown here are for reference only and may differ from the actual number. Items labeled with A are unpopulated, B are socketed but not populated, and C are socketed and populated.

FIGURE 8:

TP4 +5_SWITCHED

+5V R16 9.1 k MCLR C13 6.8 nF 8 C11 0.1 F 1 2

R32 10 k S1

4 3

Angle Pot. 4 C10 MCP602SN 0.1 F R17 150 k 3 CW 2 1 CCW C14 1 F P-POT R18 150 k +5V 1 F MCP602SN 1.5 k C12 5 SENSOR 75 k

Gnd

CW D-POT

Gnd

2004 Microchip Technology Inc.

+5_SWITCHED R14 6 U4:B 7 R15 TP3 R33 10 k BUTTON TP5 TP6 2 3 U4:A 1 R9 Offset 10 k In-Circuit Serial Programming Header J3 No Connect ICSPCLK ICSPDATA +5_SWITCHED MCLR BFMP I-POT TP1 +15V U8 LM2940S 1 Input TP2 C19 470 F C18 1 F Output 3 C17 22 F R23 2 R8 2 +5_SWITCHED C21 4.7 F +5V C20 4.7 F 1 2 3 4 5 6

J2

+5V

1 2 3

+5V

CW

R27 10 k

R29

CCW

C24

100

0.1 F

+5V

CW

R26 10 k

R30

CCW

C23

100

0.1 F

+5V

R28 10 k

R31

CCW

C22

100

AN964

DS00964A-page 9

0.1 F

AN964
APPENDIX B: DERIVATION OF EQUATION 5
Using 2 unit vectors, i and j to represent the horizontal and vertical vectors respectively, yields the following equations for the pendulum.

The pendulums motion is described in this appendix with one assumption. The assumption is that the pendulum is modeled as a point mass at the end of a massless rod.

EQUATION B-1: Position = Rsini +Rcosj

Where R is the length of the pendulum The pendulums angular velocity is the derivative of the position with respect to .

FIGURE 9:

PENDULUM FREE BODY DIAGRAM

j

i mg T

EQUATION B-2: Velocity = Rcosi Rsinj

The pendulums angular acceleration is the derivative of the angular velocity w.r.t. .

EQUATION B-3: Acceleration = (Rcosi R2sini) (Rsinj + R2cosj) = R(cosi sinj 2sini 2cosj)

From Newtons second law of motion, F = ma where the mass is the point mass of the pendulum and the accelerations is the angular acceleration of Pendulum, this yields Equation 4.

EQUATION B-4: Force = mR(cos i sinj 2sini 2cosj)

With a free body diagram we can see that there are 2 forces acting on the pendulum, the tension from the rod and the force of gravity. This free body diagram yields the following equation.

EQUATION B-5: Force = Tsin i + Tcos j mgj

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AN964
Equate Equation B-4 and Equation B-5:

EQUATION B-6: Tsin i + Tcosj mgj = m R(cos i sin j 2sini 2cosj)

Now separate into 2 different vectors equations and eliminate the vector notation.

EQUATION B-7:

(i Vector)

Tsin = m Rcos mR2sin EQUATION B-8: (j Vector)

Tcos mg = -m Rsin mR2cos

Use these two simultaneous equations to eliminate the unknown T. Multiply Equation B-7 by cos.

EQUATION B-9: Tsincos = m Rcos2 mR2sincos

Multiply Equation B-8 by sin.

EQUATION B-10: Tsincos mgsin = -m Rsin2 mR2sincos

Moving -mgsin to the other side.

EQUATION B-11: Tsincos = mgsin mRsin2 mR2sincos

Equate Equation B-9 and Equation B-11.

EQUATION B-12: m Rcos2 mR2sincos = mgsin mRsin2 mR2sincos

Divide by each side by mR.

EQUATION B-13:

cos2 2sincos = (g/R)sin sin2 2sincos

Collect like term.

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AN964
EQUATION B-14:

(cos2 + sin2) = (g/R)sin

By trigonometric definition cos2 + sin2 = 1 which yields Equation B-15.

EQUATION B-15:

= (g/R)sin
Using the small angle approximation where sin = yields.

EQUATION B-16:

= (g/R)

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2004 Microchip Technology Inc.

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2004 Microchip Technology Inc.

DS00964A-page 13

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EUROPE
Austria - Weis Tel: 43-7242-2244-399 Fax: 43-7242-2244-393 Denmark - Ballerup Tel: 45-4450-2828 Fax: 45-4485-2829 France - Massy Tel: 33-1-69-53-63-20 Fax: 33-1-69-30-90-79 Germany - Ismaning Tel: 49-89-627-144-0 Fax: 49-89-627-144-44 Italy - Milan Tel: 39-0331-742611 Fax: 39-0331-466781 Netherlands - Drunen Tel: 31-416-690399 Fax: 31-416-690340 England - Berkshire Tel: 44-118-921-5869 Fax: 44-118-921-5820

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2004 Microchip Technology Inc.