TheHistoryofIslam APWorldHistoryUnit Overview InthispartofthelessonyouwilllearnaboutthereligionofIslam.Aswiththeotherreligions, youwillsurveyitsoriginsandtracethelifeofMuhammad,theprophetofIslam,andtryto understandhisrolebothasafounderofareligionandastheshaperofanewcommunity.Then youwilldiscoverthefundamentaltenetsoftheIslamicfaithandthemaincomponentsofits doctrinesandpractices.Youwillalsocometoknowofthesacredtextsofthereligion,andofthe firstfewleadersoftheMuslimcommunityafterthedeathofMuhammad.BecauseIslaminthe seventhcenturyspreadthefastestofallfaithsinhistory,youwillexaminethenatureandextent oftheinitialdiffusionofIslam,aswellastheideologicalbasisofitsinteractionwiththeother religionsitencountered.Finally,youwillreviewthemainsectsofIslam. StudyNotes IslamisthereligionpromulgatedinArabiabytheprophetMuhammadintheseventhcentury C.E.

InArabicIslammeanssurrendertoGod,andaMuslimisonewhosubmitscompletelyto thewillofGod.Islamisastrictmonotheism,recognizingnoothergodthanAllah(theArabicfor God),whosemortalprophetwasMuhammad.Islamtodayhasbecomethesecondlargest religiouscommunityintheworld,nextonlytoChristianity.Thevastmajorityofthepeoplein NorthandsubSaharanAfricaandWestandSoutheastAsiaareMuslims.Avastnumberof MuslimsalsoinhabitCentralandSouthAsia.Althoughthisgreatgeographicaldiffusionmeansa significantracialandculturalheterogeneityamongtheMuslims,allofthemareboundbya commonreligionandsenseofbelongingtoasinglespiritualfraternity,auniversalcommunity unitedbyfearofGod. ArabianBackground IslamhasitsoriginintheearlyseventhcenturyArabia.ThepreIslamicerainArabianhistoryis viewedastheAgeofIgnorancebytheMuslims.Tribalismwasataveryadvancedstageof developmentatthetimeMuhammadwaspreachingIslam.Despitedivisivewarfare,thedesert tribesofArabiahadanevolvednomadicvaluesystembasedonhonor,loyalty,courage, hospitality,andmagnanimity.IslamhassubsequentlyattachedgreatsignificancetotheseArab traditionalqualities,hasstronglybolsteredtribalpatriarchism,and,atthesametime,has eradicatedthepaganreligiousbeliefsandpracticesofthepreIslamicnomads.Thepolytheistic practicesofthesepreIslamicbedouinsofthedesert,aswellasstronglocalizedinfluencesof monotheisticreligionslikeJudaismandChristianity,formthereligiousbackgroundofArabiaat theadventofIslam. Thedifferentnomadictribesworshippedtheirowndeitiesandhonoredavarietyofspiritsin sixthcenturyArabia.Awidespreadcultofastral(relatedtoplanetsandstars)deitiesflourished inthesouthernpartoftheArabianpeninsula.AroundMeccathethreedaughtersofAllahthe sungoddess,themorningstar,andthegoddessofdestinywereworshipped.TheJewshada strongpresenceatMedina.TheChristianshadtheirsettlementsinthesoutherncoast,whichalso experiencedZoroastrian(anancientPersianreligionfoundedbyZarathustra)influenceduring theSassanidrulesinceca.575.BothsouthernArabiaandtheimportantcityofMeccawere confluencesofvitaltraderoutes,theformerconnectingEastAfricaandwesternIndia,thelatter withSyriaandtheRedSea.Asaconsequence,thoseregionswerefertilewithforeignreligious ideasthatpercolatedintothedesertheartlandofArabia.

 TheMeccans,besidesveneratingtheKabah,orthegreatBlackStone,practicedidolatryand animism,andworshippedinthesanctuaryseveraldeities,thechiefamongwhomwasHubal,the godofrainandwarfare.ThedevoteesofthisgodofferedthestrongestoppositiontoMuhammad whenhepreachedtheuncompromisingmonotheismofIslam.Oneofthefirsticonoclastic(idol breaking)actsofIslamwasMuhammadsdestructionofmostoftheidolsandimagesofdeitiesin thesanctuariesofMecca,whenthecityfellintohispower.Meccaisthemostsacredcityofthe Muslims,asJerusalemisoftheJews,andAmritsarisoftheSikhs. TheProphet Muhammad,theprophetofIslam,wasbornintheQurayshtribeatMeccainca.570.Bornafter hisfathersdeath,Muhammadlosthismotherattheageofsix,andwasrearedbyhispaternal uncle.Asayouth,heparticipatedinthecaravantradewithSyria.Inca.595,hemarriedaformer employerandrichwidow,Khadijah,whoborehimseveralchildren.ThebestknownisFatimah, whowasmarriedtoMuhammadscousin,Ali,regardedbytheShiaMuslimsasMuhammads truesuccessor. MuhammadhadareflectivestateofmindandusedtoretireperiodicallytoahillnearMeccafor solitarycontemplation.Duringonesuchperiod,inca.610,heissaidtohaveavisionofthe archangelGabriel,whotoldhimthathewastheMessengerofGod.ThusMuhammadbecamean apostleofGod,ortheProphet.Henceforth,untilhisdeath,Muhammadreceived,fromtimeto time,divinerevelationsthatwereeithermemorizedortranscribeduntiltheirfinalcollectionin writtenform,intheshapeoftheQuran(alsospelledKoran),inca.650.Muhammadisconsidered bytheMuslimstobethelastofaseriesofprophets(intheJudeoChristiantradition)who completesandperfectsallpreviousrevelations.TheQuranisheldbytheMuslimstobedirectly emanatingfromGod.Assuch,itisinfallible,eternal,complete,andperfect,andmostdefinitely notaproductofMuhammadsowncomposition.TheQuranisthereforeconsideredtobebeyond theinfluenceofthecircumstancesofitsrevelation.Also,asitenshrineswithinitselftheultimate wordofGodasrevealedtoHislastandgreatestprophet,theQurancannotbemodifiedor supersededbyanyfuturescriptureclaimingdivineorigins. Atthebeginning,Muhammadcommunicatedhisrevelationstohismostintimaterelativesand friends,butfromca.613hebegantopreachpublicly.Soonhisteachingsencounteredopposition fromtheinfluentialpolytheisticmercantiletribesatMecca.Fromca.615onward,Muhammad facedcontinuedhostilityandpersecution.Thesituationgraduallybecamesoinimicalfor Muhammadthatin622hewasobligedtofleeMeccaforthefriendlieroasistownofMedina.This istheHijrah,oremigration(Latin,Hegira),aneventcelebratedtraditionallyasthebeginningof Islamichistory.TheIslamicEra(AH,orAnnoHegirae)alsobeginsonthefirstdayoftheArabic yearinwhichthehijrahoccurred,whichwas16July622. AperiodofhostilitybetweenMeccaandMedinaensuedwhenMeccancaravansweresubjected repeatedlytoraidsofvaryingdegreesofsuccess.IncreasingnumbersofArabiantribespeople, amongthem,notablyMeccans,convertedtoIslam,thusaffordingasignificantaccretionto Muhammadspowerandcontroloverhisfollowers.Afterprotractedbutindecisivefighting, Muhammadmarchedin630onMecca,whichcapitulatedvirtuallywithoutresistancetothe triumphantprophetandhisfollowers.Finally,thevictoryattheBattleofHunaynoverhostile tribesmeninthesameyearestablishedMuhammadastheunifierofArabiaanditsmost powerfulmanofreligionandarms.

 By630,Islamhadattainedadefinitedoctrinalformandestablishedanincreasinglyfirm influenceoverArabia.Muhammadenjoyed,atleastnominally,theallianceofthemostpowerful nomadictribesinthepeninsula,whilehisseriesofmarriagesintoseveraltribesstrengthenedhis tieswiththem.In630,astheheadofapanArabicIslamicconfederacy,hewagedagreatraidon theSyrianborder,whichsettheexampleofthegreatmilitaryexpansionbyhisfollowersafterhis death,aswellastheirsubsequentpoliticalarrangementswithconquerednonbelievers. Meanwhile,thedefeatofthePersiansbytheByzantineEmpirein627628createdaclimate favorableforthesubsequentconquestofSyriaandIraq. WhenMuhammaddiedin632atMedina,hehadpoliticallyunitedalmosttheentireArabia underthebannerofhisreligion.Personally,bydintofhisforceofcharacterandcharmof personality,MuhammadbecamefortheIslamiccommunityanidealofhumanvirtues,amost importantlocusofinspirationandadmirationforallMuslims. TheCreed TheteachingsofMuhammadwithafewmodificationsbecamethecreedofIslam,whose fundamentaltenetsoffaitharetranscribedintheQuran.ThefollowerofthefaithisaMuslimor submitter,whosurrenderstoandobeys,inacompleteandunqualifiedmanner,Allah,orGod. GodswillwasrevealedthroughMuhammad,Hislastmessenger;throughtheangels;and throughtheQuran,Hislastrevelation.TheQuran,astheholiestbookoftheMuslims,doesnot concernitselfwiththesubtletiesandcomplexitiesofmetaphysicsandethics,butlaysdown simplebutdefiniterulesofdailypracticethatensuresalvationforthebeliever.Mostofthe articlesoftheIslamicfaithareconcernedwithdoctrine,religiousduty,andcorrectconduct. TheQuranstatesthefivefundamentalbeliefsoftheMuslims: 1.Intheabsoluteoneness,omnipotence(allpowerfulness)andtranscendence(surpassing nature)ofGod2.intheexistenceofangels 3.Inrevealedscripturestransmittedtotheworldbydivinemessengers,thelastofwhomis Muhammad 4.IntheLastDay,whentheultimatedivinejudgmentisdispensedtoall 5.Intheeternalomniscience(allknowingness)ofGod Althoughhumanbeingsareaccordedthepowerofchoiceoverindividualactions,everything everywhereoccursonlywithdivineforeknowledgeandpredetermination.Thecentraltenetof theIslamicfaithisthemostimportantformulainitstheology:ThereisnogodbutAllah,and MuhammadistheProphetofAllah.Godisone,wholeandsupreme,omniscientand omnipotent.Heisthesolecreatoroftheuniverse,andtheonlyarbiterofthefateofallbeingson theJudgmentDay.Hiswilldetermineseverythingbutisincomprehensible,andHismercyis unsurpassedtothosewhosubmittoitwithenthusiasmandwithoutquestioning. IslamvigorouslyrepudiatestheTrinitarianismofChristianity,orthebeliefinthreeprinciplesof divinityinonesubstance.AccordingtoIslam,onlyhumanbeingsarecapableofbeingethical, andtherefore,areGodsgreatestcreation.Thereasonforhumanexistenceistheirunquestioning

serviceandcompleteobediencetothedivinewill.ThecardinalsininIslamisthepridethatleads humanbeingstocommittheultimateviolationoffaith,whichisascribingtooneselfanydivine quality. Asnotedabove,accordingtoMuslims,Muhammadisthelast,greatest,andmostperfectofall theprophetsofGodwhobearHiswitnessandmessage.TheearlierJudeoChristianprophetsof theHebrewandChristianbiblesfigureslikeAdam,Noah,Abraham,Joseph,Moses,David, Solomon,Elijah,Job,Jonah,JohntheBaptist,theVirginMary,andJesusarerecognizedas messengersofGod.ButMuhammadhasthehighestwisdomandauthority,andhisrevelationis themostcompleteandthemostperfect.TheQuran,revealedonlytoMuhammadthroughthe angelGabriel,istheundistortedandinfalliblewordofAllahtotheworld,anditistheconviction ofeveryMuslimthattheQuranistheearthlyreproductionoftheoriginalandeternaldivine scrolltranscribedinthecelestialrealmsinthelanguageofheaven. LikeChristianity,Islamalsobelievesinevilspirits,angels,theDevil,andtheLastJudgment. DespiteindignantrejectionoftheideabyMuslims,theIslamicdoctrineswerelikelyinfluenced byJudaism,Zoroastrianism,andChristianity.Besidesacceptingtheprophetsandpatriarchsof theHebrewBible,Islamhasaworldviewthatperceivesaninherentdualrealism(thatofgood andevil)intheworldthatisnotunlikeZoroastrianism.ThusIslamsharplydividesrealityintoa transcendent(here,meaningotherworldly),sacredsphereofspirituality,andopposedtoit,the phenomenal,profaneworldofmundanelife.Atthesuperhumanlevel,too,Gabrielisthe supremeangelwhorevealedGodswordtoMuhammad,andtheDevilisthefallenangelwho temptshumanbeingsastray.OntheJudgmentDay,allthedeadsoulswakeupatthetrumpets callandassemblebeforethethroneofAllah,whodispatchesthem(whilemercifullyredeeming certainsinners)toeitherheavenorhell,accordingtothenatureoftheirpastdeeds. HeavenandhellaredepictedvividlyintheQuran.Hellistheplacereservedfornonbelievers, apostates(whoabandonsfaith),andsinnersahorribleregionofperpetualpainandtorment.By contrast,believers,martyrs,andthepiousfindtheirpermanentabodeinheaven,whichissimilar toagardenparadise,wheretheycanconsumethebestoffruitsandwines,andconsummatewith beautiful,virginalfairies. FivePillarsoftheFaith Apartfromdoctrine,religiousdutyandrightconductaretheotherthemesofarticlesofthe Islamicfaith.ThemostfundamentalaspectofthereligiousdutiesprescribedbyIslamistheFive PillarsofObservanceofthefaith.EveryMuslimhastoobserveandupholdtheseFivePillars: 1.Repetitionofthecreed; 2.Prayerfivetimesaday; 3.Givingtocharity; 4.FastingduringdaytimeduringthemonthofRamadan 5.PilgrimagetoMecca,atleastonceinlife,ifpossible SincetheFivePillarsconstitutethemostfundamentalaspectofthepracticeoftheIslamicfaith,

theymeritsomediscussion.First,everyMuslimhastoconfesshisfaithbyrepeatinghiscreedal formulaseveraltimes.Thisisactuallyastatementreferredtoearlier,involvingtheaffirmationin theunityofgodhoodandtheprophethoodofMuhammad.Itcannotbeoveremphasizedthat monotheismisthemostinviolabletenetofIslamicdoctrine,andpolytheismthemostheinousact. Second,fivetimesadayadevoutMuslimbowsdown,individuallyoratcongregations,toward thedirectionofMecca,andofferstoAllahaversefromtheQuranthatexpressespraiseand confirmssubmissiontoHim.Everyweek,publicprayerisreservedforFriday,whenalladult malesassembleinthecourtyardofthemosquetoofferritualprayer.Thisisdoneunderthe guidanceofthelocalreligiousleader(whoisnotapriest,asIslamhasnoofficialclergy),whose dutyistoadministertheprayerserviceanddeliverthesermon. Third,apiousMuslimhastodonateapermanenttax(rangingfromonefortiethtoonetenthof hisassets)involuntarycharitytothepoororasdonationsforpurposesofreligiouspiety.Thisis calledzakat,andwasonceuniversallyobligatory.Itisquitedifferentfromtributeexactedfrom theunconverted,protected,nonMuslimcommunityinanIslamiccountry. Fourth,duringRamadan,theninthmonthintheIslamiccalendar,allMuslims,ifphysicallyable todoso,areobligedtoabstainfromeatinganddrinkingbetweendaybreakandsundown.They are,however,inallcases,requiredtodesistfromusinganyperfume,consuminganyintoxicant, andfromindulginginsexualactivities.Theyarealsoencouragedtofeedapoorpersondaily duringtheperiod,ifaffordable. Fifthandlast,atleastonceinalifetime,everyMuslim,unlessconstrainedbyimpossible circumstances,isexpectedtomakeapilgrimage(hajj)totheholycityofMeccaduringthetenth andlastIslamicmonth.Duringthepilgrimage,whichismadeeachyearbymillions,devout pilgrimsobservecertainceremonies,includingwalkinginaseamlesswhitegarmentseventimes aroundtheveneratedshrineoftheKabah. CodeofConduct Besidesstrictinjunctionsonreligiousdoctrineandduty,Islamhascomprehensiveandvery categoricalrulesregardingcorrectbehaviorthatisexpectedofeveryMuslim.Strictobservanceof theIslamiccodeofrightconductisalmostasimportantforachievingsalvationforaMuslimas obeyingGodswill.ThemoralcodethuslaiddowninIslamicscriptureswasoriginallyintended toforgeafraternityoffaithfulsfromaseventhcenturytribal,nomadicsocietycharacterizedby polytheismandendemicstrife.Thelawsofconductwere,consequently,notonlytoreform society,butalsotoregulateofalmosteveryact,individualandsocial,frombirthtodeath,of everyMuslim.AccordingtoIslamiclaws,orphanscannotbedeniedtheirinheritance,amancan havefourwives,drinkingalcoholandgamblingareprohibited,andconsumptionofcertain kindsofmeat,includingpork,isstrictlyforbidden. TheHolyTexts Again,theQuranisthemostsacredandfundamentalIslamicreligioustext.Itisbelievedtobe thehighestrevelationthetruewordofGodgiventoMuhammadbytheangelGabriel.Assuch, itfulfillsandperfects,accordingtotheMuslims,allotherpreviousandpartialrevelationsknown totheworldthroughprophetsactingasGodsmessengers. BesidestheQuran,themostimportantIslamiccanonisthebodyofliteratureknownasthe

Hadith(pluraltermAhadith),acompilationofthesayingsanddoingsoftheprophet, Muhammad,aspassedonbytradition.TheHadithconsistsofauthenticatedrecollectionofthe wordsandactionsofMuhammadandhisclosecompanionsoraspracticedincontemporary Medina.ThustheHadithisanauthoritythatprescribesguidelinesforauniversalIslamicbodyof socialprecedentsandconventions. TheentirebodyofaccumulatedHadithmaterialcomprisetheSunna.ThenumberoftheHadith collectionmultipliedingenerations,numberinginthousands,anditisanintellectualpursuit amongMuslimtheologicalscholarstosiftandweigheveryminutiaeoftheencyclopedic evidencetojudgetheirvalueandauthenticity,andinterpretthemaccurately. LiketheQuran,theSharia,orLawofIslam,isconsideredtoemanatefromGod.TheSharia delineateswithgreatprecisionregulationsaboutindividualandsocialconduct.Italso determinestheworldviewofthefaithfulthroughouttheIslamicworld.Althoughthereare differentschoolsofIslamicjurisprudence,theSharialaw,eventoday,pervadesalmostevery aspectofhumanlifeandbehaviorinanIslamiccountry.Itregulatesnotonlyindividualpractices ofdietanddress,butalsointerpersonalsocialrelationships.Itlaysdownstrictinjunctionson penal,transactional,familial,andinheritancelaws,whichoverthecenturieshaveundergone considerablereforms. TheSpreadoftheFaith Muhammad,thefounderofIslam,hadforgedthenomadicArabsintoacohesivefightingforce unitedbyabondofcommonreligionandinstilledwithanundyingzealtoconquertheworld andconverthumanitytothefaith.TheprophetsmarchtotheborderofSyriain630lefthis followerspoisedforterritorialexpansionbeyondthearidArabianpeninsula.Theparticular ethosofthecreed,fusingtogetherspiritualandsecularaspectsoflife,aswellasits uncompromisingattitudetowardotherreligions,wereexpressedinitsofficialpolicyofconquest ofthelandsofnonbelievers. Islammakesadistinctionamongfollowersofotherreligions.Theleastobjectionableformof infidelityisbeingpracticedbythesocalledPeopleoftheBook,whoareguiltynotofan absolutedenialoftruthasrevealedbytheQuranbutofapartialperversionofit.Thisstatusof thePeopleoftheBookwasoriginallyreservedfortheJewsandtheChristians,andlater,the Zoroastrians,theBuddhists,andimplicitly,forthesakeofpoliticalexpediency,eventhe idolatrousHindus.Uponagreeingtofollowtheirownreligionquietlyandpayingacompulsory polltaxcalledthejizyah,nonMuslimsubjectscouldsometimesbecomeprotectedcommunityor dhimmi.Onlyinthismannercouldtheytechnicallyreceiveanyprotectionofpersonand propertyinanIslamicstate. ForMuslims,anincumbentreligiousdutycommissionedofMuslimsbyGodistopersistinholy crusade,orjihad,forthepurposeofbringingtheentireworldultimatelyunderIslam.Jihadis generallyviewed(althoughnotuniversallypracticedforpracticalreasons)bytheMuslim communityassacredwarfaretoconvertthedarulharb(alandofwarfare,ormoreprecisely, anyinfidelcountrynotyetunderthesecureruleoftheSharia)intotheuniversaldarulIslam (landofIslamor,morespecifically,thepartoftheworldwheretheedictsofIslamarefully promulgated).ThisdoctrineprovidedtheMuslimswiththeirideologyforterritorialconquest andreligiousconversionbeyondArabia.

However,militarysubjugationalonedidnotbringthevastvarietyofracesandculturesintothe foldofIslam.MissionaryactivitiesoftheSufis,ormystics,spreadIslaminsubSaharanAfrica, Turkey,SouthandCentralAsia,whileMuslimmerchantstransportedtheirfaiththroughthe longSilkRoadtoChina,andthroughtheIndianOceantoSoutheastAsia. YetIslamowesitswidespreadconquestsandmillionsofconvertsduringthefirstfewcenturies ofitsphenomenalexpansionlargelytothesword.WithintwodecadesofMuhammadsdeath, Islamforgeditsfirstempire,which,inthecourseofalittlemorethanahundredyears,stretched fromSpaininthewesttoCentralAsiaintheeast,withArabic,thelanguageoftheQuranasthe linguafrancaintheconqueredlands.First,in640,thearmsofIslamconqueredSyriafromthe RomanEmpire,markingaseriesofspectacularmilitaryandpoliticalsuccesses.TheSassanid EmpireofPersiafellin651;butbythattimePalestine,Lebanon,Egypt,andLibyawerealready underIslamicdominion.WithinanothertwentyyearstheMuslimshadoccupiedAlgeriaand Morocco,andwithinafurtherforty,invadedSpaininthewestandIndiaintheeast.By751, CentralAsiaasfarasTashkentwasunderthebannerofIslam. Inthewest,theMuslimsadvancedasfarasTours,wherein732theywerebeatenbackbya ChristianarmyledbyCharlesMartel.ThentheyspreadtosouthernFrance,northernItaly, Corsica,andSardinia,fromwheretheywithdrewonlyduringthemiddleoftheeleventhcentury. AlthoughtheMuslimdominanceinsouthwesternEuropedeclinedfromthemiddleofthetenth centuryonward,theywerenotcompletelyousteduntil1492withthefalloftheirstrongholdat GranadainSpain. Bytheendoftheseventhcenturyintheeast,theMuslimshadoccupiedAfghanistan.By715they conqueredChineseTurkestan,andin1206,afteralongseriesofinvasions,theyestablisheda Sultanate(empireunderaSultan)innorthernIndia.Moreover,Islamcontributedtothe downfalloftheEasternRoman(Byzantine)EmpirewithitsfinalcaptureofConstantinople (modernIstanbul)in1453. Shiaism TodaytheMuslimcommunity,orummah,comprisesmanysects,theprincipalamongwhichare theSunni,ortraditionalists,whoconstitutethemajorityofthefaithfuls,andtheminorityShia,or legitimists.Nowadays,theShiaMuslimsaremostlyfoundinIran,Iraq,andtheIndian subcontinent.ThesplitbetweenthetwopartiesoccurredalmostimmediatelyafterMuhammads deathin632,overthequestionofleadershipintheIslamicworldastheprophethimselfhad designatednosuccessor.Subsequently,therealsodeveloped,inthecourseofcenturies, substantialtheologicaldifferencesbetweenthesetwomainsectsofIslam. AssoonasMuhammaddied,theinhabitantsofMedina,atthebehestoftheclosestkinsmenof theprophetstribe(theQuraysh),consentedtoelectAbuBakr,fatheroftheprophetsfavorite survivingwife,Aishah,asthesuccessor(Khalifah,hencecaliph)ofMuhammad,andthespiritual andtemporalleaderoftheMuslimcommunity.Theyoverlookedtheclaimsoftheprophets actuallypreferredsuccessor,Ali,husbandofhisdaughter,Fatimah,hisonlysurvivingoffspring. TheShias,orpartisansofAli,reluctantlyacceptedthisforthesakeofunityinthecommunityof believers.AbuBakr(632634)wassucceededatMedinabyUmarI(634644),andUthman(644 656). AftertheassassinationofUthmanduringaperiodofcivilstrife,Ali(656661)becamethefourth

caliph,butsoonanopenschismoccurredwithinthereligiouscommunityoverhissuccession.By 661,Alihimselfwasassassinated,andthecaliphatewastakenbyhisrival,amemberof UthmansUmayyadclan. TheUmayyadcaliphateruledfromDamascusuntil750,supportedbythemajorityofMuslims.It wasopposedbythedissentingShias,whoclaimedtheirloyaltytothedescendantsofAli,and soughttherestorationofthecaliphatetothem.TheShiasmaintainthatthetruesuccessorsofAli werehistwomurderedsons,Hasan(d.669)andHusayn(d.680).Accordingtothem,after Muhammadsdeath,therehavebeentwelveholyimams,ordivinelyappointedandguided,and exemplary,spiritualleaders.Theseimamsareentirelyimmunefromanysinorerrorand continuethetraditionofprophethoodineveryrespectexceptinsofarastheycannotformulatea newscriptureaftertheQuran. TheShiasconsidertheseimamsasthebestowersofthetrueandsecretmeaningoftheQuran, andtheonlylegitimatesuccessorsofMuhammad,andholdthevastmajorityoftheMuslims(the Sunnis)tobeapostaticforfailingtorecognizethemassuch.Ali,Hasan,andHusaynarethefirst threeimams,whilethetwelfthandlastimam,theMahdi,isbelievedbytheShiastobetheruler oftheworld.TheMahdidisappearedin941,buthewillreappearatatimewhenitwillbe necessarytodestroyalltheevilsoftheworldandestablishtheruleofjusticeinperfectaccord withthedivinelaw.Meanwhile,theShiadivinesinterpretdoctrineandlawpresumablyunder theguidanceofthedisappearedimam. Sunnism IncontrasttoShiaism,SunnismisthepathoftheconsolidatedmajorityoftheMuslim community,andtheSunnisconsidertheShiasashavingafluiddoctrineandbelongingtoa peripheralsectwithintheMuslimcommunity.Sunnismiscatholic(thatis,universal)bynature, andtheologically,themoreorthodoxofthetwo.ThemostimportantformulatorsoftheSunni creedandtheologysoughttocompromisebetweendivineomnipotenceandhumanfreewill. OtherSects Shiaismhas,overthecenturies,producedavarietyofsectsoutofitself;thetwomostimportant duringthefirstfivehundredyearsaretheIsmailisandtheDruze.Bothareconsideredheterodox bysomeandhaveconsiderablenumberofadherentseventoday.TheIsmailisrecognizeIsmail (theelderbrotheroftheShiaimam,Musa)astheseventhimam,insteadofMusa,andupholdthe legitimacyofthedescendantsofIsmail.SomeIsmailis,calledtheSabiyahsortheSeveners, believeIsmailtobethelastoftheimams.TheIsmailisbecameprominentintheninthcentury, andtheirteachingsspreadfromtheNiletotheIndusRiver. TheIsmailiFatimiddynastyruledinEgyptbetween969and1171.TheFatimidcaliph,alHakim oftheeleventhcentury,hasbeendeifiedbyacult,themembersofwhichareknownasthe Druzes,whonowlivemostlyinLebanon,andwhoaresometimesregardedasasect independentofIslam. Sufism,orIslamicMysticism MysticisminIslamaroseoutoftheearlyIslamicasceticism,whichrepudiatedtheincreasing worldlinessoftheUmayyaddynasty.Italsosoughttodiscoverthetruthoftheultimate knowledgenotthroughlegalisticreligiouspracticesbutthroughcultivationoftheinnerlifeand directpersonalexperienceofGod.Byseekingtoexperiencetheinfinitudeofdivineloveand

wisdominthisworld,thesemysticshavestrivedtoattaintheirownpersonalcomprehensionof theinnertruthofIslam.Withtherealizationofdivinepresenceasitsspiritualgoal,Sufism focusesonesotericspiritualknowledgeandcommunionwithGodasmeansofpersonal salvation. SufismisananglicizedexpressionfortheIslamicmystic,Sufi(anasceticwhousuallyworea garmentofcoarsewoolorSuf,inearlymedievalArabic).Fakir(fromArabicfaqir)anddervish (fromPersiandarvish)arealsoEnglishwords,synonymouswithpoorSufis.Sufismderivessome ofitsrootsfromearlyChristianmysticism,calledGnosticism(itsprincipleofintuitive knowledge),Buddhism(itsritualsofmeditativecontemplationandchantingofprayers),and Hinduism(itstrendsofpantheismandlovingdevotiontoapersonalGod). Sinceitsinception,Sufismhasemphasizedstrongdevotionalismandasceticism,witha correspondingabnegationofbothreligioustechnicalitiesandmaterialism.Rabiyah,alateeighth centurywomanfromBasra(inmodernIraq),firstformulatedthemysticalSufiidealofatotally selflessloveof,anddevotionto,God.FromthisstemmedtheeighthcenturySufialBistamis doctrineofannihilation(thatis,ofthehumanselfinGod). PerhapsthemostcelebratedamongtheSufisisthepoetmystic,MansuralHallaj,whowas executedin922inBaghdad,becomingthustheIslamicmartyrofloveparexcellenceforuttering, IamtheCreativeTruth(oftenrenderedasIamGod),anapparentlyblasphemousphrasein Islam,butreallyanexpressionofpantheisticvisionofamanintoxicatedbythedivinespirit. TheSufishavecreatedtheirownextensiveliterature,developedtheirownhierarchyofsaints, andevolvedtheirownfraternalorderswithdistinctivedisciplinesandrituals.Throughoutthe Islamicworld,fromMoroccotoIndonesia,theSufisareresponsibleforshapingpartsofthe Islamicsocietybymeansoftheattractionoftheirmysticalbeliefsanddiversepractices(like saintworship,performanceofmiracles,includinghealing,andadaptationoflocal,evennon Muslimcustom). TheSufisalsohavegreatlycontributedtolargescaleconversionofnonbelieversintotheIslam faith,bydintoftheirlocalinfluenceandspiritofaccommodation.Besides,theyhaveexerted strongpoliticalinfluence,assomeSufiordersextendedIslamizationinmoderntimestopartsof westernAfricaandcentralAsia. Yet,theirreligiouspiety,faithindivinelove,andvenerationoftheprophethaveremained perennialhallmarksoftheircreed.TheSufispiritualheritageispreservedatpresentby individuals,andintheWesternworldandamongnonIslamicpeoples.Lastly,Sufismhas permeatedmostoftherichPersianliterature,andagreatpartofanequallyrichArabicliterature. GeneralCharacteristicsofIslamicCivilization Islamwasdestinedtobecomeaworldreligionandtocreateacivilizationwhichstretchedfrom oneendoftheglobetotheother.AlreadyduringtheearlyMuslimcaliphates,firsttheArabs, thenthePersiansandlatertheTurkssetabouttocreateclassicalIslamiccivilization.Later,inthe 13thcentury,bothAfricaandIndiabecamegreatcentersofIslamiccivilizationandsoon

thereafterMuslimkingdomswereestablishedintheMalayIndonesianworldwhileChinese MuslimsflourishedthroughoutChina. Globalreligion Islamisareligionforallpeoplefromwhateverraceorbackgroundtheymightbe.Thatiswhy Islamiccivilizationisbasedonaunitywhichstandscompletelyagainstanyracialorethnic discrimination.SuchmajorracialandethnicgroupsastheArabs,Persians,Turks,Africans, Indians,ChineseandMalaysinadditiontonumeroussmallerunitsembracedIslamand contributedtothebuildingofIslamiccivilization.Moreover,Islamwasnotopposedtolearning fromtheearliercivilizationsandincorporatingtheirscience,learning,andcultureintoitsown worldview,aslongastheydidnotopposetheprinciplesofIslam.Eachethnicandracialgroup whichembracedIslammadeitscontributiontotheoneIslamiccivilizationtowhicheveryone belonged.Thesenseofbrotherhoodandsisterhoodwassomuchemphasizedthatitovercameall localattachmentstoaparticulartribe,race,orlanguageallofwhichbecamesubservienttothe universalbrotherhoodandsisterhoodofIslam.TheglobalcivilizationthuscreatedbyIslam permittedpeopleofdiverseethnicbackgroundstoworktogetherincultivatingvariousartsand sciences.AlthoughthecivilizationwasprofoundlyIslamic,evennonMuslimpeopleofthe bookparticipatedintheintellectualactivitywhosefruitsbelongedtoeveryone.Thescientific climatewasreminiscentofthepresentsituationinAmericawherescientistsandmenandwomen oflearningfromallovertheworldareactiveintheadvancementofknowledgewhichbelongsto everyone.TheglobalcivilizationcreatedbyIslamalsosucceededinactivatingthemindand thoughtofthepeoplewhoentereditsfold.AsaresultofIslam,thenomadicArabsbecametorch bearersofscienceandlearning.ThePersianswhohadcreatedagreatcivilizationbeforetherise ofIslamneverthelessproducedmuchmorescienceandlearningintheIslamicperiodthan before.ThesamecanbesaidoftheTurksandotherpeopleswhoembracedIslam.Thereligionof Islamwasitselfresponsiblenotonlyforthecreationofaworldcivilizationinwhichpeopleof manydifferentethnicbackgroundsparticipated,butitplayedacentralroleindeveloping intellectualandculturallifeonascalenotseenbefore.ForsomeeighthundredyearsArabic remainedthemajorintellectualandscientificlanguageoftheworld.Duringthecenturies followingtheriseofIslam,MuslimdynastiesrulinginvariouspartsoftheIslamicworldbore witnesstothefloweringofIslamiccultureandthought.Infactthistraditionofintellectual activitywaseclipsedonlyatthebeginningofmoderntimesasaresultoftheweakeningoffaith amongMuslimscombinedwithexternaldomination.Andtodaythisactivityhasbegunanewin manypartsoftheIslamicworldnowthattheMuslimshaveregainedtheirpolitical independence. ABriefHistoryofIslam,TheRightlyGuidedCaliphs UponthedeathoftheProphet,AbuBakr,thefriendoftheProphetandthefirstadultmaleto embraceIslam,becamecaliph.AbuBakrruledfortwoyearstobesucceededbyUmarwhowas caliphforadecadeandduringwhoseruleIslamspreadextensivelyeastandwestconqueringthe Persianempire,SyriaandEgypt.ItwasUmarwhomarchedonfootattheendoftheMuslim armyintoJerusalemandorderedtheprotectionofChristiansites.Umaralsoestablishedthefirst publictreasuryandasophisticatedfinancialadministration.Heestablishedmanyofthebasic practicesofIslamicgovernment.UmarwassucceededbyUthmanwhoruledforsometwelve yearsduringwhichtimetheIslamicexpansioncontinued.Heisalsoknownasthecaliphwho hadthedefinitivetextoftheNobleQurancopiedandsenttothefourcornersoftheIslamic world.HewasinturnsucceededbyAliwhoisknowntothisdayforhiseloquentsermonsand

letters,andalsoforhisbravery.Withhisdeaththeruleoftherightlyguidedcaliphs,whohold aspecialplaceofrespectintheheartsofMuslims,cametoanend. Umayyad TheUmayyadcaliphateestablishedin661wastolastforaboutacentury.Duringthistime DamascusbecamethecapitalofanIslamicworldwhichstretchedfromthewesternbordersof ChinatosouthernFrance.NotonlydidtheIslamicconquestscontinueduringthisperiod throughNorthAfricatoSpainandFranceintheWestandtoSind,CentralAsiaandTransoxiana intheEast,butthebasicsocialandlegalinstitutionsofthenewlyfoundedIslamicworldwere established. Abbasids TheAbbasids,whosucceededtheUmayyads,shiftedthecapitaltoBaghdadwhichsoon developedintoanincomparablecenteroflearningandcultureaswellastheadministrativeand politicalheartofavastworld.Theyruledforover500yearsbutgraduallytheirpowerwaned andtheyremainedonlysymbolicrulersbestowinglegitimacyuponvarioussultansandprinces whowieldedactualmilitarypower.TheAbbasidcaliphatewasfinallyabolishedwhenHulagu, theMongolruler,capturedBaghdadin1258,destroyingmuchofthecityincludingits incomparablelibraries.WhiletheAbbasidsruledinBaghdad,anumberofpowerfuldynasties suchastheFatimids,AyyubidsandMamluksheldpowerinEgypt,SyriaandPalestine.Themost importanteventinthisareaasfarastherelationbetweenIslamandtheWesternworldwas concernedwastheseriesofCrusadesdeclaredbythePopeandespousedbyvariousEuropean kings.Thepurpose,althoughpolitical,wasoutwardlytorecapturetheHolyLandandespecially JerusalemforChristianity.AlthoughtherewasatthebeginningsomesuccessandlocalEuropean rulewassetupinpartsofSyriaandPalestine,Muslimsfinallyprevailedandin1187Saladin,the greatMuslimleader,recapturedJerusalemanddefeatedtheCrusaders. NorthAfricaandSpain WhentheAbbasidscapturedDamascus,oneoftheUmayyadprincesescapedandmadethelong journeyfromtheretoSpaintofoundUmayyadrulethere,thusbeginningthegoldenageofIslam inSpain.CordobawasestablishedasthecapitalandsoonbecameEuropesgreatestcitynotonly inpopulationbutfromthepointofviewofitsculturalandintellectuallife.TheUmayyadsruled overtwocenturiesuntiltheyweakenedandwerereplacedbylocalrulers.MeanwhileinNorth Africa,variouslocaldynastiesheldswayuntiltwopowerfulBerberdynastiessucceededin unitingmuchofNorthAfricaandalsoSpaininthe12thand13thcenturies.Afterthemthisarea wasruledonceagainbylocaldynastiessuchastheSharifidsofMoroccowhostillruleinthat country.AsforSpainitself,MuslimpowercontinuedtowaneuntilthelastMuslimdynastywas defeatedinGranadain1492thusbringingnearlyeighthundredyearsofMuslimruleinSpainto anend. IslamicHistoryaftertheMongolInvasion TheMongolsdevastatedtheeasternlandsofIslamandruledfromtheSinaiDeserttoIndiafora century.ButtheysoonconvertedtoIslamandbecameknownastheIlKhanids.Theywerein turnsucceededbyTimurandhisdescendentswhomadeSamarqandtheircapitalandruledfrom 1369to1500.ThesuddenriseofTimurdelayedtheformationandexpansionoftheOttoman empirebutsoontheOttomansbecamethedominantpowerintheIslamicworld.

OttomanEmpire FromhumbleoriginstheTurksrosetodominateoverthewholeofAnatoliaandevenpartsof Europe.In1453MehmettheConquerorcapturedConstantinopleandputanendtothe Byzantineempire.TheOttomansconqueredmuchofeastemEuropeandnearlythewholeofthe Arabworld,onlyMoroccoandMauritaniaintheWestandYemen,Hadramautandpartsofthe Arabianpeninsularemainingbeyondtheircontrol.Theyreachedtheirzenithofpowerwith SuleymantheMagnificentwhosearmiesreachedHungaryandAustria.Fromthe17thcentury onwardwiththeriseofWestemEuropeanpowersandlaterRussia,thepoweroftheOttomans begantowane.ButtheyneverthelessremainedaforcetobereckonedwithuntiltheFirstWorld WarwhentheyweredefeatedbytheWesternnations.SoonthereafterKamalAtaturkgained powerinTurkeyandabolishedthesixcenturiesofruleoftheOttomansin1924. Persia WhiletheOttomanswereconcernedmostlywiththewestemfrontoftheirempire,totheeastin PersiaanewdynastycalledtheSafavidscametopowerin1502.TheSafavidsestablisheda powerfulstateoftheirownwhichflourishedforovertwocenturiesandbecameknownforthe floweringofthearts.Theircapital,Isfahan,becameoneofthemostbeautifulcitieswithitsblue tiledmosquesandexquisitehouses.TheAfghaninvasionof1736putanendtoSafavidruleand preparedtheindependenceofAfghanistanwhichoccuredformallyinthe19thcentury.Persia itselffellintoturmoiluntilNaderShah,thelastOrientalconqueror,reunitedthecountryand evenconqueredIndia.Buttheruleofthedynastyestablishedbyhimwasshortlived.TheZand dynastysoontookovertobeoverthrownbytheQajarsin1779whomadeTehrantheircapital andruleduntil1921whentheywereinturnreplacedbythePahlavis. India AsforIndia,IslamenteredintothelandeastoftheIndusRiverpeacefully.GraduallyMuslims gainedpoliticalpowerbeginningintheearly13thcentury.Butthisperiodwhichmarkedthe expansionofbothIslamandIslamicculturecametoanendwiththeconquestofmuchofIndiain 1526byBabur,oneoftheTimuridprinces.HeestablishedthepowerfulMogulempirewhich producedsuchfamousrulersasAkbar,Jahangir,andShahJahanandwhichlasted,despitethe gradualriseofBritishpowerinIndia,until1857whenitwasofficiallyabolished. MalaysiaandIndonesia FarthereastintheMalayworld,Islambegantospreadinthe12thcenturyinnorthernSumatra andsoonMuslimkingdomswereestablishdinJava,SumatraandmainlandMalaysia.Despite thecolonizationoftheMalayworld,IslamspreadinthatareacoveringpresentdayIndonesia, Malaysia,thesouthernPhililppinesandsouthernThailand,andisstillcontinuinginislands farthereast. Africa AsfarasAfricaisconcerned,IslamenteredintoEastAfricaattheverybeginningoftheIslamic periodbutremainedconfinedtothecoastforsometime,onlytheSudanandSomaliland becominggraduallybothArabizedandIslamized.WestAfricafeltthepresenceofIslamthrough NorthAfricantraderswhotraveledwiththeircamelcaravanssouthoftheSahara.Bythe14th centurytherewerealreadyMuslimsultanatesinsuchareasasMali,andTimbuctuinWestAfrica andHararinEastAfricahadbecomeseatsofIslamiclearning.GraduallyIslampenetratedboth inlandandsouthward.Therealsoappearedmajorcharismaticfigureswhoinspiredintense resistanceagainstEuropeandomination.TheprocessoftheIslamizationofAfricadidnotcease

duringthecolonialperiodandcontinueseventodaywiththeresultthatmostAfricansarenow Muslimscarryingonatraditionwhichhashadpracticallyaslongahistoryincertainareasof subSaharanAfricaasIslamitself. MajorDatesofIslamicHistory BirthoftheProphetMuhammed570A.D. TheSeljuqs1371300 FirstversesoftheNobleQuranrevealed609 SaladinsConquestofJeruslem1187 ProphetsmigrationformMakkahtoMadinah TheMamluks12521517 (hijrah),beginningofIslamiccalender622 DeathoftheProphet632 TheMongolConquestofBaghdad1258 TheRightlyGuidedCaliphs632661 TheOttomans12991924 TheUmayyads661750 TheTimurids13691500 TheAbbasids7501258 ConquestofConstantinople1453 TheSpanishUmayyads7561031 TheFallofGranada1492 TheFatimids9091171 TheSafavids15021736