Analg and Digital
Control System Design:
Transfer-Function, State-Space, and
Algebraic Methods
Chi-Tsong Chen
‘State University of New York at Stony Brook
Saunders College Publishing
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers
Fort Worth Philadelphia San Diego New York Orlando Austin
San Antonio Toronto Montreal London sydney TokyoChapter 1
Chapter 2
La
12
24
2.2
23
Contents
Introduction 1
Empirical and Analytical Methods 1
Control Systems 2
Position Control Systems 2
Velocity Control Systems 4
Temperature Control Systems 6
Trajectory Control and Autopilot 6
1.2.5. Miscellaneous Examples 7
Problem Formulation and Basic Terminology 9
Scope of the Text 11
Mathematical Preliminary 14
Physical Systems and Models 14
Linear Time-Invariant Lumped Systems 16
2.2.1 Mechanical Systems 17
2.2.2 RLC Networks 20
2.2.3 Industrial Process—Hydraulic tanks 22
Zero-Input Response and Zero-State Response 24
2.3.1 Zero-Input Response—Characteristic Polynomial 25
elChapter 3
Chapter 4
‘CONTENTS
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25
2.6
27
28
31
32
33
34
35
3.6
a7
41
42
43
44
45
Zero-State Response—Transfer Function 27
2.4.1 Proper Transfer Functions 30
2.4.2 Poles and Zeros 34
Block Representation—Complete Characterization 39
2.5.1. The Loading Problem 43
State-Variable Equations 45
Solutions of State Equations—Laplace Transform Method 50
2.7.1 Time-Domain Solutions 52
2.7.2. Transfer Function and Characteristic Polynomial 54
Discretization of State Equations 57
Problems 60
Development of Block Diagrams for Control Systems 69
Introduction 69
Motors 70
3.2.1 Field-Controlled DC Motor 70
3.2.2, Armature-Controlled DC Motor 72
Measurement of Motor Transfer Functions 75
Gears 78
Transducers 81
Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps) 84
Block Diagrams of Control Systems 88
3.6.1. Reaction Wheels and Robotic Arms 91
Manipulation of Block Diagrams 94
3.7.1 Mason's Formula 98
3.7.2 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Transfer Functions 101
Problems 102
tive and Qualitative Analyses of Control Systems 111
Introduction 111
First-Order Systems—The Time Constant 111
4.2.1 Effects of Feedback 115
Second-Order Systems 116
Time Responses of Poles 123
Stability 125Chapter 5
Chapter 6
46
47
5.6
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
‘CONTENTS, xv
The Routh Test 129
4.6.1 Stability Range 135
Steady-State Response of Stable Systems—Polynomial Inputs 138
4.7.1 Steady-State Response of Stable Systems—Sinusoidal Inputs 141
4.7.2 Infinite Time 144
Problems 147
Computer Simulation and Realization 154
Introduction 154
Computer Computation of State-Variable Equations 155
Existing Computer Programs 159
Basic Block Diagrams and Op-Amp Circuits 162
Realization Problem 165
5.5.1 Realizations of N(s)/D(s) 167
5.5.2 Tandem and Parallel Realizations 172
Minimal Realizations 177
5.6.1 Minimal Realization of Vector Transfer Functions 179
Problems 183
Design Cri Constraints, and Feedback 188
Introduction 188
Choice of a Plant 188
Performance Criteria 189
6.3.1 Steady-State Performance—Accuracy 191
6.3.2. System Types—Unity-Feedback Configuration 194
6.3.3. Transient Performance—Speed of Response 195
Noise and Disturbances 197
Proper Compensators and Well-Posedness 198
Total Stability 202
6.6.1 Imperfect Cancellations 203
6.6.2 Design Involving Pole-Zero Cancellations 206
Saturation—Constraint on Actuating Signals 207
Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Configurations 209
‘Two Basic Approaches in Design 216
Problems 217Chapter 7
Chapter 8
CONTENTS.
13
14
15
16
Wd
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81
82
83
84
85
8.6
87
88
The Root-Locus Method 223
Introduction 223
Quadratic Systems with a Constant Numerator 223
7.2.1 Desired Pole Region 225
7.2.2 Design using Desired Pole Region 228
More on Desired Pole Region 231
The Plot of Root Loci 233
7.4.1, Properties of Root Loci—Phase Condition 236
7.4.2 Complexities of Root Loci 246
7.4.3, Stability Range from Root Loci—Magnitude Condition 247
Design using the Root-Locus Method 250
7.5.1 Discussion 254
Proportional-Derivative (PD) Controller 255
Phase-Lead and Phase-Lag Networks 260
Concluding Remarks 262
Problems 263
Frequency-Domain Techniques 270
Introduction 270
Frequency-Domain Plots 271
Plotting Bode Plots 275
8.3.1 Non-Minimum-Phase Transfer Functions 284
8.3.2 Identification 286
Stability Test in the Frequency Domain 289
8.4.1 Principle of Argument 289
8.4.2 The Nyquist Plot 290
8.4.3 Nyquist Stability Criterion 294
8.4.4 Relative Stability—Gain Margin and Phase Margin 297
Frequency-Domain Specifications for Overall Systems 300
Frequency-Domain Specifications for Loop Transfer
Functions—Unity-Feedback Configuration 305
8.6.1 Why Use Bode Plots? 310
8.6.2. Design from Measured Data 311
Design on Bode Plots 312
8.7.1 Gain Adjustment 314
Phase-Lag Compensation 315Chapter 9
Chapter 10
89
8.10
8.11
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
10.1
10.2
10.3
104
10.5
CONTENTS xvii
Phase-Lead Compensation 321
Proportional-Integral (PI) Compensators 327
Concluding Remarks 332
Problems 332
The Inward Approach—Choice of Overall Transfer Functions 339
Introduction 339
Implementable Transfer Functions 340
9.2.1 Asymptotic Tracking and Permissible Pole-Zero
Cancellation Region 345
Various Design Criteria 346
Quadratic Performance Indices 350
9.4.1 Quadratic Optimal Systems 350
9.4.2 Computation of Spectral Factorizations 354
9.4.3 Selection of Weighting Factors 358
Three More Examples 361
9.5.1 Symmetric Root Loci 365
ITAE Optimal Systems 367
9.6.1 Applications 371
Selection Based on Engineering Judgment 375
Summary and Concluding Remarks 378
Problems 380
Implementation—Linear Algebraic Method 384
Unity-Feedback Configuration—Model Matching 385
Unity-Feedback Configuration—Pole Placement by Matching,
Coefficients 388
10.3.1, Diophantine Equations 390
10.3.2 Pole Placement with Robust Tracking 397
10.3.3 Pole Placement and Model Matching 400
‘Two-Parameter Compensators 402
10.4.1 Two-Parameter Configuration—Model Matching 405,
Effect of D,(s) on Disturbance Rejection and Robustness 411
10.5.1 Model Matching and Disturbance Rejection 419xvii
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
‘CONTENTS.
10.6
10.7
Ma
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14
115
116
W7
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12.1
12.2
12.3
124
12.5
Plant Input/Output Feedback Configuration 422
Summary and Concluding Remarks 425
Problems 428
State-Space Design 432
Introduction 432
Controllability and Observability 432
11.2.1 Pole-Zero Cancellations 438
Equivalent State-Variable Equations 440
Pole Placement 442
Quadratic Optimal Regulator 449
State Estimators 453
11.6.1 Reduced-Dimensional Estimators 456
Connection of State Feedback and State Estimators 459
11.7.1 Comparison with Linear Algebraic Method 461
Lyapunov Stability Theorem 465
11.8.1 Application—A Proof of the Routh Test. 467
Summary and Concluding Remarks 470
Problems 471
Discrete-Time System Analysis 475
Introduction 475
Why Digital Compensators? 476
AID and D/A Conversions 478
The 2-Transform 481
12.4.1 The Laplace Transform and the z-Transform 484
12.4.2 Inverse z-Transform 487
12.4.3 Time Delay and Time Advance 488
Solving LTIL Difference Equations 490
12.5.1 Characteristic Polynomials and Transfer Functions 491
12.5.2 Causality and Time Delay 494
Discrete-Time State Equations 495
12.6.1 Controllability and Observability 496
Basic Block Diagrams and Realizations 497
12.7.1 Realizations of N(z/D(z) 49912.8
129
12.10
Chapter 13
13.1
13.2
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
Chapter 14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
Appendix A
Al
A2
A3
CONTENTS xix
Stability 500
12.8.1 The Final-Value and Initial-Value Theorems 502
Steady-State Responses of Stable Systems 503
12.9.1 Frequency Responses of Analog and Digital Systems 506
Lyapunov Stability Theorem 507
Problems 508
Discrete-Time System Design 511
Introduction 511
Digital Implementations of Analog Compensators—Time-Domain
Invariance 512
13.2.1 Frequency-Domain Transformations 516
An Example 522
13.3.1 Selection of Sampling Periods 524
Equivalent Digital Plants 526
13.4.1 Hidden Dynamics and Non-Minimum-Phase Zeros 528
Root-Locus Method 534
Frequency-Domain Design 540
State Feedback, State Estimator and Dead-Beat Design 541
Model Matching 544
Concluding Remarks 547
Problems 548
PID Controllers 51
Introduction 551
PID Controllers in Industrial Processes 552
14.2.1 Rules of Ziegler and Nichols 558
14.2.2 Rational Approximations of Time Delays 559
PID Controllers for Linear Time-Invariant Lumped Systems 561
Digital PID Controllers 563
The Laplace Transform 67
Definition 567
Inverse Laplace Transform—Partial Fraction Expansion 570
Some Properties of the Laplace Transform 571