You are on page 1of 39




:
Reception Department
  :

   !   ! "# $ %& $      ( '
-  1%2 ) )*+ ,#+  1%2 0" ( (
12 6    ( ' & 5
) (.
28*)
9  - $ - $ 2; ( .
#$  
 :

12- 
 EF*  5 %  9 ,  " 6> $ #HI
# * => '
 ?-
MFJ - & # $ %( ' ' >   ,JK=5
96 O  '- MF2 )  $ N $ P
 QK QIR# 1S 6 # (   ( ' =5
96 '-
95I  2 $ N
,
= #5 12  HI%" , & $M6& ' %>  9 # *
 2 ,JK
 =5 *  ! $ S
) (.
 ,
> &  ,. ' %
'8  56- 7 4 012 #
3 +', #, -*#  ' :
*  E5   E#N  #F &"[  Z K  : $
-& $
  0 ` +) + . ( ,
 5 * -
 * " &  0
 $2 c
  ( $ #+ * $! 12 0(6
  0>  . ,JK
 66F* -   #F* $! 66F $#(+ )  #F * .( $ %
-   $->g 1   $! 12 0  * fF= .
-& $

  . $% #
-& $ EF f . $%
- >
 E S ,#+ H  E5 )  #F  Z"

 E S*". ( kk
*  E5 *    &6+  $  J > & ["& $ ,#+ Z& $> E5 ?-
*  $% $  $% ) . [#5# $ 7 '
9(.
* 6 2 f *6 12 1- 
6  ' EF $ N ,#+ 9=> f#N  %  -%9M
>- '   , , 
*
#.HI%
'8  56- 7  4


Specimen
<'8 

<'8 


<'8 
#

<'8 
6

Blood Specimen

Urine Specimen

Stool Specimen

Sputum Specimen

? 5 1> 3
Body Fluids

@  1> 3

Body Swabs
) (.


: +- +D>E 8' F1 3 

: #'
' J' KL <
-
  9% 6  m I 6k I  k   % + 5 $6"   1
.[2 Q p   9% ( $ &   q ! 12)Q p

: '8M  @ -
( ,#+ F J# )&S  9 )2  * $ 1 =& 1K> $ %S F  1
. * + & $%   rJF
: N3 
 -
. Blood Culture 6 q  $M> $8 & ,#+ F* +
. #   ,#+ F* $ (( +
:  8'< 0@ 0'LO -
' $%  $  6F
5! 6F $(  EF  %t q * 9 ) Q#"  Sm  
. 9& rJF* 1 $%  ' 6F $  9% '  [ #5# $

:  8'< :
: 6 % + 9 2 5* 1 E &
.E & 1  JK  E#m 12 $6"  >$& 6 % + 9 2 5* 1 E & 6+ 6*
`- 9 2 6" * 1   $&  9#>6& [#5# $  $  $& 12 6 $% + $ 
: 1 65 F E &
Volume

Anti-coagulants

Departement

Tube color

6ml

Lithium
Heparin

Biochemistry

Gr e e n

6ml

Dry

Serology
Hormones
Biochemistry

Red

4ml

EDTA

Hematology

Violet

Glucose

Gray

Hematology

Blue

E.S.R

Pink

Biochemistry
Hormones
Serology

Yellow

2ml

3.6ml
1ml
5ml or 9ml

Sodium
fluoride
/ Potassium
Oxalate
1 :3
Sodium citrate
1 :9
Sodium citrate
1 :4
Ge l

.( )

* < 8   # 012 T1  O< S  ' :
g6+ ' 6 !6 * 12 [#5&. $
  $  %* 1* [#5  $RJF $&t t ,#+"= .
6%+  & $! 12 [#5# $ 6 ( 9S#> E5 2  6 .
6%+ - $2! 6 `-  ,6  ,#+ kF= .
6+ $! 12  $2 ' `- w2 [#5# $ 6  [#5   I k& H*%
 ) . 7 '
9(.

) YZ-6 O 0'LOS 0@ 3 (

- L
OS  @- 7 <: Lithium Heparin T1  FO 4
6" * 1 +  (  MFJ   6# $ I ' `-MFJ  : 1#
Blood Sugar-Cardic Enzyms-ElectrolytesIron-Calicum-CholestrolTryGlycridrPhosphorus- Amylase

!  `- * & :


  * E *  - 6  F .
,#+ r2F* -   6 '  E %.9 $  S
6" *  - `- 12&F 6 !  ' K $&k6 "= * fF   .
- L
OS  @-  7 <: Plain Tube .T1  FO 4
6" * 1 +
12 9      ! $ F '-  '  9%"6 
=  12MFJ  ( E5 2 $"6  ! 9 12 `-MFJ '+ F
Antigen Antibody  + ,#+ Complex $8-  *[ &. Fibrinogen
- L
OS  @- 7 <'-L 4 : (K2 EDTA) -
' x2  [#5# $ "
#+
12 $66 ) (Hematology* "6 &- 12& E
"  #F& $M ) (CBC* q `- & ) -: 1# 7 '
9(.
* - `- & % ZIJk ' $6 *.CLUMPING 0& 9x& 5
* - &6 
5! 12 tg  .
,#+ r2F* -F  1#K 1+%N . f
6%+-"6 `- MF2 12
    r!= $ F*J HI 12*  "J 12
 HI  .
  `6 ( f  - q 
5> $M q *JJ# . ALKP
*]' < 5\[  -:
* ,#+ $  ' 6 !    6+  6! ,#+  #+ ) .[#5'
7 (
- 0'LOS@  4< 2 >/2K :
6" * 1 $  |F2 6%+  126 . : $ %& [2
*]' < 5\[ -:
? & [ #F* $ #+#5 * #F , ? ' >= . GLycolysis $ #+
/


- L
OS  @- 7 <#  4 62 : Sodium Citrate

(+ 9% 6-:


-& cM $  '  ~ k   & : $ %* "6 + 12>  $+
  . E.S.R E
-&F* $ #F '  ~ ,#+ M   ,#+ f x '  ~6 &: $ %
 #F 6 xJ+ $ " -: 1
1- Prothrombin Time .
2- Partial Thromboplastin Time .
3- Fibrinogen Degradation Products.
4- Fibrinogen .
5- Protein C in Plasma.
6- Coagulation Factors.
)'
7 (

* @ 0 :
DO - @ _ : Syringe System
 * "6  ' F $ ((q&  6" * &  ' F=   $ !6 [2* ,
) . Disposable<  ( .
<' : +L * -  6  F > & $5  $. [cx
6+ EF $! 12 - & 6" 2 |"K# E 6+ & '  ) $J#" )N%> q .(|"K#
DO - : Vacutainer System
+ 1 &P&    '+ 1  ' & Sm &= ? ( 6>  
>  K &P  12 >6 1 $ 6* "6  EF # & '  ! E' EF
6+ & 6# E ' - p% .

) YZ-6 L# )T`a # (b'JO (Vacutainer System

@8'< 0  :
c' E  0$ 8'< 0@ 8< +<
- -:
E5 - * & 9 #+ & E
  0 ` +  #F#S
 $2 c

   ? &6>  . ,JK
E5 -9 ' * q 95 1   w2   ( & 0> OJ ,#+6
 [#5#  $2> ,#+ x     [#5#( q 95* E& ' ' +% E % .
$% + $# E5 -6 &" $J( $F > ( ' S  $K"& 9#  * 
6  F ? &q% ' &P  $% +6 12& x
t $6 & 6( ,#+ $S & [c
& $ ?   %!6 m 12 6& $% P  f&[#5#  9 2 $
 $% + %6 9 2 q& $J"& 9# E5 2 $ Oq & Q% `-! N m
* * %  6  F - HI E# 6  #F . E+ ,#+
 - $% ," & g ' f  ,#+ 6q ). ' + 9F f'
7(.
/


'>' @ 8'< 0 :
 J   0'   & 6? F ' S ,#+ 9S 'S 6
& 6?  & !  9p ,! 6x $ %t '
 6& ,#+ 6- Zk%  0
& `6 )#c6+ 9F2   ?   ,#+ 6+9R  q( >6
t 6 & [ ' &P $
 xJ 6#5#  6! ,  x  0 `6x% ,#+ + m !9(w& K  , ->*
t
 $ ' $%6 ' ) (  *q%   $%F ,#+ )2 & [cx $F 1%t
t $ S
 6 0  $  '  J F &P 12& E ! rJ! $  #F#S & $
 6 ,#+ )M [  
t $%  $S% 12 0>).q'
7(.

) 2e #Ld   5J*L  F# L 5' $J2 h1 *M .( 4<f +

8'< : 'Oi 
 :
8'< F$ 
 :
 $% +  #F*
 1 & K
#kF# ,#+ HI% E5 w2 $F Fk*" $2
! N " $% + 5& $M ' !  "6 $ + 5 $%*  S $F Fk
 5 % & E%5*
  F K >( * $  $ # HI ,  $ &5&. $
 $% + ( 6  ,#+ > 6%+ =2( >  QK  &# 1 & 6 
+  Q p
  %  * $ % 
 $# # JS  E#S w2 $( $J p $ +
( 6 ). 0'M#$(.
Y'Z- _J2 O <'8 
 #c +$ 7 -: 7
8'< - L 
6 
-:#
* 5 % 6%+  ' % & M 6 N  '  #  $+  ' $%  $# # &$
M ,  (  $%
* xJ `- (P $%   #F * ) 1% ( # |F2 ?- F * q -12 $I
  1!k * ' ,#+ % + q   > .
L 8'< - -: <
 & 6 $+ '   $+ !M $%! ,  $+M ' $%    1*  `-
 %     # $ I  * 
p q  * c ' OJ 12 > f
 .
8'< ->@ k
#' J -:
!   5 12+ 
* 5 $F2 Qp%    5 xJ * 5 $%$ S
'  !   q5  '   % J Z+ = q5  1S )#c+
!.
/


<' 8'< F$
 :
*% + 5  122 9 $ $  =& $ +  $ 9 * $F $ Sm> -  $%6F
' !6 *# > M%+ ' $% #( $  "6 `-g& 9! N
  ! $ + 
&=  P $ 9 ,. $ F
6" * ?-  &=  $ $6( 5 $  J $#N&
  F `- 
&=(6& ' $ $! 2 $9 ,  5 & $2w   HI ,#+ t*  $% $p2! $ I|FJ
 q  & ) . 0'M#$(.
#c 8'< F$
 :
 6 & 5 E5 $%92   0* Z $ S -> $ # $% % E#S
 12+ " -  [#"   F&  ,S   > k%+( 1
& 6?
=m + &!w !x   $%  ," *- ? 12 9pJ! $ #+=(6%+ $
o
( ! $ ! ' ' , 9k ," Z * E5 ?-  '+ 0 # f
 -> E% $% '+ $ S= |FJ# 95 $I   & ) . 0'M#$(.

<'8 >@ k#: 78'-


J F  *  f> - $% %  -m ' 0   K%
=  9p#5 & %* 6& J*  q S  & 9p % * ' &6
-  & 2 .
K%   1!6+ Q#" 6 ,  5 12
t ! 12 9  5  1' 1#%
12 > f  ! . 66"& Zk% w2 + $% +  $ !k c ,  #F
 * # 1% !  * 9  q  F 66F* 9 ' $#> M%+  . $ I
) 0'M#$(.

<'8 >@ k'#J: 7L


* "6 % + %  Qk% 5 # Midstream 
 9! N 12+ " &?-
 * Z $2! N  ,#+ E5 1  0>6! % 9& - * . $% # #E%5
* # 5& $% $S% '
t $FJ  m E5 w2 $ x 6%+ 1#%-  >$% + -
 . 6%+P Q p%* E5 w2 $S% $ #% : 1#
* "6 =t 5%J & $K &k 6" *  !  $5%J N Q p% , $F2
 $5%J Q p% $ S > & % $5%J   K& J p% $ .* "6 & 6?
 Q K%# $J p $2( 5%JP $ &k &*  F  F `5*& $! 6 ," . Q#*>-
  ( Qk% ' $%  * JK *6+ .
<'8 : FZ#
 ,S     &=  $M> $ $ 2) . $M $ 0'M#$(.
8'< : 9i 
# :
F$'8 :
 xJ> $% + - ) ,#+    ( 12k  #S  '+ F # JS
    E5  ->g  0   ! 66   c   '+ QK6 ) .'
7(.
<'  E5 : F1 
( $% + 12 $  =& $2( $ $J p ( $ +
2 $ $ *  $FJ P ' % -  "6  !6 S  ! & 69
g& 9%  &=  P $ 9 , . $ F 12* Ec ( $ + %  q &)
&=  Sc& $S*  $ !  9 * ,q5  * ' # #F $% , 1.  #F
) 0'M#$(.


#c F$'8 :
 6 & $% + 5  E592 9!M* Z $ S 5 $ # $%% E#S
c  12+ " -     ,S+  " [#    0 F
2P  $ #9 
& 6? =m + !x   $%  ," . Z * E5
 f 5 E% $% $ S= ?- $I |FJ ( ` . %  |FJ * 1%
6"& Zk% $% +  $ !k c ,   #F * # 1% ) . 0'M#$(.
'  $ !% $% + 5& ,M $ # ' % % 12!6 *F Polyvinyl Alcohol ,#+
  xF*  f  $mk . $ I  2  1J '  N 
p%  .q

) 7'
J(

_ *#  8'< F1 +


# : 7
 -+ * q
& $%  0; fS+  $%# $ > . |FJ# $

-
-
-
-

P   12 $% #+ " *& 9#      $ I


Jp%.
 E5S+ $% +  > -    $ I  ,#+ $F  mineral oil $ 6
x  $ Fx =   " 12 $6 k  1+P
Barium * 1S %* 6& $% `- &F 1  .
* $% + 5 12 $J p $ + * $ &=  $ Sm 
F E5  *
 $!J 9# $  ?  ,#+ tN  9 2 $SK%*  12 $% 
&=  6%+ $ $(F 9# , > !  * "6 `-  $ + !6 . [2
=t ->g& ,M % + '  q !  ,#+ # JS 9 2? $t=t 12
 $  2 ' $ J  * K+ '+ 6q  ).'M ]#e(.

l>E'8 :
 E5 *% + |FJ  >= 2 ( q ' 9M ," *- ? 9pJ! E5
&=( 6%+ $( ! $ o & 6>q( - 9% cM $2!6   $p2F $%
.'  9  $p2F "% + rJ! 12 $6  :
-@J   >: Polyvinyl Alcohol 5'8
  PVA q &  q* `- ' x2  "% + rJ! 12 $6  .
' 
? &: '  S
(  2#c  @> 8'< l
# .
*  ! $t=t ,&F& 9+  1# %J6 x
t  !. & * ,
q  & E x((  1=m  .' & `-9 $% + rJ! $ S  F
 # JS  J . $#N
(  2#c* 8'< l>@ @2#
# .
* ,#+q( $F K & [ ' $% +x*
t [Ic    ' F 1# %J
6 ,#+ $F  *
t  E x $N& $F K(( 1* ! 6%+ o 6
 . Q5* 1 $+' * rJF K `-9& ZI6 $ S $t=t. 9
 E5 % ,  E5  *% + rJF  12(q9  fF* Incubators 'xF R
'  p ) . 0'M#$(.
, -'_ ): Formalin (%
* $% + rJF &#F 2 ' )q( $ %& (% &  $t=t(q ' - #F .
 r2F- #F 0 & ,#+ # JS !) . 9*=k 0'M#$(.


8'< : L 
6 Sputum Specimen :
% + ( xJ k &) '  J95  1 J% 12 9+    Q p+ 6+
>=#& 9N 12k   *% S2P ) .'M ]#e(.


*
#  ,#+ 0 ( $ J $%? &g  Z  0 >P $ + $F 
c# 12
 $# $". ?-& $M
*  $% +k
  m  &(   '+ QK# 1 6) .'
7(.

 : e? 5 1Body Fluids : > 3


-  I% Seminal Fluid
I -!K Ascetic Fluid
- ! I Pericardial Fluid E#
I - Synovial Fluid $
-  I6k Pleural Fluid
-  I# Peritoneal Fluid
( I 6"% K 12 1  J  12 5! # '   ,
>-
I $% +"% K=t 12 1 & $ E 12 ) $J p &! $ * (  1
>= ,    $ I FJ# $  $ 59 |FJ#  * $  & 1 *>-
 $% '   E S  6 $&6* $ >) . M'
7(.
 & $  I>    I##   1k  N 6( 2 $6 $%
> - $% ?-  -9 $#  c *> - E N  ' $%  6 $&6* $
> . M* rJF `-  12 I=( 6%+ $( ! $ ) -( ! 9# #F* 6+ ,' xJ
*  9# #F ) .'
7(.
 5  I% & 6 '+ Q*k 6 1 %5   E%5* E5 '  Q
6J  1  I% > $Mk>K $M  F  xJ $% * $% + 5  I%
12 ) N '+%  6 6 Masturbation [#5* $ $%*  E5 9 *%
 $% , (> f( >= &  $+ 12( ! $ ) .< (.
 @ :  1Body Swabs : > 3

F  - )#F
F  - Q
F  -  '
F  - 
F  -  K
F  - 6#5
F  -  5
F  - 9
F  - 66k

.Throat Swab
.Nose Swab
.Eye Swab
.Ear Swab
.Rectal Swab
. Skin Swab
. Wound Swab
. Vaginal Swab
. Pus Swab

 M>'':
Parasitology Department
  :


12  $ # JS  # JS  QK '+ |FJ '  # JS * E k P 12
& 0F *  E . 9+ E ! I#

 '+ QK `- # JS % + 12 )  (  1S*  ! 0 # `- %  $ `6
,#+ 9kF2 6& $&MPg ' 6(  ,#+ $( `- # JS    $ .12
 x

( >  %# F .

#+ # JS  
#-  12 F%I  $ F ,#+ 9K  12 6* 1%I ! $>
' !   = $ N 6 $&MP%   I $ 8 & $ I$&M $!k
& N   % $  #F*
 x  | "K ' 66  -%  ! N f
' kF ,#+ ' # ' >= *  #F    '  $SK$ x
6 ,#+ $ '  S& 6c# k &
5 ,#+ 6> ,## 1# 5  

 2 '+ QK # JS  ,#+ JS* 1 I   JS>  # >(  ) .0'M
#$(

+    '>'p''>M :

12- 
(  ' >  : $
 :
e  #1- 7 < 4
 Urine 5*-: _ 5
- |FJp # .
- |FJ  # 1I .
- |FJ  &. 1
->  '+ QK. F
->   I% .

: 'Oi
e  #1- 7 < 4
# Stool 5*-
e  ' :
- |FJp  # .
- |FJ  &. 1
( - '+ QK # JS  . $
- '+ QK6 ". 1J

'@- : 5
 :
  <_ 5'@-
:
"6 *  #F  | "K ' 66  -% '  ! N fkF ,#+ '
# ' >= *  #F  ! F  + 1 '+  ' $SK
 $ x ,#+ $ '  S& 6c# k &
5 ,#+ 6>. ,## 1#
) 0'M#$(

* 1E
 : 7'
M
 !
5  1 S-  ! S P & ' $+ /
 ' 6F 6
*-9& c 
5F   6 $ > $M g& $# ) . $ # 0'M#$(


= k2 12
 !
5 kJ * Q#"
- ' & $+ 12  2 $%
* Q k  $   p " |# '
5 $ '  ) N '+& 6#5 $S
 *  0& E  12 k $ g  E# ' I9P 1.
 k2 12K q2  * *    I6 $82N 1  P " 9% |#
5
) N '+ $  * ?- -  J`  P 12K " ' |# ) N '+ I
  *q  $ *  0 $N 1   E  9x2 0 
)* q(  & 0 E * 6    F ,  12  &0
 95  1k  ,# % 12 $   $%q= .

)< (.

#- @  1E +L 5 2 7


 <_ b1E
L 7'
M  ' Oligrie 5@- 7,@
 ' :
 6 125  . $
F. ,
6+     ' $ 2 .
62  ' I S&
5 6  : 9%9P  Qq%1 J5 .
k ) . Heart failure.E# 0'M#$(.
 h2 
 7, Polyuria@  ' :
 -   .
-9 . ,#
1N* - $6 # .
$! 12 - S  9 . Hysterical bolydibsie
%* -    '  K& F ) . 0'M#$(.
F (
 P ,#+   , Q p%*
 ,! $+ /
  '
5"J#
 #+ ' $5*% 69 %  . $ x ,#+ )#S ! 12 0    #  !
5
& '  S >=
 '+  $+   $+ /
 '+
5F,#+ )#N
`- $Fq ) . Anuria 0'M#$(
 h 5'@-
 :
q# *  #F 12F  : $
)q# (    #F* % 1%  $! 6M 6%+ $M>
55 12 ' #  $+%k$SK
>   1 & 9
5 $ & m 8 . $J p m6% |F2  12 `-F
& ES 1%9 EN. 5
69  |FJ * # 1%  , | "K  !   2? =+   $JK
. x2
)6& 6%+ ( $= 66( +? g #> ' 6 ' |"K  ' 1 * ) #+?-
> ' `# . $6
) 6& (9 2 . F
)q# ( |F2 |FJ* $#S 1%6 % K& 6 6+ 6? ,#+K
 ' 66 95  1) .  K& $%q 0'M#$(


OJ 
 ''
M :
 + 6 [ #> '+  '  %  % -& $*
% -& $,
 ' :

# -
 < 2a) 5*-  0!  ?  * ' 0! #5 ? 0! 9? (.

# -
 `' 2a< # 4< 5*-) 7-t# 6  &   JJ  
 (  $ k *     %c (.
 12 9p 6 & 0%  J &-# $#& 12  6? ,#+ #9   $|"K
' `-%  J .
OJ  ) ''
c #'u
 ( 'Z# : 72  4< 5 *-
)  %  * ' #5 (    0! $& ?  #& ' 6 !   %
 & 0!  % 2 ' 5# ? 2
q . ( q #
F &  P  ,#+ 1 S   ' $c# $# 8 `- !   *   S S $ # #F
 ' $) . 9%+ QK 0'M#$(
c' E #a 8'< 5'@- 5
 2
 :
E5 -!x  $% ," & g ' f 5  6q ' & f * #F
 .' + '+ $%
E5 - 
6 & $% +  #F  ! 9M , >=  ,#+ $+
' > (
( ' 9  . 0 *- ? ' 2 *6 rF + 12=( *
t $
= ! ! Zk* ,*6& 6%+ 9  6%+  #F( ! $ " . E5>' & -
#
+  * f 6 $%  $#N-92  #F  6  #F* , ' 
   $ I" $# %& Z  ?-  SJ .   f F* $% ,#+
6+  '    9w2 &=9 (q ' #5 ( $% & 6 *F
   ,  . E5 ?-> ' & -+ &g & 0  $N #F* $
& 6+  * #F  6  F  $2 c* , 6 9( 1%F
"# . $% #
6%+ - rJ! ' w2 $(F ! 6%+ $(=& $% .
- *- ! rJ '  w2 $(=& $% $2! 6  $p2F . $%  f
 ,#+ 1* $p2F  F Q#* 9w2 >  E5 ?-"6 `-
&-F  
>    $p2F# $%  ! 9pJ. 9%+ QK
 1J  !
5 $% |FJ#
  * 1%  & . 1 E#S 6 ! 
( (
  ! $+   12  $2J 09%  ! 1 =& O ' 0
% !M S & 12F 5
t & $9% 12  #x & $ #+ k
 1' ->*
t  ,"   !
5 ) . 0'M#$(


>@N  #1- 7 < 4
 :
'
    #F* 6%+ 92  % E#S* 1 1"  $  S  : $ I

3 Physical Properties ''


M
* K*: 1
@ 1
#+D
 
6
#?@

Volume
Aspects
Solids
Odor

 ,9J'<8
#0
 ><5


Sp. Gravity
Sediments
Reaction
Color
)< (.

 :>@ kD# 
 :
6 *  #F &6' ( =!p "  ! ' ` 9p& $M#  $FI 
=!p > . *   5 * $ `-=!p '+ $ & $  ! |FJ  9%
 '+ $F E!k $ Fk $% *
(  K& $%
#*
!x  "#
& f . E% '  & $ 
*  5=!p !  9p ! M
 $% ," !  * >g?  6  ,S+  $ # HI  $ &5&E  . $
 &  6  > ,#+ ' +( ' 
5 E!k 6 & ' J#" $FI? !6
*  &#-  $  *6'  HIMFJ ) . $ 9p 0'M#$(.
5 *->@N : 72  4< 2#+D
) -( : Color
 tg $% + & 6+  $F& $ =+  9%  0 $ Fk% & $ =+  9%
' N & &  1N* E . $%  $ E5  $% +  =! $p*  5
#    %+ E5 `6%+ )m *  '* $p!= $%m w2 . *f
m JM 6%+ q |F2 ! $%cM ,#+ 9I JM ) . 0'M#$(
 E5 * $% + $ 2M  & JM f , . JM-  #  #
# 6
6F  c   , & Jk 1%& 6 x" 1%   E J& $&M 9
 Hepatitis 6 JM * `-! $&MP     -92 1* & JM 6
,#+ Urobilin $  12   !  1 # 6  $ +J# #> E & $#
  #   + 12 $ t!  $ %' 12%*  Ec & 0$
5'$) .(.
 - & FM JM . Amber yellow 1 9    &  ? *5
' $#  $# '   $ '+ 6F 1 S ? * ' 5 2P
 12    I 0& 12  $ k     ,#
   JM'    , F -92  ( $ ,(   12 $#g
 K   q ? * '  59(P ) . 1 5< (.
- 0& 12!     ! & * 0& 1N* $5  1  $6
)& (f 12 `-F $F    ,#  0! $2w& JM  
t
=  , F 
 ,# ! & $2w $# . $  6 # !  I
 ' 8( & '   ' #  %M 12 $##F 6   (
12 ,#+ $8  ! ( & ck 6& Blood Pigments $6
/


(  6 .  6   &  0 '#-  ' ( >= $66M
& ? 12 95  1 ( =  = ) .< (.

=  ," x -92 * ' H( cM JM$


-     66 JM  I
=
Bile Pigments ! 12   )9 6(  # > x'  I
 ,    F & 12   ,  '-  % J 12 `-F $F
   ,# ! & $2w $#  ) .< (.
-!     >  Dirty green x( $N  ,#+ ZSE
 - 6F !  & 12   ,&k &  J .  
 %* E+    1# 12 `-F $F  ,#  $2w& 15 J% $#
=  ,  ) .< (.
  . ! 12  
& 0F 2 ? % J    I
) -(#?@ : Odor

   :7'
M $FI $2+ 1 '+ $FI 9 * $!  S .
L  b?@ E  :'OS `- ,#+ $FI E#m9   & 5# 1  6!g& 1  &
 9 16  #F* ,#+  . *65 P & g * $% + f 2 E * 9w2 $#N
$FI  &  #F* E   ,  & 0& $S   .
L  b?@ >_ -9 :  %J+ $FI  * E & H%9 ! 6x+ 95  11#%
>g& $M ' &   ( $ .
L  b?@  'S :=! r- % '  6%+"   & ' &k !   *J
(    .
9& 12 $
w2 ?-  JN & ' &k   %J  Phenyl Ketonurine 1J $FI` >. $M
) 0'M#$(.

   & 1 Sq  $ S+ $FI    2 1 N m + FI $9


K " $5  $  * 6  $FI ( $5  $9 >= ) . $66M< (.
) -(J :
 J 1 S .  m* Q( $ 12 * ,#+ q  * 9
# "= * . $ I=S   12F   $ ,!   & ,#+
#& $66M =>   $>= . $ I=N    1 S# & #& E
JJ -* 1 6%+ . 9 0! $2 9R + # $ ? ,#+,#+ E#m
( &#   ) . 0'M#$(.
) -( ,9J'<8 Specific gravity :
*  $2 $ +%  P  . ~ -~ ' &  1 S 6 &-9 ,#+ |FJ
6  * ,#+ $ # q*" Q J= & . #  #  $2 $ +%#
   2M f# # 2. $ +%
*  $2# $ +%  * 12 $J %  $ !k  6& 9#    '  .
   * J $2 6%+ $ +%"  '- ' ! $ 0J"%* % &  #
 $2& 12 $ +% " K '- ' ! $ 6 &% &   , 
!  6    '  ' & J* 
9 $2 E & $ +%! ,#+ I#5 
> . Q#"* ?- $2 $  * $ +%  I >6* 1
5 ( $J5 1 1
) . 9% 0'M#$(.
/


*  $2# $ +% & ' ~ -~ Q#"* 1>= 2 ! 12 ,! $
& * E+ ~ k 2P  12   I&  E+ ~ , ,#+ w2
 $2+ $ +% *
5!   + E% 12 ' !  ) .< (.

h  ,9J 7, '<8#S  ' : -q 12 * % .


- 6   126 .
 ( 12 -F  $ ,J5 . Dehydration
5 - ,9J 12 '<8k # . 'q
  ,9JL '<8 #c : +8 "6 (9    Urinometer   95& , . Refractometer "6  $N Multistik $ M $#9 1"6  $) . x 0'M#$(.) < (.

) (3 Mucus :
12 ' !   9R "  6k   N`  I
% & 12 - 2  6%+ 9P . 
( " 12  12   N m ' 66F
   $9 q5  ' 1#J%  $ . $ #% 6
 6k " ' & [K* ' 1% ZS$ N" F
    ) . $ 0'M#$(.
: 'Oi>@ k
 7?''J :


 |FJ  # 1I &"6  $N  . $
* "6  $N  |F2 12 $ S ,#+  + 1 xF  '+
*5& 9 m
 $ 6F 2 * 12# * 6%+  $5 % . $ &5* `-|FJ $ S
 & $  9g $#9 95I  $  E#S  & 2* 9((  ' (q9 
  $ I $2  9 k $& m $p . Q
@ 5 c#yS' #J2 z'E +aL _< 6>8 N # 5 *
L F F 5<>-E  5 @2 7$ 7,
 7,@  'Z# : 72
  " & '+ QK#5 g& K 6#5 !  6 # 15 J%& ,
q * 6%+  $5 %. $ &5
  " & '+ QK * ' & K & % 2  !  6 # ,
>q x * 6%+  $5 %. $ &5
  "  '+ QK   & K $   &  6k !  6 #
* 6%+ 15 J%& ,  $5 %. $ &5
  " & '+ QK & & K ' 5#   1I%t ' 6q% 6  ! 6
#  ,! * 6%+  $5 %. $ &5
  " & '+ QK #& ' & K 1I%t#  1I%t ' #q6
6  ! Diazotized dichloraniline #  , * 6%+ Jk  $5 %$ &5
  " & '+ QK6 & K 6  ! '6 *t #  , 6%+
*  $5 %. $ &5
  " & '+ QK& K f  % & t !  6 # ,
* 6%+  $5 %. $ &5
/


  " & '+ QK"= & K $66k Pyrrol amino acid ester1
* J& #F F  &= 12 $"=  $66k6 2 $F # 6%+ 15 J%& ,
*  $5 %. $ &5
  =!2 r "6  $N  |F2 12 $ ! $  HI 1S
 0 & 6 QIR 6 $ # ,#+  1xF6+ &
5 $26
,#+( 6+   & 12 $ 5  1) . 1#% 0'M#$(.

) c#y
e 
 '?''J(

012 \eS  ' _'L<


 < 8 3 c#yS#S ' :
E5 - 
& $% + ,#+ |FJ N( 12 9(
* $+ ( Q p .
E5 - $% + ( 6  Om [ K . 9 2 1
 ( Om E5 -  ,#+ $#F& [ K  'q& 6 Oc. & ,M
N E5 - 65& [ K + 6> 1#? P $q 6I) & '  .
! E5 - $p!= [ K K& HI% 12?  E%5!   F &0
 ' k!
t >. HI%& gS
E5 - 
 $  & ?# $#+ ,#+ 1 K& $N ) 
> -HI%
   ' ,#+ ' q f  $% + ' [ K .
*65 P  , * 2(q9 >  $M  HI $N & |FJ  => ' $
*  #F  ,#+ $ " $J# 9#F 1 [ K ) . 1 0'M#$(.

)N {L YZ- c#yS'  5'@- 7, 3


(

 2#c#$ >@ k


 7?'J:

( > & Oc $% + 12 [ K &g # ,"[  MJ& 12 I 6 $%  *6q
t '+
t 1 2 *  =! $p * $% + " 1 & $% + 0 #
12k & 6 * 12 $# N $  # 6  * '+& + .
/


 \
O <_ #
   - 7 L M\[ : c#yS
-
#Protein _'-
6(* 6 '  * ' 12  E5  * (  '+ 6q  $+$! 12
q 6 * c  & " 12 |k [ K6 ? ,#+( > 12 # QIR$ #
 |"K . 0

-1 : Glucose
'  1 S  (#( 6 12 ' * c  & "6 |k ,#+(` 12
 (` 12 6 6 ,#+(` 126  x-  |F2 E56 g##> ' 6
  ' 0   ." 12 #9R ,#+ 6+  ,# #5 126 .

-$S : Ketone Bodies 'O 'J


* c  & "6 |k ,#+(    | ' H*%  ' 12 E &
569
q6# 6I 1 N ( 6  12 .
-'#: Urobilinogen _'$OL
( 12 6 & 1 N K' & c*  $# # $ %  & "  |k' 12 c
# 6 k ,#+ 12 QIR 6 ( *. & Q #
-
'#: Bilirubin _'L
 (& 12 6  |"K
# ' (` 6 ,#+!  6 12%   $
 12 9pF  ' $%q9 6 12 Q #6  ! 12 9p 6
 6  ( !k 12%   $&+ K & g . 6
-S '+ 78'$ : pH
'  1 S   ! 1x k* tg( $ $F ,   6+
( $  6 ? ,#+( 9 5 12  (  JN Trichomonas
  N . $ #9
{E -': Uric acid |2
 12 c 9p  $! 12 [ K(  $6I 12 '
56 * m (
126  E5 %= P '  * '  F |"K# 1 5'$) . 0(.
: 9i>@ k'#J
 7LJ :
 c ' - >  $% + 12 6( 6  $2 '   '  $' & 9
 5  62 * c  12   g5# ?-#2 ,- g# |FJ12 6( 6  6
 * $ N> N + ) N '+  q  $% >g '  0
/


* 6 9  * '+  (rpm) $J $+  ,#+ )I ,   E E 2 I
> ' -  & E Sm  $F K J fF* |FJ
t 9 #+ ,#+ 95 .
JyS  +p F 7,>@ k'#J: 7LJ

) -(
: Bacteria 2#' J
(   12   ,#+ $&M95  1 12 1
* $k+*( 6  $ * mPus ) $66M => 92
=
( cells 6+ * 6  ,#+ c 6 9( # 1% 2
( & 
) ' 5* ( Protues 6+  6 9( . 1%
) -(  0*' : Hyaline Casts
6& 1  2 ' $m6> * 12 m 9p & 6
K 12 ,F66K *Km 12 #> $! 12 9p  $F
. 15 #

) -(  0@

 : Granular Casts
F* `-  ! ,#+  ' gK%* $p% m=F
"=  * % ( &   ,#+( > ## .

)L -( ' : Cystine Crystals _2


( # 12  6 '  kF 12. ,#

)L -(  '#'_ : Tyrosine Crystals


 9p 9 JM  '  K 9# &P* I  9x&  $50
*(! 12 6   6 . $ k
)L -( # J : Cholesterol Crystals
K* 1 = S  ' $+S 9% 6(* 1
 *! 12 9p  ,#  $ k q* $! 12
+ J# >  Q5# -  ,#   `
&. EF

)L -( >> Triple Phosphate 'iK9


: Crystals
*( 12 6 '  S> 9 O  * 12 ->g| "K
&k . $9

)L -( 'J K Calcium Oxalate


: Crystals
* 12 ' % +   $6F K* 6(* 6%+ ,(
> 12 #95 . 1
)L -( {E': Uric acid |2
1  JM  1%& ,! 12 6(* 1 
6 12.
5

) -(@'O : Spermatozoa 28


* 12 m 9p & 6 $ # $ %5 *   12 $`-
 $F' $! 12( &+ K  6 "' H* #
95 . 1#%
) -( 2K3: Pus Cells 226
`-"= *  m M 12 +5  & 9!k* ' 12 $! 12 Ec( `-
"= 12 q + E5& $+ &  $%  $  0 $5 % 6  &  9p 12
q .
) 2Ke -( @# : Red Blood Cells
! $ #6& 6(* 1 6(  8 12F  $  S*q 12
! 95  66K 9R $! 12 &6+g  
  ,#+9#& $&MP   $  "=  $ # F%
kF ( & 0 1295 . 1


) 2Ke -(#'3 : Yeasts Cells
x &  9 9 2 9p 6
+* 9p `-"= & 12
 % 6%+ 0& $&MP SJ % + 12   , 
' 6! $! 12  & 9%& ' >= 6  F *
 0! ' $S ? " ,#+ QJ fF* $F KSc
t
  9kFJ > => 1J"26  F & $S0F
* => ," .

) -( 2K3: Epithelial Cells '?KM


* & fF* $9 12 95  ck $F => 1
 ,#+ c 1 
5F K* 1 $  N (6
&6  #6 * 9p& 12 1 N K& x  F
' 9R $! 12 & K m 12 p  &6 $
,#+( 9 1295 . 1
) -(  0*' : Waxy Casts
+ 1 ( Hyaline Casts ) '+ 12 $ & 9%   ,#
6 N $# 9p* m 1  $%%  6  9 JM
* 6 ! 12  KJ# .

) -(  0: Cellular Casts 23


*F ,#+  6  F  6  x 6(* 1
$! 129 !  ,#     12 ,# Jk
* 12 `-Mg& E JM &. $ %

k@,
  < {L 4O ''>M :

k2 Urine 0& ,#+ $6# $   $%  # JS  Schistosom
haematobium Trichomonas vaginalis& 0( $%6 =J  12 * 1 ?
 $  $ #% ' K6 & 0 # JS "( $ $% + 12 
 S& |FJ  : $
-#$ k@,
 #K 78'-6 N  # JS 12  $ #+ 6& E S  q
 $% + ( 6%+ xJ  '+ QK# # JS  9 2+   : $
 F1-' L 8 - _2 |2#@- 5*- 8' 'Z2 '_ ` |'- 
# -
 012 J- <' F$'8 . >'DO
 5a,} 8'< F1 
 _'L< #y E
N 4 E#+p 'O9 .
#'a@- 5< - ' 0c 2P  $ #9  5  6m  * .
-3 -  2#c '>6 Membrane Filtration technique '?*u'+ QK# x
N  # JS ( 12 * |"# `- w& $ S '   '
/


* ' 9*  S $M> $ Jk   & 6? *q  [#& $* ,#+
  $F(( K $6  fF* 0) . 95'M ]#e(.

:L
e  _< ~*J@: Pregnancy Test 5
 5 - >  12 # JS & c   $2  f ! ! m?
& '+ QK  ) Human Chronic Gonadotropin (HCG-  J & $ K12 k
,k( '  $ 9K" O , & 1J"
t6 2` '  . F# 1
 2#c: 5

 & $S +x + O * Q  9 
t $F  ,#+ k 9( ,#+ q
6  6& )I? * ->g. $5 %
 $5 %( 9p* $x & E #! $S 9g   $5 %  !  ,#+ 9p* $  
 ck * & 5'$) . Agglutination(.
6* ->  ,#+ F(  9  K  ? (* & ' )(HCG
& 12 Human Chronic Gonadotropin  k  F? &"6
* O* +J =# . Latex agglutination inhibition
6 -  '+ QK 9 & 6S  '+ S      #+ S
6  ' * $ 9K
=+  6%+ F 6%+ *6 (Placenta) $ K
& 2w -  9 HCG? & 6  ' S 6 . $ 9K
=* - (  * Latex OSc & 9 12 HCG( x (  6%+
  )( (HCG & 6 x   w2 (   6F *=
) $5 . ($ &5   )( m (HCG & 6 6F *= ) $5
) . ($ #< (.
Jy~ : Reagents
x -  Anti-Serum k . Anti-HCG
-. Latex Reagent O* Q
 #$d LM \ 
e :
 - ZI(( . Slide $
S - &=  6& , * $ .
. E ## $  =& ,k+ -
DEK  :
& xJ - k S   * q .
|FJ& Zk% -  >= 2 k ' !x`  , . >g* $! 12
E5 kF2 12=( -) $(  6 ,k )+ (- 6F . ,k
E5 -      )
6 - ( & 6  6  F (.
E%5 - - F ' $ + $  ,#+ * ' - ( Z  * E 12 * %
(9  S  q .
E5 -     - F ,#+ 5.
t
E5 - * 5 6! 12 $& 5 ( ! $  ) - ( !  "J ($
 F *> . +J
6& -9 ' * $& 5  Q ,=() . $< (.
 2#c: Procedure 5
* - > Q =( 2 $ '  'q6 k $ 2( ! $ . $2 c
,#+  - $F K $ ((q $J p% S $25 !6 '  .
/


S ,#+  -  S > ' x  9
t Anti-HCG>6 ( [# &"6
+ ' = ? ? 6 t .
,#+  - S $F K !6 '  Latex O* Q> [#6 Hq t - !,
) .
p% O5 Hq ,#+ kF< (.
 8? : Results
-
e 6F  6%+ : Positive 7L12 *= => Agglutination  ' .
-
e 
6F 6%+ : Negative 7 *= )*=> (5  '  * q
=  f m HI%q# w2 $F "6 * $& 5&. $
) 12 (HCG #
* q `-: 9  F& $ S
M 2# :
'  #
5!  - 12&. $
- Q , ). (Anti-HCG
  F ,#+ 9  2  Q HCG ' & +J ="# ,Sc F 
(  x 6F *   E  ="# F 12& $#!  ,#+ 9p* $' $F
 . E
  F>-#2 7, HCG@  ' :
' % -  . 0
-
I6 .
  k 82 7, HCG@  ' :
-9(P . $ F
-> F ) . F< (.

012 7, \e2<
 :
' -  9p & 12 HCG   1 9%+ S ') 0 F g( !  $5 %
6#>  ) (HCG ' 6c . $ "%
  6(* 6 - ' $ +  )& 12 (HCG P &k & N - E k
 $ Km65 $%S  !
. 6%+(  ,#+ K* $  N m * $ % %( $5
& !
( & . 0 12 `- p q 2  ) (HCG*1S
 HI $& 5 !) $ &5( ) .< (.


: e
e ? 58 :

' >  5* 1  12 # JS *  #F  I% & c  6 $2  ( ,#+5P .

>N 012$ :
#  E5  & x" 0 6+ !.
 '+   5
 2#c#$ : 5
*  12 $%xF 6  $+ Qk *"  ~ Q J 
  + I
%   x
t ' " Q J &) $  $F  12 >&  O ! 6 12
 Qk%& S F & 9  &
 9 2 cM 6 &  , F 12  &
t
  ,#+ 9 x  12 H*%" ~ Q J E5 H*%    # '+ ! 
%  ! 6  12 1 S |"K
# '  # , !  % r!= 6
12  I% & 0!  :
x& - 9#  .
- = 2 .
- Trichmonas  JN? 12F   5'$) . $(.
Me k@,? 58 : 5L
->@ kD# $% + q * :  I%  1 SS(6K& $ q( 96+ 9 2J
)#  1 #F& (0* 6& 9S#5-  * => 9 -  $ 6

6 9( I # 1%% & 1 S ~ 6%+ '+   $ 2 6m
   #> $56& q  1t *'  $ + $%6k =kF $%
12". '  k
-h
 : Viscosity $gq ' 6( $  I% %t  # ,& $ 
5F
6( $  q  I% q E#* . $S $S & 1 S( $  I%
!  K 12  F . $%
- [#5 : Coagulation T1  I%  1 S   $t=t ,#+! *
 12 $S#5 ! $# J& ,q  [#5 J* 1 6m   ,#+' (%  J
*6  12  & $S#5 ! $# J& $q  #F J* 1 6m   *#F
&  '  J ,!   %  12 ! $#6+ J& $ q  # $* '
 Pepsin . Aminopeptidase
[#5  -  I% 6+ $! 12 ( =kF  $% 6 $ t (
 $S#(  *  ' (%  J  I% >=  $ E56 ' & ) J q#($
*  * >g. $S#5
-@6 : 1 !
5  I%  # -~ 1 S' =!p m  $
!
5  I% 6%+- m' ,#+k>P ' S  '+$
 J O%5  $#N  ,  $  I% ) .< (.
: 'Oi
e  #1- 7 < 8'< 4
# : Stool
6%+= % +   , #K 12g&
9&M 
 1# JN ,#+ QK g#6
' > #  ' 0 # JS& $&MP 5'$) .(.

|F2  m : $t=t
 :  |FJ 95  '+ F# # JS .
 : 1  |FJ#   1I& '  6 $2 6 6 .
/


 92 : |FJ  & $2  1(   & 2 12 $%+   E#SE S
  m!6 ) .'
7(.

c' E #a 5
 2 @': 5
 #F* E5 ( %  => 19P 2  * '+ 6q  > ' $(' 9

5 *- ?  rJ! E5 N 6!g& $%  rJF. $%
Z#k*  ( % %* 9 1    q % #  F $ q
 # JS & 9x * $% + Z#k  c f( 1 q   $+& $ 
% 9!M x ! . $
E5 (  %6+ , >=  & &6  0 F & 2P  $ #9
1 > .
E5 ( 
( % +  " F& $M & 0  # JS   P
5     #56 ,#+ O - ,#+ " ,! 1 &| "K
 6( `- # JS .  J%
E5 (  * $%  O5 * fF $S2K96"& $ I J  $6#5
 > - $2! N 12   t% (q ' $% + %t FJ q# 1
) . $% # O5* + 9 0'M#$(.

)( - ~*JD# 
# :
12 QKp  # 
=! $p  . $
-   ? 
- F &6 
$! 12  F &6 w2 ?  (  %6& $&M   N 6 .
- F &" 
$! 12  F &" w2 ? '  &  E9 12 9 .66
$p!= -# .
$! 1J2  #  w2 ?  (  ,( x9 6 Qq ' 
 K+ ,%t $! 12  # & -92 0 6 ,#+ 6 12%  . $
#  # 1 S  '  JM , 12 1% ' c 12JN > x Z*J ,. JM
)5'$(.

 |F2 ' MFJ  # JN


p | "K* 12 $9 
5> # JN $M %
 $ x9  ' 6(
9  |"K#-   & |FJ * 6 2# $ p%
 $ # (P $ 2 |F2 !     S  qN  # JS & '  >
)K (Artifacts EI( 12 $% |F2 ' #!  ,#+ :
 E#S : 4>@ kD# 'Macroscopic 8

-  $p!=& |FJ q  $% # $S(& $ $S '  5 !  
=!1#  $p

 - '
 : Consistency 8 +  ,#+  Solid E#M ,  '
Soft  Liquid I
 6 formed K , 9 Diarrhoeic
  ! Watery 1I =! $p  1S $% ,#+ $9 $S - 6
( . 9 2 6  F E#k ,#+N  $#MF 0 F
,#+N  $SK%  & F %   ' #   ,#+ I $2N
 $#MF $SK%  . 0


 - 
#  : Color #  # 1 S  #  1% tg  ! Z*J?
&% & 0 -c $ I 1S 6q% 12 ,#+%   $ x9$%  %
 .
DEK -$ c _ uL2  66  $ &6 ' S66
 ZS ,#+ $ S K >=  [#& 9#k2
  ! $% fF* 9kF2 95
 !J& 9pJ ' !. 9kF2 ,#  ,
$p!= -( " >=   ! $% ( 6  Z! "
6 6 ,#+(   !q  ( 6 6 6 q ,#+ x !12 $
) .'M ]#e(.

_ DEK  - 012 7E +82 <' 8


# M: 72  $
 - ': Consistency 8
1 *  Solid $  Semi solid $%  Liquid $ I ?   6+
66F* ,#+ %I  12 6(* 1 N2 $% " $J# $SK%  *(12 6
 %  $% #  $ 6(* % & $% #N  12 $#MF %  $ ' m .
) < (.

) 8'< _ @ #'a@-  2#c


#(
)'M ]#e(.

  # 1 S      6  12 $ N ,#+ Ec


%  P ' N    $ + E & [IcS &  ' $% 5+  $ 
. r #m * 6 & 0    $ c* ,  [Ic ,9   . '66
w2 + *% *% g (  E  $ 6 [Ic   * % & %(
 *  $ %  ) .  #M 0'M#$(.

'  & $ * 66F  [Ic ?   1S $ + ,#+ # JS $&MP


  12 $ ' !   .  $% + [Ic!6 '   : $
& >  ' . 66k
?  .
F ? m 66M ,#+ .` "% $5
?
6+. K
N  1I .
5F
N . ? m
 ( .
N " & ? m .
 cM . $#M
N " & ? m .
 S. )M 1
. I Qk
. 1I I
*65 P  ,   m [Ic? F ,#+ "  ! 6  : $
$t 5& $ $&M. Shigella =5 K
 $q% $  . $
. 6 IJ
! 12  N  ) . 0'M#$(.
- : Color
   12F  6%+  %& $  S  % & ' c # 6%+JN & ' 1%
>) . x 0'M#$(.

   1 S & Jk 1% F 6 & ,#+ "    c 6


=     1S* 66F     0 # 1S* 1%t $& QK
2
=  , Jk * 6  % $m#   ,( 12 Qq
*  1S& 0  I
,#+% 6 % & $ x9 !  ,#+ !   ) Z! ( 12 Qq ,#+
(q  ' $ I9%%  . $ x9  6 $%  $! 12  $ I 6 ,#+$&MP
&6%  $ %  6 # & 0& 12 0(q 12 $M> IJN   ? 6+

x6.
-$ 3 . Mucus
-$ h$ _ 2  8'< YM 4< J
# .
-$ '  `\?' `' ) . a+ #< (.

)( - ~*J'#J: 7LJ
69  QK  & # 1  : ,#+
- 12  $ ' & (q S x9 c  ' H*% $ #+
x9
> 12  1  #95 . 1x9
- $ # JS  $& 066 & 0 & 0 # JS * 1 ( 12
& k 5'$) .(.
 E# : 'O9>@ k#+1 ': Microscopic 8
% + |F2 ?-& 6k  * fF 95 ,#+ * " ,#+ 6* $J#S  F
%+' *
 |FJ 95  $% : ,
- xF
 : Wet mount EN xF EN  $% &"6 6+  :9%
 @ @ 7>'. Normal saline 7$
 u
N' . Iodine
/


 2#c -3 L 5 @ @ 7>': 7$
> $% + '
( (-) - &+ $S > 1K>   6+ ' $% )N%
=.
! ,#+ $6 " 
  ' $S#F  $F  ,#+ (~) 1#F(( . $J p $
> [#  $%#F  O5 ,! 1#F. Hq
* $ ScSc& $F K  fF* 9kF2
t Cover slide $F K  95 ,#+
 * X . X
!  *  6+ `-K ,#+ $ S6 N  $SK%  K $2 m 16 N
. $#MF

- 3 u
N' :
!  
(  xF & EN $S  OJ%& Iodine $ S &  $6   &6
#F  1F# 1( J  xF 6"& EN    K x26 N
 $#MF    k $ 9 2 ' (=5 2 m  '+ QK#N
  $SK% ) . 9* ,'M ]#e(.
 9p |FJ 95 [Ic# Microscopic Examination $2 , M% $  S
 ' 66 M%  $ 0& | "K* ,#+ 6+ * 1 " # 1( JE k 1
%  $ x9 ' 9*F#x+ > .    E5+   6%+ $( |FJ
 95 : [Ic#
= >= ,#+ $+
E5 - * $% + |FJ=> [Ic  ' $+ Qkc   I
   6%+ ' % & % x * $% + |F2 >g [Ic? 6 +
* c 12. $5 %
 E5 $% + 12 F '+6 " (6 
.  95 9kF2
xJ -  * $+  6q S  q  '+ $% # /  $6 k E5
 * 6q g& $+ ! ' ! '+ /  $ ?   * ,
 0 & 12 # JS   5kF . M 9 #+
1( 2 E#F  + E5 ->   $% #!6 J%  !   E#F1( J
& '+ QK "   $ x  N  %  E#F   12 6 J'+ QK
!=k  # JS  . $
1#  2 M% 9p 1  |FJ 95  [Ic# 9F 1 K : )2
-''>M :
& 9g" ' $J#6   & 0!=k  # JN  . $
-2#  @# : Erythrocytes
 K( $% + 12 [Ic ,(  Qq> 1# * 12! 6x+ %
 $ x9&" $M  
$F2 K .
-2#  
'a   : Neutrophils
!  6 ( 6! ,#+ 9 6+ K 1%  9*6% ? .*K 6`-
  ! 12  !  $ 6 "  $ q 6+ ! 12
q%  $ 9 * 1 ' &   = 5K  = m . $ J*Z
 6  x & |FJ 95 &#F ' ' S $2w  #2  ' #
$F  ,#+Loefflers methylene blue. [Ic *K ! 6 12 ' P
/


12 Charcot Leyden 6   (#& 9p* 6%+ $ &=   
. # JS& $&MP $!

: Monocytes 8' E 2Ke -


. $ J  &    = $&MP $! 12 6+ J* 
: Epithelial cells '?Kc 2Ke -
|FJ 9p* . $+ *6 ! 0& 12 K $ J ! Ec 12 1
Ec 12  9%  6+ 9R  $ I=S ' "= 6F 6+ 95
. $M> '  $ x9 % $ N" 12 9 6! ,#+ 
: Eosinophils_'2 
@' a@ a'
 2#J -
$  F= +J $5  9p* 6  $ +% $&5 ,`   - ( K
. > $  F  $ # JS $&M
: Macrophages #'
J 
' 2K3 -
. $ # JS $ SJ $ t 5 $&MP ! 12 ="` - 9p*
: 2#M> -
- ' & 5!   m  Blastocystis hominis S2  9'
' 6+ &   &=9& [ F &  Sk*  $q  5J& Qk  
: $ [  Ic ' 9q+ ' 1 $   SJ 9 ' . $
Candida albicans - Candida tropicals Aspergillus fumigatus
Cryptococcus laurentii Torulopsis glabrata Geotrichum sp
Rhodotorula sp .
: Yeasts #'3 2Ke -
66 > 12 F   $+ J $&  >  9x& $+  => 1
. $ 
:Charcot Leyden _22 $ L -
' &  9N  $&6 9 1S  9 $ xF"= # J#" 1
6%+ [Ic 12 9p* $ +% $&5 ,[  Ic $% + 12    (-
. $   6& $&MP
: Pseudo parasites LJ>'' M JyS -
K* 6 $ SJ  $ *%   0&* % ! # !
K* % & $ S K 66 P 0 & $   65& *% "= 0&
. 6#5  6*   % -(  K

) {L #N8* 7,>@ k#+1 (T?u

 ?% K ' [Ic# $  N $N& 9*6 |FJ 95 9%   F# $ #x
!  * ,#+ 9p S> &  S  [  $8 $  + $ N  '  * JMk
 Jk . $K* 6%+ 6 `-  &    * 9w2 ,#+k 6# 1x9
K ' ?-6  "  $J#*% K > x 2#& 9x& 9 >. x
) 0'M#$(.

@ 2 +L
 2 T?uL ''
c8i >@ k#+1< , (): ?' () ' @' 
'
E () *O
)
'
E ( 
E () 7-
O ~' () '8   .
) 0'M#$(.

OJ  ''
M 8'< 7, #+D- 7
# :
*F $% + & ,#+ 1 N K  ) $ # JN mK* Artifacts (EIfF* 6
 95 0&  &K* 6 1N - $ # JS ' w2( E ,#+ `-
6# ,%  ,! $  S  9% & ) J& ' N  # JS   . $*  ' $

  $  S xF $% + 12 9p* 1 '  ) :'M ]#e(.


-
: Bacteria 2#' J
*( 6  &   $% + 12 '  9% & q& ' N $ # JS
& $9? & 
5! cM E    $N . $ # JS
-'S @' : Meat Fibers
& 1F#  $x9* & x  $ !   - ' 95
 $ I $2J JM *F  ! ,#+ 126> .
< , - + Air Bubbles O : Oil Droplets }2h
*(5!g& 6 " $J# ' $ I6> 6& $NF6 I *  ' $5* fq
& $F K  $ *% ! $-m. 9 #+ $
2 L -L6 : Soaps
* $p% m Jk $ %& K " `5*& $SS6> .

E -   Pollen grainsL >2#M Fungus spores 
u
: Dust particles
* " $J# !5 F* 6 ,#+! m 6I 12 1 cM Ec

5F $#k!  $  .
-
 2: '-
8
*6    $ *% $% + 12 9p* 6 1 * 1 *%* ' $5 
* 6 $ * 6 1 :

'
E - : Starsh granules *8
$p% m K & x $* !   12 K%  ' $ I
6F  9 q& . Jk 0 J 9p* 6 5*  ,#+ "Q#

*  $8q( $ E ! K% % % * 6 * '+ $5-


  NS m ' *%  ->g* 1# 9cM 6%+ 15 J%
&  .
-*'# : Plant Hair '-
8
* $#N 9  $+S>  $ %F% $&6F* K % ,#+
 . $2J $q
-'S : Plant fibers '-
8
* * ' $5
x $5 $ *% 12 * !q# $. K
- 2K3: Plant cells '-
8
* 6 $ K (6 >#  q*( 12 6 ,#+ Ec
*5 .
/

OJ  #'` ''


M ''>M 8'< 7, #+D- 7
#
: -' @' < , - a+ ?' #M - LN 2 L - }2 
E: -   L 2#M, -
#y '-
O 2Ke: 
'
E F1- : - '-
O - *O' :- '-
O2# a'L   2OS
- Blastocystis - Pus cells '@' 2Ke F1- -Jy < #+D - Coccidia OJ  ''>cK 7
_J2 8'< 7, #+D-
# .
)'M ]#e(.

-2#  @# : Erythrocytes


1 $ IF* K  $2J $S% ,#+ S # $q !~ 1
  ! 12 9p* 6 Qq $&MP !. $ $
-
 : Crystals
12 12 9p Ec  ' #  &#   Charcot '6
Leyden Cystals* 1   $2 ' 66&MP  $ # JS*' H%
*
SF  6  x  $ xF 9p* 6#& x  
6%+ Cholesterol * q `- 12.
5
-2#  
'a : Leukocytes
* 9p  6  x &g 9+6  Lymphocyts $ J#$ xF
Eosinophils $#K% ! 12 (PMN) Polymorph nuclear
9  !  ! 12 95 Ec  E.histolytica 1# JS 9&K 6
*( 6  6  x 12 & J K & ' 5* K"=  $ F
. Pus cells
- 2K3: Epithelial cells '?KM
* 9p"=  12 $ I=S  6# $5  1 S 9 & $S *
 + $ columnar K !  cquamous $ J 1 !
5 '
  .
->2#M : Fungus
$% + 12 6(* 6 6+  ' >=  SJ & 1 N K: 9%
2Ke -#'3 : Yeasts Cells
* 1 & x $ K 52  ->g* $q#  1%9cM 6%+ F
&  * 6  & ,#+ $F.
+
: Blastocystis -
>= $ I& x  $ !   - ' &  95 2 ?#*   mq
 * ' $  $S% & [ F &= F 6+ ,#+    k J
&   ->g &= # . JM
' -& 65 K6 "=   $ SJ` "   Hyphae $ SJ
 0& %*  ! $   $ SJ 12%   $ x9 16* 6%+$+%
' Candida spp S2 9#
: Coccidia -
1  * E k F   E *   $  m
*K 12 6 %* 6%+  P F#  `-9& $&k  * ( 12
   ,  & Oocyst  x  ) . Sporocyst'M ]#e(.

 :< ~*J_ {'L2 :



 0 & '+ QK66 12  |"K  ) N '+ 0> $% + - 9% +
  $F(( . $
92 N ,#+ *
t  $S' Iodine 92 N ,#+> * '= $S $ #+
Saline* ,Sc 6& $F K? & Caver Sleep + ' ! E5Kc 2  6 ( $%
6+ *  ,#+ 9 *  )+ ' $F $%'  ZS"(.  1
 c '   Iodine * '# $6+ fF* 0   ! 9  ,
9 #+> ' Mk> . #  c '   Saline  6+ 9R ,#+
 * 5'$) .(.
*
'{  +p F[ 8'< 7,
# :
a'L - Jd : Ascaris
$S $x & 165& $NF
5F   'K> 9p 9N k1# ,
  * 6 `-6 '  66  E k* 1 P $JIN ' 166
S $ `-6 12&MP 66K *  12 ?9* , *  ,#+ 6+&MP
 . 9 2 $
a'L - : Anclystoma
* & $x `-6 $ I #  * K  9p"( 1 (6  ? K
 9& O 6I6& 9p  m> 9#& >= = 9x&  $M 0*  ,`-
6 &
6 ". $ 2S
a'L - : Diphyllathrium Latum
*  12 $x `-6  $S
5F (6 ?  mSm 9 0& 12 9p 6
!   J '   m - Sc  )#c 
5! 6q $x '+ %
   1# .
a'L - : Fasciola
* 9p `- $x * fF 95 95! k 6   1# , 6  $
 E k* 9%   $. 6
a'L - : Hetrophyes
* & $x `-6 cM 65& $NF
5F > Q JSm 9 '  ,#+=!' ! r
 ' ) 6 $ !% $#
5! k $x   1# , * .
a'L - : Hymenolepis nana
`- $x $ I fF* $2J $ K 95 1 (6' > 1#>( 1 9p 6
>S 6 >  0& 12 $x!  * `-6 cM * E k P
  ' 9& ' &kJN .

a'L - : Schistosoma nansoni


& $x `-6  ' $ ( $ $ !% ,#J* `-KR $ & m
  9p fF* $x 95  ! 
5! k $x   1# ,
E * 1  &9#  . $
a'L - . Schistosoma hematbium
& $x `-6  $x & $9 & $& OJ%
5F &)
'  ' $ J $x * 1 $% + 12
$% +  x*  E  &9# 
 .$

a'L - . Schistosoma japanisym


& $x `-6 ' cM &  ! $ !   1# '+ 6q  95 I 9#
=6  +  9 ' )m6> .
a'L - : Enterobiues uermicularis
`- * $x  ' $Scx% ' 5 (6 )  9& [ F!
5 `- '+ 6q  $x
  1# + * E k `-6 JN * &
6 . $ &6
a'L - : Tricus trichuira
`-   & $9  $xJ qc J 9#  ' 5
5! k `- $x
   1# , `-6 '   * ?9 .
a'L -2  : Tenia
`- m $x $ I K ' 2=m!6  ?  R >  )  %
 E# 12 =t K  $x  6+ 9x& '+ 0? $! 12(
 ' %5!
5   1# '+ 6q  $x 5'$) .(.
k@,
# Fecal Examination :

 5 |F2  Ova 0 # # JS  12 * 1  #+ )#S   m


|F2 . Stool
'  S  |FJ $6 #  =! $pJk p   ! ' $% # $( 6
" ,#+   #2  1 S &. Z*2 1%
=  #M   %> 1 $F) . $  S7'
J(.
 =! r    I
'  S  $6 # " |F2 12 $6 : 1
- @ #'aWet Mounts 0c#
-  ' $% + S( $& $S-  ' xF '+ QK 
Protozoa F 12 $S ) [K%" x( . Trophozoites
/

+ `- xF * 
&# '+ $# # . 1# JS*
$ N *: 1
$F  ,#+(( &  $+ $S > 1K cM $ ' $% +  . kF2  S ' #F  ,#+ 1( 2 1F# . $%  $% + ,#+> #F   .  Sm  Cover Slide $F K fF* |F2 95. 1Ix -*#? Y `
6?' Permanent Stained Slide :
' * `- K & $% + ' ZI N( $  12 $RJF Polyvinyl Alcohol
)(PAV
`- | "K* 1* xF# $ SJk# 1  |F2 6%+ $ (2  .$
#'a@- - ' :
 xF#F ' (q  : $
(q ! 6  ' Iq( + 6*  q( + '  . S
M 6%+ & $% $S- #F ' * | "KN 12 $ $9 & Cyst $#MF
 =( ' (  # &#  1%' * 66F%  9# 9*F6+
. $
#- '< -' h
# Fecal Concentration Techniques
* "6 `-! 12 $ S 0 & |F266 !=M   + * "6 $ N
  & E $SJ '    12 E#m" !      
,#+ $ 6 $ %  $% + ' $69 .
 "6  $ #  9( E  S  q Centrifuge  0 & 1%m E
=kF  $ S $ $ #+ 1) JS
( Flotation Method+ * "6
   ?q6+ $#t $ N 1 "S >  )# #F 12 E  
 ?q& $ #+ 6 S  q w2  ZS#F#
#J   ,#+ F 0
=MF  S % ->* 1 & Loop $S* ,#+Sc& ,Sc*
t $F K
 $F K* fF* |FJ) . 957'
J(.
- DO*~ Antigen Detection System : _'1' OS
|FJ $6! $ N 1   95 `- ,#+ 6* $p (  x
 ' 5"  J & 12  2   ! ' &k   [*  ' 5
5x
* $ %
q H%* 1  6"  1I  '+ QK#* 
5x ) .7'
J(.
)( - _< ~*J''>M S' :

 '+ QK `- # JS 6+ $! 12 ( &  0  ' 66 !  
+
  ' $F OJ%& $% $ S & $' F 6  $ck& $F K# $cM + ,
  ( $cM  $% 5'$) . f(.

''>M  +p F :
: Giardia lomblia -
( 6-  12  JS  $ 6   1# '+ 6q  N * 0& 12 ,
!  &(  P 6  #2 & ' " Q# & '  * 6
R 0& 12!  *(6& 6> #* .

: Trichomonas vigenalas 5'>c -


( 6- 5* 12  JS Qx+  ( # $ #% ' ) N '+  #+ QK
F  + ' 2  E x 2P  $ #9? & S ->g  ?#* ' $F
2P  9 #+ '= $S $2*Sc& ,Sc  =! $p  Kc  m
 K ' ,! '  Q6  $9 &  JS
 $6& QK ck  #
  & x  O% > $ * ?# !6 x & m [2 $ K `q(
(6 >[ 12 Qk%  ' )m#    JS#  9p  m- %
'  # JS >= $66M* `-"=  $66k & '  #.  JS

: Entameboa histolootica 5'>c -


`-%I  12 $ #2* $K  * 6 $ P *F ,
 $! 12 S> 'I p 9=c  Qx  $ +%
*qc (6    $S%6   $! '  '+ F-
 E5  JS 1g& + 6Kc ' $% + * $S
Saline $cM '  9p-  : ' # ,#+  JSS
Trophozid- S  12> #  ! 
  . K  I  &S  Cyst 1
 1m> #&   9p- S 12F . $%q

: E.coli 5'>c -
- % '  # JS   12 $ # $K  $p #c  *  E *
& ' $F  + 6 & OJ% $ S & $ 9p %S  1 ' S
 12 1  JS &) 6+  k  2 $ $ t , $S -c % 
"  2 9p 2 * Q# !6 12 S .

: Lieshmania 5'>c -
6+  K #  % ! %S% 12 6   K # L.tropica $6#512 [2 9p
 $m6 F KF   JS# $# %
' $F  + k '  OJ  $m6 KF
* 1  JF& 9 (6 . 1+

+ $F K : 1#

 - 6" 
t $&MP . 1
6 - & ?F k & $J p $F  $S  " ' 12  ?F
  $F> . $J p
 - M6 ,! ?F > 6 ->g
t6 6+ ,#+  ZI> .
/



k - K  ( $ck& ZI* ! $6& |FJ*
t Q5* , 9p 2 $ q JS
&q K  12  &=  !   .

5'>c -
K2 : Plasmodium
- K  JS 12 66 & ' F  + 6  $S%   $  $S% . $

 : $S%  . Thick drop $



 x - '   ' 0 M9&P &6 ( J p%* 6 &F 6
t &
  $F>  6 & 6  Qk . $
* - 6 ( Q5 $F K '  * x2N 9   ( $ck& k*
t  #
 12  JSk .
:  t $S% . Thin drop $
' $S ->g -   $J p $F  ,#+ 0 $S 95& x> .
Sc& -  J  9x& ,#+ ' S%. 0
f -- Kc &  .
* - 12 $F K6 $ck  Q5*
t $+ Qk*. |FJ
)5'$(.

, Blood Films :



#2 k6 9RP  # JS 12 $#  $cM x2 `-F   ( $cM 1
Giemsa=2 6 *  
#J ) Thin-Film
? & S $F  ,#+(( 9 *
t $J p $ 9cM-  9p xFK
 # JS# 1(2 &. 6 ( K
> '| Thick Film :

6+ & #+ S ' 6 $F  ,#+((  $J p $ 6  %*
t Q5 $F K,
  ' |#"# 12 ' &#( 9  6  F k
t `- * ,#+ * $ % q
 # JS cM $!  12 & $ #+ 9 * ?- fF* 9JK) . 957'
J(.

)(  _< ~*J  8'< 7, 7>3


# : OCCULT BLOOD
6( 66 $% + 12 6   9%&MP  $ # JS  12 Qq%! 6%  $ x9
6 q '+ H*% (q  '  #%  12 1I  m $ x9 
* 6 x>=N
  >=  ` 12% 6& ,  ?- $ x9 " Occult blood 1J-  1S
1%& ) %(  $% & %q% 12> % q E  6 $ x9  #& q
!   -  9 ' &  #+ 5 * fF 95* "6 6+ N |FJ
6 ") : 9% 1J'M ]#e(.

Ortho-tolidine  2#c -J- M3L  ':


->q( - ' $% +  ,#+ .Z  * $
-6+ $2  ' "#  ' Orth-Tolidine-  glacial acetic acid
). Barium-Peroxide(H2O2
=> 12 - 9R $ t # > x > xq  $,#+ $ &5
( 6 " 12 1J   $5 % 6+ 192 $ # 9R # >. x
/

: Haema test  2#c -


* 6 `- $ = ,#+ $ S   Haema test  EN ( 6
" 1J9R , #  ,#+ 
- S"& |FJ  : $
& -+ $S >q(  1K ' $% + ,#+ $  . Z
 - ,#+ Haema test . $%
- S $2 '  ,#+ p ' t -
t S $2 >
'   k  , $  . Z
- $5 %9R $p!= $ &5 #  >=  ' '  $2 -  
,#+( 6 " 12 1J . $%

: Benzidine test -
!  x #F ' ' * S Benzidine"#  Glacial acetic acid,
 $F  ' $ ,#+ Z  * $*  $5 %9R $ &5 # > x
q !  => $%  ' $ $2#F '  6"& Zk% `- 9
  $%N> S "6 ) .'M ]#e(.
  '+ QK6 " 12 1J !  62 '+ QK 6  *[ & 0 
 N   
+  * 1% $5 % |FJ# $ &5( & K ' 1 S
12 `- $& E5 $F  N $F  $5 % + 1%* 192 $ # 6+ ( '+ 6I
 1 SR $% + 12  9kF2
* 1* 6 $ $! ,#+ |FJ  12 0 f
S+  $% 0& ,#+ * 6 1 6 t ,#+ $5  ,#+ t  $%. |FJ
) < (.

 S  P      - ' &   [Ic  !  ,#+ [Ic ' $# # $6


` 9p 12 t*   F&  ' =! 12 p |FJ 9p 6& " Occult blood 1J
&  % ! 6 ,#+ $ ' 6 )+ 6q c& ( $+ /  - '+ 
E   ! Melena  S    &  tg* Ek  $6 $ xFq
   ,#+ $ . ' &#( 9& 1%  &# S6 1 $t=t   > $ 
' 6  1*gq% ' q5 # %#  $ x9 # ! * ,q% ' q5
= .  ' ,%?  =xJ & => $+ % $ x9
 ' 1#J%  $ x9 
  E > 6( 6 "F& [Ic& 1J  ) : $ 0'M#$(.
Qq -. $#
$! -6 . Peptic ulcer
/


$! -. Duodenal ulcer K+ ,%tP
-9 6 . Gastritis
N  - 6 . Gastric cancer
N  -  . Colon cancer
-9  .Collitis
N  -  . Colorectal cancer $p #c
2 -6 . Obscure anemia 0c
- . Haemorrhoids
-= & $ 1 ' + 9 Qq $ 5 *65 P  , ?%
 ' 66 $%* E  1 12 Jq 96    ,#+ 9%  :
 + 5  x ' $ " .
 6P ') Indomethacin!x 6 9  "6   % (x
  %2 * Phenylbutazone! 6 %  ". $6
  $ = # Salicylates "=+ 12 $6 &9 &MP . $ t 5
  6 . Steroids
 6   . Thiazide 6
  Colchicine ' K-  "6 " 0! 0J ? &6   F =+ 12
  % .
 K  . Rauwolfia  J

 '+ QK6 "6& [Ic& 1J F2  9


k@, -
h8. Benzidine _2
k@, -S. Orthotolidine _2'-i
k@, -u. Guaiac test |2
k@, -8',8'S . Aminophenazone
k@, -'_ 7?8i>. Diphenylamine test 5'8
 6  `-9 1%J S ,#+! 6 " 1J ( ,#+ 6 12 66F ' &#( 9-
 % 2 ' ' 5 66 9( ' H2O2 ,   ( g# $#& $ %  6q%'
 '6 *tc?  ) . 9%#* ,#+ 2 ' &% 0'M#$(.

 _< ~*J # 012 bO, 7>3<  : 72


E5 -  % %* ' 0 F# ,#+  6 $t=t   $& $. |FJ
E5 -  Q 6 0 $t=t  ,#+ $   (  1N* '+ |FJ$
*F ,#+ 66F *   $ 66F%* 1 9 F &k & J6
w2 ?-   $   66F & 66F  2 66F Ferrous
HI 1S* fumarate $ &5&. $
=
E5 -g ' 6   6k 6 "> ' 1J %  $ x9 ' Qq% 
J
-   E5+ *: 1
( 6+ *  J% * 6K& 9 %t * E   ,! 9J p%? q 12 ' $#
6+ M  0 F $% + ,. [Ic
( 6+ M   $% + ,. [Ic


1S -# 0&  2*% !   HI $xm $ &5& |FJ $6
"- . 1J  E5% %* '+ " x  " x ?-% '+
*% *% F* 1 ,#+
q   q6  5JF .
E5 -   6& |FJ> -  & ' & $+ >= $t=t  $
 f $5 % 12 $ &5    E( |F2 1J  ! |FJ#! 6 ' $# #
FJ (S+P $  ,#+ $N $( 6 "6*  % & 1J  $5 % $ #
!6 6+ ,#+ |FJ# ( 6 ". 1J
E5 -% %* '+   '  ! C '  2 *% HI 1S $+ /
( -
 $&) . $ 0'M#$(.

You might also like