TRAFFIC LIGHTS CONTROLLER PROJECT

TRAFFIC LIGHTS
CONTROLLER
MINOR PROJECT REPORT

ELECTRONICS AND
COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
(7th SEMESTER)

SUBMITTED BY:

AAKASH GUPTA (UE5501)

AANCHAL MANCHANDA
(UE5502)

SUNIL AGGRAWAL
UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere thanks and deep sense of gratitude

towards Miss Preeti Gupta, under whose able guidance we
were able to implement this thought of ours into a reality.

Her timely and incisive review, comments and suggestions

throughout the project enabled us to modify the project before
things went out of our hand. We thank her for everything, from
conception of getting things done practically and a lot of steps
along the way, which helped us in overcoming our difficulties
and making the project a successful endeavour.

We are also grateful to Miss Renu Vig, Head of Deptt.,

Electronics and Communication. She helped us immensely by
providing us with all the equipment important for our project.

Aakash Gupta (UE5501)

Aanchal Manchanda (UE5502)

Sunil Aggarwal (UE5568)

 CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. Circuit diagram

3. Components Used

a) Resistors

b) Capacitors

c) Diodes

d) Power Supply

e) Printing Wiring Boards

f) Wiring Materials

g) Micro-Controller

4. Soldering

a) Soldering Tools

b) Process of Soldering

5. Keil

a) Working With Keil

6. About the Project

7. Program Code

8. Further Scope Of The Project

9. References
 Introduction

The traffic light, also known as traffic signal, stop light, traffic
lamp, stop-and-go lights, robot or semaphore, is a signaling
device positioned at a road intersection, pedestrian crossing, or
other location. Its purpose is to indicate, using a series of
colours (Red - Amber - Green), the correct moment to stop,
drive, ride or walk, using a universal colour code (and a precise
sequence, for those who are colour blind).

Traffic lights for vehicles usually contain three lamps: red,

orange or yellow (officially amber), and green. In some
systems, a flashing amber means that a motorist may go ahead
with care if the road is clear, giving way to pedestrians and to
other road vehicles that may have priority. A flashing red is
treated as a regular stop sign. Although the word "yellow" is
common parlance in the United States, the color of the actual
lamp is usually only slightly more yellowish than the amber
used in Europe.

Traffic lights for pedestrians normally have two main lights: a

red light that means 'stop' and a green light that means 'go'
(or, more correctly, 'proceed with caution'). There is usually a
flashing phase (red in the US, green in Europe) that means
'complete your crossing'. In most locales in North America, the
colors used are a red-orange ("Portland orange") for "stop/wait"
and a bluish-white ("lunar") for "go." While the "walk" signal is
generally a walking human figure, North American pedestrian
signals usually show an upraised hand for "stop," while most
other countries display a standing human figure. Some older
American signals display the verbal commands "Walk" (lunar
white or green) and "Don't Walk" or "Wait" (red-orange).

The use of these colours is thought to originate from nautical

right-of-way. Usually, the red light contains some orange in its
hue, and the green light contains some blue, to provide some
support for people with red-green colour blindness.

Traffic lights for special vehicles (such as buses or trams) may

use other systems, such as vertical vs. horizontal bars of white
light. In Portland, Oregon, the tram signals feature a horizontal
white bar and an orange vertical bar.

In most countries, the sequence is green (go), amber (prepare

to stop), and red (stop). In some systems, however, just before
red changes to green, both red and amber are lit. It is
customary for drivers to select neutral and/or use the
handbrake at red lights; the additional phase is intended to give
the driver time to select first gear or release the handbrake
before the light turns green, but in practice is treated as an
invitation to go before the green light is showing.

Technology

Optics and lighting

 A modern British LED traffic light in Portsmouth.

LED traffic lights in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden.

In the mid 1990s, cost-effective traffic light lamps using light-

emitting diodes (LEDs) were developed; prior to this date traffic
lights were designed using incandescent or halogen light bulbs.
Unlike the incandescent-based lamps, which use a single large
bulb, the LED-based lamps consist of an array of LED elements,
arranged in various patterns. When viewed from a distance, the
array appears as a continuous light source.

LED-based lamps (or 'lenses') have numerous advantages over

incandescent lamps; among them are:

• Much greater energy efficiency (can be solar-powered).

• Much longer lifetime between replacement, measured in

years rather than months. Part of the longer lifetime is due
to the fact that the some light is still displayed even if
some of the LEDs in the array are dead.

• Brighter illumination with better contrast against direct

sunlight, also called 'phantom light'.
 • The ability to display multiple colours and patterns from
the same lamp. Individual LED elements can be enabled or
disabled, and different colour LEDs can be mixed in the
same lamp.

• Much faster switching.

• Instead of sudden burn-out like incandescent-based lights,

LEDs start to gradually dim when they wear out, warning
transportation maintenance departments well in advance
as to when to change the light. Occasionally, particularly
in green LED units, segments prone to failure will flicker
rapidly beforehand.

The operational expenses of LED-based signals are far lower

than equivalent incandescent-based lights. As a result, most
new traffic light deployments in the United States, Canada and
elsewhere have been implemented using LED-based lamps; in
addition many existing deployments of incandescent traffic
lights are being replaced. In 2006, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
completed a total refit to LED-based lamps in the city's over
12,000 intersections and all pedestrian crosswalks. Many of the
more exotic traffic signals discussed on this page would not be
possible to construct without using LED technology. However,
colour-changing LEDs are in their infancy and may surpass the
multi-colour array technology.

In some areas, LED-based signals have been fitted (or

retrofitted) with special Fresnel lenses (Programmed Visibility or
'PV' lenses) and/or diffusers to limit the line of sight to a single
lane. These signals typically have a "projector"-like visibility;
and maintain an intentionally limited range of view. Because
the LED lights don't generate a significant amount of heat,
heaters may be necessary in areas which receive snow, where
snow can accumulate within the lens area and limit the visibility
of the indications.[18]

Another new LED technology is the use of CLS (Central Light

Source) optics. These comprise around 7 high-output LEDs
(sometimes 1 watt) at the rear of the lens, with a diffuser to
even out and enlarge the light. This gives a uniform
appearance, more like traditional halogen or incandescent
luminaries.

Replacing halogen or incandescent reflector and bulb

assemblies behind the lens with an LED array can give the
same effect. This also has its benefits: minimal disruption,
minimal work, minimal cost and the reduced need to replace
the entire signal head (housing).

Control and coordination

Traffic signal phase changes are based on one of three systems:

pre-timed, semi-actuated, and fully-actuated. The simplest
control system uses a timer (fixed-time): each phase of the
signal lasts for a specific duration before the next phase occurs;
this pattern repeats itself regardless of traffic. Many older traffic
light installations still use these, and timer-based signals are
effective in one way grids where it is often possible to
coordinate the traffic lights to the posted speed limit. They are
however quite disadvantageous when the signal timing of an
intersection would profit from being adapted to the dominant
flows changing over the time of the day.

REASON

In our project we have studied the control of traffic in

accordance to the mass density of the traffic. The population of
Chandigarh has increased 3 times since 1971 and reached the
amounts of 9,00,914 (according to 2001 census), while the
number of vehicles shot up by 42 times during these 30 years.
According to the survey done by Tribune news Service on
August 19, 2000, the average number of vehicles in Chandigarh
is 6000 per lakh of population i.e. 6%.
According to Times of India, the number of vehicular in the city
is whizzing ahead at full throttle. From a modest 940 vehicles in
different categories in 1967, the figure has today zoomed to
over 5.52 lakh, with a total of 29,437 vehicles being added in
2003.
According to latest figures put together by the Registering and
Licensing Authority (RLA), the count of vehicles registered in
the city currently stands at 5,52,260. Fragmenting these
figures, the city has 3.95 lakh two-wheelers, 1.46 lakh cars and
jeeps, and about 11,000 vehicles in other categories.

A major impact of the same can be seen on the most frequently

used roads. As thousands of people ply to the city daily from
the satellite towns of Mohali (in Punjab) and Panchkula (in
Haryana), the city roads are virtually bursting at the seams
during the peak office hours. According to Tribune on January
12, heavy density of traffic is seen on the four main roads of
Chandigarh — Madhya Marg, Lok Path, Himalaya Marg and
Udyog Path.About 83,000 vehicles cross the Madhya Marg (the
road from the PGI to Panchkula) daily. While, at least 54,757
vehicles cross Lok Path daily, Himalaya Marg has a daily rush of
64,521 vehicles. 52,231 vehicles cross Udyog Path every day.
These roads see such a high inflow of traffic because they link
the different sections of the city to the commercial hubs of the
city.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Components Specification

Power Supply:

Transformer = 230V to 12V

Voltage Regulator = 12V to 5V

C1 = 2200 uF

R1 = 1 Kohm

D3,D4 = 1N4007

Controller:

R2 – R13 = 560 ohm

R1 = 10 Kohm

C1= 10 uF

C2,C3 = 33pF

Crystal Oscillator = 11.0592 Mhz

Micro-Controller = 89S51
COMPONENTS USED

Resistor

The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current.

This symbol is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit
diagram, known as a schematic.

Resistance value is designated in units called the "Ohm." A

1000 Ohm resistor is typically shown as 1K-Ohm ( kilo Ohm ),
and 1000 K-Ohms is written as 1M-Ohm(megohm).

There are two classes of resistors; fixed resistors and the

variable resistors. They are also classified according to the
material from which they are made. The typical resistor is made
of either carbon film or metal film. There are other types as
well, but these are the most common.
The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to
consider when selecting a resistor for use in a circuit. The
"tolerance" and the electric power ratings of the resistor are
also important.
The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual
rated resistence value. For example, a ±5% tolerance would
indicate a resistor that is within ±5% of the specified resistance
value.
The power rating indicates how much power the resistor can
safely tolerate.

The maximum rated power of the resistor is specified in Watts.

Power is calculated using the square of the current ( I 2 ) x the
resistance value ( R ) of the resistor. If the maximum rating of
the resistor is exceeded, it will become extremely hot, and even
burn.
Resistors in electronic circuits are typically rated 1/8W, 1/4W,
and 1/2W. 1/8W is almost always used in signal circuit
applications.
When powering a light emitting diode, a comparatively large
current flows through the resistor.

Resistance value

The resistance value is displayed using the color code( the

colored bars/the colored stripes ), because the average resistor
is too small to have the value printed on it with numbers.
You had better learn the color code, because almost all resistors
of 1/2W or less use the color code to display the resistance
value.

Fixed Resistors

A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance

cannot change.

Carbon film resistors

This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually

the tolerance of the resistance value is ±5%. Power
ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently used.
Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be
electrically noisy. Metal film resistors are recommended for
use in analog circuits.
The physical size of the different resistors are as follows.

From the top of the

photograph
1/8W Rough size
1/4W
1/2W
Rating power
(W)

Thickness
(mm)

Length
(mm)

1/8

1/4

1/2

9
Resistor color code
 Color

Value

Multi
plier
Example 1 Toler
(Brown=1),(Black=0),(Orange ance
=3) (%)
10 x 103 = 10k ohm
Tolerance(Gold) = ±5%
Black

Brow
n

±1

Red

±2

Oran
ge

3
Capacitor

The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical

energy.
The capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating
current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC).
This symbol is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit
diagram.

The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing

each other, but separated by an insulator.

When DC voltage is applied to the

capacitor, an electric charge is
stored on each electrode. While the
capacitor is charging up, current
flows. The current will stop flowing
when the capacitor has fully
charged.

When a circuit tester, such as an analog meter set to measure

resistance, is connected to a 10 microfarad (µF) electrolytic
capacitor, a current will flow, but only for a moment. You can
confirm that the meter's needle moves off of zero, but returns
to zero right away.
When you connect the meter's probes to the capacitor in
reverse, you will note that current once again flows for a
moment. Once again, when the capacitor has fully charged, the
current stops flowing. So the capacitor can be used as a filter
that blocks DC current. (A "DC cut" filter.)
However, in the case of alternating current, the current will be
allowed to pass. Alternating current is similar to repeatedly
switching the test meter's probes back and forth on the
capacitor. Current flows every time the probes are switched.
The value of a capacitor (the capacitance), is designated in
units called the Farad(F).
The capacitance of a capacitor is generally very small, so units
such as the microfarad ( 10-6F ), nanofarad ( 10-9F ), and
picofarad (10-12F ) are used.
Recently, an new capacitor with very high capacitance has
been developed. The Electric Double Layer capacitor has
capacitance designated in Farad units. These are known as
"Super Capacitors."

Sometimes, a three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a

capacitor. There are two ways in which the capacitance can be
written. One uses letters and numbers, the other uses only
numbers. In either case, there are only three characters used.
[10n] and [103] denote the same value of capacitance. The
method used differs depending on the capacitor supplier. In the
case that the value is displayed with the three-digit code, the
1st and 2nd digits from the left show the 1st figure and the 2nd
figure, and the 3rd digit is a multiplier which determines how
many zeros are to be added to the capacitance. Picofarad ( pF )
units are written this way.
For example, when the code is [103], it indicates 10 x 103, or
10,000pF = 10 nanofarad( nF ) = 0.01 microfarad( µF ).
If the code happened to be [224], it would be 22 x 10 4 = or
220,000pF = 220nF = 0.22µF.
Values under 100pF are displayed with 2 digits only. For
example, 47 would be 47pF.

The capacitor has an insulator( the dielectric ) between 2

sheets of electrodes. Different kinds of capacitors use different
materials for the dielectric.

Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors)

Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization

membrane.
Large values of capacitance can be obtained in comparison
with the size of the capacitor, because the dielectric used is
very thin.
The most important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is
that they have polarity. They have a positive and a negative
electrode.This means that it is very important which way round
they are connected. If the capacitor is subjected to voltage
exceeding its working voltage, or if it is connected with
incorrect polarity, it may burst.

Generally, in the circuit diagram, the positive side is indicated

by a "+" (plus) symbol.
Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1µF to
thousands of µF. Mainly this type of capacitor is used as a ripple
filter in a power supply circuit, or as a filter to bypass low
frequency signals,
etc. Because this
type of capacitor is
comparatively similar
to the nature of a coil
in construction, it
isn't possible to use
for high-frequency
circuits. (It is said
that the frequency
characteristic is bad.)

The photograph on the is an example of the different values of

electrolytic capacitors in which the capacitance and voltage
differ.
From the left to right:
1µF (50V) [diameter 5 mm, high 12 mm]
47µF (16V) [diameter 6 mm, high 5 mm]
100µF (25V) [diameter 5 mm, high 11 mm]
220µF (25V) [diameter 8 mm, high 12 mm]
1000µF (50V) [diameter 18 mm, high 40 mm]
In the

photograph to the right, the mark

indicating the negative lead of the component can be seen.

Ceramic Capacitors

Ceramic capacitors are constructed with

materials such as titanium acid barium used as the dielectric.
Internally, these capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so
they can be used in high frequency applications. Typically, they
are used in circuits which bypass high frequency signals to
ground.
These capacitors have the shape of a disk. Their capacitance is
comparatively small.

The capacitor on the left is a 100pF capacitor with a diameter

of about 3 mm.
The capacitor on the right side is printed with 103, so 10 x
103pF becomes 0.01 µF. The diameter of the disk is about 6
mm.
Ceramic capacitors have no polarity.
Ceramic capacitors should not be used for analog circuits,
because they can distort the signal.

Diode

A diode is a semiconductor device which

allows current to flow through it in only one
direction. Although a transistor is also a
semiconductor device, it does not operate the
way a diode does. A diode is specifically made
to allow current to flow through it in only one
direction.
Some ways in which the diode can be used are listed here.
1. A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC
(Alternating Current) to DC (Direct Current) for a power supply
device.
2. Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio
frequencies.
3. Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current.
This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram.

The meaning of the symbol is (Anode) (Cathode).

Current flows from the anode side to the cathode side.

Although all diodes operate with the same general principle, there are different
types suited to different applications. For example, the following devices are best
used for the applications noted.

Voltage regulation diode (Zener Diode)

The circuit symbol is .

It is used to regulate voltage, by taking advantage of the fact
that Zener diodes tend to stabilize at a certain voltage when
that voltage is applied in the opposite direction.

Light emitting
diode

The circuit
symbol is .
This type of diode
emits light when current flows through it in the forward
direction. (Forward biased.)

The graph shows the electrical characteristics of a typical

diode.

When a small voltage is applied to the diode in the forward

direction, current flows easily.
Because the diode has a certain amount of resistance, the
voltage will drop slightly as current flows through the diode. A
typical diode causes a voltage drop of about 0.6 - 1V (V F) (In the
case of silicon diode, almost 0.6V)
This voltage drop needs to be taken into consideration in a
circuit which uses many diodes in series. Also, the amount of
current passing through the diodes must be considered.
When voltage is applied in the reverse direction through a
diode, the diode will have a great resistance to current flow.
Different diodes have different characteristics when reverse-
biased. A given diode should be selected depending on how it
will be used in the circuit.
The current that will flow through a diode biased in the reverse
direction will vary from several mA to just µA, which is very
small.

Rectification /
Switching / Regulation Diode

The stripe stamped on one end of

the diode shows indicates the
polarity of the diode.
The stripe shows the cathode side.
The top two devices shown in the
picture are diodes used for
rectification. They are made to
handle relatively high currents. The device on top can handle as
high as 6A, and the one below it can safely handle up to 1A.
However, it is best used at about 70% of its rating because this
current value is a maximum rating.
The third device from the top (red color) has a part number of
1S1588. This diode is used for switching, because it can switch
on and off at very high speed. However, the maximum current
it can handle is 120 mA. This makes it well suited to use within
digital circuits. The maximum reverse voltage (reverse bias)
this diode can handle is 30V.
The device at the bottom of the picture is a voltage regulation
diode with a rating of 6V. When this type of diode is reverse
biased, it will resist changes in voltage. If the input voltage is
increased, the output voltage will not change. (Or any change
will be an insignificant amount.) While the output voltage does
not increase with an increase in input voltage, the output
current will.
This requires some thought for a protection circuit so that too
much current does not flow.
The rated current limit for the device is 30 mA.
Generally, a 3-terminal voltage regulator is used for the
stabilization of a power supply. Therefore, this diode is typically
used to protect the circuit from momentary voltage spikes. 3
terminal regulators use voltage regulation diodes inside.

Diode bridge

Rectification diodes are used to make DC from AC. It is possible

to do only 'half wave rectification' using 1 diode. When 4 diodes
are combined, 'full wave rectification' occurs.
Devices that combine 4 diodes in one package are called diode
bridges. They are used for full-wave rectification.

The photograph shows the example of diode bridges.

Light Emitting Diode ( LED )

Light emitting diodes

must be chosen
according to how they
will be used, because
there are various kinds.
The diodes are
available in several
colors. The most
common colors are red
and green, but there are even blue ones.

The device on the far right in the photograph

combines a red LED and green LED in one
package. The component lead in the middle is
common to both LEDs. As for the remaining
two leads, one side is for the green, the other
for the red LED. When both are turned on
simultaneously, it becomes orange.

When an LED is new out of the package, the polarity of the

device can be determined by looking at the leads. The longer
lead is the Anode side, and the short one is the Cathode side.

It is possible to use an LED to obtain a fixed voltage.

The voltage drop (forward voltage, or VF) of an LED is
comparatively stable at just about 2V.
Power Supply

The power supply section is the important one. It should deliver

constant output regulated power supply for successful working
of the project. A 0-12V/500 mA transformer is used for this
purpose. The primary of this transformer is connected in to
main supply through on/off switch& fuse for protecting from
overload and short circuit protection. The secondary is
connected to the diodes to convert 12V AC to 12V DC voltage.
And filtered by the capacitors ,Which is further regulated to
+5v, by
using IC
7805

LM7805

The LM78MXX series of three-terminal positive voltage

regulators employ built-in current
limiting, thermal shutdown, and safe-
operating area protection which makes
them virtually immune to damage from
output overloads.

With adequate heat sinking, they can

deliver in excess of 0.5A output current.
Typical applications would include local (on-card) regulators
which can eliminate the noise and degraded performance
associated with single-point regulation.
Printed Wiring
Boards

When assembling an
electronic circuit, a
board is needed on
which the
components can be
mounted and
wired together.
This board is
called a Printed Wiring Board (PWB).
In Japan, the printed wiring board used to be called a
"Printed Circuit Board." Nowadays in Japan the name
"Printed Circuit Board" is not used because the initials of
"Printed Circuit Board" are "PCB." PCB also stands for
"Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)," which is a poison. So in
Japan, we refer to the boards as "Printed Wiring Boards." In
other countries, they are still referred to as "Printed Circuit
Boards," or PCBs.

Making a PWB takes a lot of work, and can be very difficult.

For this reason, for many hand-made circuits, I often use a
universal PWB.
The universal PWB consists of an insulation board drilled
with .8mm holes at 0.1 inch (2.54 mm) intervals. The board
is completely covered with these holes from edge to edge.
The insulation board is comprised of fiberglass (glass
epoxy), paper epoxy, or bakelite plastic.
Centered around each hole on the bottom of the PWB is an
(approximately) 2mm copper leaf (known as the "land" or
"pad").

To use the board, the parts are mounted on the face of the
board, and the component leads are passed through the
nearest holes, to project through the bottom of the board,
Wiring materials

Wire is used to electrically

connect circuit parts,
devices, equipment
etc.There are various kinds of
wiring materials. On this
page, I introduce the type that is used for the assembly of
electronic circuits.

The different types of wire can be divided largely into two

categories: single wire and twisted strand wire. It really doesn't
matter which kind you use for a given application, but usually,
single wire is used to connect devices (resistors, capacitors ect)
together on the PWB. (Parts that don't move) It is also used for
jumper wiring.
Twisted strand wire can bend freely, so it can be used for wiring
on the PWB, and also to connect discrete pieces of equipment.
If single wire is used to connect separate equipment, it will
break soon, as it is not very flexible.

It is convenient to use the single tin coated wire of the

diameter 0.32 mm for the wiring of PWB. If the diameter is
larger, soldering becomes a little bit difficult. And if the
diameter is too thin, it becomes difficult to bend the wire the
way you want it to stay.
MICROCONTROLLER

A microcontroller (or MCU) is a computer on-a-chip used to

control electronic devices. It is a type of microprocessor
emphasizing self-sufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in contrast
to a general-purpose microprocessor (the kind used in a PC). A
typical microcontroller contains all the memory and interfaces
needed for a simple application, whereas a general purpose
microprocessor requires additional chips to provide these
functions.

A microcontroller is a single integrated circuit with the following

key features:

• central processing unit - usually small and simple

• input/output interfaces such as serial ports
• peripherals such as timers and watchdog circuits
• RAM for data storage
• ROM for program storage
• clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz timing
crystal, resonator or RC circuit

This integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the

amount of wiring and PCB space that would be needed to
produce equivalent systems using separate chips.

Microcontrollers are inside many kinds of electronic equipment

(see embedded system). They are the vast majority of all
processor chips sold. Over 50% are "simple" controllers, and
another 20% are more specialized digital signal processors
(DSPs). A typical home in a developed country is likely to have
only one or two general-purpose microprocessors but
somewhere between one and two dozen microcontrollers. They
can be found in almost any electrical device, washing
machines, microwave ovens, telephones etc.

Description

In addition to the key features listed above, most

microcontrollers today take further advantage of not needing
external pins for memory buses. They can afford to use a
Harvard architecture: separate memory buses for instructions
and data, allowing accesses to take place concurrently.

Microcontrollers also usually have a variety of input/output

interfaces. Serial I/O (UARTs) are very common, and many
include analog-to-digital converters, timers, or specialized
serial communications interfaces like I²C, Serial Peripheral
Interface and Controller Area Network.

Originally, microcontrollers were only programmed in assembly

language, or later in C code. Recent microcontrollers integrated
with on-chip debug circuitry accessed by In-circuit emulator via
JTAG enables a programmer to debug the software of an
embedded system with a debugger.

Some microcontrollers have begun to include a built-in high-

level programming language interpreter for greater ease of use.
The Intel 8052 and Zilog Z8 were available with BASIC very
early on, and BASIC is more recently used in the popular BASIC
Stamp MCUs.

Microcontrollers trade speed and flexibility against ease of

equipment design and low cost. Manufacturers have to balance
the need to minimize the chip size against additional
functionality.

Finally, it must be mentioned that microcontroller architectures

are available from many different vendors in so many varieties
that they could rightly belong to a category of their own. Chief
among these are the 8051, Z80 and ARM derivatives.
89C51-89C52-89C54-89C58; 80C51 8-bit microcontroller
family 4K-8K-16K-32K Flash

General description

The 89C51/89C52/89C54/89C58 contain a non-volatile FLASH

program memory that is parallel programmable. For devices
that are serial programmable (In-System Programmable (ISP)
and In-Application Programmable (IAP) with a boot loader), see
the 89C51Rx2 or 89C66x datasheets. All three families are
Single-Chip 8-bit Microcontrollers manufactured in advanced
CMOS process and are derivatives of the 80C51 microcontroller
family. All the devices have the same instruction set as the
80C51.

Features

• 80C51 Central Processing Unit

• On-chip FLASH Program Memory
• Speed up to 33 MHz
• Fully static operation
• RAM expandable externally up to 64 kbytes
• 4 interrupt priority levels
• 6 interrupt sources
• Four 8-bit I/O ports
• Full-duplex enhanced UART
o Framing error detection
o Automatic address recognition
• Three 16-bit timers/counters T0, T1 (standard 80C51) and
additional T2 (capture and compare)
• Power control modes
o Clock can be stopped and resumed
o Idle mode
o Power down mode
• Programmable clock out
• Second DPTR register
• Asynchronous port reset
• Low EMI (inhibit ALE)
 • Wake up from power down by an external interrupt

Similar products

89C51/89C52/89C54/89C58 links to the similar products

page containing an overview of products that are similar in
function or related to the type number(s) as listed on this page.
The similar products page includes products from the same
catalog tree(s), relevant selection guides and products from the
same functional category.

The AT89S51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit

microcontroller with 4K bytes of In-System Programmable Flash
memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-
density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with
the industry- standard 80C51 instruction set and pinout. The
on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed
in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory
programmer.
Pin Description

VCC Supply voltage

GND Ground

GND Ground

Port 0 Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an

output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are
written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance
inputs.

Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order

address/data bus during accesses to external program and data
memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups.

Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming

and outputs the code bytes during program verification.
External pull-ups are required during program verification.
Port 1 Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-
ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1
pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL)
because of the internal pull-ups.

Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash

programming and verification.

Port 2 Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-

ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2
pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL)
because of the internal pull-ups.

Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from

external program memory and during accesses to external data
memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this
application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting
1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit
addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2
Special Function Register.

Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some

control signals during Flash programming and verification.

Port 3 Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-

ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.
When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3
pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL)
because of the pull-ups.

Port 3 receives some control signals for Flash programming and

verification.

Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of

the AT89S51, as shown in the following table.
RST Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles
while the oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives
High for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The
DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable
this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH
out feature is enabled.

ALE/PROG Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for

latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external
memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during
Flash programming.

In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the

oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or
clocking purposes. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by
setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active
only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is
weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if
the microcontroller is in external execution mode.

PSEN Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to

external program memory. When the AT89S51 is executing
code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice
each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are
skipped during each access to external data memory.

EA/VPP External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND

in order to enable the device to fetch code from external
program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be
internally latched on reset.

EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions.

This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage

(VPP) during Flash programming.

XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to

the internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier

Port Pin Alternate Functions

P3.0 RXD (serial input port)

P3.1 TXD (serial output port)

P3.2 INT0 (external interrupt 0)

P3.3 INT1 (external interrupt 1)

P3.4 T0 (timer 0 external input)

P3.5 T1 (timer 1 external input)

P3.6 WR (external data memory write strobe)

P3.7 RD (external data memory read strobe)

 SOLDERING

Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are

joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the
joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soft
soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler
metal, which is below 400 °C (800 °F). The filler metal used in
the process is called solder.

Soldering is distinguished from brazing by use of a lower

melting-temperature filler metal; it is distinguished from
welding by the base metals not being melted during the joining
process. In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to
be joined, causing the solder to melt and be drawn into the
joint by capillary action and to bond to the materials to be
joined by wetting action. After the metal cools, the resulting
joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have adequate
strength, electrical conductivity, and water-tightness for many
uses. Soldering is an ancient technique mentioned in the Bible
and there is evidence that it was employed up to 5000 years
ago in Mesopotamia.

Applications

One of the most frequent application of soldering is assembling

electronic components to printed circuit boards (PCBs). Another
common application is making permanent but reversible
connections between copper pipes in plumbing systems. Joints
in sheet metal objects such as food cans, roof flashing, rain
gutters and automobile radiators have also historically been
soldered, and occasionally still are. Jewelry components are
assembled and repaired by soldering. Small mechanical parts
are often soldered as well. Soldering is also used to join lead
came and copper foil in stained glass work. Soldering can also
be used to effect a semi-permanent patch for a leak in a
container cooking vessel.
Solders

Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys

for differing applications. In electronics assembly, the eutectic
alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost
identical in performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of
choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing, mechanical
assembly, and other applications.

A eutectic formulation has several advantages for soldering;

chief among these is the coincidence of the liquidus and solidus
temperatures, i.e. the absence of a plastic phase. This allows
for quicker wetting out as the solder heats up, and quicker
setup as the solder cools. A non-eutectic formulation must
remain still as the temperature drops through the liquidus and
solidus temperatures. Any differential movement during the
plastic phase may result in cracks, giving an unreliable joint.
Additionally, a eutectic formulation has the lowest possible
melting point, which minimizes heat stress on electronic
components during soldering.

Lead-free solders are suggested anywhere children may come

into contact (since children are likely to place things into their
mouths), or for outdoor use where rain and other precipitation
may wash the lead into the groundwater. Common solder alloys
are mixtures of tin and lead, respectively:

• 63/37: melts at 183 °C (361.4 °F) (eutectic: the only

mixture that melts at a point, instead of over a range)
• 60/40: melts between 183–190 °C (361–374 °F)
• 50/50: melts between 185–215 °C (365–419 °F)

Lead-free solder alloys melt around 250 °C (482 °F), depending

on their composition.

For environmental reasons, 'no-lead' solders are becoming

more widely used. Unfortunately most 'no-lead' solders are not
eutectic formulations, making it more difficult to create reliable
joints with them. See complete discussion below; see also
RoHS.

Other common solders include low-temperature formulations

(often containing bismuth), which are often used to join
previously-soldered assemblies without un-soldering earlier
connections, and high-temperature formulations (usually
containing silver) which are used for high-temperature
operation or for first assembly of items which must not become
unsoldered during subsequent operations. Specialty alloys are
available with properties such as higher strength, better
electrical conductivity and higher corrosion resistance.

Flux

In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing

and soldering), the primary purpose of flux is to prevent
oxidation of the base and filler materials. Tin-lead solder, for
example, attaches very well to copper, but poorly to the various
oxides of copper, which form quickly at soldering temperatures.
Flux is a substance which is nearly inert at room temperature,
but which becomes strongly reducing at elevated
temperatures, preventing the formation of metal oxides.
Secondarily, flux acts as a wetting agent in the soldering
process, reducing the surface tension of the molten solder and
causing it to better wet out the parts to be joined.

Fluxes currently available include water-soluble fluxes (no

VOC's required for removal) and 'no-clean' fluxes which are
mild enough to not require removal at all. Performance of the
flux needs to be carefully evaluated; a very mild 'no-clean' flux
might be perfectly acceptable for production equipment, but
not give adequate performance for a poorly-controlled hand-
soldering operation.

Traditional rosin fluxes are available in non-activated (R), mildly

activated (RMA) and activated (RA) formulations. RA and RMA
fluxes contain rosin combined with an activating agent,
typically an acid, which increases the wettability of metals to
which it is applied by removing existing oxides. The residue
resulting from the use of RA flux is corrosive and must be
cleaned off the piece being soldered. RMA flux is formulated to
result in a residue which is not significantly corrosive, with
cleaning being preferred but optional.

Basic soldering techniques

Methods

Soldering operations can be performed with hand tools, one

joint at a time, or en masse on a production line. Hand
soldering is typically performed with a soldering iron, soldering
gun, or a torch, or occasionally a hot-air pencil. Sheetmetal
work was traditionally done with "soldering coppers" directly
heated by a flame, with sufficient stored heat in the mass of
the soldering copper to complete a joint; torches or electrically-
heated soldering irons are more convenient. All soldered joints
require the same elements of cleaning of the metal parts to be
joined, fitting up the joint, heating the parts, applying flux,
applying the filler, removing heat and holding the assembly still
until the filler metal has completely solidified. Depending on
the nature of flux material used, cleaning of the joints may be
required after they have cooled.

"Hard soldering" or "silver soldering" (performed with high-

temperature solder containing up to 40% silver) is also often a
form of brazing, since it involves filler materials with melting
points in the vicinity of, or in excess of, 450 °C. Although the
term "silver soldering" is used much more often than "silver
brazing", it may be technically incorrect depending on the
exact melting point of the filler in use. In silver soldering ("hard
soldering"), the goal is generally to give a beautiful, structurally
sound joint, especially in the field of jewelry. Thus, the
temperatures involved, and the usual use of a torch rather than
an iron, would seem to indicate that the process should be
referred to as "brazing" rather than "soldering", but the
endurance of the "soldering" apellation serves to indicate the
arbitrary nature of the distinction (and the level of confusion)
between the two processes.

Desoldering and resoldering

Used solder contains some of the dissolved base metals and is

unsuitable for reuse in making new joints. Once the solder's
capacity for the base metal has been achieved it will no longer
properly bond with the base metal, usually resulting in a brittle
cold solder joint with a crystalline appearance.

It is good practice to remove solder from a joint prior to

resoldering—desoldering braids or vacuum desoldering
equipment (solder suckers) can be used. Desoldering wicks
contain plenty of flux that will lift the contamination from the
copper trace and any device leads that are present. This will
leave a bright, shiny, clean junction to be resoldered.

The lower melting point of solder means it can be melted away

from the base metal, leaving it mostly intact though the outer
layer will be "tinned" with solder. Flux will remain which can
easily be removed by abrasive or chemical processes. This
tinned layer will allow solder to flow into a new joint, resulting
in a new joint, as well as making the new solder flow very
quickly and easily.

Soldering Tools

The only tools that are essential to solder are a soldering iron
and some solder. There are, however, lots of soldering
accessories available (see soldering accessories for more
information).

Different soldering jobs will need different tools, and different

temperatures too. For circuit board work you will need a finer
tip, a lower temperature and finer grade solder. You may also
 want to use a magnifying glass. Audio connectors such as XLR's
will require a larger tip, higher temperature and thicker solder.
Clamps and holders are also handy when soldering audio
cables.

Soldering Irons

There are several things to consider when choosing a soldering

iron.

• Wattage
• adjustable or fixed temperature
• power source (electric or gas)
• portable or bench use

I do not recommend soldering guns, as these have no

temperature control and can get too hot. This can result in
damage to circuit boards, melt cable insulation, and even
damage connectors.

Temperature

There are a lot of cheap, low watt irons with no temperature

control available. Most of these are fine for
basic soldering, but if you are going to be
doing a lot you may want to consider a
variable temperature soldering iron. Some of
these simply have a boost button on the handle, which is useful
with larger joints, others have a thermostatic control so you can
vary the heat of the tip.

If you have a temperature controlled iron you should start at

about 315-345°C (600-650°F). You may want to increase this
however - I prefer about 700-750°F. Use a temperature that will
allow you to complete a joint in 1 to 3 seconds.
Power

Most soldering irons are mains powered - either 110/230v AC,

or benchtop soldering stations which
transform down to low voltage DC. Also
available are battery and gas powered. These
are great for the toolbox, but you'll want a
plug in one for your bench. Gas soldering
irons loose their heat in windy outside
conditions more easily that a good high wattage mains powered
iron.

Solder

The most commonly used type of solder is

rosin core. The rosin is flux, which cleans as
you solder. The other type of solder is acid
core and unless you are experienced at
soldering, you should stick to rosin core
solder. Acid core solder can be tricky, and better avoided for
the beginner.

Rosin core solder comes in three main types - 50/50, 60/40 and
63/37. These numbers represent the amount of tin and lead are
present in the solder,as shown below.

Solder % % Melting
Type Tin Lead Temp (°F)

50/50 50 50 425

60/40 60 40 371

63/37 63 37 361

Soldering Accessories

Soldering Iron Tips

Try to use the right size tip whenever you
can. Smaller wires and circuit boards require
small fine tips, and mic cable onto an XLR
would need a larger tip. You can get pointed
tips, or flat tipped ones (sometimes called
'spade tips'). If you have a solder station with a desolderer, you
will also want a range of desoldering tips and cleaners.

Soldering Iron Stands

These are handy to use if you are doing

several or more joints. It is a heat resistant
cradle for your iron to sit in, so you don't
have to lie it down on the bench while it is
hot. It really is essential if you are planning to do a lot of bench
soldering as it is only a matter of time before you burn
something (probably your elbow resting on the hot tip) if you
don't use one.

Solder Wick

Solder wick is a mesh the you lie on a joint

and heat. When it heats up it also melts the
solder which is drawn out of the joint. It is
usually used for cleaning up solder from
tracks on a circuit board, but you will need a
solder sucker to clean out the holes in the circuit board. Place
the wick on the solder you want to remove then put your
soldering iron on top of the wick. The wick will heat up, then the
solder will melt and flow away from the joint and into wick.

Solder Suckers

If you don't have a solder station with

desolderer, and you work on PCB's, you are
going to need one of these before too long.
They are spring loaded and suck the melted solder out of the
joint. They are a bit tricky to use, as you have to melt the solder
with your iron, then quickly position the solder sucker over the
melted solder and release the spring to suck up the solder. I
find solder wick to be easier to use and more effective.

Preparation

Step 1: Preparation

If you are preparing the cable for a

connector, I strongly suggest you put
any connector parts on now (the screw
on part of an XLR, or casing of a 1/4"
jack for example). Get into the habit of
sliding these on before you start on the cable, or else you can
bet it won't be long before you finish soldering your connector
only to discover you forgot to put the connector casing on, and
have to start all over again.

Once you have all the connector parts on that you need, you
will need to strip your cable. This means removing the
insulation from the end of the wire and exposing the copper
core. You can either use a wire stripper, side cutters, or a knife
to do this.

The obvious tool to choose to strip a

wire would be......a wire stripper. There
are many types of wire stripper, and
most of them work the same. You simply put the wire in, and
squeeze it and pull the end bit off. It will cut to a preset depth,
and if you have chosen the right depth it will cut the insulation
off perfectly. It is possible to choose the wrong depth and cut
too deeply, or too shallow, but they are very easy to use.

On the other hand, some people (myself included) prefer to use

a knife or side cutters. I use side cutters for small cable and a
Stanley knife for bigger cables...and although I have a couple of
wire strippers, I haven't used them for years. This may seem
odd, but I've got my side cutters and knife with me anyway,
and they do the job fine.

If you are using side cutters

(as shown here), position
them about 10mm (1/2 inch)
from the end, and gently
squeeze the cutters into the
insulation to pierce it, but not far enough to cut the copper
strands of the core. Open the cutters slightly so you can turn
the wire and pierce the rest of the insulation. You may have to
do this a few times to cut through all of the insulation, but it is
better to cut too shallow and have to turn and cut again rather
than cut the core and have to start again. Now you should be
able to slide the insulation off with your cutters, or pull it off
with your fingers. This may sound a tedious method, but in no
time at all you will be able to do it in two cuts and a flick of the
cutters.

I won't explain how I use a knife to do larger cable, as I'd hate

someone to slice a finger or thumb open following my
instructions. Using a sharp blade like that certainly does have
its risks, so stick with wire cutters or side cutters if you are at
all unsure.

If your connector has been used before, make

sure you remove any remnants of wire and
solder from the contacts. Do this by putting the
tip of your soldering iron into the hole and
flicking the solder out when it has melted.
Common Sense Alert! Please be careful when you flick melted
solder...flick it away from you.

Tinning
Step 2: Tinning

Whatever it is you are soldering, you

should 'tin' both contacts before you
attempt to solder them. This coats or
fills the wires or connector contacts with
solder so you can easily melt them
together.

To tin a wire, apply the tip of your iron to the wire for a second
or two, then apply the solder to the wire. The solder should flow
freely onto the wire and coat it (if it's stranded wire the solder
should flow into it, and fill the wire). You may need to snip the
end off afterwards, particularly if you have put a little too much
solder on and it has formed a little ball at the end of the wire.

Be careful not to overheat the wire, as

the insulation will start to melt. On
cheaper cable the insulation can 'shrink
back' if heated too much, and expose
more copper core that you intended.
You can cut the wire back after you have
tinned it, but it's best simply not to over
heat it.

The larger the copper core, the longer it will take to heat up
enough to draw the solder in, so use a higher temperature
soldering iron for larger cables if you can.

To tin a contact on an audio XLR

connector, hold the iron on the outside
of the the contact for a second or two,
then apply the solder into the cavity of
the contact. Once again, the solder
should flow freely and fill the contact.
 Connectors such as jacks have contacts that are just holes in a
flat part of the connector. To tin these you put your iron on it,
and apply the solder to where the iron is touching. The solder
should flow and cover the hole.

Once you have tinned both parts, you are ready to solder them
together.

Step 3: Soldering

This step can often be the easiest when

soldering audio cables.

You simply need to place your soldering

iron onto the contact to melt the solder.

When the solder in the contact melts,

slide the wire into the contact.

Remove the iron and hold the wire still while the solder
solidifies again.

You will see the solder 'set' as it goes hard.

This should all take around 1-3 seconds.

• A good solder joint will be smooth and

shiny.
• If the joint is dull and crinkly, the wire
probably moved during soldering.
• If you have taken too long it will have
have solder spikes.

If it does not go so well, you may find the insulation has melted,
or there is too much stripped wire showing. If this is the case,
you should desolder the joint and start again.
Cleaning Your Soldering Iron

You should clean your tip after each use. There are many
cleaning solutions and the cheapest (and some say best) is a
damp sponge. Just rub the soldering iron tip on it after each
solder.

Another option is to use tip cleaner. This

comes in a little pot that you push the tip
into. This works well if your tip hasn't been
cleaned for a while. It does create a lot of
smoke, so it is better not to let the tip get so dirty that you
need to use tip cleaner.

Some solder stations come with a little pad at

the base of the holder. If you have one of
these, you should get into the habit of wiping
the tip on the pad each time you apply solder
with it.

If you need to clean solder off a circuit board,

solder wick is what you need. You place the
wick on the joint or track you want to clean
up, and apply your soldering iron on top. The
solder melts and is drawn into the wick. If
there is a lot of solder the wick will fill up, so gently pull the
wick through the joint and your iron, and the solder will flow
into it as it passes.

Tips and Tricks

 1. Melted solder flows towards heat.
2. Most beginning solderers tend to use too much solder and
heat the for too long.
3. Don't move the joint until the solder has cooled.
4. Keep your iron tip clean.
5. Use the proper type of iron and tip size.

KEIL

How to work with keil

1. Open Keil from the Start menu

2. The Figure below shows the basic names of the windows

referred in this document

Starting a new Assembler Project

1.Select New Project from the Project Menu.

2. Name the project ‘Toggle.a51’

3. Click on the Save Button.

4. The device window will be displayed.

5. Select the part you will be using to test with. For now we will
use the Dallas

Semiconductor part DS89C420.

6. Double Click on the Dallas Semiconductor.

7. Scroll down and select the DS89C420 Part

8. Click OK

Creating Source File

1. Click File Menu and

1. Select New

2. A new window will open up in the Keil IDE.

3. Copy the example to the Right into the new window. This file
will

toggle Ports 1 and 2 with a delay.

4. Click on File menu and select Save As…

5. Name the file Toggle.a51

6. Click the Save Button

Adding File to the Project

 1. Expand Target 1 in the Tree Menu

2. Click on Project and select

Targets, Groups, Files…

3. Click on Groups/Add Files tab

4. Under Available Groups select Source Group 1

5. Click Add Files to Group… button

6. Change file type to Asm Source file(*.a*;

*.src)

7. Click on toggle.a51

8. Click Add button

9. Click Close Button

10. Click OK button when you return to Target,

Groups, Files… dialog box

11. Expand the Source Group 1 in the

Tree menu to ensure that the file was added to the project

Creating HEX for the Part

1. Click on Target 1 in Tree menu

2. Click on Project Menu and select

Options for Target 1

3. Select Target Tab

4. Change Xtal (Mhz) from 50.0 to

11.0592
 5.

Select Output Tab

6. Click on Create Hex File check box

7. Click OK Button
8. Click on Project Menu and select

Rebuild all Target Files

9. In the Build Window it should report

‘0 Errors (s), 0 Warnings’

10. You are now ready to Program

ABOUT THE PROJECT

In this project
we have used four traffic poles as illustrated above.

The whole cycle of the controller is of 40 seconds.

• Each GREEN signal glows for 8 seconds.

• Each AMBER signal glows for 2 seconds.

• Each RED signal glows for 30 seconds.

We have used Embedded C for programming.

30 seconds

2 seconds

8 seconds
 PROGRAM CODE

#include <reg51.h>

void delay(void);

void main(void)

unsigned int i;

while(1)

P1=0xF3;

P3=0xF6;

for(i=0;i<160;i++)

delay();

P1=0xED;

P3=0xF6;

for(i=0;i<40;i++)

delay();

P1=0xDE;

P3=0xF6;

for(i=0;i<160;i++)

delay();
P1=0xEE;

P3=0xF5;

for(i=0;i<40;i++)

delay();

P1=0xF6;

P3=0xF3;

for(i=0;i<160;++i)

delay();

P1=0XF6;

P3=0xED;

for(i=0;i<40;++i)

delay();

P1=0xF6;

P3=0xDE;

for(i=0;i<160;++i)

delay();

P1=0xF5;

P3=0xEE;
 for(i=0;i<40;++i)

delay();

void delay(void)

TMOD=0x01;

TL0=0x33;

TH0=0x47;

TR0=1;

while (TF0==0);

TR0=0;

TF0=0;

Program’s list file

C51 COMPILER V6.14 MINI

10/11/2008 22:23:08 PAGE 1
C51 COMPILER V6.14, COMPILATION OF MODULE MINI

OBJECT MODULE PLACED IN .\mini.OBJ

COMPILER INVOKED BY: C:\Keil\C51\BIN\C51.EXE .\mini.c DEBUG

OBJECTEXTEND

stmt level source

1 #include <reg51.h>

3 void delay(void);

6 void main(void)

7 {

8 1

9 1 unsigned int i;

10 1 while(1)

11 1 {

12 2 P1=0xF3;

13 2 P3=0xF6;

14 2 for(i=0;i<160;i++)

15 2 delay();
16 2

17 2 P1=0xED;

18 2 P3=0xF6;

19 2 for(i=0;i<40;i++)

20 2 delay();

21 2

22 2

23 2 P1=0xDE;

24 2 P3=0xF6;

25 2 for(i=0;i<160;i++)

26 2 delay();

27 2

28 2 P1=0xEE;

29 2 P3=0xF5;

30 2 for(i=0;i<40;i++)

31 2 delay();

32 2

33 2

34 2 P1=0xF6;

35 2 P3=0xF3;

36 2 for(i=0;i<160;++i)

37 2 delay();

38 2

39 2
40 2 P1=0XF6;

41 2 P3=0xED;

42 2 for(i=0;i<40;++i)

43 2 delay();

44 2

45 2 P1=0xF6;

46 2 P3=0xDE;

47 2 for(i=0;i<160;++i)

48 2 delay();

49 2

50 2

51 2 P1=0xF5;

52 2 P3=0xEE;

53 2 for(i=0;i<40;++i)

54 2 delay();
C51 COMPILER V6.14 MINI
10/11/2008 22:23:08 PAGE 2

55 2 }

56 1

57 1 }

58

59 void delay(void)

60 {

61 1 TMOD=0x01;

62 1 TL0=0x33;

63 1 TH0=0x47;

64 1 TR0=1;

65 1 while (TF0==0);

66 1 TR0=0;

67 1 TF0=0;

68 1 }

MODULE INFORMATION: STATIC OVERLAYABLE

CODE SIZE = 274 ----

CONSTANT SIZE = ---- ----

XDATA SIZE = ---- ----

PDATA SIZE = ---- ----

DATA SIZE = ---- 2

 IDATA SIZE = ---- ----

BIT SIZE = ---- ----

END OF MODULE INFORMATION.

C51 COMPILATION COMPLETE. 0 ERROR(S)

Program’s HEX File

:104000007590F375B0F6E4F508F5091240FF05095F

:10401000E50970020508C394A0E508940040EC751A

:1040200090ED75B0F6E4F508F5091240FF0509E5D5

:104030000970020508C39428E508940040EC7590C7

:10404000DE75B0F6E4F508F5091240FF0509E5094B

:1040500070020508C394A0E508940040EC7590EE4A

:1040600075B0F5E4F508F5091240FF0509E509709A

:10407000020508C39428E508940040EC7590F67595

:10408000B0F3E4F508F5091240FF0509E5097002EF

:104090000508C394A0E508940040EC7590F675B04F

:1040A000EDE4F508F5091240FF0509E50970020580

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:1040C000E4F508F5091240FF0509E5097002050845

:1040D000C394A0E508940040EC7590F575B0EEE44B

:1040E000F508F509C3E5099428E5089400400302A2

:0F40F00040001240FF0509E50970E9050880E569

:1040FF00758901758A33758C47D28C308DFDC28CD2

:03410F00C28D223C

:03000000024112A8

:0C411200787FE4F6D8FD758109024000BA

:00000001FF

M51 FILE

BL51 BANKED LINKER/LOCATER V4.14

10/11/2008 22:23:08 PAGE 1
BL51 BANKED LINKER/LOCATER V4.14, INVOKED BY:

C:\KEIL\C51\BIN\BL51.EXE mini.obj TO minproj

MEMORY MODEL: SMALL

INPUT MODULES INCLUDED:

mini.obj (MINI)

C:\KEIL\C51\LIB\C51S.LIB (?C_STARTUP)

LINK MAP OF MODULE: minproj (MINI)

TYPE BASE LENGTH RELOCATION SEGMENT

NAME

-----------------------------------------------------

******* DATA MEMORY *******

REG 0000H 0008H ABSOLUTE "REG BANK 0"

DATA 0008H 0002H UNIT _DATA_GROUP_

IDATA 000AH 0001H UNIT ?STACK

 ******* CODE MEMORY *******

CODE 0000H 0003H ABSOLUTE

0003H 3FFDH *** GAP ***

CODE 4000H 00FFH UNIT ?PR?MAIN?MINI

CODE 40FFH 0013H UNIT ?PR?DELAY?MINI

CODE 4112H 000CH UNIT ?C_C51STARTUP

OVERLAY MAP OF MODULE: minproj (MINI)

SEGMENT DATA_GROUP

+--> CALLED SEGMENT START LENGTH

----------------------------------------------

?C_C51STARTUP ----- -----

+--> ?PR?MAIN?MINI

?PR?MAIN?MINI 0008H 0002H

+--> ?PR?DELAY?MINI
SYMBOL TABLE OF MODULE: minproj (MINI)

VALUE TYPE NAME

----------------------------------

------- MODULE MINI

C:0000H SYMBOL _ICE_DUMMY_

D:0090H PUBLIC P1

D:00B0H PUBLIC P3

B:00B0H.4 PUBLIC T0

B:00D0H.6 PUBLIC AC

B:00B0H.5 PUBLIC T1

BL51 BANKED LINKER/LOCATER V4.14

10/11/2008 22:23:08 PAGE 2

B:00A8H.7 PUBLIC EA

C:40FFH PUBLIC delay

B:00B0H.7 PUBLIC RD

B:00A8H.4 PUBLIC ES

B:0098H.0 PUBLIC RI

B:00B0H.2 PUBLIC INT0

B:00D0H.7 PUBLIC CY

B:0098H.1 PUBLIC TI

B:00B0H.3 PUBLIC INT1

B:00B8H.4 PUBLIC PS

B:00D0H.2 PUBLIC OV

C:4000H PUBLIC main

B:00B0H.6 PUBLIC WR

D:0089H PUBLIC TMOD

B:0088H.1 PUBLIC IE0

B:0088H.3 PUBLIC IE1

B:00A8H.1 PUBLIC ET0

B:00A8H.3 PUBLIC ET1

B:0088H.5 PUBLIC TF0

B:0088H.7 PUBLIC TF1

B:0098H.2 PUBLIC RB8

D:008CH PUBLIC TH0

B:00A8H.0 PUBLIC EX0

B:0088H.0 PUBLIC IT0

B:0098H.3 PUBLIC TB8

B:00A8H.2 PUBLIC EX1

B:0088H.2 PUBLIC IT1

B:00D0H.0 PUBLIC P

B:0098H.7 PUBLIC SM0

D:008AH PUBLIC TL0

B:0098H.6 PUBLIC SM1

B:0098H.5 PUBLIC SM2

B:00B8H.1 PUBLIC PT0

B:00B8H.3 PUBLIC PT1

B:00D0H.3 PUBLIC RS0

B:0088H.4 PUBLIC TR0

B:00D0H.4 PUBLIC RS1

B:0088H.6 PUBLIC TR1

B:00B8H.0 PUBLIC PX0

B:00B8H.2 PUBLIC PX1

B:0098H.4 PUBLIC REN

B:00B0H.0 PUBLIC RXD

B:00B0H.1 PUBLIC TXD

B:00D0H.5 PUBLIC F0

------- PROC MAIN

------- DO MAIN

D:0008H SYMBOL i

------- ENDDO i

C:4000H LINE# 6

C:4000H LINE# 7

C:4000H LINE# 10

C:4000H LINE# 11

C:4000H LINE# 12

C:4003H LINE# 13

C:4006H LINE# 14

C:400BH LINE# 15

C:401FH LINE# 17
BL51 BANKED LINKER/LOCATER V4.14
10/11/2008 22:23:08 PAGE 3

C:4022H LINE# 18

C:4025H LINE# 19

C:402AH LINE# 20

C:403EH LINE# 23

C:4041H LINE# 24

C:4044H LINE# 25

C:4049H LINE# 26

C:405DH LINE# 28

C:4060H LINE# 29

C:4063H LINE# 30

C:4068H LINE# 31

C:407CH LINE# 34

C:407FH LINE# 35

C:4082H LINE# 36

C:4087H LINE# 37

C:409BH LINE# 40

C:409EH LINE# 41

C:40A1H LINE# 42

C:40A6H LINE# 43

C:40BAH LINE# 45

C:40BDH LINE# 46
 C:40C0H LINE# 47

C:40C5H LINE# 48

C:40D9H LINE# 51

C:40DCH LINE# 52

C:40DFH LINE# 53

C:40F2H LINE# 54

------- ENDPROC MAIN

------- PROC DELAY

C:40FFH LINE# 59

C:40FFH LINE# 60

C:40FFH LINE# 61

C:4102H LINE# 62

C:4105H LINE# 63

C:4108H LINE# 64

C:410AH LINE# 65

C:410DH LINE# 66

C:410FH LINE# 67

C:4111H LINE# 68

------- ENDPROC DELAY

------- ENDMOD MINI

LINK/LOCATE RUN COMPLETE. 0 WARNING(S), 0 ERROR(S)

 FURTHER SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

• Variable timing traffic lights

• Intelligent traffic lights

• Solar cells based traffic lights

 REFERENCES

• 8051 by A.S. Masjidi

• Advanced Micro processor and Micro controller by Ray and

Bhurchandi

• Specifications for various components by Boylstead

• http://en.wikipedia.org/

• http://www.8051projects.net/

• http://www.8051projects.info/

• http://www.atmel.com/dyn/resources/prod_documents/doc
2487.pdf

• http://www.trafficlights.com/

• http://www.national.com/mpf/LM/LM78M05.html