Timber as an Engineering Material

Introduction Timber is not normally considered an important engineering material and little information is available relating to the design of timber structures. The notes referenced below provide information on the properties of timber, the design of timber joints and the relevant British Standards. The notes are provided as a outline guidance to the methods detailed in BS 5268 -2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: "Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship". For formal design work it is recommended that the quoted standard and/or quality reference sources are used.
Timber Design Typical timber strength calculations Glued laminates Joints /Nails/Screws/Bolts Axially Loaded Members Plywood Timber Properties Modifying Factors Particle Board

Timber Properties

Introduction

The notes below provide identify the factors which affect the properties of timber. More detailed information on wood types and properties is provided on webpage Wood

The timber used for construction, carpentry, joinery etch is obtained from the trunks of trees. This part of the tree includes features required to structurally support the tree its branches and leaves and withstand natural forces such as wind. The truck also includes a cellular structure to transport moisture containing minerals and nutrients, sap between the roots and the upper branches and leaves. The trunk is composed of long tubular cells made up of cellulose which are bonded together by lignin. Most of these tubular cells run along the trunk and result in the grain structure of the wood. some cells run radially out from the centre of the trunk and these are identified as rays. In temperate countries, trees produce a new layer each growing season under the bark and this results in the annular rings. In tropical regions which have continuous growth the trunk includes and essentially uniform section. The central, normally darker, area of the trunk is called the heartwood and the outer area is called the sapwood. The heartwood performs a mechanical support function and stiffness to the tree. The sapwood transports the fluids along the trunk. The heartwood is generally stronger and more durable .

Density...

The density of is a very important factor affecting the strength of wood. The densest woods are generally the strongest. The density is also related to the stiffness and hardness e.g both these properties increase as the timber density increases. Softwoods...

Softwoods are generally evergreens (coniferous) with needle-like leaves. They have the following characteristic features They grow relatively quickley and trees softwood trees can be felled after 30 years They have, generally, poor durability qualities unless treated with preservatives. They are readily available and comparitively cheap Hardwoods...

Hardwoods are generally broad-leaved (deciduous) that lose their leaves at the end of each growing season. The cell structure of hardwoods is more complex than softwoods with thick walled cells called fibres providing the structural support and thin walled cells called vessels providing the meddium for food condution along the trees. Hardwoods have the following characteristics affecting their use. The grow relatively slowly ,resulting in denser, stronger timbers. These tress take over 100 years to mature. They have, generally, good durability qualities with less need for preservatives. They are obtained from tropical areas and are comparatively expensive. . Moisture Content

Timber has high moisture content when first processed from the tree. The moisture content is reduced prior to the timber being used as a structural material. The drying off timber can be achieved using either of two methods 1) Air seasoning ...The timber is stacked in open sided weatherprrof containers is such the air can freely circulated to all surfaces of the timber to promote drying. This process can take considerable time and much space is required.

2) Kiln Drying..The timber is dried out in heated , ventilated and dehumidified ovens. This process requires special equipment and requires high energy energy use. However the process is controlled and rapid. Because of the nature of timber poor control of the drying process can result in a range of defects including bowing, cupping, twisting and cracking. The moisture content of wood w() is defined using the equation w = (m1 - m2 ) / m2 w = moisture content expressed as a percentage. m1 mass of test piece before drying (g) m2 mass of test piece after drying (g) Directional Properties / Anisotropy

The properties of timber are different in different directions. The elastic modulus and strength of wood is much greater in a direction along the grain than across the grain. If the grain is sloping at an angle to the direction of loading this can also have a marked effect of the strength of the timber.

Stress/Strain relationship

At low stress levels the strain is proportional to the strain. The strain is greater for a given stress at high moisture contents. However timber does have significant creep characteristics i.e over time at high constant stress values the strain will increase. In calculating strength of structures the duration of the loading is one of the factors to be considered.

Thermal Properties

Timber is a poor conductor of heat. The denser timbers are better conductors than the lighter timbers. Timber expands when heated but this is offset by the reduction in section resulting from the loss of moisture.

Fire Resistance

Timber compares favourably with other construction materials in terms of fire resistance. Small timber section may ignite easily and reduce to ash. However larger sections have significant resistance to fire because the surfaces initially in contact with the flames burn to charcoal which resists the further spread of the flame.

Durability

Timber does not corrode. It is however subject to weathering, chemical attack, and fungal attack. The durability of timber varies depending on the wood species If timber is kept dry or is continuously immersed in fresh water then decay shoud not be a problem. Timber immersed in seawater is at high risk of damage resulting from attack by molluscs. There are a number of preservative treatments available to prevent the deterioration of timber resulting from fungi, insects or molluscs. The types of wood presevative treatments available are briefly described bel 1) Tar oil penetration - Creosote is a a typical tar oil presevative. This group is used generally for external systems such as telegraph poles , fences, railway sleepers, timber enclosures (garden sheds) etc. 2) Organic solvents.. These are widely used and are applied using simple techniques such a brushing spraying or dipping. 3) Water borne solvents are the most widely used for industrial applications and are normally applied into the timber under pressure.

Modification Factors used in Timber Calculations

Introduction

The timber calculations reviewed in the timber design pages on this website are based on BS EN 5288 Part 2. This standards includes modification

factors used to allow for operating conditions and loading scenarios. page provides some guidance in assessing these factors

This

Relevant Standards..For comprehensive list of standards Wood related Standards BS 5268 -2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship.

Modifying factors K2 by which stresses and moduli for service classes 1 and 2 should be multiplied to obtain stresses and modulii applicable to service class 3 K3 for duration of loading K4 for bearing stress K5 for notched beams K6 for shapes other than rectangular K7 width factor for bending stresses for widths other than 300mm K8 for load sharing applications K9 used to modify the minimum modulus of elasticity for trimmer joists and lintels K12 for compression members K13 for the effective length of spaced columns K14 width factor for tensile loaded members for widths other than 300mm K15, K16, K17, K18, K19 and K20 for single grade glued laminated members and horizontally K27, K28 and K29 for vertically glued laminated members K30, K31 and K32 for individually designed glued end joints in horizontally glued laminated members Information on correction factors

K2

Modification factor, K2, by which stresses and moduli for service classes 1 and 2 should be multiplied to obtain stresses and moduli applicable to service class 3. Note:.. The properties provided in BS 5368:2007 for the different timbers are

generally applicable to Service class 1 & 2. class Service Class Property Bending parallel to grain Tension parallel to grain Compression paralle to grain Compression parallel to grain Shear parallel to grain Mean & Min Modulus of Elasticiy Value of K2 0,8 0,8 0,6 0,6 0,9 0,8

Please refer to notes on service

K3 Duration of Load Long Term (e.g.permanently imposed ) Medium term (e.g. dead + temporary imposed Short Term (e.g. dead + imposed + wind Very short term (e.g. dead + wind Value of K3 1,00 1,25 1,5 1,75

K4

The grade stresses for compression perpendicular to the grain apply to bearings of any length at the ends of a member, and bearings 150 mm or more in length at any position. However for bearings less than 150 mm long located 75 mm or more from the end of a member, as shown in figure belwo thee grade stress should be multiplied by the modification factor, K4

length of Bearing 10 15 25 40 50 75 100 150+

Value of K4 1,74 1,67 1,53 1,33 1,20 1,14 1,10 1,00

K5 This factor is applied for members taking load at notched ends as shown below

K6 Grade bending stresses primarily apply to solid timber members of rectangular cross-section. For other shapes of cross-section the grade bending stresses should be multiplied by the modification factor, K6, where K6 = 1.18 for solid circular sections; K6 = 1.41 for solid square sections loaded on a diagonal.

K7

The grade bending stresses provided in the tables is generally based on sections 300mm deep a constant (K7)is used when other thicknesses are used.

K8

In construction applications where four or more members are sharing the imposed load e.g. rafters , joists, trusses etc. with suitable provisions for distributing the load e.g. boarding, battens etc the admissibles stresses and the modulus shoul be obtained using the following rules .

The appropriate grade stresses should be multiplied by the load sharing modification factor, K8 = 1.1. The mean modulus of elasticity should be used to calculate deflections and displacements under both dead and imposed load. However if the loading results from mechanical plant and equipment, for storage, or for floors subject to vibrations, then the minimum modulus of elasticity should be used.

K9

The members which are sharing the load, as described above, the minimum modulus of elasticity hould be modified by the factor, K9, when calculating the deflection deflections

No Pieces 1 2 3 4 or more 1,00 1,14 1,21 1,24

Value of K9 Softwoods 1,00 1,06 1,08 1,10 Hardwoods

K14

The grade compressive stress listed in the tables are based on a width of 300mm. For timber members of other sizes a factor K14 should be used. K14 = 1,17 for solid timber with a width less than 72mm K14 = (300 h.)0,11 for solid members having a width h greater than 72mm

K15,K16,K17K18,K19,K19

Modifcation factors for horizontally glued single grade laminates

Strength Class

Shear Bending Tension Compression Compression Modulus parallel normal to of Number of Parallel parallel parallel to to grain grain Elasticity Laminations to Grain to grain grain> K15 K16 1,1 1,26 1,34 1,39 1,42 1,04 1,55 2,34 1,07 1,04 K17 1,49 K18 K19 1,49 K20 1,00

C27,C30,C35, C40 4 or More D50,D60,D70 4 C16,C18,C22, 5 C24 D30,D35,D40 7 10 or more

1,1 1,26 1,34 1,39 1,42

K27,K28,K29 Modification factors for vertically glued single grade laminates

Number of laminations

Bending, Tension and shear parallel to grain K27

Mod of elasticity and Compression compression parallel to normal to grain grain K28 K29 Softwoods and Hardwoods 1,10 1,10 1,10 1,10 1,10 1,10

Softwoods Hardwoods Softwoods Hardwoods 2 3 4 5 6 7 1,11 1,16 1,19 1,21 1,23 1,24 1,06 1,08 1,10 1,11 1,12 1,12 1,14 1,21 1,24 1,27 1,29 1,30 1,06 1,08 1,10 1,11 1,12 1,12

K30,K31,K32

Timber Softwood Hardwood

Bending, parallel Tension, parallel to grain to grain K28 1,63 1,32 1,63 1,32 K31

Compression, parallel to grain K32 1,43 1,42

Structural Design Using Timber Introduction

The notes below relate to the factors involved in designing structures using timber. The notes are primarily based on information included in BS 5268:part 2. Commercial timbers include hardwoods and softwoods. Hardwoods are produced from broad leaved deciduous trees and softwoods are produced from coniferous trees which have needle like leaves and are evergreen. Structural timbers are catergorised by a strength class which combines the timber type (softwood or hardwood) and the strength grade. The strength grade is allocated visually or results from testing by machine. The strength grade classification identified in BS 5268 part 2 are C14 to C40 for Coniferous = Softwoods and D30 to D70 for Deciduous = Hardwoods. The numbers refer to the characteristic bending stress i.e ultimate strengths of the woods in N/mm2 before safety factors and margins for loading conditions are included. BS 5268 identify grade stresses for the strength classes. These stresses are modified by factors related to the design conditions to arrive at the permissible stresses. Designs should be based either on the grade stresses for the strength classes, or on grade stresses listed for the individual species and grades Timber used in construction is stress graded using either machine grading or visually graded. Visual grading is carried out by approvided graders who examine the timber for defects e.g knots, wane, resin pockets and distortion. Timber which is accepted for use is graded in one of two caterories GS (General Structural) or SS ( Special Structural) . Visually graded hardwoods from tropical regions are designated with a (HS) grade ..HS = structural tropical Hardwood. When derived from temperate regions the visually graded timber is designated using TH1,TH2, THA, or THB = structural temperate hardwood grades in accordance with the requirements of BS 5756:2007

Relevant Standards..For comprehensive list of standards Wood related Standards BS 5268 -2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship BS EN 1912:2004: Structural timber Strength classes- Assignment of visual grades and species BS 4978:1996 Specification of Softwood Grades for Structural Use. BS 5756:2007 Visual grading of hardwood. Specification

Service Class

Moisture has a significant effect on the mechanical properties of timber and the British standard allocates service class designations to allow for this The permissible stresses used is generally alocated relevant to the service classes as identified below a) Service class 1 is characterized by a moisture content in the materials corresponding to a temperature of 20 C and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 65 % for a few weeks per year. In such moisture conditions most timber will attain an average moisture content not exceeding 12 %. b) Service class 2 is characterized by a moisture content in the materials corresponding to a temperature of 20 C and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 85 % for a few weeks per year. In such moisture conditions most timber will attain an average moisture content not exceeding 20 %.

c) Service class 3, due to climatic conditions, is characterized by higher moisture contents than service class 2. Note: Design using timber sections greater than 100 thick or deep are generally based on service class 3 because of the difficulty in drying thicker sections.

Species of Trees

BS 5268-2 gives a series of strength classes which for design use can be considered as being independent of species and grade. Guidance as to which species and grades satisfy the strength requirements for each class is given in BS EN 1912. For some applications it may be necessary to specify particular species (or exclude them) from within a strength class to take account of particular characteristics, e.g. natural durability, amenability to preservatives , glues and fasteners. This may be particularly important for hardwood. Table showing strength grades and tree species that have been assigned by grading organisations in different countries Note; this table should be only considered as indicative and should not be used in design as a method of selecting a species which has a specified grade.

Strength Class C14 C16 C22 C24 C30 C35 D30 D35 D40 D50 D60 D70

Tree Species Western Red Cedar,Douglas Fir Hem Fir, British Pine,spruce Spruce, Poplar, Larch Spruce, Poplar, Larch,Pine (redwood) Douglas Fir Oak Beech Beech, Teak, Eucalyptus Keruing, Karri, Opepe Kapur Balau, Greenheard, Ekki

Grade stresses and Modulus of Elasticity values for some strength classes relating to service classes 1 & 2 Note: Service class 3 grade stresses are obtained be multiplying the stresses in the tables by the factor K2 ..ref Modifying factors

Shear Modulus of Bendin Tensio Compressio Compression paralle elasticity Characteristi Averag g n n perpendicula l c e parallel parallel parallel r to density density Mean Min Strengt to grain to grain to grain to grain grain h Class m,g,ll t,g,ll c,g,ll c,g,l- c,g,l- g,ll Emean Emin k mean 2 2 2 2 2 N/mm N/mm 3 N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm kg/m kg/m3 2 2 C14 C16 C18 C22 C24 C27 C30 C35 C40 D30 D35 D40 D50 D60 D70 4,1 5,3 5,8 6,8 7,5 9,5 11 12 13 9 11 12,5 16 18 23 2,5 3,2 3,5 4,1 4,5 6 6,6 7,2 7,8 5,4 6,6 7,5 9,6 10,8 13,8 5,2 6,8 7,1 7,5 7,9 8,2 8,6 8,7 8,7 8,1 8,6 12,6 15,2 18 23 2,1 2,2 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,7 2,9 3 2,8 3,4 3,9 4,5 5,2 6 1,6 1,7 1,7 1,7 1,9 2 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,2 2,6 3 3,5 4 4,6 0,6 0,67 0,67 0,71 0,71 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,4 1,7 2 2,2 2,4 2,6 6800 8800 9100 9700 10800 11500 12300 13400 14500 9500 10000 10800 15000 18500 21000 4600 5800 6000 6500 7200 8200 8200 9000 10000 6000 6500 7500 12600 15600 18000 290 310 320 340 350 370 380 400 420 530 560 590 650 700 900 350 370 380 410 420 450 460 480 500 640 670 700 780 840 1080

Grade stresses for selected softwoods for service classes 1 and 2

Stresses applicable to timber 300 mm deep(or wide). Service class 3 grade stresses are obtained be multiplying the stresses in the tables by the factor K2 ref modifying factors

Bendin Tensio g stress n

Compression

Shear

Modulus of Elasticity Minimu m Emin N/mm2

Name

parallel parallel paralle perpendicula paralle to to l to r l to Mean Grad grain grain grain to grain grain e m,g,ll t,g,ll c,g,ll c,g,lg,ll Emean N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 4,5 3,2 4,5 3,2 4,1 2,9 3,4 2,5 3,7 2,6 5,4 3,8 6,3 4,4 3,4 2,5 4,5 3,2 7,9 6,8 7,9 6,8 7,5 6,1 6,1 5,2 6,6 5,2 9,5 8,1 11 9,4 6,1 5,2 7,9 6,8 2,1 1,8 2,1 1,8 2,1 1,8 1,6 1,4 2,4 2,1 2,4 2,2 3,2 2,8 1,7 1,6 2,4 2,2 N/mm2 N/mm2 0,82 0,82 0,82 0,82 0,82 0,82 0,64 0,64 0,88 0,88 1,03 1,03 1,16 1,16 0,63 0,63 0,85 0,85 N/mm
2

Redwood/whitewoo SS d GS; British larch British pine British spruce Douglas fir Parana pine Pitch pine western red cedar Douglas fir-larch SS; GS SS GS SS GS SS GS SS GS SS GS SS GS SS GS

7,5 5,3 7,5 5,3 6,8 4,7 5,7 4,1 6,2 4,4 9 6,4 10,5 7,4 5,7 4,1 7,5 5,3

10500 7000 9000 9000 9000 8000 6500 9500 9500 6000 6000 6000 5000 4500 6000 6000 10500 7000 10500 7000

11000 7000 11000 7500 13500 9000 11000 7500 8500 7000 5500 4500

11000 7500 10000 6000

Grade stresses for selected imported hardwoods for service classes 1 and 2

Stresses applicable to timber 300 mm deep (or wide) Service class 3 grade stresses are obtained be multiplying the stresses in the tables by the factor K2 ref modifying factors

Bending Tension stress Name

Compression

Shear

Modulus of Elasticity

parallel parallel parallel parallel perpendicular to to to to Mean Minimum Grade to grain grain grain grain grain m,g,ll N/mm2 t,g,ll 15 15,6 7,5 8,2 10,9 10,3 11,6 9,7 10,9 10,2 8,2 c,g,ll 24,6 23,7 12,6 14,2 18 15,2 19,4 16 15,7 17,6 13,4 5,6 5,9 2,8 3,1 4,1 3,9 4,3 3,6 4,1 3,8 3,1 c,g,lN/mm2 3 2,6 1,6 2 1,9 1,7 2,3 1,7 2,3 2,1 1,7 g,ll Emean Emin N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2

Ekki Iroki Jarrah Kapur Karri Kempas Keruing Merbau Opepe Teak

HS HS HS HS HS HS HS HS HS HS

25 26,1 12,6 13,8 18,1 17,1 19,3 16,2 18,1 17 13,7

18500 15500 21600 18000 10600 8500 12400 8700 19200 15800 17800 13500 19100 16000 19300 16100 15900 11700 14500 11300 10700 7400

Greenheart HS

The timber in the above table has visual strength grade HS = structural tropical Hardwood

Grade stresses for selected temperate hardwoods for service classes 1 and 2

Stresses applicable to timber 100 mm deep(or wide). Service class 3 grade stresses are obtained be multiplying the stresses in the tables by the factor K2 ref modifying factors

Bending Tension stress

Compression

Shear

Modulus of Elasticity

parallel parallel parallel parallel perpendicular to to to to Mean Minimum Name Grade to grain grain grain grain grain m,g,ll N/mm2 Oak TH1 TH2 THA THB Sweet TH1 chesnut 9.6 7.8 12.6 9.1 7.6 t,g,ll 5.8 4.7 7.6 5.5 4.5 c,g,ll 9.3 8.4 10.5 9 8.3 3 3 3 3 2.3 c,g,lN/mm2 2 2 2 2 2 g,ll Emean Emin N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2

12500 8500 10500 7000 13500 10500 12000 7500 11300 6300

The timber in the above table has visual strength grade TH1,TH2, THA, or THB = structural temperate hardwood grades in accordance with the requirements of BS 5756:2007

Marking

Every piece of strength graded timber should be clearly and indelibly marked with the following information.(See first link below)

Grade/strength class Specification of species. Number of relevant British Standard Company and grader/machine used

Company logo Timber condition

A typical stamp is shown below

Introduction

The notes below show in outline a number of principles used in calculating the strength of timber structural members. The principles used are based on the requirements of BS 5268; Part 2. This codes is a permissible stress design code. Other design methods are available including load factor design and limit state design . These options will be addressed but they will not be treated in any detail on this webpage,

Relevant Standards BS 5268-2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship BS EN 1912:2004: Structural timber Strength classes- Assignment of visual grades and species BS 4978:1996 Specification of Softwood Grades for Structural Use. BS 5268-2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship BS EN 1912:2004: Structural timber Strength classes- Assignment of visual grades and species BS 4978:1996 Specification of Softwood Grades for Structural Use.

Symbols Fv = Applied shear Force (N) m.a,ll = Applied shear stress parallel to grain (N/m2) a = distance (m) m.g,ll = Grade shear stress parallel to = angle of grain (deg /rads) grain (N/m2) A = Area (m2) m.adm,ll = Permissible shear stress b = breadth of beam/thickness (m) parallel to grain (N/m2) 2 E = Modulus of Elasticity (N/m r.a,ll = Applied rolling shear stress Emean = mean value Modulus of parallel to grain (N/m2) 2 Elasticity (N/m r.adm,ll = Permissible rolling shear Emin = min value Modulus of Elasticity stress parallel to grain (N/m2) (N/m2 m = bending deflection (m) G = Modulus of Rigity (N/m2 /Pa s = shear deflection (m) h = depth of section (m) total = total deflection (shear + i =radius of gyration (m) bending) (m) I = Second Moment of Area (m4 adm = pemissible deflection (m) L =Length /span/ (m) c.a,ll = Applied compressive stress Le =Effective Length /Effective span parallel to grain (N/m2) (m) c.g,ll = Grade compressive stress m = mass (kg) parallel to grain (N/m2) n = number c.adm,ll = Permissible compressive = slenderness ratio stress parallel to grain (N/m2) 3 Q = First moment of area(m c.a,l- = Applied compressive stress average = average density (kg / m3) normal to grain (N/m2) M = Moment (Nm) c.g,l- = Grade compressive stress m.a,ll = Applied bending stress parallel normal to grain (N/m2) to grain (N/m2) c.adm,l- = Permissible compressive m.g,ll = Grade bending stress parallel normal parallel to grain (N/m2) to grain (N/m2) t.a,ll = Applied tensile stress parallel m.adm,ll = Permissible bending stress to grain (N/m2) parallel to grain (N/m2) t.g,ll = Grade tensile stress parallel to grain (N/m2) t.adm,ll = Permissible tensil stress parallel to grain (N/m2)

Design Methods

1) Permissible/Admissible design Using this criteria the strength of a timber structure involves determining the stresses induced under working conditions and comparing them with the permissible/admissible stress.

The permissible stresses are obtained as the product of the grade stress for the timber and various modifying factors, some of which are listed below

K2 relates to the moisture content of the timber K3 relates to the duration of the load. K6 relates to the shape of the cross section. K7 relates to the depth of the section K8 relates load sharing factors.

Note :A detailed list of modifying factors is provided on webpage Modifying Factors. Therefore m.adm,ll = m.g,ll. K2.K3.K6.K7.K8 m,ll m.adm,ll

m,ll = Calculated bending stress parallel to grain m.adm,ll = Admissible bending stress parallel to grain m.g,ll = Grade bending stress parallel to grain This method is used in BS 5268 and is used in the examples provided below 2) Load Factor Design

Using this criteria the strength of a timber structure involves determining the ultimate load stresses i.e the working stress x a factor of safety. This is compared to the ultimate capacity of the timber sections at yield. Plastic methods are required to determine the timber section capacities. Working Loads x Factor of Safety Ultimate strength of timber at Failure This method is not considered further in these notes. 3) Limit State Design

When using limit state design the load at structural collapse is dvided by a selected margin of safety to determine the ultimate capacity of the structure.. The ultimate design load is determined as the product of the working load and a second selected safety margin. The ultimate design load should be less /or equal to the ultimate capacity of the structure. Ultimate design load Ultimate capacity Working (characteristic) load x partial factor of safety Failure /collapse load x partial safety factor.

This method is used in most modern timber design codes including Eurocode 5. This method is not considered further in these notes.

Beams..Bending Moment Diagrams and Shear Force Diagrams for beams

The nomenclature and sign convention for timber beams to BS 5268 is the same as that indicated on webpage Bending Moment - Shear Force Diagrams

Bending Stresses

The bending beam theory for timber beams is similar as that indicated on webpage Beam Theory

Shear Stresses

The stresses resulting from tranverse loading of timber beams is similar as that indicated on webpage Shear stress

Composite Sections

Timber beams used in construction are often fabricated from different materials e.g an I section beam can comprise softwood flanges with a plywood web. The design of composite sections is illustrated on webpage Composite Sections Example of a composite section calculation Consider a composite section as shown below subject to a maximum bending moment of 400 Nm. What is the maximum stress in the timber section and the maximum stress in the Aluminium section

Beam deflections

For design of structures made of timber the limit of acceptable design is specified to avoid situations such as:

Misalignment of building items such as doors and windows damages to finishes such as plasater or tiles reduction of worry of people e.g crossing bridge or occupying building According to BS 5268 part 2 the deflection of a beam /span is acceptable if the deflection when the member when fully loaded does not exceed 0.003 of the span. For domestic floor joists, the deflection under full load should not exceed the lesser of 0.003 times the span or 14 mm, where; = 0.86 for floors whose transverse stiffness is provided by the decking/ceiling. = 1.00 for floors where there is additional transverse stiffness to that from the decking/ceiling. This additional transverse stiffness may be provided by herringbone strutting or by blocking of depth at least 75 % of the depth of the joists or, in the case of transverse members which are continuous across the joists (i.e. joists with an open-webbed structure), by timbers of depth at least 30 % of the depth of the joists. In a simply loaded beam the maximum deflection induced generally approximates to the mid-span value if it is niot actually equal to it. The table below showing various standard load cases are is provided below

Timber structures

For structures made from timber beams operating within their elastic limits the design principles involved are similar to those used for steel structures. Structures

Lateral Stability of built in beams

Beams with large depth to thickness ratios are at risk of buckling under bending forces. BS 5268 uses the ratio of Ixx (2nd moment of area of section about neutral axis) to Iyy (2nd moment of area of the section perpendicular to the neutral axis ) to identify the support requirements such that there is no risk of bucking

Note: for a simple rectangular beam the Ixx/Iyy ratio is simply the square of the d/b ratio. I xx/ I yy 1 d/b 1 4 2 9 3 16 4 25 5 36 6 49 7

Bearing Strength

The timber properties when subject to concentrated compression loads e.g at support positions is somewhat complicated and is affected by both the length and the location of the bearing. The grade stress perpendicular to the grain is used to determine the permissible bearing stress. For a bearing surface subject to a normal force of P the bearing stress c.a c.a = P /Ab

Timber axially loaded members

Introduction

The notes below show the principles used in calculating the strength of axially loaded timber members. The principles used relate to columns , stanchions, and struts. For members loaded in compression the primary failure mode is buckling. It is important to note that the notes below are outline notes. For detailed calculations it is necessary to refer to the identified codes. The principles used are based on the requirements of BS 5268;Part 2. Axially loaded members are often also subject to other loads i.e. bending and torsional loads. The notes below only relate to members subject to concentric axial loads.

Symbols / Units Fv = Applied shear Force (N) m.a,ll = Applied shear stress parallel to grain (N/m2) m.g,ll = Grade shear stress a = distance (m) parallel to grain (N/m2) = angle of grain (deg /rads) m.adm,ll = Permissible shear A = Area (m2) stress parallel to grain (N/m2) b = breadth of beam/thickness (m) r.a,ll = Applied rolling shear stress E = Modulus of Elasticity (N/m2 parallel to grain (N/m2) Emean = mean value Modulus of r.adm,ll = Permissible rolling shear Elasticity (N/m2 stress parallel to grain (N/m2) Emin = min value Modulus of m = bending deflection (m) Elasticity (N/m2 s = shear deflection (m) 2 G = Modulus of Rigity (N/m /Pa total = total deflection (shear + h = depth of section (m) bending) (m) i =radius of gyration (m) adm = pemissible deflection (m) 4 I = Second Moment of Area (m c.a,ll = Applied compressive L =Length /span/ (m) stress parallel to grain (N/m2) Le =Effective Length /Effective span c.g,ll = Grade compressive stress (m) parallel to grain (N/m2) m = mass (kg) c.adm,ll = Permissible n = number compressive stress parallel to = slenderness ratio grain (N/m2) Q = First moment of area(m3 c.a,l- = Applied compressive 3 average = average density (kg / m ) stress normal to grain (N/m2) M = Moment (Nm) c.g,l- = Grade compressive stress m.a,ll = Applied bending stress normal to grain (N/m2) 2 parallel to grain (N/m ) c.adm,l- = Permissible m.g,ll = Grade bending stress compressive normal parallel to 2 parallel to grain (N/m ) grain (N/m2) m.adm,ll = Permissible bending t.a,ll = Applied tensile stress 2 stress parallel to grain (N/m ) parallel to grain (N/m2) t.g,ll = Grade tensile stress parallel to grain (N/m2) t.adm,ll = Permissible tensil stress parallel to grain (N/m2)

Relevant Standards..For comprehensive list of standards Wood related Standards BS 5268 -2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship.

Design Methods

In respect to columns subject to compression it is importatant the note that limit for out of straightness is L/300 for timber sections and L/500 for glued (Glulam) sections. Failure due to buckling is caused by the following.

Inherent eccentricity of loading to centroid of section Imperfections in timber cross section. Non-uniformity of timber material.

The effect of these variables is to introduce initial bending with consequent bending stresses which result in failure much earlier than would result from compressive stresses alone. Failure due to buckling is related to

The cross section of the column The slenderness. The permissible stress of the material.

The slenderness is calculated using the equation

The effective length Le is related to the actual length L depending on the end conditions as shown in the figure below.

The radius of gyration is calculated as follows..

The maximum slenderness ratio is, according to the BS EN 5268-2, as follows.

The slenderness ratio has a maximum value of 180 o any compression member carrying dead and imposed loads other than loads resulting from winds o any compression member , however loaded , which by its deformation will adversely affect the stress in another member carrying dead and imposed loads other than wind. The slenderness ratio has a maximum value of 250 o any member normally subject to tension or combined tension and bending arising from dead and imposed loads bu subject to a reversal of strees only from wind o any compression member, carrying only self weight nad wind loads..

For compression members with slenderness ratios of less than 5, without undue eccentricity of loading, the permissible stress should be taken as the grade compression parallel to the grain stress modified as appropriate for moisture content, duration of loading and load sharing. c,adm,ll = c,g,ll.K2.K3.K8

For compression members with slenderness ratios equal to or greater than 5, the permissible stress should be calculated as the product of the grade compression parallel to the grain stress, modified as appropriate for moisture content, duration of loading and load sharing, and the modification factor, K12 as provided in table below c,adm,ll = c,g,ll.K2.K3.K8.K12

E <5 5 /c,ll <1, 1,4 4 100 0,9 400 0 75 100 0,9 500 0 75 100 0,9 600 0 75 100 0,9 700 0 75 100 0,9 800 0 75 100 0,9 900 0 76 100 100 0,9 0 0 76 110 100 0,9 0 0 76 120 100 0,9 0 0 76 130 100 0,9 0 0 76 140 100 0,9 0 0 76 150 100 0,9 0 0 76 160 100 0,9 0 0 76 170 100 0,9 0 0 76 180 100 0,9 0 0 76 190 100 0,9 0 0 76 210 100 0,9 0 0 76

10 20 30 2,9 5,8 8,7 0,9 51 0,9 51 0,9 51 0,9 51 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,9 52 0,8 96 0,8 99 0,9 01 0,9 02 0,9 03 0,9 04 0,9 04 0,9 05 0,9 05 0,9 05 0,9 06 0,9 06 0,9 06 0,9 06 0,9 06 0,9 07 0,9 07 0,8 27 0,8 37 0,8 43 0,8 48 0,8 51 0,8 53 0,8 55 0,8 56 0,8 57 0,8 58 0,8 59 0,8 60 0,8 61 0,8 61 0,8 62 0,8 62 0,8 63

Value of K12 Values of slenderness ratio = 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 Equivalent Le /b for rectangular sections 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 28, 34, 40, 46, 6 5 3 2 1 0 9 7 5 2 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,2 0,1 0,1 0,0 35 21 06 08 30 71 25 62 21 94 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,1 0,1 59 64 62 66 85 20 69 95 48 15 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,1 74 92 01 11 30 63 07 26 72 35 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,1 84 11 29 45 67 99 41 54 95 54 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,2 0,1 92 24 49 72 97 30 71 80 17 72 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,3 0,2 0,1 97 34 65 93 22 56 97 04 37 88 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,2 01 42 77 09 42 78 20 25 55 04 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,2 04 48 87 23 59 97 40 44 72 19 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,2 07 53 95 34 73 13 57 62 88 33 0,8 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,3 0,2 09 57 01 43 84 27 72 78 03 47 0,8 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,3 0,2 11 60 07 51 95 39 86 92 17 59 0,8 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,4 0,3 0,2 13 63 12 58 03 50 98 05 30 71 0,8 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 14 66 16 64 11 59 08 17 42 82 0,8 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 15 68 19 69 18 67 18 28 53 92 0,8 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,3 16 70 22 73 24 74 26 38 63 02 0,8 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,3 17 72 25 77 29 81 34 47 73 12 0,8 0,7 0,7 0,6 0,6 0,5 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,3 18 73 28 81 34 87 41 55 82 20

180 200 220 240 250 52, 0 0,0 75 0,0 92 0,1 09 0,1 24 0,1 39 0,1 53 0,1 67 0,1 79 0,1 92 0,2 03 0,2 14 0,2 25 0,2 35 0,2 45 0,2 54 0,2 62 0,2 71 57, 8 0,0 61 0,0 76 0,0 89 0,1 02 0,1 15 0,1 27 0,1 38 0,1 49 0,1 60 0,1 70 0,1 80 0,1 89 0,1 98 0,2 07 0,2 15 0,2 23 0,2 30 63, 6 0,0 51 0,0 63 0,0 74 0,0 85 0,0 96 0,1 06 0,1 16 0,1 26 0,1 35 0,1 44 0,1 53 0,1 61 0,1 69 0,1 77 0,1 84 0,1 91 0,1 98 69, 4 0,0 43 0,0 53 0,0 63 0,0 72 0,0 82 0,0 91 0,0 99 0,1 07 0,1 16 0,1 23 0,1 31 0,1 38 0,1 45 0,1 52 0,1 59 0,1 65 0,1 72 72, 3 0,0 40 0,0 49 0,0 58 0,0 67 0,0 76 0,0 84 0,0 92 0,1 00 0,1 07 0,1 15 0,1 22 0,1 29 0,1 35 0,1 42 0,1 48 0,1 54 0,1 60

Timber beams subject to axial compression and bending

Timber members pinned at both ends which are subject to bending and axial compression should be so proportioned that:

Spaced Columns

Spaced comumns are two or more equal parallel columns used together as supports and spaced using packing blocks as shown below. These composite arrangements can be used individually or as component parts of lattice girders.

L = overall length of columns (m) l e = thickness of end packing pieces (m) l i = thickness of intermediate packing pieces (m) l = pitch packing pieces (m) a = centre distance between component columns (m) b = column thickness (m)

End packing. The end packing length le should be sufficient to accommodate the nails, screws or connectors required to transmit, between the abutting face of the packing and one adjacent column, a shear force equal to:

A = Total cross section area of column (m2) l e = thickness of end packing pieces (m) n = number of columns The spacing of the columns should be less than 3 x the thickness of the thinner column. Intermediate packing. The length of the intermediate packs l i must be at least 230mm . Also the connecting methods should be designed to transmit at least 50% of that force required for an end pack.i.e the shear forc to be resisted =

The spacing of the columns should be less than 3 x the thickness of the thinner column. For cases where L=< 30b then only intermediate packing is required. In any event, sufficient packings should be provided to ensure that the slenderness ratio (Le/ i )1C of the local portion of an individual shaft between packings is limited to either 70, or to 0.7 times the slenderness ratio of the whole column, whichever is the lesser. Lefor the local part should be based on the distance between the packing centroids

Load Capacity The load capacity of a spaced column is calculated as the least of the following. Bending about X-X axis...Axial capacity = ( Total column Area.) x ( c,adm,ll) Bending about Y-Y axis.....Axial capacity = ( Total column Area.) x ( c,adm,ll) where the effect length Leyy is assessed in accordance with the diagram above and multiplied by K13 Individual buckling.....Axial capacity = (n x area of one column) x ( c,adm,ll) where the effective length Le is the length between packings and the rzdius of gyration i iy for the y-y axis of a single column. K13 Ratio of space to thickness of thinner member 0 1 2 3 1,8 2,6 3,1 3,5 1,7 2,4 2,8 3,1 1,4 1,8 2,2 2,4 1,1 1,1 1,3 1,4

Connection Nailed Scewed/bolted Connectored Glued

Tension Members

The permissible stress for members subject to tensile loads provided in the tables are generally based on solid timber with a width of 300mm. For members with width other than 300m a factor K14 must be applied. ref K14. A timber member subject to direct tensile load is simple simply sized by ensuring the actual stress is less than the admissible stress calculated using the appropriate grade stress and modifying factors where applicable

K2 relates to the moisture content of the timber K3 relates to the duration of the load. K6 relates to the shape of the cross section. K8 relates load sharing factors. K14 relates to the depth of the section

Therefore t.adm,ll = t.g. K2.K3.K6.K8.K14 t t.adm,ll

t,ll = Calculated tensile stress parallel to grain t.adm,ll = Admissible tensile stress parallel to grain t.g,ll = Grade tensile stress parallel to grain

For members subject to combined bending and axial tensile the following equation applies

Glued Laminated Timber

Introduction

Glued laminated timber is often called Glulam and is manufactured as timber laminations bonded together using adhesive. Glulam can be made to almost any size and used for a wide variety of structural features including arches, portals, roof, lintel and floor beams, for columns, rafters and 'A' frames etc etc Glulam structural members can make use of smaller and less desirable dimensions of timber, yet are engineered to be stronger than similarly sized members made of solid wood. They also suffer less than solid timbers from defects and movement due to moisture changes such as checking, warping and twisting. The laminations used are also generally of a more uniform quality compared to solid timber sections. Compared to most structural materials, Glulam has a relatively high strength per unit weight. It can be used to produce a lighter superstructure, compared to steel or concrete, with a consequent economy in foundation construction. Glulam will not corrode. It also has a high resistance to chemical attack and aggressive and polluted environments. Glulam is manufactured in accordance with BS En 14080. The timber used is graded in accordance with BS EN 14081. The various parameters required to design using this material are covered in BS 5268-2 2002 section 3

Relevant Standards..For comprehensive list of standards Wood related Standards

BS EN 14080:2005 Timber structures. Glued laminated timber. Requirements BS EN 14081-1:2005 Timber structures. Strength graded structural timber with rectangular cross section. General requirements BS 5268 -2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship

Horizontally glued laminates

This type of laminate is designed to resist loads normal to the plane of the laminates. The grades stress for horizontally glued timber laminations is obtained as the product of the relevent stresses found in tables and the relevant modification factors found in the table. Modification factors for horizontally glued single grade laminates It should be noted that the modification factors K7, and K14 apply to the size of the glulam section and not to the timber lamination size.

Horizontal Timber Glued Laminate - all one grade The above rule cover only applies when laminations of one strength grade only used. It is acceptable to use laminations of different grades when the grades are up to two grades apart and when a maximum of 25% of the depth at the top and bottom of the section are of the superior grade. When timbers of different grades are use the calculated grades stresses relevant to bending tension and compression, parallel to the grain, should be multiplied by 0,95. The calculated grade stress for shear parallel to the grain should be multiplied by 0,8

Horizontal Timber Glued Laminate - combined grades Summerising the derivation of the relevant permissible stresses for the glued laminate sections.. Bending parallel to grain For single grade glulam .. m.adm,ll = m,g,ll. K2.K3.K6.K7.K8.K15 For combined grade glulam .... m.adm,ll = m,g,ll. K2.K3.K6.K7.K8.K150,95

Tension parallel to grain For single grade glulam .. t.adm,ll = t,g,ll. K2.K3.K8.K14.K16 For combined grade glulam .... t.adm,ll = t.,g,ll. K2.K3.K8.K<sub14< sub="">.K160,95

Compression parallel to grain For single grade glulam .. c.adm,ll = c,g,ll. K2.K3.K8.K12.K17 For combined grade glulam .... c.adm,ll = c,g,ll. K2.K3.K8.K12.K170,95

Compression normal to grain For single and combined grade glulam .. c.adm,l= c,g,l-. K2.K3.K4.K8.K18

Shear parallel to grain For single grade glulam .. t.adm,ll = t,g,ll. K2.K3.K5K8.K19 For combined grade glulam .... t.adm,ll = t,g,ll. K2.K3.K5K8.K19.0,80

Modulus of Elasticity For single and combined grade glulam ..EGlulam = Emean. K20

</sub14<>

Vertically glued laminates

This type of laminate is designed to resist loads parallel to the plane of the laminates. The grades stress for horizontally glued timber laminations is obtained as the product of the relevent stresses found in tables and the relevant modification factors found in the table. Modification factors for vertically glued single grade laminates It should be noted that the modification factors K7, and K14 apply to the size of the glulam section and not to the timber lamination size.

Summerising the derivation of the relevant permissible stresses for the glued laminate sections.. Bending parallel to grain m.adm,ll = m,g,ll. K2.K3.K6.K7.K8.K27

Tension parallel to grain t.adm,ll = t,g,ll. K2.K3.K8.K14.K27

Shear parallel to grain t.adm,ll = t,g,ll. K2.K3.K5K8.K27

Compression parallel to grain c.adm,ll = c,g,ll. K2.K3.K8.K12.K28

Compression normal to grain c.adm,l- = c,g,l-. K2.K3.K4.K8.K29

Modulus of Elasticity .EGlulam = Emean

Glued end joints relevant to glued laminated timber

According to BS 5268-2, finger joints, used to produce longer gluded laminated beam lengths from shorter lengths, should have characteristic bending strengths of not less than the characteristic bending strength of the strength class for the lamination when tested in accordance with BS EN 385. Note : As identified on webpage Timber design the characteristic bending strength is the ultimate strength of the timber prior to inclusion of the various safety margins and is identified as the number in the grading system e.g a c14 strength graded timber has a characteristic bending strenth of 14 N/mm2

Plywood

Introduction

Plywood is made up of softwood veneers . The veneers are glued together so that the grain of each layer is perpendicular to the grain of its adjoining layers. Plywood as a structural material consists of an odd number of layers (plies). Exterior grade plywood is generally made from fully weather-resistant adhesive. The structrual properties of plywood are primarily dependent on the number and thickness of the plies, the grade of the plies and the arrangement of the plies.

Relevant Standards..For comprehensive list of standards Wood related Standards BS 5268 -2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship : section 4 deels with plywood

Typical sectional properties of a Plywood

BS 5268-2 includes a number of tables providing sectional properties of a number of grades of plywood. A set of properties is provided below showing the level of information available. Section properties of Finnish birch faced plywood: sanded Section properties for a 1 m width Approximate Nominal Number Minimum Second mass /unit thickness of plies thickness Section area Area Moment Modulus of Area mm 6.5 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 5 7 9 and 11 mm mm 6.1 8.8 10 3mm2 10 3mm3 10 3mm4 6.1 8.8 11.5 13.9 17.1 20 22.9 25.2 28.1 6.2 12.9 22 32.2 48.7 66.7 87.4 106 132 18.9 56.8 127 224 417 667 1 001 1 330 1 849 4.4 6.2 8.1 9.9 11.6 13.4 15.2 17 17.1 kg/m2

7 and 9 11.5 13.9

11 and 17.1 13 11, 13 20 and 15 13, 15 22.9 and 17 17 and 25.2 19 17 and 28.1 21

Grade stresses and moduli for service classes 1 and 2 for Finnish conifer plywood thick veneer: sanded < Nominal thickness (Number of Plies) Stress type 6,5(5) 9(7) 12(9) 15(11) 18(13) 21(15) 24(17) 27(19) 30(21) N/mm2 Extreme fibre in Bending ....Face grain 20,68 19,6 18,32 17,93 17,58 17,24 17,14 16,94 16,79 parallel to span ....Face grain 10,54 12,46 13,59 13,79 13,99 14,23 14,28 14,33 14,43 normal to span Tension parallel to 20,78 19,75 19,16 18,86 18,62 18,42 18,32 18,22 18,12 face grain normal to 15,17 15,86 16,2 16,45 16,6 face grain Compression parallel to 10,34 10 face grain normal to 8,08 face grain Bearing on face 3,93 3,93 3,93 3,93 3,93 3,93 3,93 3,93 3,93 Rolling shear ....in face 1,23 veneer ....in back 1,23 veneer ....At first 1,23 glueline Traverse shearbending ....face grain 1,41 parallel to 1,32 1,37 1,3 1,32 1,28 1,3 1,27 0,27 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 9,8 9,7 9,6 8,82 9,55 8,86 9,5 8,91 9,46 8,91 9,46 8,96 16,7 16,79 16,84 16,89

8,42 8,62 8,72

span ....face gain 0,9 normal to span Panel shear ....Parallel and 4,83 normal to face grain 4,83 4,83 4,83 4,83 4,83 4,83 4,83 4,83 1,17 1,12 1,19 1,17 1,19 1,18 1,21 0,21

Modulus of elasticity in bending ....face grain 5 850 5 200 4 900 4 750 4 600 4 500 4 450 4 400 4 350 parallel to span ....face gain 2 150 2 800 3 100 3 300 3 400 3 490 3 550 3 600 3 650 normal to span Modulus of Elasticity (btension/compression) parallel to 4 500 4 350 4 250 4 200 4 200 4 150 4 150 4 150 4 100 face grain normal to 3 500 3 650 3 750 3 800 3 800 3 850 3 850 3 800 3 900 face grain Shear modulus ....Parallel and 320 normal to face grain 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320

Panel Based Wood Products

Introduction

This page simply identifies the panel products available, other than plywood. This includse MDF (Medium density fibreboard), wood particleboard,,oriented strand boards (OSB), and cement bonded particleboard.

Relevant Standards..For comprehensive list of standards Wood related Standards BS 5268 -2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship. BS 5268-2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship : section 5 deals with panel products other than plywood BS EN 322:1993, Wood-based panels Determination of moisture content. BS EN 323:1993, Wood-based panels Determination of density. BS EN 324-1:1993, Wood-based panels Determination of dimensions of boards Part 1: Determination of thickness, width and length. BS EN 324-2:1993, Wood-based panels Determination of dimensions of boards Part 2: Determination of squareness and edge straightness. BS EN 622-2:2004, Fibreboards Specifications Part 2: Requirements for hardboards. BS EN 622-3:2004, Fibreboards Specifications Part 3: Requirements for medium boards. BS EN 622-5:2006, Fibreboards Specifications Part 5: Requirements for dry process boards (MDF). BS EN 12369-1:2001, Wood-based panels Characteristic values for use in structural design Part 1: OSB, particleboards and fibreboards. BS EN 12369-2:2008, Wood-based panels Characteristic values for structural design Part 2:

Plywood. BS EN 12369-3:2008, Wood-based panels. Characteristic values for structural design. Solidwood panels . BS EN 12871, Wood-based panels !Performance specifications and requirements for load bearing. boards for use in floors, walls and roofs. BS EN 312:Part 4::1997 Specification for cement bonded particleboard DD ENV 12872, Wood-based panels Guidance for structural panel installation.

Particle Board

Particleboard is cheaper and more uniform than conventional wood and plywood and is substituted for them when appearance and strength are less important than cost.. It is weakest type of fibreboard, except for insulation board. A major disadvantage of particleboard is that it is very prone to expansion and discoloration due to moisture, particularly when it is not covered with paint or another sealer. Therefore, it is rarely used outdoors or for indoors areas which have high moisture conditions. It is generally used for low cost bedroom and kitchen furniture as panels with external surfaces convered with decorative layers of vinyl, melamine. Particle board has little value as a structural material being greatly inferior to timber MDF (Medium Density FibreBoard)

There are different types fibreboard which differentiated by ..the size and type of wood fibres used ..the method of heating ..what type of bonding agent is used ..the method by which it is pressed into shape Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) is a wood substitute form which is made from fine wood fibres in a resin which is bonded under heat and pressure. It is manufactured by a dry process at a lower temperature than other fibreboards e.g hardboard. The natural glues and resins contained within the wood are not effective. MDF therefore uses artificial bonding agents / resins. The resin used is usually urea

formaldehyde, but some fibreboard including exterior or marine quality board will use stronger glues such as phenol formaldehyde. MDF may be used instead of plywood or chipboard. It is dense, flat, stiff, has no knots and is easily machined. It is made up of fine particles and therefore does not have an easily recognisable surface grain Oriented Strand Fibreboard

This is a panel material which is based of fibreboard with the fibres oriented in layers. This panel material is cheaper and more easily produced than plywood, which requires large timber sections. It has slightly inferior properties compared to plywood and is very suitable as an available low cost replacement. This material can be used for structural and non-structural applications. It is extensively used for wall sheaving and floor panels.

Cement Bonded particle Board

A bonded cement particle board panel is mad up of a mixture of wood particles and Portland cement together with some additives. The panel is that it is grey in colour, has a smooth surface and is heavy. The panel has the following advantageous properties

It is structurally strong, with good mechanical properties. It is Fire resistant It is non- combustible It is resistant to fungal attack It is Resistant to weather, freeze/thaw & standing water It is resistant to Termite/Vermin Resistant: It has good acoustic properties as a result of it high density Cna be workded with standard carpentry tools and equipment Is dimensionally stable when exposed to variations in temperature and moisture Workability: Installs quickly using standard carpentry tools and equipment It is an environmentally friendly building material Because of its lay up, composition and mass, CBPB is mainly used for specialised applications in construction. Its advantageous features with respect to fire, durability, sound insulation and stiffness,make the product most suitable for internal wall construction in public places, lining of lift shafts, construction of cabling ducts, soffits, motorway acoustic fencing and cladding of prefabricated house units.

Timber Joint Loading Using nails screws , bolts and adhesives

Introduction

The notes below are basic guidance notes showing the spacings and permissible loads for nails,woodscrews,bolts and adhesives whan fastening timber beams together. The information is generally based on data included in BS 5268-2:2002 The tables below show only a small part of the comprehensive data provided in the identified standard. The information is intended to indicate the level of permissible stresses which may be considered for type of connections shown. For detailed design of timber structures it is important that the relevant standards and codes are used. Notes relating the strength grade to the wood species are found on webpage Timber Design Relevant Standards..For comprehensive list of standards Wood related Standards BS 5268 -2 ;2002 Structural use of timber Part 2: Code of practice for permissible stress design, materials and workmanship BS EN 1912:2004: Structural timber Strength classes- Assignment of visual grades and species

Symbols m.g,ll = Grade bending stress parallel to grain (N/m2) m.adm,ll = Permissible bending stress parallel to grain (N/m2) d = the fixing item diameter.(mm) F = Applied shear Force (N) F = Basic shear load of component v m.a,ll = Applied shear stress as tabled (N) parallel to grain (N/m2) Fadm = Permissible Load (N) m.g,ll = Grade shear stress K = Factor related to number of parallel to grain (N/m2) nails,or loading condition m.adm,ll = Permissible shear Ns = Number of shear planes stress parallel to grain (N/m2) sharing load r.a,ll = Applied rolling shear stress n = number of fixings parallel to grain (N/m2) a = distance (m) r.adm,ll = Permissible rolling shear = angle of grain (deg /rads) stress parallel to grain (N/m2) 2 A = Area (m ) m = bending deflection (m) b = breadth of beam/thickness (m) s = shear deflection (m) E = Modulus of Elasticity (N/m2 total = total deflection (shear + Emean = mean value Modulus of bending) (m) Elasticity (N/m2 adm = pemissible deflection (m) Emin = min value Modulus of c.a,ll = Applied compressive Elasticity (N/m2 stress parallel to grain (N/m2) G = Modulus of Rigity (N/m2 /Pa c.g,ll = Grade compressive stress h = depth of section (m) parallel to grain (N/m2) i =radius of gyration (m) c.adm,ll = Permissible I = Second Moment of Area (m4 compressive stress parallel to L =Length /span/ (m) grain (N/m2) Le =Effective Length /Effective span c.a,l- = Applied compressive (m) stress normal to grain (N/m2) m = mass (kg) c.g,l- = Grade compressive stress n = number normal to grain (N/m2) = slenderness ratio c.adm,l- = Permissible Q = First moment of area(m3 compressive normal parallel to 3 average = average density (kg / m ) grain (N/m2) M = Moment (Nm) t.a,ll = Applied tensile stress m.a,ll = Applied bending stress parallel to grain (N/m2) parallel to grain (N/m2) t.g,ll = Grade tensile stress parallel to grain (N/m2) t.adm,ll = Permissible tensil stress parallel to grain (N/m2)

The notes below are basic guidance notes showing the spacings for nails,woodscrewsa and bolts whan fastening timber beams together.

Nails

The values identified in the table below relate to nails made from wire driven at right angles to the grain. For the loads given here for nails to be valid, the steel wire from which the nails are produced should have a minimum ultimate tensile strength of 600 N/mm2 In hardwood the holes normally need to be pre-drilled with diameter not bigger than 0,8 d. Figure showing minimum Nail spacing

Note: The spacings between nails as shown can be reduced for all softwoods, except Douglas fir, by 0,8. The edge spacings shown must be at least 5d. The permissible loads for nail joints in service class 1 and 2 joints are derived from the equation

Fadm = F . K. . n . Ns. In the standanard K = K43.K46 K48.K49.K50. K43 = 0.7 for nails driven into the end grain otherwise = 1,00. K46 = 1,25 for nails driven fastening a predrilled steel component to a timber member the hole in the steel member should not be greater than d. K48 = 1,00 for long term loading for timber to timber joints, 1,12 for medium term loads, 1,25 for short/very short term loading {1.40 for particleboard-to-timber joints: medium-term loads & 2,1 for particleboard-to-timber / OSB-to-timber" joints: short/ very short term loading} K49 = 1,00 in service classes 1 & 2 and 0,70 for service class 3 K50 = 1,00 when n l =< 10 and = 0,9 when n l > 10......n l = number of nails in any line of nails parallel to applied load For softwoods where the thicknesses of members or nail penetrations are less than the standard values given in the table below, the basic load should be multiplied by the smaller of the two ratios: (see tables below) a) actual to standard thickness of headside member;(see tables below) or b) actual penetration to standard pointside thickness.(see tables below) If either ratio is less than 0,66 then the joint is assumed to have no load carrying capacity

Table of basic shear loads (F) for nails in timber to timber joints Softwoods *** Not predrilled Hardwoods pre-drilled

Standard Nail Min. Thickness/ C14 C16/18/22 C24 C30,35,40 D40 D50 dia Pentration Pentration F F F F mm F (N) F (N) mm (N) (N) (N) (N) 2,7 32 249 258 274 281 22 386 427 3 36 296 306 326 335 24 465 515 3,4 41 364 377 400 412 27 582 644 3,8 46 438 453 481 495 30 709 785 4,2 50 516 534 567 583 34 897 939 4,6 55 600 620 659 678 37 996 1103 5 60 689 712 756 778 40 1155 1279 5,5 66 806 833 885 910 44 1368 1515 6 72 930 962 1022 1051 48 1595 1767 7 84 1200 1240 1318 1355 56 2094 2319 8 96 1495 1546 1643 1689 64 2649 2933 *** For predrilled holes in softwood the values in table may be multiplied by 1,15 .

Screws

Screws should be turned, not hammered, into pre-drilled holes. The tops of countersunk screws should be no more than 1 mm below the surface of the timber. The values provided for the screws are for screws in accordance with BS 1210 in predrilled holes. The holes should be drilled with the screw shank dia. for the part of the hole which relates to the screw shank, reducing to a pilot hole dia = d/2 for the threaded portion of the screw. The effective cross-section of timber taking a load be determined by deducting the net projected area of the pre-drilled holes from the gross area of the cross-section being considered. When assessing the

effective cross-section of multiple screw joints, all screws that lie within a distance of five screw diameters measured parallel to the grain from a given cross-section should be considered as occurring at that crosssection. The permissible loads for nail joints in service for class 1 and 2 joints are derived from the equation Fadm = F . K. . n . Ns. In the standard K = K43.K46 K52.K53.K54 K43 = 1,0 for screws normal to grain direction/ = 0.7 for screws screwed into the end grain. K46 = 1,0 for timber ot timber joints/ 1,25 for screws fastening a predrilled steel component to a timber member the hole in the steel member should not be greater than d. K52 = 1,00 for long term loading for timber to timber joints:1,12 for medium term loading:1,25 for short term loading K53 = 1,00 inservice classes 1 & 2 and 0,70 for service class 3 K54 = 1,00 when n l =< 10 and = 0,9 when n l > 10......n l = number of nails in any line of nails parallel to applied load For the basic loads the table to apply, the headside member thickness and the penetration of the screw in the pointside should be not less than the values given. Where the thickness of the headside member is less than the value given in the table, the tabulated basic load should be multiplied by the ratio of the actual to the standard headside thickness, provided that the pointside screw penetration is at least twice the actual headside thickness. The minimum headside member thickness should be not less than twice the shank diameter.

Figure showing minimum screw spacing

Table of basic shear loads (F) for screws in timber to timber joints Softwoods Hardwoods Penetration Screw pre-drilled pre-drilled shank Headside Pointside C14 C16/18/22 C24 C27/30/35/40 D30/35/40 D40/60/70 dia mm mm N N N N N N 3 11 21 193 206 233 243 308 355 3,5 12 25 264 282 306 317 399 459 4 14 28 338 361 392 406 515 594 4,5 16 32 432 453 488 506 643 744 5 18 35 524 550 594 616 785 910 5,5 19 39 621 647 698 724 921 1065 6 21 42 729 760 821 851 1086 1259 7 25 49 968 1010 1092 1133 1454 1690 8 28 56 1094 1170 1309 1359 1760 2056

Bolts

The values for bolted joints relate to BS EN ISO 898-1 having a minimum tensile strength of 400 N/mm2 with washers which conform to BS 4320 . Bolt holes should not be drilled more than 2mm larger than the nominal bolt diameter. Washers should have a diameter or width of three times the bolt diameter with a thickness of 0,25 times the bolt diameter and should be fitted under the head and nut of each bolt unless a steel plate is used to provide an equivalent bearing

area. At least one complete thread should protude above the tightened nut. The effective cross-section of the timber taking loads should be determined by deducting the net projected area of the bolt holes from the gross area of the timber cross-section. All bolts that lie within a distance of two bolt diameters, measured parallel to the grain, from a given cross-section should be considered as occurring at that crosssection. The permissible load for a bolted joint for Ns shear planes Fadm = F . K. n . Ns. In the standard K =K46. K56.K57 K46 = 1,00 for normal timber to timber joints/ =1,25 Where a steel component is bolted to a timber member loaded parallel to the grain. K56 = 1,00 in service classes 1 & 2 / = 0,70 for service class 3 timber used in that service K57 = 1 - 3( n l - 1)/100 when n l =< 10 and = 0,9 when n l > 10....n l = number of in-line bolts in any line parallel to applied loads. Figure showing minimum Bolt/Dowel spacing

Table showing single shear loads for one grade 4,6 bolt in a two member timber connection Important Note: The table below shows only a selected number of bolt diameters subject to long term loading Loading Parallel to grain kN kN kN kN Loading perpendicular to grain kN kN kN kN

Penetration Timber Grade mm Min Thickness 47 72 97 47 72 97 47 72 97 47 72 97

M8 M12 M16 M20 M8 M12 M16 M20 1,22 1,80 2,30 2,73 1,13 1,56 1,91 2,19 1,46 2,68 3,52 4,19 1,39 2,39 2,93 3,36 1,46 3,13 4,63 5,64 1,39 2,79 3,94 4,52 1,33 2,04 2,59 3,09 1,23 1,76 2,16 2,47 1,55 2,93 3,97 4,73 1,47 2,64 3,30 3,79 1,55 3,42 5,05 6,37 1,47 3,07 4,43 5,11 1,83 3,08 3,92 4,67 1,83 3,08 3,92 4,67 1,91 4,02 5,98 7,16 1,91 4,02 5,98 7,16 1,91 4,21 6,93 9,32 1,91 4,21 6,93 9,32 2,12 3,78 4,81 5,73 2,12 3,78 4,81 5,73 2,12 4,66 6,92 8,78 2,12 4,66 6,92 8,78 2,12 4,66 8,09 10,82 2,12 4,66 8,09 10,82

C16

C24

D40

D50

The above show load which act perpendicular to the axis of the bolt, and parallel or perpendicular to the grain of the timber

Adhesive joints The adhesive used should be appropriate to the environment in which the joint will be used. the table below identifies some adhesives which are acceptable. If the timber is correctly specified and the manufacturing process is to an acceptable standard then the adhesive is always stronger than the timber used and the strength of the joint is based on the weaker of the timber joint components being glued. The load duration factors and the load sharing factors apply in determining the acceptable strength of the joint.

It is important to note that adhesive joints are primarily shear loaded joints. Tensile components of stress perpendicular to the plane of the glueline are not acceptable. Intended Use Exposure Conditions Typical exposure Full weather exposure with exposed gluelines Oly Laminated timbers should be used for this application Adhesive type

Exterior

High Hazard

Exterior

Low Hazard

Interior

High Hazard

Interior

Low hazard

Phenolic/ aminoplastic adhesives satisfying spec'n of type I in accordance with BS EN 301 Phenolic/ aminoplastic Protected from adhesives weather and roofs satisfying spec'n of non important of type I or type II structures in accordance with BS EN 301 Phenolic/ Damp locations, aminoplastic unventilated adhesives loft spaces, satisfying spec'n chemical works of type I Laundries in accordance with BS EN 301 Phenolic/ aminoplastic adhesives Heated and satisfying spec'n ventilated areas of type I or II in accordance with BS EN 301

The relevant section in BS 5278 part 2 is limited to the type of structural joints as shown below

When considering adhesive joints in timber the risk resulting from shrinkage, distortion and stress concentration at the joint should be considered. The glued faces are normally held together until the glue sets and surface force of about 0,7 N/mm is recommended for softwoods If mechanical fasteners are used to hold the glued faces together these should not be considered to add strength to the bonded joint. When nails are used to hold the glued faces together the permissible shear stength used in the calculations should be multiplied by a nail/glue modification factor K70 = 0,9

A typical glued timber joint withstanding a force F is shown below.

When the components of the joint are loaded parallel to the grain, the permissible shear stress fot the bonded lap joints should be taken as the lesser of the permissible shear stresses parallel to the grain. When one of the faces is loaded at an angle to the relevant grain , the permissible shear stress adm,a for the glueline should be calculated using the following equation.

When one of the faces is loaded across the grain the the permissible stress is 1/3 of the permissible grade shear stress parallel to the grain. In this circumstance the shear is referred to as rolling shear because there is a tendency for the fibres to roll like a rolling cylinders at alower stress level For the loaded lap joint system as shown above the permissible force Fadm.a = .. ( ref to Page Modifying factors ) This equation is based on forces parallel to the grain and the surfaces being clamped to achieve adhesive bonding. If nails are used to hold surfaces together to achieve good adhesive bonding then the equation below should be used.