Kyle Beggs Leslie Wolcott English 1102 15 March 2013 Why Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles Is the Fuel

Of the Future: An Annotated Bibliography This bibliography is intended to outline the evidence that Hydrogen Fuel Cell energy is the fuel of the future. Due to the engineering nature of the topic, almost every source is a study conducted by a team of engineers at a university or research center, but is not limited to such. These sources are generally in the form of scholarly journals, although some are found in engineering magazines/newsletters. The objective is to analyze if a hydrogen powered world is the best energy source for the future. This is done by collecting said forms of sources on topics such as safety issues and efficiency/pollution percentages, the cost of production of the fuel and vehicle itself, and both the development history and calculated future predictions. Other energy sources that are in question for the fuel of the future are not looked at here. Adamson, Kerry-Ann. "Calculating The Price Trajectory Of Adoption Of Fuel Cell Vehicles." International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy 30.4 (2005): 341-350. Academic Search Premier. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. Kerry-Ann Adams, part of the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Research Center at the Technical University of Berlin have conducted research to help calculate the price trajectory of the introduction of fuel cell vehicles, as the title states. To do this they analyzed if fuel cell technology is a DI (disruptive innovation),

meaning something that changes the industry and its market. She then took surveys to collect data on peoples opinions and willingness to pay for certain things. Adamson put this data into economic models to estimate the price during the market development and after some number of years. The results indicated that there would be a premium on FCVs for at least 6 years after the introduction. How this data helps my point is that it gives an estimate for governments to start subsidizing the market to help get it going. Once you jumpstart the market, the price will eventually fall and that is important to know. If governments do not want to subsidize the market because they dont know the extent to which they need to go, it would be difficult to get the industry up to full steam. Now that there are real price trajectories, governments and businesses alike can start putting economic plans together to make the plan for hydrogen power come together. Brown, Alan S. "Fuel Cells Down The Road?" Mechanical Engineering 129.10 (2007): 3639. OmniFile Full Text Mega (H.W. Wilson). Web. 11 Mar. 2013. This article comes from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers monthly newsletter, a widely known and respected engineering organization. They have proposed a way to jumpstart the change to a hydrogen energy world. The key lies in forklifts. Forklifts generally run on batteries that take a long time to charge and that is a problem for warehouses that run 24/7. Because the batteries take a long time to charge, weigh a great amount, and take about 15-20 minutes to change, the job requires a team of people dedicated to this. It doesnt help that some warehouses can have up to 200 forklifts, so you can imagine how much

time and money is wasted here. These battery changing stations also take up precious space in the warehouse. A fuel cell forklift would solve all of these problems. It simply makes sense for this industry to take on the challenge first. This article by the ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) proposes an idea to jumpstart the transition to hydrogen and this helps my argument because many claim that one of the main problems is creating a market for the fuel cell because if there is no infrastructure, then it is hard for companies to invest in development, but if there is no development then it is hard for companies to build the infrastructure. This is due mainly to the fact that nobody is sure if fuel cell vehicles will take hold so they do not want to just dive in blindly. The perfect fit for them in the distribution industry is a great way to test the waters. This way we can get more data on long term usage and public feedback to make the vehicles even better themselves. Fangzhu, Zhang, and Philip Cooke. "Hydrogen And Fuel Cell Development In China: A Review." European Planning Studies 18.7 (2010): 1153-1168. Academic Search Premier. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. This review of fuel cell development in China is led by Zhang Fangzhu and Philip Cooke of the Center for Advanced Studies at Cardiff University in the United Kingdom. The information is completely trustworthy and accurate even though they are doing a study on another nation because they are researchers at the Center for Advanced Studies. They start off by stating how the Chinese government realized the pollution problem especially in their industrial areas. Reducing pollution from vehicles is one of the main fixes and because fuel cells emit virtually no GHG (Greenhouse Gases),

it is a no-brainer. The government has since invested in research of the technology starting in 1999. For the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, they had a fleet of hydrogen cars and buses to transport athletes and VIPs alike. They showcased their dexterity again at the 2010 World Expo with over 1000 fuel cell vehicles. But for China, the technology just is not there yet due to the lack in funding from the government. It is too costly for private companies to put that much R&D into something they will not get a return for a few years, except for huge global automakers. The recent showcase at the Olympics and World Expo only accelerated development and China would be a perfect place to start the transition to a hydrogen economy. If they can reach the point where the United States and Europe stand, the world needs to watch out because the market is there and ready to boom. This journal does not prove much, but some deductions can be made and that is why it helps my argument. If one of the most powerful nations in the world are in support of the fuel cell vehicle, then it must be the right decision, right? Well that is taking it a little far but the main point I will make with this article is Chinas air pollution problem and how switching to hydrogen economy will help tremendously. Eventually, if the current population rates stay the same, most of the world including the United States will run into this problem and we know it. Even if hydrogen was not as efficient as petroleum powered vehicles (they are actually more efficient) the switch needs to be made because we are killing the Earth and therefore killing ourselves.

Felipe Rosa, et al. "Safety Study Of A Hydrogen Leak In A Fuel Cell Vehicle Using Computational Fluid Dynamics." International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy 37.6 (2012): 52995306. Academic Search Premier. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. The Thermal Engineering Group, part of the Energy Engineering Department at the University of Seville conducted simulations of a leak of hydrogen into the passenger compartment of a Fuel Cell vehicle using CFD. They modelled a Santana 350 (SUV) but only included things that will affect the flow of hydrogen such as the seats and removed things like the pedals. This was done to simplify the model and make it faster and easier to calculate. After running the simulations, the team of engineers found that the vehicle ventilation system isnt enough to keep the concentration of hydrogen at a non-explosive level. They further stated that this is not a huge problem though because the simulations also told them where most of the hydrogen is concentrated at in the vehicle and that automobile manufacturers could incorporate both hydrogen sensors and exhaust ventilations there in the case of a leak. One of the biggest concerns of Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is the safety of them. This is why a lot of the research performed is on safety issues. These findings do not necessarily help my argument because it was found that when a leak occurs, the concentration of hydrogen inside the vehicle reaches flammable levels. However, the results of the study told us both the problem and how to fix it. We know where the majority of the hydrogen stays concentrated at, so the automakers can just design a system to detect hydrogen overloads in case of a leak and then turn on an exhaust

system. This is a drawback to hydrogen powered vehicles, but it is not an issue that could remove the possibility of a hydrogen powered future. Frenette, G, and D Forthoffer. "Economic & Commercial Viability Of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles From An Automotive Manufacturer Perspective." International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy 34.9 (n.d.): 3578-3588. Science Citation Index. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. In this review of Fords history, recent advances, and future of their fuel cell program, written by Ford employees of the ZEV Vehicle Program, the main discussion is the feasibility of the fuel cell vehicle. They talk about Fords history with hydrogen, recalling projects of theirs as far back as 1999. With over 1 million miles driven, 30,000 hours of operation, and a speed record of 207 MPH, it is safe to say Ford has some experience. The problem Ford sees with hydrogen is the economic feasibility. Frenette and Forthoffer claim that the cost of the vehicles themselves arent the problem, it is designing the vehicles just a little bit better, perfecting them, is the last step. After that it is a waiting game, waiting until the market is right to go full steam ahead with production. This review done by Ford on themselves on their hydrogen fuel cell development and future is great for me because it shows that an automaker themselves see that the technology is there and ready to be introduced, but the reason it isnt is because of the economic situation. They basically say that if everybody was behind the movement, then they would be producing fuel cell vehicles at a large volume pretty soon. They predict it will take up to 50 years before we have a hydrogen powered transportation system, yet still invest into it because they believe it will eventually take hold. When

such huge companies such as Ford make bold claims and continue to invest in hydrogen technology, you know it is based on tons of research and real world testing, things that prove fuel cell vehicles are the way of the future and they are confident it will take hold. Hwang, Jenn-Jiang. "Sustainability Study Of Hydrogen Pathways For Fuel Cell Vehicle Applications." Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 19.(2013): 220-229. GreenFILE. Web. 28 Feb. 2013. Jenn-Jiang Hwang, from the National University of Taiwans Department of Greenergy, conducted a life-cycle analysis of the different types of hydrogen production and compared them to that of Battery-Electric Vehicles and Gasoline Vehicles. This means he did not just look at the actual vehicles emissions, but the big picture. Does producing the hydrogen fuel defeat the purpose of making the switch? Hwang took emissions data from all the different methods of producing hydrogen and gasoline, as well as the data from transporting and actually using the fuel and compared the entire process. He concluded that the only method of production that was feasible is natural gas steam-methane reforming due to the fact that not only does it pollute less, but its cost is also competitive with gasoline. This journal helps my argument because Hwang, the professor at the National University of Taiwan concludes that hydrogen not only has lower emissions from the vehicle, but as a whole life-cycle. Many people overlook the energy and emissions of producing the fuel. If the production process uses a lot of energy and has high emissions, then it proves to defeat the purpose. This journal helps silence any doubts about whether or

not the production process defeats the goal of hydrogen by high emissions and energy loss. Jorgensen, Scott W. "Hydrogen Storage Tanks For Vehicles: Recent Progress And Current Status." Current Opinion In Solid State & Materials Science 15.2 (2011): 39-43. Academic Search Premier. Web. 14 Mar. 2013. Jorgensen, an employee of General Motors, writes this review on hydrogen storage tanks and the recent development of them. Although he does not conduct any actual tests or research, he is reviewing tests and research that has been conducted already and discussing the current status of the technology. He states that both pressurized and cryogenic (transforming into liquid) tanks work, not necessarily that they are optimal. Jorgensen does state that hybrid tanks and new technology has come out recently and the outlook of them are positive. This review solidifies the fact that although the technology may not be optimal right now, we have something that works and generally society has perfected ideas of the past to make them optimal after some time. M.R. Islam, et al. "An Overview Of Hydrogen As A Vehicle Fuel." Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews 16.8 (2012): 5511-5528. GreenFILE. Web. 28 Feb. 2013. A team of engineers from the University of Mayala conducted a study about hydrogen and its future. They focused on the use of it as a fuel in regular internal combustion engine. They reviewed the different designs of I.C.E.s and concluded which one works best, along with what parts of the engine needed modification to the normal design of a gasoline I.C.E. due to the different burn characteristics of hydrogen. Next they reviewed

the different production methods of hydrogen and compared their costs as well as the production costs of the different style hydrogen and gasoline powered vehicles. The last thing the researchers looked at was the public acceptability of hydrogen technology. The results were that hydrogen I.C.E.s are more efficient than gasoline, produce less emissions, and increases power output; however they cost more to produce due to the need for more attention to design to avoid abnormal combustion. The production of hydrogen can compete with gasoline prices is the factory is in the right location and electricity charges in that area are reasonable. Lastly, they concluded that the public is neither totally for nor against hydrogen, they just need more information on it. This journal addresses one of the two main designs for hydrogen powered vehicles. This one using an internal combustion engine to convert the energy. The first step to a change in our main source of transportation energy to hydrogen would be producing vehicles with this type of propulsion because we have a wealth of knowledge about I.C.E.s whereas with fuel cell vehicles, there is more research that needs to be done. The four major concerns of making the switch to hydrogen is the performance, emissions, cost, and safety of them. The first three are addressed thoroughly here and researchers from both the Department of Mechanical Engineering and Research Center at the University of Mayala have concluded that hydrogen can meet our expectations. This is only more evidence of why the world should be making the switch to hydrogen power and providing me with more ammo to attack the situation.

Mori, D, and K Hirose. "Recent Challenges Of Hydrogen Storage Technologies For Fuel Cell Vehicles." International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy 34.10 (n.d.): 4569-4574. Science Citation Index. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. Two employees of Toyota Motor Corporations Fuel Cell System Development Division have written a paper on the recent progress of storing hydrogen aboard FCVs (fuel cell vehicles). This is the main technological challenge and concern of FCVs because hydrogen is very light so if you fill a tank at normal pressures, you wont get very much in there and thus wont get very far. The solutions to this is either pressurizing the tank or liquefying the hydrogen. The highpressure tanks are big, liquefying the hydrogen consumes a lot of energy, and hydrogen absorbing alloy tanks are heavy to state the main issues. Each of these tanks are at opposite ends of the spectrum, so the people at Toyota decided to merge these together to create a hybrid tank. One that is pressurized and contains hydrogen absorbing alloys. After testing, they concluded that it can hold up to 2.5 times more than the regular pressurized tank. The engineers say that the material used is the key and that between close collaboration between engineers and scientists, hydrogen storage tanks will become good enough for the mainstream. Because storing hydrogen is such a big problem and one that has proved the most difficult to solve, this journal from the engineers at Toyotas fuel cell development program is incredibly useful for me. They are getting really close to creating a tank that will suit the needs of both the public and vehicle itself (size and weight issues). This is a monumental step in proving that a hydrogen powered world is not a concept, but a close reality.

Pastowski, Andreas, and Thomas Grube. "Scope And Perspectives Of Industrial Hydrogen Production And Infrastructure For Fuel Cell Vehicles In North Rhine-Westphalia." Energy Policy 38.10 (2010): 5382-5387. GreenFILE. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. Andreas Pastowski and Thomas Grube, both researchers at two different energy research groups in Germany, collaborated to write a paper on the industrial and production possibilities of hydrogen. They know the cars can be built and work. But setting up an infrastructure and making the hydrogen available is the hard part. Could they support the areas needs now? Or would extensive construction have to occur? To help answer these questions, they gathered information and used it to create a model of the area that would calculate if the volume of hydrogen that can be produced would satisfy he needs of the area. The results were that they could produce enough hydrogen but not purify it enough, but that they could have the problem fixed and a steady supply in 10 years. This is critical information because it helps quiet the people against hydrogen that argue that the infrastructure and production wont be developed for many years, but it is not true. In this particular area, by the time FCV vehicles popularity rises enough to create a high demand, the infrastructure to handle it would be in place. Pereira, Srgio Ramos, and Margarida C. Coelho. "Life Cycle Analysis Of Hydrogen A Well-ToWheels Analysis For Portugal." International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy 38.5 (2013): 2029-2038. Academic Search Premier. Web. 14 Mar. 2013. Researchers from the Mechanical Engineering department at the University of Aveiro in Portugal conducted a LCA (Life Cycle Analysis) of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and compared it with ICE (Internal

Combustion Engine) vehicles. This type of analysis does not just look at the emissions of the car, but the whole process that includes producing and transporting the fuel itself. They used models in Microsoft Excel and input parameters that suited Portugals reality. They used manufacturer specifications from an ICE, HEV-ICE (Hydrogen Electric Vehicle by internal combustion), and a FCV (Fuel Cell Vehicle) to calibrate the model. After running all of the different models, Coelho and Pereira concluded that not all production types of hydrogen prove to be more efficient and less harmful than the WTW (Well to Wheels) process of gasoline engines. Gasoline is the most energy and Earth conscious during production, however the same is true for hydrogen for operation. The only two production methods for hydrogen that proved more efficient and less harmful from a WTW standpoint were natural gas - steam reforming and electrolysis powered by wind energy with the latter coming out on the very top. It showed a decline of 34% in energy consumption, 85% reduction in GHG (Greenhouse Gas) production, and an 88% decrease in the consumption of fossil fuels. The information in this article further proves that hydrogen is the best option because the people that argue the production consequences outweigh the operational benefits have not realized that geographical location is directly dependent on the type of production needed to make the WTW of hydrogen more energy efficient, less pollutant, and reduce the intake of fossil fuels. In Portugals case, using wind energy to induce electrolysis to produce hydrogen is the winner and by a long shot as realized by the results stated in the summary.

SC James, et al. Releases From Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles In Tunnels International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy. 37.1 (n.d.): 715-719. Science Citation Index. Web. 24 Feb. 2013. This journal article by Scott C. James with the help of colleagues is about what would happen if three Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles were to crash inside of a tunnel and catch on fire. To test this, the team of scientists and engineers used two methods, a computer simulation and an experiment. First they modeled everything into two different computer programs and ran tests using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). To validate the simulation results, they then built a perfect scaled version of a tunnel, the cars, and amount of hydrogen released. They tested all different scenarios such as the cars being different distances away and different location on the car where the hydrogen would be released. They concluded that the only way the pressure from the igniting released hydrogen would be too much for humans to survive would be when the hydrogen is ignited when it is 10 centimeters from the ceiling of the tunnel. They then performed a risk analysis of the situation and concluded that the situation does not greatly increase your everyday risk. This article is extremely important to my topic because in the transportation industry safety is a major issue because accidents happen all the time and will continue. Nonsupporters of hydrogen fuel cell technology argue that it is too dangerous because it is a lot more explosive than gasoline or diesel. Fires breaking out due to an accident are a real possibility and the explosion of a hydrogen fuel tank would be a devastating. However, these simulations and experiments prove that the risk of such a devastating event occurring is very low because the conditions would have to be just right. This data

is another step forward to convincing the public that hydrogen fuel cell technology is the correct transportation energy source to pursue. Steffen Maus, et al. "Comments On Solid State Hydrogen Storage Systems Design For Fuel Cell Vehicles." International Journal Of Hydrogen Energy 34.15 (2009): 6265-6270. Academic Search Premier. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. The team of authors on this article work for Daimler-Chrysler, some being a part of the USA division and some in Germany. They conducted research on solid state hydrogen storage. The results they came up with were that right now, this type of storage has a few problems but with more research and some breakthroughs that they think are not far-fetched it could be the best solution to one of the biggest concerns of fuel cell vehicles. This article shows that even if other storage methods dont develop and ta ke hold, we have more options. Stalling the switch to hydrogen because of worries that we cannot store it efficiently is not a good excuse because at least one of the many methods are bound to work. The odds are in favor. Tollefson, Jeff. "Hydrogen Vehicles: Fuel Of The Future?" Nature 464.7293 (2010): 12621264. Academic Search Premier. Web. 11 Mar. 2013. This selection is from an article published in a magazine called Nature. The magazine talks about nature, obviously, and how we affect it. Jeff Tollefson, an author for Nature may not be an engineer or expert himself, but since he is simply reporting the experts findings, not conducting the research himself so this articles information can be trusted. He gives an overview of all the major concerns of making the change to a hydrogen powered transportation

system. These are as follows: how well the fuel cell will work, storing the hydrogen onboard, creating the hydrogen, and creating the infrastructure to transport the hydrogen to fueling stations. He then lays out reasoning why none are a huge problem. The technology is here for the efficiencies of fuel cells and the concerns about them not working in the cold Toyota reported their fuel cell will start in -37 degrees Celsius. The same can be said about storing the hydrogen on-board. The storage tanks are being made now to be able to hold enough fuel to compare with a current petrol powered vehicle. The process for creating hydrogen using renewable resources are being put into place in Germany at not too much of a higher cost, and the non-renewable process that still releases less greenhouse gases throughout the cycle can be sold at comparable gas prices. Tollefson pushes the fact that the biggest and longest obstacle is to create an infrastructure and that is hard to get companies to do that when there isnt a market yet, and it is hard to create a market when there is not an infrastructure. It is much easier to create an infrastructure for battery electric vehicles, but hydrogen vehicles have the advantage of instant refueling and the ability for long road trips. He ends the article by quoting John Heywood of the Sloan Automotive Laboratory at MIT in Cambridge, There are two paths, and they are going to invest in the electricity and the hydrogen pathway until it becomes clearer that one is significantly better than the other. Right now, we dont know the answer. This article brings in experts from all over and helps explain the major concerns of hydrogen power and the progress of it. Tollefson never takes a clear side, he uses reports findings and evidence and that helps my argument because it shows that the

issues the non-supporters use as reasons why hydrogen is not a good idea or that we arent ready for it are proven wrong. The technology is here. The government has downplayed it for a few years, recently realizing the potential of hydrogen, changing back the laws to help promote more research and funding into hydrogen to further prove its capabilities to the skeptics. If the initial effort and capital is put up, the future of the fuel cell vehicle will become a reality because there is no issue that is holding it back that cannot be solved.