APPENDIX

CN
1.

Complex Numbers Complex Plane The complex numbers 3 + 3i , 4i, 2, and 1 i are plotted as the respective points ( 3, 3) , ( 0, 4 ) ,
Im(z ) 4 (0, 4) (3, 3) (2, 0) 4 (1, 1) 4

( 2, 0 ) ,
figure).

and (1, 1) in the complex plane (see

Re(z )

2.

Complex Operations

(a) (b)

( 2 + 3i )( 4 i ) = 8 2i + 12i 3i 2 = 11 + 10i
( 2 + 3i )(1 + i ) = 2 + 2i + 3i + 3i 2 = 1 + 5i
Rationalizing the denominator, multiply the numerator and denominator by 1 i yielding
1 1 i 1 i 1 i = = . 1+ i 1 i 2 2 2

(c)

(d)

Rationalizing the denominator, we multiply the numerator and denominator by 3 i yielding

2+i 3i 7 +i 7 i = = + . 3+i 3i 10 10 10

3.

Complex Exponential Numbers

(a)

Using Eulers formula, we write

e2 i = cos 2 + i sin 2 = 1 + i ( 0 ) = 1 .

916

SECTION CN

Complex Numbers

917

(b)

Using Eulers formula, we write ei 2 = cos

+ i sin

= 0 + i (1) = i .

(c)

Using Eulers formula, we write e i = cos ( ) + i sin ( ) = cos i sin = 1 .

(d)

Using the property e a + b = ea eb and using Eulers formula, we write

e(
4.

2 + i 4 )

2 2 2 2 2 = e 2 e i 4 = e2 cos + i sin = e2 +i =e + ie2 . 4 4 2 2 2 2

Magnitudes and Angles

(a)

Absolute value: 1 + 2i = 12 + 22 = 5 . Polar angle: = tan 1 2 63 63 or roughly radians. 1 180

(b)

Absolute value: i = 02 + ( 1) = 1 .
2

Polar angle: The complex number i is located at the point ( 0, 1) in the complex plane so the angle is (c) 3 radians (or 270). 2

Absolute value:
1 i =

( 1)2 + ( 1)2

= 2.

Polar angle: = + tan 1 (1) and because the number 1 i is in the third quadrant in the complex plane, we have = (d) Absolute value:
2 + 3i =

5 radians (or 225). 4

( 2 )2 + 33 =

13 .

124 3 radians. Polar angle: = tan 1 124 or 180 2

(e)

e 2i . We write the exponential as e 2i = cos 2 + i sin 2 .

918

APPENDIX

Magnitude is
e 2i = cos 2 + i sin 2 = cos 2 2 + sin 2 2 = 1 . Polar angle is

= tan 1
(f)

sin 2 = tan 1 ( tan 2 ) = 2 . cos 2

2+i . We rationalize the denominator to get 1+ i

2 + i 1 i 3 i = . 1+ i 1 i 2 2

Magnitude is

2+i 1 3 1 = + = 10 . 1+ i 2 2 2 Polar angle is

= tan 1 18.4 3
or 341.6.
5. Complex Verification I

We check the first root z = 1 + i by direct substitution:

( 1 + i )2 + 2 ( 1 + i ) + 2 = 1 2i 1 2 + 2i + 2 = 0 .
The second root 1 i is left to the reader.
6. Complex Verification II

By direct substitution we have 1 1 1 1 2 1+ i 4 2 2 = (1 + i ) = (1 + i ) (1 + i ) = (1 + 2i 1)(1 + 2i 1) = 4i = 1 . 4 4 4 4 2

4

( )

7.

Real and Complex Parts

Calling the complex number z = a + ib , we write

z 2 + 2 z = ( a + ib ) + 2 ( a + ib ) = a 2 b 2 + 2iab + 2 ( a + ib )
2

= a 2 b 2 + 2a + i ( 2ab + 2b ) (a)

Re z 2 + 2 z = a 2 b 2 + 2a

(b)

Im z 2 + 2 z = 2b ( a + 1)

SECTION CN

Complex Numbers

919

8.

Absolute Value Revisited

Using the formula z = zz , yields 4 + 2i =

( 4 + 2i )( 4 2i ) =

16 + 4 = 2 5 .

9.

Roots of Unity

The m roots of z m = 1 (called the roots of unity) are the m values

2 k 2 k zk = 11 m cos + i sin , k = 0,1 " m 1 . m m

Note that for z = 1 yields polar angle = 0 for the previous formula. (a) z 2 = 1 has two roots
2 k 2 k zk = cos + i sin 2 = cos ( k ) + i sin ( k ) , 2

k = 0 , 1 or z = 1 . (b) z 3 = 1 has three roots 2 k 2 k zk = cos + i sin , 3 3

k = 0 , 1, 2 or

z1 = +1 2 z2 = cos 3 4 z3 = cos 3 (c) z 4 = 1 has four roots 2 k 2 k zk = cos + i sin , 4 4 k = 0 , 1, 2, 3 or 2 + i sin 3 4 + i sin 3 1 3 i = + 2 2 1 3 i. = 2 2

z1 = 1 z2 = i z3 = 1 z 4 = i .

920

APPENDIX

10.

Derivatives of Complex Functions

By direct differentiation we have (a)

1i t F ( t ) = e( ) 1i t F ( t ) = (1 i ) e( ) 2 1 i t 1i t F ( t ) = (1 i ) e( ) = 2ie( )

(b)

F ( t ) = e3it F ( t ) = 3ie3it F ( t ) = 9e3it

(c)

F ( t ) = e(

2 + 3i ) t 2 + 3i )t 2 + 3i )t

F ( t ) = ( 2 + 3i ) e(

F ( t ) = ( 5 + 12i ) e(
11.

Real and Complex Parts of Exponentials

We write each of the following complex numbers in a + bi form. (a)

(c) (d) e(
1+ i )

= e1 ( cos + i sin ) = e

(b)

e(

2 + i 2 )

= e 2 cos + i sin = ie 2 2 2

e i = cos + i sin = 1

e i = cos ( ) + i sin ( ) = cos i sin = 1

12.

Complex Exponential Functions

We use the properties of exponentials and Eulers formula to write (a) e 4 it = cos ( 4 t ) + i sin ( 4 t ) (b)
e(
1+ 2 i )t

= e t e 2it = e t ( cos 2t + i sin 2t )

Using deMoivres Formula

Following the procedures in Example 7 we obtain the following:

13. 14.

y (t ) = c1et + c2 et / 2 sin
y (t ) = c1e 3
2t/2

3t 3t + c3et / 2 cos 2 2
2t/2

sin

3 2t c2 e3 2

sin

3 2t + c3e 3 2

2t/2

cos

3 2t + c4 e3 2

2t/2

cos

3 2t 2

SECTION LT

Linear Transformations

921

LT
1.

Linear Transformations Coordinate Map

Let b1 , b2 , " , bn be a basis for V and [ v ]B : V R n be the mapping that assigns to each of K K the vectors u and v in V their coordinate vectors
1 1 K K 2 and v B = 2 . uB = # # n n K K We wish to prove linearity for u and v in V, 1 1 1 + 1 + K K K K 2 2 + 2 = 2 = [ u + v ]B . [u ]B + [ v ]B = # # # n n n + n K K K Also for any constant c and v in V, [ cv ]B = c [ v ]B by a similar coordinate-wise argument.

Isomorphisms
Some examples are R 4 , C 4 , and P3 .

2.

Isomorphism Subtleties

3.

M12 ( R ) = {[ a b ]: a, b R} so the elements of M12 ( R ) are not elements of

a b M 22 ( R ) = : a , b, c , d R . c d a b is not a subspace. However T : M12 ( R ) : a, b R 0 0 isomorphism to a subspace of M 22 ( R ) .

Thus

M12 ( R )

is an

Isomorphisms Have Inverses K K Let T : V W be an isomorphism. Define T 1 : W V so that T 1 ( w ) = v if and only if K K T ( v) = w .

K K K K Because T is surjective, for each w in W, there is at least one v in V such that T ( v ) = w . K K K K Because T is injective, for each w in W, there is exactly one v in V such that T ( v ) = w .

4.

Show that T 1 is linear, injective and surjective.

922

APPENDIX

K K K K Linearity: Suppose w1 and w 2 are vectors in W so that T 1 ( w1 ) = v1 and K K K K K K K K T 1 ( w 2 ) = v 2 . Now T ( v1 + v 2 ) = T ( v1 ) + T ( v 2 ) = w1 + w 2 because T is linear. Therefore K K K K K K T 1 ( w1 + w 2 ) = v1 + v 2 = T 1 ( w1 ) + T 1 ( w 2 ) . K K K K K K Also for any constant c, T ( cv1 ) = cT ( v1 ) = cw1 so that T 1 ( cw1 ) = cv1 = cT 1 ( w1 ) . K K K K K Injectivity: Suppose T 1 ( w1 ) = T 1 ( w 2 ) for some vectors w1 and w 2 in W , and let v1 K K K K K and v 2 be their respective image vectors. Because v1 = v 2 and T is a function, T ( v1 ) = T ( v 2 ) , K K so that w1 = w 2 . K K K K Surjectivity: Suppose v is any vector in V . Then T ( v ) = w for some w in W , so that K K T 1 ( w ) = v .

Composition of Isomorphisms

5.

{( ) ( )

G G G T : V W is an isomorphism and b1 , b 2 , ", b n G G G T b1 , T b 2 , ", T b n is a basis for W .

( )}

is a basis for V . We want to show that

K K K K Span: Suppose that w is a vector in W . Then T ( u ) = w for some u in V because T is G G G K surjective. Then we can write u = 1b1 + 2b 2 + " + n b n for some constants 1 , 2 , ", n . G G G G G G G G w = T ( u ) = T 1b1 + 2b 2 +" + n b n = 1T b1 + 2T b 2 + " + nT b n .

( )

( )

( )

G G G So T b1 , T b 2 , ", T b n

{( ) ( )
( )

( )} spans W .

Linear Independence: G G G G Suppose c1T b1 + c2T b 2 +" + cnT b n = 0 for some constants c1 , c2 , ", cn .

( )

( )

G G G G G T c1b1 + c2b 2 + " + cn b n = 0 = T 0 because T is linear; Then G G G G c1b1 + c2b 2 + " + cn b n = 0 because T is injective. G G G However because b1 , b 2 , ", b n is a basis and hence linearly independent, G G G c1 = c2 =" = cn = 0 , so that T b1 , T b 2 , ", T b n is linearly independent.

()

( )} {( ) ( ) G G G By the two properties shown, {T ( b ) , T ( b ) , ", T ( b )} is a basis for W .

1 2 n

Isomorphisms and Bases From Problem 30 in Section 5.1, we know that the composition of linear transformation is linear. We use the functions L : U V and T : V W to prove the following general results about the composition of functions T D L : U W .

6.

SECTION LT

Linear Transformations

923

The composition of injective functions is injective. Suppose

G G T D L ( u1 ) = T D L ( u 2 )
for some u1 and u 2 in U . Then
G G T ( L ( u1 ) ) = T ( L ( u 2 ) ) , G G G G so that L ( u1 ) = L ( u 2 ) since T is injective. Also, u1 = u 2 since L is injective. Therefore T D L is

injective. The composition of surjective functions is surjective. Suppose

G wW . G G G G G Because T is surjective, T ( v ) = w for some v in V. Also, because L is surjective, L ( u ) = v for G G G G G some in u . Therefore, T D L ( u ) = T ( L ( u ) ) = T ( v ) = w .
We have proved that the composition of surjective functions is surjective. We know that L : U V and T : V W are isomorphisms if and only if they are injective and surjective linear transformations, so that T D L must also have those properties.

Associated Matrices Given T : R 2 R3 such that T ( x, y ) = ( 2 x y, x, y ) . B and C are the standard bases for R 2 and R 3 , respectively
2 1 2 1 G G 1 0 = 1 0 MB = T ( e1 ) T ( e2 ) = c c 0 1 0 1

7.

8.

G G G Given T : P2 R 3 where B = t 2 , t , 1 and C = {e1 , e2 , e3 } , the standard basis for R 3 , and where T at 2 + bt + c = aT t 2 + bT ( t ) + cT (1) = ( a b, a, 2c ) .
1 1 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 0 = 1 0 0 T t T 1 = M B = T t . c ( ) c ( ) c 0 2 0 0 2 0

( )

( )

924

APPENDIX

9.

a b 2a c + b T = , c d c + b 2d 1 0 M B = T 0 0 c 0 1 T 0 0 c 0 1 1 0 0 0 T 1 0 c 0 1 1 0 0 0 . 0 2 0 . B and C a + d 0 0 T 0 1 c

2 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 0 0 = = 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0
10.

Tr ( A ) 0 a b a + d V = W = M 22 [ R ] , T ( A ) = . We can write T = Tr ( A ) c d 0 0 are the same as the bases in Problem 9. 1 0 M B = T 0 0 c 0 1 T 0 0 c 0 0 0 0 0 0 T 1 0 c 0 0 0 0 1 0 . 0 1 0 0 T 0 1 c

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 = = 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
11.

B = C = e 2t , te 2t . T ( f ) = f f so that T ae 2t + bte2t = a 2e 2t + b e 2t 2te 2t and

2 t MB = T e

) ( (

) (

)) ( ae

2 t

+ bte 2t = ( 3a + b ) e 2t + ( 3b ) te2t

3 1 3 ( ( )) (T (te )) = 0 3 = 0
2 t
c c

1 . 3

Changing Bases

12.

1 0 1 3 V = M 21 ( R ) , B = , , C = , , 1 2 1 0
1 1 1 c1 0 id c c c = = + = 1 2 c 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 d1 0 id 0 = 0 = d1 1 + d 2 2 c = d . 2 To find c1 and c2 : 1 1 0 1 = c1 1 + c2 2 ,

SECTION LT

Linear Transformations

925

1 = c1 + 0c2 so c1 = 1 and 1 = 1c1 + 2c2 so c2 = 1 . To find d1 and d 2 : 3 1 0 0 = d1 1 + d 2 2 , 3 = 1d1 + 0d 2 so d1 = 3 and 0 = 1d1 + 2d 2 so d 2 = 3 ; 2

1 3 . MB = 1 3 2 13.

V = P3 , B = t 3 , t 2 , t ,1 , C = 2t , t 3 , t t 2 , 5 ,
a1 a = 2 . a3 a4

id t 3 = a1 ( 2t ) + a2t 3 + a3 t t 2 + a4 ( 5 ) c

( )

We equate coefficients of like terms to find a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 : t 3 = a1 ( 2t ) + a2t 3 + a3 t t 2 + a4 ( 5 ) . The coefficient of t 3 is 1 = a2 . The coefficient of t 2 is 0 = a3 . The coefficient of t is 0 = 2a1 + a3 , and the coefficient of 1 is 0 = 5a4 so that
a1 0 a 1 2 = a3 0 a4 0

and

id t 2 = b1 ( 2t ) + b2t 3 + b3 t t 2 + b4 ( 5 ) c

( )

b1 b = 2 . b3 b4

1 b1 b 2 We equate coefficients of like terms again to find 2 = 0 and b3 1 b4 0

926

APPENDIX

3 2 id ( t ) c = c1 ( 2t ) + c2t + c3 t t + c4 ( 5 )

c1 c = 2 . c3 c4

Obtaining 1 c1 c 2 2 = 0 c3 0 c4 0 and
3 2 id (1) c = d1 ( 2t ) + d 2t + d3 t t + d 4 ( 5 )

d1 d = 2 . d3 d4

We then get 0 d1 d 0 2 = 0 d3 1 d4 5 and

1 1 0 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 MB = . 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 14. 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 V = M 22 ( R ) , B = , , , , , , . , C = 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 id a a a a = + + + 1 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 c a1 1 a 0 = 2 = a3 0 a4 0

by inspection.

SECTION LT

Linear Transformations

927

0 1 1 0 1 1 1 id b1 = + b2 + b3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 id c1 = + c2 + c3 1 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 0 1 1 1 id d1 = + d2 + d3 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 and

b1 1 1 1 1 b2 1 + b4 = = 0 1 1 c b3 0 b4 0 c1 0 1 1 1 c2 1 = + c4 = 0 1 1 c c3 1 c4 0 d1 0 1 1 1 d 2 0 + d4 = = 0 1 1 c d3 1 d 4 1

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 . MB = 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

Associated Matrix Again

T : P2 R 3 where T at 2 + bt + c = ( a b, a, 2c ) and B = t 2 , t , 1 as in Problem 8, but the G G G G G basis for R 3 is D = {e1 , e1 e2 , 5e3 + e1} .

15.

1 a1 1 1 T t 2 = [1 0, 1, 0] = a1 0 + a2 1 + a3 0 = a2 , D D 0 0 5 D a3

( )

1 = 1a1 + 1a2 + 1a3 , 1 = 0a1 1a2 + 0a3 , and 0 = 0a1 + 0a2 + 5a3 which yields the results
a1 2 a = 1 . 2 0 a3 T ( t ) D = [ 1, 0, 0]D 1 b1 1 1 = b1 0 + b2 1 + b3 0 = b2 , b3 0 5 0 D

1 = 1b1 + 1b2 + 1b3 , 0 = 0b1 1b2 + 0b3 , and 0 = 0b1 + 0b2 + 5b3 , which yields the results
b1 1 b = 0 . 2 0 b3

928

APPENDIX

T (1) D = [ 0, 0, 2]D

1 c1 1 1 = c1 0 + c2 1 + c3 0 = c2 , c3 0 5 0 D

0 = 1c1 + 1c2 + 1c3 , 0 = 0c1 1c2 + 0c3 , and 2 = 0c1 + 0c2 + 5c3 ,which yields the results 2 c1 5 c = 0 2 c3 2 5 and 2 2 1 5 M 0 0 . B = 1 2 0 0 5

Multiplying Associated Matrices

(a) T : P2 R 3 where T at 2 + bt + c = ( a b, a, 2c ) , as in Problem 8, but the basis for R 3 is G G G G G D = {e1 , e1 e2 , 5e3 + e1} . Again from Problem 8 we see that 1 1 0 MB = 1 0 0 . 0 0 2
G G G We need to find M c for the change of basis matrix from C = {e1 , e2 , e1} to basis D. We

16.

determine the image vectors by inspection. 1 = a1 + a2 + a3 , 0 = a2 , and 0 = 5a3 .

a1 1 G G G G G G G a = 0 a1e1 + a2 ( e1 e2 ) + a3 ( 5e3 + e1 ) = e1 = 2 id ( e1 ) D = D a 3 0 b1 1 G G G G G G G b = 1 b1e1 + b2 ( e1 e2 ) + b3 ( 5e3 + e1 ) = e2 = 2 id ( e2 ) D = D b 3 0 1 c1 5 G G G G G G G e3 = id ( e3 ) D = c1e1 + c2 ( e1 e2 ) + c3 ( 5e3 + e1 ) D = c2 = 0 c3 1 5

SECTION LT

Linear Transformations

929

and 1 1 1 5 0 . M C = 0 1 1 0 0 5 1 2 1 1 5 1 1 0 2 1 5 0 0 . The required matrix is M B = M C M B = 0 1 1 0 0 = 1 0 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 5 5

(b)

930

APPENDIX

PF

Partial Fractions

Practice Makes Perfect 1 . We write this fraction in the form x ( x 1) 1 A B = + . x ( x 1) x x 1 Clearing fractions, we get 1 = A ( x 1) + Bx . Collecting terms yields

1.

( A + B) x A = 1 .
Equating coefficients yields the equations
A+ B = 0 A =1

which has the solutions A = 1 and B = 1 . Hence, we have 1 1 1 . = + x ( x 1) x x 1 2.

( x + 2 )( x 1)

. We write this fraction in the form 1 = A B + . x + 2 x 1

( x + 2 )( x 1)
Clearing of fractions yields

1 = A ( x 1) + B ( x + 2 ) . Collecting terms yields

( A + B ) x + ( A + 2 B 1) = 0 .
Equating coefficients and solving we find A = fraction decomposition 1 1 and B = . Hence, we have the partial 3 3

( x + 2 )( x 1)

1 1 1 1 + . 3 x + 2 3 x 1

SECTION PF

Partial Fractions

931

3.

( x + 1)( x + 2 )

. We write this fraction in the form x = A B + . x +1 x + 2

( x + 1)( x + 2 )
Clearing of fractions yields

x = A ( x + 2 ) + B ( x + 1) . Collecting terms yields

( A + B 1) x + ( 2 A + B ) = 0 .
Equating coefficients we find the equations A + B =1 2A + B = 0 which has the solutions A = 1 and B = 2 . Hence, yielding x 1 2 . = + x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2 + + + + ( )( ) 4.

(x

x
2

+ 1 ( x 1)

. Write this fraction in the form x

2

(x
Clearing of fractions yields

+ 1 ( x 1)

Ax + B C + . 2 x +1 x 1

x = ( Ax + B )( x 1) + C x 2 + 1 . Collecting terms yields

( A + C ) x 2 + ( A + B 1) x + ( C B ) = 0 .
Equating coefficients we find the equations

A+C =0 A + B =1 B + C = 0 which has the solutions A =

1 1 and B = C = . Hence we have 2 2

(x

x
2

+ 1 ( x 1)

1 x 1 1 1 + . 2 x2 + 1 2 x 1

932

APPENDIX

5.

(x

4
2

+4

. We write this fraction in the form 4

2

x Clearing of fractions yields

(x

+4

A B Cx + D + + . x x2 x2 + 4

4 = ( A + C ) x3 + ( B + D ) x 2 + 4 Ax + 4 B . Equating coefficients and solving we find A = 0 , B = 1 , C = 0 , and D = 1 . Hence, we have the partial fraction decomposition x
6.
2

(x

4
2

+4

1 1 . 2 2 x x +4

(x

+ 1 x2 + 4

)(

. We write this fraction in the form 3 = Ax + B Cx + D + 2 . x2 + 1 x +4

(x
Clearing of fractions yields

+1 x + 4

)(

3 = ( A + C ) x3 + ( B + D ) x 2 + ( 4 A + C ) x + 4 B + D .
Equating coefficients and solving we find A = 0 , B = 1 , C = 0 , and D = 1 . Hence, yielding the partial fraction decomposition 3 1 1 . 2 x +1 x + 4
2

(x
7.

+1 x + 4

)(

7x 1 . We write this fraction in the form x + 1 ( )( x + 2 )( x 3) 7x 1 A B C = + + . ( x + 1)( x + 2 )( x 3) x + 1 x + 2 x 3 Clearing of fractions, yields 7 x 1 = A ( x + 2 )( x 3) + B ( x + 1)( x 3) + C ( x + 1)( x + 2 ) . Equating coefficients we find

( A + B + C ) x 2 + ( A 2 B + 3C 7 ) x + ( 6 A 3B + 2C + 1) = 0 .
Solving this equation we find the solutions A = 2 , B = 3 , and C = 1 . Hence, we have the partial fraction decomposition 7x 1 2 3 1 = + . + + + + 3 x 1 x 2 x 3 x 1 x 2 x ( )( )( )

SECTION PF

Partial Fractions

933

8.

x2 2 . We write this fraction in the form x ( x + 7 )( x + 1)

x2 2 A B C . = + + x ( x + 7 )( x + 1) x x + 7 x + 1

Clearing of fractions yields

x 2 2 = A ( x + 7 )( x + 1) + Bx ( x + 1) + Cx ( x + 7 ) .
Equating coefficients we find

( A + B + C 1) x 2 + (8 A + B + 7C ) x + ( 7 A + 2 ) = 0 .
2 47 1 , and C = . Hence, yielding the partial fraction Solving this equation we find A = , B = 7 42 6 decomposition
x2 2 2 47 1 1 1 . = + + x ( x + 7 )( x + 1) 7 x 42 x + 7 6 x + 1

9.

x2 + 9 x + 2

( x 1) ( x + 3)
2

. We write this fraction in the form x2 + 9 x + 2 A B C + + . 2 x 1 ( x 1) x+3

( x 1) ( x + 3)
2

Clearing of fractions yields x 2 + 9 x + 2 = A ( x 1)( x + 3) + B ( x + 3) + C ( x 1) .

2

Equating coefficients we find

( A + C 1) x 2 + ( 2 A + B 2C 9 ) x + ( 3 A + 3B + C 2 ) = 0 .
Setting the coefficients equal yields
A + C 1 = 0 2 A + B 2C = 9 3 A + 3B + C = 2. Solving these equations we find A = 2 , B = 3 , and C = 1 . Hence we have the partial fraction decomposition x2 + 9 x + 2

( x 1) ( x + 3)
2

2 3 1 + . 2 x 1 ( x 1) x+3

934

APPENDIX

10.

x2 + 1 . We write this fraction in the form x3 2 x 2 8 x

x2 + 1 x2 + 1 A B C . = = + + 3 2 x 2 x 8 x x ( x + 2 )( x 4 ) x x + 2 x 4

Clearing of fractions yields

x 2 + 1 = A ( x + 2 )( x 4 ) + Bx ( x 4 ) + Cx ( x + 2 ) .
Equating coefficients we find

( A + B + C 1) x 2 + ( 2 A 4 B + 2C ) x + ( 8 A 1) = 0 .
1 5 17 Solving this equation yields the solutions A = , B = , and C = . Hence we have the 8 12 24 partial fraction decomposition
1 5 1 17 1 x2 + 1 . = + + 3 2 8 x 12 x + 2 24 x 4 x 2 x 8x