Li ni u

Trong nhng nm gn y, s pht trin ca Tin hc lm thay i nhiu ngnh

truyn thng ca L thuyt s (trong cun sch ny, chng ta thng dng t S
hc). Nu nh trc thp k 70, s hc vn c xem l mt trong nhng ngnh l
thuyt xa ri thc tin nht, th ngy nay, nhiu thnh tu mi nht ca s hc c
ng dng trc tip vo cc vn ca i sng, nh thng tin, mt m, k thut my
tnh. Mt phng hng mi ca s hc ra i v pht trin mnh m: s hc thut
ton. C th ni, l chic cu ni gia s hc vi tin hc. Vi vic s dng rng
ri my tnh trong nghin cu s hc, nhiu ngi cho rng, s hc ngy nay
thnh mt khoa hc thc nghim! iu th hin kh r trong nhng thut ton
xc sut c cp n trong cun sch ny.

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Mc ch ca cun sch nh ny l cung cp cho ngi c mt s kin thc s b

v s hc thut ton. Cun sch khng i hi ngi c mt kin thc chun b
no v l thuyt s. V th cng c th gi n l Nhp mn thut ton vo s hc.
iu c ngha l, trong nhiu con ng khc nhau i vo s hc, ta chn con
ng thut ton: cc nh l, khi nim ca s hc c trnh by cng vi cc thut
ton xy dng chng. Trong nhiu trng hp, cc thut ton c km theo nh gi
s b v phc tp.
Cun sch nhm mt s i tng kh rng ri: nhng sinh vin, nghin cu sinh v
s hc v tin hc, nhng ngi quan tm n l thuyt v ng dng ca s hc hin
i. Nhiu phn ca cun sch c th c ch cho hc sinh cc lp chuyn ton v
chuyn tin hc.
Chng u tin ca cun sch c dnh gii thiu vi nh ngha c bn nht
ca l thuyt thut ton. Ba chng tip theo trnh by nhng vn c s ca s
hc. Chng 5, ngoi vic chun b kin thc cho nhng phn tip theo, c bnh lun
t nhiu v vai tr ca s tng t gia s v a thc trong s pht trin ca s hc
hin i.
ngi c c th hnh dung phn no cc ng dng ca s hc thut ton, cun
sch dnh chng 6 ni v l thuyt mt m. Mt vi ng dng gn y ca l
thuyt ng cong elliptic vo mt m c trnh by trong chng 7. Cng c th
xem Chng 7 l mt nhp mn ngn v s cp vo l thuyt ng cong elliptic,
mt trong nhng l thuyt phong ph nht ca Hnh hc i s s hc.
Cui mi chng u c mt s bi tp dnh cho c gi mun c cun sch mt
cch tch cc. Mt s bi tp mang tnh cht luyn tp v tnh ton thc hnh, mt
s khc l m rng l thuyt. Tr chng cui v ng cong elliptic, cc chng
cn li u c km theo hng dn thc hnh tnh ton bng chng trnh MAPLE.
Phn hng dn thc hnh ny do T Th Hoi An bin son. Cui cun sch c
phn t kim tra kin thc dnh cho nhng c gi hc gio trnh ny vi s tr gip
ca my tnh.
Do nhiu nguyn nhn khc nhau, cun sch chc chn cn rt nhiu thiu st. Tc
gi hy vng nhn c nhng li ph bnh ca bn c.
H ni, 1998
H Huy Khoi

Chng 1.

thut ton
1. nh ngha.

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C th nh ngha thut ton theo nhiu cch khc nhau. y chng ti khng c
nh trnh by cht ch v thut ton nh trong mt gio trnh logic, m s hiu khi
nim thut ton theo mt cch thng thng nht.
Thut ton l mt qui tc , vi nhng d liu ban u cho, tm c li gii sau
mt khong thi gian hu hn.
minh ho cch ghi mt thut ton, cng nh tm hiu cc yu cu ra cho thut
ton, ta xt trn cc v d c th sau y.
Cho n s X[1], X[2],..., X[n], ta cn tm m v j sao cho m=X[j] = max X[k], v j l
1 k n

ln nht c th. iu c ngha l cn tm cc i ca cc s cho, v ch s ln

nht trong cc s t cc i.
Vi mc tiu tm s cc i vi ch s ln nht, ta xut pht t gi tr X[n]. Bc th
nht, v mi ch c mt s, ta c th tm thi xem m=X[n] v j=n. Tip theo , ta so
snh X[n] vi X[n-1]. Trong trng hp n-1=0, tc n=1, thut ton kt thc.
Nu X[n-1] X[n] , ta chuyn sang so snh X[n] vi X[n-2] .Trong trng hp ngc
li, X[n-1] chnh l s cc i trong hai s xt, v ta phi thay i m v j: t m=
X[n-1], j=n-1. Vi cch lm nh trn, mi bc, ta lun nhn c s cc i
trong nhng s xt. Bc tip theo l so snh n vi nhng s ng trc, hoc
kt thc thut ton trong trng hp khng cn s no ng trc n.
Thut ton m t trn y c ghi li nh sau:
Thut ton tm cc i.

M1. [Bc xut pht ] t jn,

kn-1, m X[n].

M2. [ kim tra xong?] Nu k=0, thut ton kt thc.

M3. [So snh] Nu X[k]m,chuyn sang M5.
M4. [Thay i m]
l cc i)

t j k, m X[k]. (Tm thi m ang

M5. [Gim k] t k k-1, quay v M2.

Du dng ch mt php ton quan trng l php thay ch (replacement).

Trn y ta ghi mt thut ton bng ngn ng thng thng. Trong trng hp thut
ton c vit bng ngn ng ca my tnh, ta c mt chng trnh.
Trong thut ton c nhng s liu ban u, c cho trc khi thut ton bt u
lm vic: cc u vo (input). Trong thut ton M, u vo l cc s X[1], X[2],...,
X[n].
Mt thut ton c th c mt hoc nhiu u ra (ouput). Trong thut ton M, cc
u ra l m v j.
C th thy rng thut ton va m t tho mn cc yu cu ca mt thut ton ni
chung, l:

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1. Tnh hu hn.Thut ton cn phi kt thc sau mt s hu hn bc. Khi thut

ton ngng lm vic, ta phi thu c cu tr li cho vn t ra. Thut ton M r
rng tho mn iu kin ny, v mi bc, ta lun chuyn t vic xt mt s sang
s ng trc n, v s cc s l hu hn.
2. Tnh xc nh. mi bc, thut ton cn phi xc nh, ngha l ch r vic cn
lm. Nu i vi ngi c, thut ton M cha tho mn iu kin ny th l li
ca ngi vit!
Ngoi nhng yu t k trn, ta cn phi xt n tnh hiu qu ca thut ton. C rt
nhiu thut ton, v mt l thuyt l kt thc sau hu hn bc, tuy nhin thi gian
hu hn vt qu kh nng lm vic ca chng ta. Nhng thut ton s
khng c xt n y, v chng ta ch quan tm nhng thut ton c th s dng
tht s trn my tnh.
Cng do mc tiu ni trn, ta cn phi ch n phc tp ca cc thut ton.
phc tp ca mt thut ton c th o bng khng gian, tc l dung lng b nh ca
my tnh cn thit thc hin thut ton, v bng thi gian, tc l thi gian my
tnh lm vic. Trong cun sch ny, khi ni n phc tp ca thut ton, ta lun
hiu l phc tp thi gian.

2. phc tp thut ton.

D nhin, thi gian lm vic ca my tnh khi chy mt thut ton no khng ch
ph thuc vo thut ton, m cn ph thuc vo my tnh c s dng. V th,
c mt tiu chun chung, ta s o phc tp ca mt thut ton bng s cc php
tnh phi lm khi thc hin thut ton. Khi tin hnh cng mt thut ton, s cc
php tnh phi thc hin cn ph thuc vo c ca bi ton, tc l ln ca u
vo. V th, phc tp ca thut ton s l mt hm s ca ln ca u vo.
Trong nhng ng dng thc tin, chng ta khng cn bit chnh xc hm ny, m ch
cn bit c ca chng, tc l cn c mt c lng tt ca chng.
Khi lm vic, my tnh thng ghi cc ch s bng nhng bng n sng, tt:
bng n sng ch s 1, bng n tt ch s 0. V th thun tin nht l dng h m
c s 2, trong biu din mt s, ta ch cn dng hai k hiu 0 v 1. Mt k hiu
0 hoc 1 c gi l mt bit (vit tt ca ch binary digit). Mt s nguyn n biu
din bi k ch s 1 v 0 dc gi l mt s k-bit. Trong chng tip theo, ta s thy
rng, s t nhin n s l mt s k-bit vi k=[log2n] ( du[ ] k hiu phn nguyn ca
mt s).
2

 phc tp ca mt thut ton c o bng s cc php tnh bit. Php tnh bit l
mt php tnh logic hay s hc thc hin trn cc s 1-bit 0 v 1.
c lng phc tp ca thut ton, ta dng khi nim bc O-ln.
nh ngha 1.1: Gi s f(n) v g(n) l hai hm xc nh trn tp hp cc s nguyn
dng. Ta ni f(n) c bc O-ln ca g(n), v vit f(n)=O(g(n)) hoc f=O(g), nu tn
ti mt s C >0 sao cho vi n ln, cc hm f(n) v g(n) u dng, ng thi
f(n) < Cg(n).
V d. 1) Gi s f(n) l a thc;
f(n)=adnd + ad-1nd-1 + ...+a1n+a0,

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trong ad > 0. D chng minh rng f(n)=O(nd).

2) Nu f1(n)=O(g(n)), f2(n)=O(g(n)) th f1+f2=O(g).
3) Nu f1=O(g1), f2=O(g2), th f1.f2=O(g1.g2).
4) Nu tn ti gii hn hu hn

lim

f ( n)
g ( n)

th f=O(g).

5)Vi mi s >0, log n=O(n ).

nh ngha 1.2. Mt thut ton c gi l c phc tp a thc, hoc c thi

gian a thc, nu s cc php tnh cn thit khi thc hin thut ton khng vt qu
O (logd n), trong n l ln ca u vo, v d l s nguyn dng no .
Ni cch khc, nu u vo l cc s k-bit th thi gian thc hin thut ton l O(kd),
tc l tng ng vi mt a thc ca k.
Cc thut ton vi thi gian O(n ), >0, c gi l cc thut ton vi phc
tp m, hoc thi gian m.
Ch rng, nu mt thut ton no c phc tp O(g), th cng c th ni n
phc tp O(h) vi mi hm h > g. Tuy nhin, ta lun lun c gng tm c lng tt
nht c th c trnh hiu sai v phc tp thc s ca thut ton.
Cng c nhng thut ton c phc tp trung gian gia a thc v m. Ta thng
gi l thut ton di m. Chng hn, thut ton nhanh nht c bit hin nay
phn tch mt s nguyn n ra tha s l thut ton c phc tp
exp( log n log log n ).
Khi gii mt bi ton, khng nhng ta ch c gng tm ra mt thut ton no , m
cn mun tm ra thut ton tt nht. nh gi phc tp l mt trong nhng
cch phn tch, so snh v tm ra thut ton ti u. Tuy nhin, phc tp khng
phi l tiu chun duy nht nh gi thut ton. C nhng thut ton, v l thuyt
th c phc tp cao hn mt thut ton khc, nhng khi s dng li c kt qu

(gn ng) nhanh hn nhiu. iu ny cn tu thuc nhng bi ton c th, nhng

mc tiu c th, v c kinh nghim ca ngi s dng.
Chng ta cn lu thm mt im sau y. Mc d nh ngha thut ton m chng
ta a ra cha phi l cht ch, n vn qu cng nhc trong nhng ng dng thc
t! Bi vy, chng ta cn cn n cc thut ton xc sut , tc l cc thut ton
ph thuc vo mt hay nhiu tham s ngu nhin. Nhng thut ton ny, v
nguyn tc khng c gi l thut ton, v chng c th, vi xc sut rt b, khng
bao gi kt thc. Tuy nhin, thc nghim ch ra rng, cc thut ton xc sut thng
hu hiu hn cc thut ton khng xc sut. Thm ch, trong rt nhiu trng hp,
ch c cc thut ton nh th l s dng c.

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Khi lm vic vi cc thut ton xc sut, ta thng hay phi s dng cc s ngu
nhin. Khi nim chn s ngu nhin cng cn c chnh xc ho. Thng th
ngi ta s dng mt my sn xut s gi ngu nhin no . Tuy nhin, trong
cun sch ny, chng ti khng cp n vn ni trn, m mi ln ni n vic
chn s ngu nhin, ta s hiu l iu thc hin c trn my.
Cng cn lu ngay rng, i vi cc thut ton xc sut, khng th ni n thi
gian tuyt i, m ch c th ni n thi gian hy vng (expected ).
hnh dung c phn no phc tp ca cc thut ton khi lm vic vi
nhng s ln, ta xem bng di y cho khong thi gian cn thit phn tch mt
s nguyn n ra tha s bng thut ton nhanh nht c bit hin nay (ta xem my
tnh s dng vo vic ny c tc 1 triu php tnh trong 1 giy)

S ch s thp phn

S php tnh bit

Thi gian

50

1,4.1010

3,9 gi

75

9,0.1012

104 ngy

100

2,3.1015

74 nm

200

1,2.1023

3,8.109 nm

300

1,5.1029

4,9.1015 nm

500

1,3.1039

4,2.1025 nm

T bng trn y, ta thy rng, ngay vi mt thut ton di m, thi gian lm vic
vi cc s nguyn ln l qu lu. V th ni chung ngi ta lun c gng tm nhng
thut ton a thc.
L thuyt v phc tp thut ton l mt l thuyt rt phong ph. Trong cun sch
ny, chng ti khng ly mc tiu trnh by l thuyt lm trng tm. c gi quan
tm n l thuyt thut ton c th tm c cc sch trong phn Ti liu tham kho.

Chng 2.

S nguyn
1. Biu din s nguyn v cc php tnh s hc
1.1 H c s.

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Mc d hu hu ht c gi quen thuc vi cch biu din s nguyn trong c s

tu , chng ti nhc li s qua vn phn ny, thun tin cho vic trnh
by cc thut ton v s nguyn.
nh l 2.1. Gi s b l mt s nguyn ln hn 1. Khi mi s nguyn n c th vit
duy nht di dng
n=akbk + ak-1bk-1 +...+ a1b1 +a0,

trong aj l s nguyn, 0 aj k-1, vi j=0,1,...,k v h s u tin ak 0.

Chng minh. Ta ch cn thc hin lin tip php chia n cho b:
n=bq0 +a0, 0 a0 b-1.

Nu q0 >b, ta tip tc chia q0 cho b c

q0=bq1 +a1, 0 a1 b-1.

Tip tc qu trnh , ta c:

q1=bq2 +a2, 0 a2 b-1

q2=bq3 +a3, 0 a3 b-1
... ... ...

qk-1=b.0 +ak, 0 ak b-1.

Qu trnh kt thc v ta lun c: n>q0>q1>... 0.

Chng ti dnh cho c gi vic chng minh n c dng nh trong pht biu ca nh
l, v biu din l duy nht.
S b ni trong nh l c gi l c s ca biu din. Cc h biu din c s 10 v 2
tng ng c gi l h thp phn v nh phn. Cc h s aj c gi l cc ch s.
V sau ta dng bit ch ch s nh phn.
Nu s nguyn n biu din trong c s b c k ch s, th t chng minh trn, ta c :
bk-1 n bk.
Nh vy s ch s ca n c tnh theo cng thc:

k=[logb n]+1=[log n / log b]+1,

trong , k hiu log dng ch logarit c s e. Trong c s tu , ta c: k=O(logn).
phn bit cc biu din ca s nguyn trong nhng h c s khc nhau, ta thng
dng cch vit (akak-1...a1a0)b ch s n= akbk + ak-1bk-1 +...+ a1b1 +a0,
V d. 1). i vi s 1994 trong h thp phn, ta c (1994)10=(11111001010)2.

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2). Trong my tnh, bn cnh h c s 2, ngi ta cng thng dng h c s

8 hoc 16. L do ch yu l v vic chuyn mt s vit c s ny sang c s kia
trong 3 c s c thc hin mt cch d dng. V d, mun chuyn mt s cho
trong c s 2 sang c s 8, ta ch vic nhm t phi sang tri tng khi 3 ch s, ri
chuyn s c vit trong khi sang dng thp phn. Chng hn, s
(1110010100110)2 c tch thnh cc nhm 1,110,010,100,110. T ta c:
(1110010100110)2=(16246)8.

Ta c th lm tng t chuyn s cho thnh s vit trong c s 16, ch cn

nhm thnh tng b 4 ch s. Ch rng, trong trng hp ny, cn thm vo cc k
hiu mi ch cc ch s t 10 n 15.
Ta nhc li rng my tnh s dng cch vit nh phn, hoc l cc bit. My tnh
no cng c gii hn v ln ca cc s c th a vo tnh ton. Gii hn
c gi l c t ca my, k hiu qua w. C t thng l mt lu tha ca 2, chng
hn 235.
thc hin cc php tnh s hc vi nhng s nguyn ln hn c t, ta lm nh
sau. Mun a mt s n > w vo my, ta vit n di dng c s w, v khi n c
biu din bng nhng s khng vt qu c t. V d, nu c t ca my l 235, th
a vo mt s c ln c 2350-1, ta ch cn dng 10 s nh nh hn c t ca
my, bng cch biu din n trong c s 235. Nh ni trong v d 1, vic chuyn
mt s t c s 2 sang c s 235 c thc hin d dng bng cch nhm tng khi
35 ch s.
T qui tc ca cc php tnh s hc, ta thy rng:

1) cng hoc tr hai s nguyn k bit, ta cn O(k) php tnh bit.

2) nhn hoc chia hai s k bit theo qui tc thng thng, ta cn O(k2) php tnh
bit.
Trong nhng thp k gn y, ngi ta tm ra nhng thut ton nhn vi phc tp
b hn nhiu so vi cch nhn thng thng. iu th v l, nu thot nhn th cc
thut ton phc tp hn quy tc nhn thng thng. Tuy nhin, khi lm vic vi
nhng s rt ln, cc thut ton ny cho php thc hin vic nhn hai s vi mt
thi gian b hn hn so vi quy tc thng thng.

1.2 Thut ton nhn nhanh hai s.

Ta s dng tnh cht ht sc n gin ca php nhn: nu a=a1+a2, b=b1+b2, th
ab=a1b1+a2b2+a2b1+a1b2. iu ng ch y l, thay cho vic nhn hai s
nguyn n bit, ta thc hin vic nhn cc s c ch s nh hn, cng vi mt s php

cng (i hi s php tnh bit t hn l php nhn). Thc ra iu ny khng c g

mi: ngay trong quan nim ban u, php nhn a vi b l php cng b ln s a!.
Tuy nhin c mt thut ton nhn nhanh, ta khng th cng b ln s a, m phi
tm c mt cch ti u no tch b v a thnh nhng phn nh hn. Nhng
thut ton trnh by di y cho chng ta mt s cch lm vic phn chia nh
vy.
Gi s mun nhn hai s nguyn 2n bit,
a=(a2n-1a2n-2...a1a0)2,
b=(b2n-1b2n-2...b1b0)2.

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Ta vit a=2nA1+A0, b=2nB1+B0, trong

A1=(a2n-1a2n-2...an)2, A0=(an-1an-2...a1a0)2,
B1=(b2n-1b2n-2...bn)2, B0=(bn-1bn-2...b1b0)2.

Khi ta c:

ab=(22n+2n)A1B1+2n(A1 - A0)+(2n+1)A0B0.

(1.1)

Nh vy, vic nhn hai s a,b 2n bit c a v vic nhn cc s n bit, cng vi
cc php cng, tr v dch chuyn (nhn mt s vi mt lu tha bc n ca 2 c
thc hin bng cch dch s sang tri n v tr).
nh l 2.2. Thut ton 2.1 c phc tp l O(nlog23).

Chng minh. Gi M(n) l s cc php tnh bit ti a cn thit khi thc hin nhn hai
s nguyn n bit bng thut ton 2.1. T cng thc (1.1) ta c:
M(2n) 3M(n)+Cn,

trong C l mt hng s khng ph thuc n. t c=max(C,M(2)).

Bng quy np, d chng minh c rng

M(2k) c(3k-2k).

T ta c

M(n)=M(2log2n) M(2[log2n]+1) c(3[log2n]+1-2[log2n]+1) 3c.3[log2n]

3c.3log2n=3cnlog23.

nh l c chng minh.

Vi thut ton 2.1, ta thy rng, ngay ch vi cch phn chia n gin s nguyn
thnh hai phn vi s ch s bng nhau, ta nhn c mt thut ton gim ng
k thi gian thc hin php nhn. D nhin, cch phn chia nh vy cn xa vi cch
phn chia ti u.
Ta s chng t rng cch phn chia nh trn c th tng qut ho nhn c
nhng thut ton nhn vi phc tp nh hn nhiu.

Cng nh trc y, ta s k hiu qua M(n) s cc php tnh bit cn thit thc hin
php nhn hai s nguyn n bit. Trc tin, ta chng minh cng thc sau: vi mi s
t nhin n, tn ti thut ton sao cho:
M((r+1)n) (2r+1)M(n)+Cn,

(1.2)

vi C l mt hng s no . Nh vy, nh l 2.2 l trng hp ring vi r=1.

Gi s cn nhn hai s (r+1)n bit:
a=(a(r+1)n-1...a1a0)2,
b=(b(r+1)n-1...b1b0)2.
Ta tch mi s a,b thnh r+1 s hng:

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a=Ar2rn+...+A12n+A0

b=Br2rn+...+B12n+B0,

trong Aj,Bj l cc s n bit.

Ta nhn xt rng, vic biu din mt s nguyn di dng c s no cng gn

ging nh vit s di dng a thc, trong cc ch s chnh l cc h s ca
a thc. V vy vic nhn hai s c th thc hin tng t nh vic nhn a thc. Ta
xt cc a thc sau:
A(x)=Arxr+...+A1x+A0,
B(x)=Brxr+...+B1x+B0,

W(x)=A(x)B(x)=W2rx2r+...+W1x+W0.

T nh ngha cc a thc trn ta c: a=A(2n),b=B(2n), ab= W(2n). Nh vy, ta d

dng tnh c tch ab nu bit c cc h s ca a thc W(x).
Cng thc (1.2) s c chng minh nu ta tm c mt thut ton tnh cc h s
ca W(x) m ch s dng 2r+1 php nhn cc s n bit v mt s php tnh khc vi
phc tp O(n). iu c th lm bng cch tnh gi tr ca a thc W(x) ti
2r+1 im sau y:
W(0)=A(0)B(0), W(1)=A(1)B(1),..., W(2r)=A(2r)B(2r).

Ch rng, cc s Aj,Bj khng nht thit l cc s n bit, nhng vi r c nh, chng

c s ch s nhiu nht l r+t, vi mt t c nh no . D thy rng, c th nhn
hai s (r+t)-bit vi khng qu M(n)+c1n php tnh bit, trong c1 l hng s (ch
cn tch s (n+t)-bit thnh hai phn n-bit v t-bit, v nhn xt rng, khi t c nh,
vic nhn s t-bit vi s n-bit i hi khng qu cn php tnh bit).
Khi c cc gi tr W(j),(j=0,1,...2r), ta tm c a thc W(x) theo cng thc
Lagrange:
2r

W(x)= ( 1) j W(j)
j=0

x(x - 1)...(x - j + 1)(x - j - 1)...(x - 2r)

.
j!(2r - j)!

Nh vy, cc h s ca W(x) s l t hp tuyn tnh (vi h s khng ph thuc n)

ca cc gi tr W(j), v do , tnh oc bng O(n) php tnh bit.
Ta chng minh c cng thc sau:
M((r+1)n) (2r+1)M(n)+Cn.
Lp lun tng t nh trong chng minh nh l 2.1 ta c:
M(n) C3nlogr+1(2r+1)<C3n1+logr+12.
Vi mi >0 b tu , khi cc tha s c s ch s rt ln, ta c th chn r ln
sao cho logr+12< . Ta c nh l sau:

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nh l 2.3. Vi mi >0, tn ti thut ton nhn sao cho s php tnh bit M(n) cn
thit nhn hai s n bit tho mn bt ng thc
M(n)<C( )n1+ ,

vi hng s C( ) no c lp vi n.

Nhn xt. C th chng minh c rng, vi cch chn r tt, ta c thut ton
nhn hai s n-bit sao cho
M(n)=O(nlog2nloglog2n).

Chng minh nh l khng kh, nhng kh di (xem [Kr]).

2. S nguyn t.

nh ngha 2.4. S nguyn t l s nguyn ln hn 1, khng chia ht cho s nguyn

dng no ngoi 1 v chnh n. S nguyn ln hn 1 khng phi l s nguyn t
c gi l hp s.
D chng minh c rng, s cc s nguyn t l v hn (Bi tp 2.14).

Nh ta s thy trong nhng chng tip theo, bi ton xc nh mt s cho trc c

phi l s nguyn t hay khng c nhiu ng dng trong thc tin. i vi nhng s
nh, bi ton d nhin khng c g kh. Tuy nhin, khi lm vic vi nhng s ln,
ta cn phi tm ra nhng thut ton hu hiu, ngha l c th thc hin c trn my
tnh trong mt khong thi gian chp nhn c. Khi ni n nhng s ln, ta
thng hiu l nhng s nguyn dng c khong 100 ch s thp phn tr ln.
c th tm ra nhng thut ton xc nh nhanh mt s c phi l s nguyn t hay
khng, ta cn hiu su sc tnh cht cc s nguyn t. Trong chng ny, ta ch i
vo cc tnh cht c bn nht.
nh l sau y cho mt thut ton n gin xc nh cc s nguyn t.
nh l 2.5. Mi hp s n u c c nguyn t nh hn

n.

Tht vy, v n l mt hp s nn ta c th vit n=ab, trong a v b l cc s

nguyn vi 1<a b<n. R rng ta phi c a hoc b khng vt qu n , gi s l
a. c nguyn t ca a cng ng thi l c nguyn t ca n.
T nh l trn, ta c thut ton sau y tm ra cc s nguyn t nh hn hoc
bng s n cho trc.

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Sng Eratosthenes. Trc tin, ta vit dy cc s t nhin t 1 n n. Trong dy

gch i s 1, v n khng phi l s nguyn t. S nguyn t u tin ca dy l 2.
Tip theo ta gch khi dy s tt c nhng s chia ht cho 2. S u tin khng
chia ht cho 2 l 3: chnh l s nguyn t. Ta li gch khi dy cn li nhng s
no chia ht cho 3. Tip tc nh th, ta gch khi dy nhng s chia ht cho mi s
nguyn t b hn n . Theo nh l trn, nhng s cn li ca dy l tt c cc s
nguyn t khng vt qu n. Tht vy, cc hp s khng vt qu n, theo nh l
trn, u phi c c nguyn t nh hn n , v do b gch khi dy s trong
mt bc no ca thut ton.
Sng Eratosthenes, mc d cho ta thut ton xc nh mi s nguyn t khng vt
qu mt s cho trc, rt t c s dng xc nh xem mt s cho c phi l
s nguyn t hay khng. Nguyn nhn l v thut ton c phc tp qu ln:
kim tra n, ta phi thc hin php chia cho tt c cc s nguyn t khng vt qu
n.
Ta hy xt s qua v phc tp ca thut ton ni trn. Vi mi s thc dng x
cho trc ta k hiu (x) s cc s nguyn t khng vt qu x. Khi , theo nh l
Hadamard-Vale-Poussin ta c:
lim ( x ) /
x

x
= 1.
log x

Nh vy, s cc s nguyn t khng vt qu

n l vo khong
n /log n =2 n /logn. chia n cho m, ta cn O(log2n. log2m) php tnh bit. Nh
vy, s cc php tnh bit cn thit kim tra n c phi l s nguyn t hay khng t
nht l (2 n /logn)(Clog2n)=C n ( y ta dng c lng rt s lc log2 m 1).
Nh vy, nu n vo c khong 100 ch s thp phn, s cc php tnh bit phi dng
s vo c 1050. Vi nhng my tnh thc hin mt triu php tnh trong mt giy,
thi gian cn thit s vo khong 3,1.1036 nm!
Ta kt thc tit ny bng nh l quan trng sau y, thng c gi l nh l c
bn ca s hc .
nh l 2.6. Mi s nguyn t ln hn 1 u phn tch c mt cch duy nht thnh
tch cc s nguyn t, trong cc tha s c vit vi th t khng gim.
Chng minh. Gi s tn ti nhng s khng vit c thnh tch cc s nguyn t.
Gi n l s b nht trong cc s . Nh vy, n phi l hp s, n=a.b, vi a, b<n. Do
nh ngha ca n cc s a v b phn tch c thnh tch cc s nguyn t, ngha l n
cng phn tch c. Mu thun vi gi thit.
Cn phi chng minh phn tch l duy nht. Gi s ta c:
10

n=p1 p2 ...ps=q1q2...qr,
trong pi, qj l cc s nguyn t. Gin c nhng s nguyn t bng nhau c mt
trong hai v, ta c ng thc
pi1pi2...piu=qj1qj2...qjv,,
trong khng c s nguyn t no c mt c hai v. Nh vy, v tri chia ht cho
qj1, v do phi tn ti mt tha s ca tch chia ht cho qj1: iu v l, v y l
tch cc s nguyn t khc vi qj1.

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Phn tch nh trn ca cc s nguyn c gi l phn tch ra tha s nguyn t. Khi

n l mt s rt ln, vic kim tra xem n l s nguyn t hay hp s, v nu l hp s
th tm phn tch ca n ra tha s nguyn t, l mt bi ton ht sc kh khn.
Trong nhng phn tip theo ca cun sch, ta s tm hiu nhiu thut ton lm
vic , cng nh cc ng dng ca n trong thc tin.

3. Thut ton Euclid.

Mt trong nhng thut ton c bn v lu i nht ca ton hc l thut ton Euclid.

Thut ton cho php xc nh c chung ln nht ca hai s nguyn cho trc.
Khi trnh by thut ton Euclid, ta nhc li s qua khi nim ng d. Nhng tnh
cht cn dng ca ng d v cc tnh cht c bn ca c chung ln nht c cho
trong cc bi tp ca chng ny.
Gi s m l mt s nguyn dng. Ta ni hai s nguyn a v b l ng d vi nhau
modulo m nu m chia ht hiu a-b ( ta dng cch vit m | (a-b)). ch quan h
ng d, ta dng k hiu a b (mod m).
Nh vy, a b (mod m) khi v ch khi tn ti s nguyn k sao cho a=b+km.
Quan h ng d l mt trong nhng quan h c bn ca s hc, v ta s gp thng
xuyn trong nhng phn tip theo ca cun sch. Trong thut ton Euclid, ta ch
dng quan h din t ngn gn v phn d ca php chia.
Thut ton sau y cho php tnh c chung ln nht (CLN) d ca hai s nguyn
khng m a v b (k hiu l d=(a,b)).

Thut ton Euclid

E1. [Kt thc?] Nu b=0, in ra a v kt thc thut ton.

E2. [Chia Euclid] t r a mod b, a b, b r v quay v
bc 1.
V d: tnh d=(24,63) bng thut ton Euclid.
Ta c: d=(24,63) = (15,24)=(9,15)=(6,9)=(3,6)=(0,3)=3.

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nh l sau y va cho ta mt chng minh tnh ng n ca thut ton Euclid,

va cho mt c lng v phc tp ca n.
nh l Lam. S php chia cn thit tm CLN ca hai s nguyn dng bng
thut ton Euclid khng vt qu 5 ln s ch s thp phn ca s b trong hai s
cho.
Chng minh. Gi s a>b l hai s nguyn dng cho trc. Bng thut ton Euclid,
ta c: a=r0, b=r1 v:
r0=r1q1+r2, 0 r2<r1
r1=r2q2+r3, 0 r3<r2

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... ............

rn-2=rn-1qn-1+rn, 0 rn<rn-1
rn-1=rnqn

Nh vy, ta lm n php chia. Trong cc php chia , ta c: q1, q2, ...,qn-1 1,

2, rn <rn-1. T suy ra:

qn

rn 1=f2,

rn-1 2rn 2f2=f3

rn-2 rn-1+ rn f3+f2=f4

rn-3 rn-2+ rn-1 f4+f5=f6

.................

r2 r3+ r4 fn-1+fn-2=fn

b=r1 r2+ r3 fn+fn-1=fn+1

Ch rng, dy s {fn} nhn c chnh l dy s Fibonaci quen thuc trong s hc.

i vi dy s ny, bng quy np, d chng minh c lng sau y:
fn>(

1 + 5 n-2
) .
2

T bt ng thc b fn+1 ta c:

log10b (n-1)log10(

1+ 5
)>(n-1)/5
2

nh l c chng minh.
H qu 2.6. Gi s a<b, khi s cc php tnh bit cn thit thc hin thut ton
Euclid l O((log2a)3).

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Tht vy, s php chia phi lm l O(log2a), v mi php chia cn O((log2a)2) php
tnh bit.
Thut ton Euclid, mc d ra i hng nghn nm, vn l thut ton tt nht
tm CLN ca hai s nguyn cho trc! Cho n nm 1967, J.Stein xy dng c
mt thut ton kh thun tin tm CLN trong trng hp cc s cho c vit
di dng nh phn. u im ch yu ca thut ton ny l ta khng cn lm cc
php tnh chia (thc ra ta c lm php chia s chn cho 2, nhng trong c s 2 th
l php dch chuyn s cho sang phi mt v tr). Thut ton da trn nhng nhn
xt n gin sau (xem phn bi tp cui chng):
1) Nu a,b l cc s chn, th (a,b)=2(a/2,b/2).
2) Nu a chn, b l, th (a,b)=(a/2,b).

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3) Nu a,b u l th a-b chn v |a-b|<max(a,b).

4) (a,b)=(a-b,b).

Thut ton c m t nh sau ( chng ti dnh phn chng minh cho c gi).

Thut ton tm CLN ca hai s nguyn dng a,b.

E1. (Tm lu tha ca 2) t k 0 v lp lin tip php

tnh sau cho n khi t nht mt trong hai s a, b l:
t k k+1, a a/2, b b/2.
E2. (Xut pht). ( bc xut pht ny, a, b u
c chia cho 2k, v c t nht mt trong hai s l l).
Nu a l, t t -b v chuyn sang E4. Nu ngc li,
t t a.
E3. (Chia i t). (Ti thi im ny, t chn, khc 0).
t t t/2.
E4. (t c chn hay khng?) Nu t chn quay v E3.
E5. (Sp xp li max(a,b)). Nu t>0, t a t; nu
ngc li, t b -t. Nh vy, s ln nht trong hai s
c thay bi |t|.
E6. (Tr) t t a-b. Nu t 0, quay li E3. Nu ngc
li thut ton kt thc v in ra a.2k.
Ngoi thut ton Euclid ni trn, trong nhiu trng hp, ta cn n thut ton
Euclid m rng. Thut ton ny khng nhng cho ta thut ton tm CLN ca hai s
a, b, m cn cho ta biu din d=(a,b) di dng t hp tuyn tnh ca a, b:
d=ma+nb, trong m, n l cc s nguyn.
Trc ht, ta chng minh b sau:
B 2.7: CLN ca cc s nguyn a v b l s d dng nh nht biu din c
di dng t hp tuyn tnh ca a v b.

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Tht vy, gi s d l s nguyn dng nh nht biu din c di dng d=ma+nb.

Ta chng t d l c chung ca a v b. Xt php chia a=dq+r, trong 0 r<d. R
rng r cng l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca a v b, nn do d l s nguyn dng nh
nht c tnh cht , r=0. Tng t, d l c ca b. D thy rng, mi c chung
khc ca a v b cng l c ca d: vy d chnh l c chung ln nht.
Khi cho hai s a, b, tm biu din ca d nh trong b , ta thng l nh sau:
vit a=bv+q, 0 q<b. Sau ,li vit b=uq+r=u(a-bv)+r, 0 r<q. Tip tc qu trnh
, do cc s d q, r gim dn nn ta thu c biu din cn thit. iu va ni c
th hin trong thut ton sau y, m chng minh cht ch c dnh cho c gi.

Thut ton Euclid m rng.

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Cho hai s nguyn khng m u, v, tm (u1,u2,u3) sao cho (u,v)=u3=uu1+vu2. Trong

tnh ton, ta thm vo cc n ph (v1,v2,v3), (t1,t2,t3) v lun c trong mi bc cc
ng thc sau y:
ut1+vt2=t3, uv1+vv2=v3, uu1+vu2=u3.

Ed1.(Xut
(0,1,v).

pht).

(u1,u2,u3) (1,0,u),

(v1,v2,v3)

Ed2. (Kim tra v3=0?) Nu v3=0, thut ton kt thc.

Ed3. (Chia, tr). t q [u3/v3], v sau t
(t1,t2,t3) (u1,u2,u3)-q(v1,v2,v3), (v1,v2,v3) (t1,t2,t3) v
quay v bc 2.
V d. Cho a=63, b=24. Dng thut ton Euclid ta c:
- Bc 1. u1=1, u2=0, u3=63, v1=0, v2=1, v3 =24.

- Bc 2. q=2, u1 =0, u2=1, u3=24, v1=1, v2=-2, v3=15.

- Bc 3. q=1, u1=1, u2=-2, u3=15, v1=-1, v2=3, v3=9.
- Bc 4. q=1, u1=-1, u2=3, u3=9, v1=2, v2=-5, v3=6.
- Bc 5. q=1, u1=2, u2=-5, u3=6, v1=-3, v2=8, v3=3.

- Bc 6. q=2, u1=-3, u2=8, u3=3, v1=8, v2=-21, v3=0.

Ta c biu din: 3=(-3)64+8.24.

4. nh l Trung Quc v phn d:

Gi s m1,m2,...,mr l cc s nguyn dng nguyn t cng nhau tng cp. Khi h
ng d:
x1 a1(mod m1),
x2 a2(mod m2),
14

... ... ...

xr ar(mod mr).
C nghim duy nht modulo M=m1m2...mr.
Chng minh. Trc ht ta xy dng mt nghim ca h.
Gi s Mk=M/mk= m1m2...mk-1mk+1...mr. Ta bit rng (Mk,mk)=1 v (mj,mk)=1 vi mi
j k. Nh vy, theo bi tp 2.18 ta c th tm mt nghch o yk ca Mk modulo mk,
tc l Mkyk 1 (mod mk).
t
x=a1M1y1+ a2M2y2 +...+ arMryr .

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Ta thy rng x ak(mod mk) vi mi k v mk |Mj vi j k nn Mj 0 (mod mk) khi j k.

Nh vy, x chnh l mt nghim ca h ang xt.
Ta chng t rng nghim va xy dng l duy nht modulo M. Gi s x0, x1 l hai
nghim ca h. Khi , vi mi k, x0 x1 ak (mod mk), cho nn mk | (x0-x1). Theo bi
tp 2.17, M | (x0-x1). nh l c chng minh.
nh l Trung Quc v phn d lin quan bi ton ni ting Hn Tn im binh.
Tng truyn rng, kim tra qun s, Hn Tn thng ra lnh cho qun s xp
thnh hng 3, hng 5, hng 7 v thng bo cho ng cc s d. Khi bit cc s d v
c sn thng tin gn ng v s qun ca mnh, Hn Tn dng nh l trn y
suy ra s qun chnh xc.
nh l Trung Quc v phn d c s dng trong my tnh lm vic vi nhng
s ln. a mt s nguyn ln tu vo my tnh v lm cc php tnh s hc vi
chng, ta cn c nhng k thut c bit. Theo nh l Trung quc v phn d, khi
cho trc cc modun nguyn t cng nhau m1,m2,...,mr, mt s dng n<M=
m1m2...mr c xc nh duy nht bi cc thng d dng b nht ca n theo
modulo mj vi j=1,2,...,r. Gi s rng c t ca my ch l 100, nhng ta cn lm cc
php tnh s hc vi nhng s nguyn c 106. Trc tin ta tm cc s nguyn nh
hn 100, nguyn t cng nhau tng cp, sao cho tch ca chng vt qu 106. Chng
hn, ta c th ly m1=99, m2=98, m3=97, m4=95. Ta chuyn cc s nguyn b hn 106
thnh nhng b 4 s theo thng d dng b nht modulo m1,m2,m3,m4 ( lm c
iu ny, ta cng phi lm vic vi nhng s nguyn ln! Tuy nhin iu ch cn
lm mt ln vi input, v mt ln na vi ouput). Nh vy, chng hn cng cc s
nguyn, ta ch cn cng cc thng d dng b nht ca chng modulo m1,m2,m3,m4.
Sau li dng nh l Trung Quc v phn d tm b 4 s tng ng vi tng.
V d. Ta mun tnh tng x=123684, y=413456 vi mt my tnh c t l 100. Ta c:
x 33(mod 99), 8(mod 98), 9(mod 97), 89(mod 95)
y 32(mod 99), 92(mod 98), 42(mod 97), 16(mod 95)
Nh vy,
x+y 65(mod 99), 2(mod 98), 51(mod 97), 10(mod 95)

15

By gii ta dng nh l Trung Quc v phn d tm x+y modulo

M=99.98.97.95=89403930. Ta c: M1=M/99=903070, M2=M/98=912288,
M3=M/97=921690, M4=M/95=941094. Ta cn tm ngc ca Mi(mod yi) vi
i=1,2,3,4, tc l gii h phng trnh ng d sau y (Bng thut chia Euclid):
903070y1 91y1 1(mod 99)
912285y2 3y2 1(mod 98)
921690y3 93y3 1(mod 97)
Ta tm c: y1 37(mod 99), y2 38(mod 98), y3 24(mod 97), y4 4(mod 95).
Nh vy,

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x+y=65.903070.37+2.912285.33+51.921690.24+10.941094.4=3397886480
537140(mod 89403930)

V 0<x+y<89403930, ta suy ra x+y=537140.

Rt c th c gi cho rng, cch cng hai s s dng nh l Trung Quc v phn d

qu phc tp so vi cch cng thng thng. Tuy nhin, cn ch rng, trong v d
trn y, ta lm vic vi cc s nh. Khi cc s cn cng c ln vt xa c t ca
my, cc quy tc cng thng thng khng cn p dng c na.
Ni chung c t ca my tnh l lu tha rt ln ca 2, chng hn 235. Nh vy, s
dng nh l Trung Quc v phn d, ta cn cc s nh hn 235 nguyn t cng nhau
tng cp. tm cc s nguyn nh vy, thun tin nht l dng cc s dng 2m-1,
trong m l s nguyn dng. Cc php tnh s hc vi nhng s c dng nh vy
tng i n gin da vo b sau.
B 2.8. Nu a v b l cc s nguyn dng th thng d dng b nht modulo 2b1 ca 2a-1 l 2r-1, trong r l thng d dng b nht ca a modulo b.
Tht vy, nu a=bq+r, trong r l thng d dng b nht ca a modulo b, th ta
c
(2a-1)=(2bq+r-1)=(2b-1)(2b(q-1)+r+...+2b+r+2r)+(2r-1).

H qu 2.9. Nu a v b l cc s nguyn dng, th c chung ln nht ca 2a-1 v

2b-1 l 2(a,b)-1.
H qu 2.10. Cc s nguyn 2a-1 v 2b-1 nguyn t cng nhau khi v ch khi a v b
nguyn t cng nhau.
Chng ti dnh vic chng minh hai b ny cho c gi.
Ta c th s dng h qu trn y tm cc s nh hn 235, nguyn t cng nhau
tng cp, sao cho tch ca chng ln hn mt s cho. Gi s ta cn lm cc php
tnh s hc vi nhng s nguyn c c 2184. Ta t: m1=235-1, m2=234-1, m3=233-1,
m4=231-1, m5=229-1, m6=223-1. V s m ca 2 trong cc s trn nguyn t vi nhau
tng cp, nn theo h qu trn, cc s chn cng nguyn t vi nhsu tng cp. Ta
c tch m1 m2 m3 m4 m5 m6>2184. By gi ta c th lm cc php tnh s hc vi
nhng s c n 2184.
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Trong cc my tnh hin i, vic thc hin nhiu php tnh c tin hnh ng
thi. V th vic s dng nh l Trung Quc v phn d nh trn li cng tin li:
thay cho vic lm cc php tnh vi cc s nguyn ln, ta lm nhiu php tnh ng
thi vi nhng s nguyn b hn. iu gim ng k thi gian tnh ton.

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Thut ton gii phng trnh ng d bng nh l Trung Quc

T chng minh nh l Trung Quc v phn d, ta c thut ton sau y gii h
phng trnh ng d x xi (mod mi), trong mi, 1 i k l cc s nguyn t vi
nhau tng cp, xi l cc s nguyn cho trc. Trong thut ton trnh by sau y,
chng ta tm ra cch trnh phi lm vic vi cc s ln nh Mi v aiMi.
Thut ton.
1. (Xut pht). t j 2, C1 1. Hn na ta sp xp li
cc s mi theo th t tng dn.

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2. (Tnh ton s b). t p m1m2...mj-1(mod mj). Tnh

(u,v,d) sao cho up+vmj=d=UCLN(p,mj) bng thut ton
Euclid m rng.
Ed. Nu d>0, in ra thng bo: cc mi khng nguyn t cng
nhau tng cp. Nu ngc li, t Cj u, j j+1 v
chuyn sang bc 3 nu j k.
3. (Tnh cc hng s ph). t y1 x1 mod m1, v mi
j=2,...,k tnh:
yj (xj-(y1+m1(y2+m2(y3+...+mj-2yj-1)...))Cjmod mj.
4. (Kt thc). In ra

x y1+m1(y2+m2(y3+...+mk-1yk)...), v kt thc thut ton.

5. Mt s ng d c bit.

nh l Wilson. p l s nguyn t khi v ch khi (p-1)! -1 (mod p).

Chng minh. Trc tin, gi s p l s nguyn t. Khi p=2, ta c

(p-1)! 1 -1(mod 2). By gi gi s p l s nguyn t ln hn 2. Theo bi tp 2.18,
vi mi s nguyn a vi 1 a p-1, tn ti nghch o a , 1 a p-1, vi
a a 1(mod p). Theo bi tp 2.13, trong s cc s nguyn dng nh hn p, ch c 1
v p-1 l nghch o vi chnh n. Nh vy ta c th nhm cc s nguyn t 2 n
p-2 thnh (p-3)/2 cp s nguyn, tch ca mi cp ng d vi 1 modulo p. Nh vy
ta c:
2.3.....(p-3)(p-2) 1 (mod p)
Nhn hai v vi 1 v p-1 ta c:
(p-1)! 1.2.3...(p-2)(p-1) 1(p-1) -1(mod p)
Ngc li gi s p tho mn ng d pht biu trong nh l v a l mt c s ca
p, a<p. Khi , a | (p-1)!. Nhng theo gi thit, p | (p-1)!+1, t suy ra a=1, v l
c chung ca p v (p-1)!. Vy p l s nguyn t, nh l c chng minh.

18

nh l Wilson c th c dng kim tra mt s c phi l s nguyn t hay

khng. Tuy nhin , d thy rng, thut ton da theo nh l Wilson kh c th s
dng vi nhng s nguyn ln, bi v s cc php tnh bit i hi qu cao.
n gin, ta gi cng vic xem xt mt s cho c phi l s nguyn t hay
khng l kim tra nguyn t. nh l sau y c nhiu ng dng trong kim tra
nguyn t.
nh l Fermat b. Nu p l s nguyn t v a l s khng chia ht cho p th
ap-1 1(mod p).
Chng minh. Xt p-1 s nguyn a, 2a,..., (p-1)a. Cc s u khng chia ht cho p
v khng c hai s no ng d modulo p. Nh vy, cc thng d dng b nht ca
chng phi l 1, 2,... p-1, xp theo th t no . T ta c:

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a.2a.....(p-1) 1...(p-1) (p-1)!(mod p)

tc l

ap-1(p-1)! 1(mod p)

V ((p-1)!,p)=1 nn ta c ap-1 1(mod p).

H qu 2.11. Nu p l s nguyn t v a l s nguyn dng th ap a(mod p).

H qu 2.12. Nu p l s nguyn t v a l s nguyn khng chia ht cho p th ap-2 l
nghch o ca a modulo p.
H qu 2.13. Nu a v b l cc s nguyn dng, p nguyn t, p|a th cc nghim
ca ng d thc tuyn tnh ax b(mod p) l cc s nguyn x sao cho
x ap-2b(mod p).

6. S gi nguyn t.

Theo nh l Fermat, nu n l s nguyn t v b l s nguyn tu , th bn b(mod n).

Do nu tn ti s b sao cho bn / b(mod n) th n phi l hp s. Trong nhiu ng
dng , chng ta li cn n cc thut ton ch ra mt s n l s nguyn t. Trong
trng hp ny, ta khng th dng nh l Fermat b, v nh l ngc ca n khng
ng. Tuy nhin, nu mt s nguyn tho mn cc gi thit ca nh l Fermat b th
c nhiu kh nng n l mt s nguyn t! Ta c nh ngha sau y.
nh ngha 2.14. Gi s b l mt s nguyn dng. Nu n l hp s nguyn dng
v bn b(mod n) th n c gi l s gi nguyn t c s b.
Trong trng hp (n,b)=1, ta thng dng nh ngha tng ng: bn-1 b(mod n).
V d. S nguyn 561=3.11.17 l s gi nguyn t c s 2. Tht vy, p dng nh l
Fermat
b, ta c 2560=(22)280 1(mod 3), 2560=(210)56 1(mod 11),
560
16 35
2 =(2 ) 1(mod 17). T suy ra (bi tp 2.12) 2560 1(mod 561).

19

Ni chung cc s gi nguyn t t hn nhiu so vi cc s nguyn t. Chng hn, c

tt c 4550525112 s nguyn t b hn 1010, nhng ch c 14884 s gi nguyn t c
s 2 trong khong . S kin ny gii thch cch ni trn: Cc s tho mn nh l
Fermat b c nhiu kh nng l s nguyn t. Tuy nhin i vi mi c s tu , s
cc s gi nguyn t l v hn. Chng hn, ta chng minh iu i vi c s 2.
nh l 2.15. C v s s gi nguyn t c s 2.
Chng minh. Gi s n l mt s gi nguyn t c s 2, ta s chng t rng, m=2n-1
cng l s gi nguyn t c s 2. Theo gi thit, n l hp s, chng hn n=dt
(1<d,t<n), v 2n-1 1(mod n). D thy rng m l hp s, v (2d-1) | (2n-1)=m. Do n
l gi nguyn t, tn ti k sao cho 2n-2=kn. Ta c 2m-1=2kn, v do ,
m=(2n-1)|(2nk-1)=2m-1-1, tc l 2m-1 1(mod m). Vy s m l gi nguyn t c s 2.

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Nh vy, kim tra mt s c phi l s nguyn t hay khng, trc tin ta xem n
c l gi nguyn t c s 2 hay khng, sau c th tip tc kim tra i vi cc c
s khc. Tuy nhin, tn ti cc s gi nguyn t vi mi c s, l cc s
Carmichael.
nh ngha 2.16. Hp s nguyn n tho mn bn-1 1(mod n) vi mi s nguyn
dng b sao cho (n,b)=1 c gi l s Carmichael.
V d. S nguyn 561=3.11.17 l mt s Carmichael. Tht vy, nu (b,561)=1 th
(b,3)=(b,11)=(b,17)=1. Theo nh l Fermat b, ta c b2 1(mod 3), b10 1(mod 11),
b16 1(mod 17). Do , vit 560=2.280=10.56=16.35 ta c:
b560=(b2)280 1(mod 3),

b560=(b10)56 1(mod 11),

b560=(b16)35 1(mod 17).

T suy ra (bi tp 2.12): b560 1(mod 561).

Gi thuyt sau y mi c chng minh rt gn y ([AGP]): tn ti v hn s

Carmichael.
nh l sau y cho mt cch tm s Carmichael.

nh l 2.17. Nu n=q1q2...qk, trong qj l cc s nguyn t khc nhau tho mn

(qj-1) |(n-1), th n l s Carmichael.
Tht vy, gi s b l s nguyn dng, (b,n)=1. Khi , (b,qj)=1 vi mi j, v
q 1
b j 1(mod q j ) . V (qj-1) |(n-1) nn bn-1 1(mod qj), v do , bn-1 1(mod n).
Phn o ca nh l trn y cng ng, tuy nhin c chng minh hi di nn ta
s b qua. c gi no quan tm c th tm c trong [Ro].
Nh vy, vic kim tra nguyn t s kh khn khi gp phi cc s Carmicheal. Tuy
nhin, ta c th khc phc bng cch sau y. Nu gp ng d bn-1 1(mod n), ta
chuyn sang xt ng d b(n--1)/2 x(mod n). Nu n l s nguyn t th x 1 hoc
x -1(mod n), ngc li th n phi l hp s (bi tp 2.22).

20

V d, vi s Carmicheal b nht 561 ta c: 5(561-1)/2=5280 67(mod 561). Vy, 561 l

hp s.
V sau, ta s cp n nhng thut ton kim tra nguyn t hin i. Trong phn
ny, thy thm ng dng ca cc nh l ng d va trnh by, ta tm hiu vi
thut ton n gin.
nh ngha 2.18. Gi s n l s nguyn dng l, n-1=2st, trong s l s nguyn
khng m, t l s nguyn dngj l. Ta ni n tri qua c kim tra Miller c s b,
nu hoc bt 1(mod n), hoc b2 t -1(mod n), vi j no , 0 j s-1.

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Ta chng t rng, nu n l s nguyn t th n tri qua c kim tra Miller

c s b
k
s kt
vi mi s b sao cho n|b. Tht vy, gi s n-1=2st. t xk=b(n-1)/2 =b2 , vi
k=0,1,...,s. V n l s nguyn t nn x0 1(mod n). Do x12 1(mod n), tc l
x1 1(mod n) hoc x1 -1(mod n). Tip tc qu trnh nh vy ta s i n kt lun
rng, hoc xk 1(mod n) vi k=0,1,...,s, hoc xk -1(mod n) vi mt s nguyn k no
. Nh vy n tri qua c kim tra Miller c s b.
D thy rng, nu n tri qua c kim tra Miller c s b th n s l s gi nguyn t
c s b. Ta c nh ngha sau.
nh ngha 2.19. n c gi l s gi nguyn t mnh c s b nu n l hp s v
tri qua c kim tra Miller c s b.
Nh vy cc s gi nguyn t mnh li cn t hn cc s gi nguyn t. Tuy nhin, ta
c nh l sau.
nh l 2.20. Tn ti v s s gi nguyn t mnh c s 2.

Tht vy, gi s n l mt s gi nguyn t c s 2. Khi , 2n-1=nk vi s nguyn l k

no . t N=2n-1, ta c
N-1=2n-2=2(2n-1-1)=2nk;

ngha l n l hp s. Mt khc,

2(N-1)/2=2nk=(2n)k 1(mod N).

Vy vi mi s gi nguyn t n, ta xy dng c s gi nguyn t mnh N v cc

s n khc nhau cho ta cc s N khc nhau: nh l c chng minh, bi v c v s
gi nguyn t c s 2.
Ta c th dng kim tra Miller kim tra nguyn t nhng s khng ln lm. Ta
bit rng, s gi nguyn t mnh l c s 2 b nht l 2047. Nh vy, nu n l v
n<2047, th n l nguyn t nu n tri qua kim tra Miller. Tng t nh vy, s
1373653, l s gi nguyn t mnh l b nht c s 2 v 3, c dng kim tra
nguyn t nhng s b hn n. i vi c s 2,3 v 5, s gi nguyn t mnh l b
nht l 25326001, trong trng hp c s 2,3,5,7,s tng ng l 3215031751.
Trong nhng s nh hn 25.109, ch c mt s gi nguyn t l vi c s 2,3,5,7,
l 3251031751. Nh vy, nu n<25.109 l s l tri qua kim tra Miller, th n l s
nguyn t nu n khc vi 3251031751.

21

Cch lm trn y ch p dng c khi cn kim tra nguyn t nhng s khng ln.
i vi nhng s ln, ta c th dng thut ton xc sut da trn nh l sau y:
nh l 2.21. Nu n l mt hp s dng l th tn ti khng qu (n-1)/4 c s b,
1 b n-1, sao cho n tri qua c kim tra Miller i vi cc c s .
nh l trn y c chng minh da vo khi nim ch s m ta khng trnh by
y. c gi no quan tm c th tm c trong[Ro]. Nh nh l 2.21, ta c th kt
lun n l mt hp s nu thy n tri qua kim tra Miller vi hn (n-1)/4 c s. Tuy
nhin, vic kim tra nh th i hi qu nhiu thi gian.

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T nh l 2.21 suy ra rng, nu s b c chn ngu nhin trong khong 1 b n-1

th n tri qua kim tra Miller c s b vi xc sut b hn 1/4. Nh vy, nu ta chn k
s ngu nhin th xc sut n tri qua kim tra Miller i vi k c s s b hn
1/4k. Khi k ln, v d k=20, xc sut qu nh, nn vi n tri qua vi 20 c s
ngu nhin th c th tin hu chc chn rng n l s nguyn t. T ta c thut
ton xc sut sau y.

Thut ton Rabin-Miller (1980)

Cho N 3 l, thut ton sau y xc nh rng N l mt hp s, hoc in ra thng

bo N l s nguyn t vi xc sut ln hn 1-1/420.
RM1. (Xut pht). t q N-1, t 0, v nu q chn t
q q/2, t t+1 (by gi ta c N-1=2tq, vi q l). Sau
t c 20.
RM2. (Chn a mi). Chn ngu nhin s a trong khong
1<a<N. t e 0, b aq mod N. Nu b=1, chuyn sang RM4.
RM3.(Bnh phng). Nu b / 1(mod N) v e<t-2, ta t
b b2 mod N, e e+1. Nu b N-1, in ra thng bo n l
hp s v kt thc thut ton.
RM4. t c c-1. Nu c>0, chuyn sang RM2. Nu c=0, in
ra thng bo N l s nguyn t.

7. Phn s lin tc.

Gi s a,b l cc s nguyn dng, a>b. Khi , phn s a/b c th vit di dng:

c
a
1
= a0 + 0 = a0 + .
b
b
b
c0

Phn s b/c0 li c th biu din di dng tng t nh vy, v cui cng ta nhn
c:

22

a
= ao +
b

1
a1 +

1
... a n 1 +

1
an

Cch vit nh trn c gi l biu din s hu t a/b di dng phn s lin tc.
n gin k hiu, ta thng dng cch vit a/b=[a0;a1,a2,...,an]. Phn s lin tc
[a0;a1,a2,...,an] c gi l phn s lin tc hu hn.

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Dng thut ton Euclid, c th biu din mi s hu t di dng phn s lin tc

hu hn. Tht vy, ta c a=a0b+c0, b=a1c0+c1,.... Ngc li, r rng mi phn s hu
hn lin tc l mt s hu t.
Ta cng c th biu din mt s thc tu di dng phn s lin tc. Tuy nhin
trong trng hp ny, phn s lin tc c th khng hu hn. Cch lm cng hon
ton tng t nh khi lm vi cc s hu t.
Gi s x l s thc tu . t a0=[x], phn nguyn ca x, v x0=x-a0 l phn l ca x.
Tip theo , ta t a1=[1/x0], x1=1/x0-a1. Tm li i vi mi s i>1, t ai=[1/xi-1],
xi=1/xi-1-ai. Nu bc th i no , xi=0 th qu trnh kt thc (iu ny xy ra khi
v ch khi x l s hu t). Ngc li, ta c biu din x di dng phn s lin tc v
hn: [a0;a1,a2,...,an,...].
Nhiu khi thun tin, ta dng cch vit sau y:
x= a 0 +

1
1
1
+
+...+
+...
a1 + a 2 +
an +

Cc phn s lin tc nh ngha nh trn vi cc s ai nguyn cn c gi l cc

phn s lin tc n gin. Khi khng i hi ai l cc s nguyn, m c th l cc s
thc tu , ta cng dng cch vit
x=[a0;a1,a2,...,an]=

a0 +

1
1
1
+
+...+ .
a1 + a 2 +
an

Khi c mt phn s lin tc x=[a0;a1,a2,...,an,...], ta gi cc s sau y l cc phn s

hi t ring ca x:
Ck= [a0;a1,a2,...,ak].

nh l 2.22. Gi s a0,a1,...,an l cc s thc, trong a0,a1,...,an>0. t p0=a0,

q0=1, p1=a0a1+1, q1=a1, v vi mi k 2, pk=akpk-1+pk-2, qk=akqk-1+qk-2. Khi i
vi cc phn s hi t ring Ck ta c:
Ck= [a0;a1,a2,...,ak]= pk/qk.
Chng minh. Ta chng minh bng qui np. Vi k=0, C0=a0=p0/q0. Vi k=1,
1
C1=[a0;a1]=a0+ =p1/q1.
a1
23

Ta c:
Ck+1=[a0;a1,a2,...,ak+1]= a 0 +

=[a0;a1,a2,...,ak-1,ak+

1
a k +1

1
1
1
+
+...+
a1 + a 2 +
a k +1

(a k +

) p k 1 + p k 2
a k +1
]=
.
1
(a k +
)q k 1 + q k 2
a k +1

theo gi thit qui np. Tnh ton n gin da vo nh ngha cc s pk,qk, ta c:

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Ck+1=pk+1/qk+1.
nh l c chng minh.

nh l 2.23. Vi mi k 1, ta c:

pkqk+1-pk-1qk=(-1)k-1.

T ta suy ra ngay rng, cc s pk,qk nguyn t cng nhau.

nh l 2.24. Ta c:

C1>C3>C5>...
c0<C2<C4>...

C2j+1>C2k, vi mi j,k
lim Ck=x.

Chng minh cc nh l trn (bng quy np) c dnh cho c gi. C th thy
rng, tn gi phn s lin tc ring c gii thch bng nh l trn y.
nh l 2.25. Gi s n l mt s t nhin khng chnh phng v pk,qk l cc phn s
hi t ring ca n . Ta t 0 = n , v cc s k , Qk, Pk c nh ngha theo
cng thc sau:

k = (Pk+ n )/ Qk,
ak=[ k ],

Pk+1=akQk-Pk
Qk+1=(n-Pn+12)Qk
Khi ta c:
pk2-n qk2=(-1)k-1Qk+1.
Chng minh. p dng nh l va chng minh, ta c:

24

n = 0 =[a0;a1,a2,...,ak+1]=

a k +1 p k + p k 1
.
a k +1q k + q k 1

T , v ak+1= (Pk+1+ n )/ Qk+1, ta c:

n=

( Pk +1 + n ) p k + Qk +1 p k 1
( Pk +1 + n )q k + Qk +1q k 1

Vy,
nqk+(Pk+1qk+Qk+1qk-1)

n =(Pk+1pk+Qk+1pk-1) +pk n .

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T suy ra:
nqk= Pk-1pk+ Qk+1pk-1,
pk= Pk+1qk+ Qk+1qk-1.

Nhn ng thc th nht vi qk, ng thc th hai vi pk v tr ng thc th hai cho

ng thc th nht, ta thu c kt qu cn chng minh.
Sau y ta s p dng phn s lin tc tm mt thut ton phn tch s nguyn ra
tha s nguyn t. Ni chnh xc hn, ta s xy dng mt thut ton vi s t
nhin n cho trc, tm c s khng tm thng (khc 1 v n).
Ta xut pht t nhn xt n gin sau y: Nu ta tm c cc s x, y sao cho
x-y 1 v x2-y2=n th ta tm c s c khng tm thng ca n, v
n= x2-y2=(x-y)(x+y).
By gi, gi s ta c kt qu yu hn, chng hn tm c x,y sao cho x2 y2(mod n)
v 0<x<y<n, x+y n.
Khi n l mt c ca tch (x-y)(x+y), v r rng n khng l c ca x+y cng nh
x-y. Nh vy cc c s chung d1=(n,x-y) v d2=(n,x+y) l cc c s khng tm
thng ca n. Cc c s ny tm c mt cch nhanh chng nh thut ton Euclid.
nh l 2.25 cho ta phng php tm cc s x,y cn thit.
Theo nh l 2.25 ta c:

pk2 (-1)k-1Qk-1 (mod n).

Nh vy, vn l phi tm c cc Qk vi ch s chn, v l mt s chnh phng.

Mi ln tm c mt s Q k nh vy, ta tm c mt c ca n (cng c th xy ra
trng hp c l tm thng: cc pk,Qk khng nht thit b hn n nn iu kin
n khng phi l c ca x+y v x-y c th khng tho mn).
V d. 1). Phn tch s 1037 ra tha s bng cch s dng phn s lin tc.
ta c = 1037 =32,2..., Q1=1,Q2=49, p1=129. Nh vy, 1292 49(mod 1037). Do
, 1292-72=(129-7)(129+7) 0(mod 1037). Tnh cc c chung ln nht, ta c:
(129-7,1037)=61, (129+7,1037)=17. Ta c hai c ca 1037, v trong trng hp
ny c khai trin 1037=61.17.

25

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2) Phn tch 1000009. Ta tnh c Q1=9, Q2=445, Q3=873, Q4=81. Nh vy,

p32 92(mod 100009): ta khng thu c c khng tm thng. Tnh ton tip tc,
ta c: Q18=16 l mt s chnh phng, p17=494881. Bng thut ton m t, ta tm
c cc c s 293, 3413.

26

Bi tp v tnh ton thc hnh chng 2

I. Bi tp.
2.1. Chuyn s (1999) t c s 10 sang c s 7, s (6105) t c s 7 sang c s 10.
2.2. Chuyn cc s 10001110101 v 11101001110 t c s 2 sang c s 16 (k hiu
cc ch s ca c s 16 bi 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E).
2.3. Chng minh rng mi vt nng khng qu 2k-1 (vi trng lng l s nguyn)
u c th cn bng mt ci cn hai a, s dng cc qu cn 1, 2, 22,...,2k-1.
2.4. Chng minh rng mi s nguyn u c th biu din duy nht di dng

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ek3k+ek-13k-1+...+e13+e0,

trong ej=-1, 0 hoc 1; j=0,1,...,k.

2.5. Chng minh rng, mi s thc R, 0 <1 u c th biu din duy nht
di dng c s b

= c j / b j , 0 cj b-1,
j =1

tho mn iu kin: vi mi N, tn ti n N cn b-1.

2.6. p dng bi 2.5, vit trong c s 2 vi 10 ch s sau du phy.

2.7. a) Chng minh rng mi s nguyn dng n u c biu din Cantor duy nht
di dng sau:
n=amm!+am-1(m-1)!+...+a22!+a11!.

b) Tm khai trin Cantor ca 14, 56, 384.

2.8. Gi s a l s nguyn (trong c s 10) vi bn ch s sao cho khng phi mi

ch s l nh nhau. a l s nhn c t a bng cch vit cc ch s theo th t
gim dn, a l s nhn c bng cch vit cc ch s theo th t tng dn. t
T(a)=a-a. V d: T(1998)=9981-1899.
a) Chng minh rng s nguyn duy nht (khng phi 4 ch s u nh nhau) sao cho
T(a)=a l a=6174.
b) Chng minh rng nu a l s nguyn dng 4 ch s, khng phi mi ch s u
nh nhau, th dy a, T(a), T(T(a)),... nhn c bng cch lp php ton T, s dng
s 6174 (c gi l hng s Kapreka)
2.9. c lng thi gian cn thit tnh n!.
2.10. c lng thi gian cn thit chuyn mt s k-bit sang h thp phn.
2.11. a) Chng minh rng, nu A, B l cc ma trn vung cp n th tm tch AB
(theo quy tc nhn ma trn thng thng) ta cn n3 php nhn.

27

b) Chng minh rng c th nhn hai ma trn vung cp hai m ch cn 7 php nhn,
nu s dng ng nht thc sau y:

a11

a 21

a12 b11

a 22 b21

b12
=
b22

a 11 b11 + a 12 b 21

x + ( a 11 a 21 )(b 22 b12 ) a 22 (b11 b 21 b12

x + ( a 21 + a 22 )( b12 b11 ) + ( a 11 + a 12 a 21 a 22 ) b 22
+ b 22 )

x + ( a 11 a 21 )( b 22 b12 ) + ( a 21 + a 22 )( b12 b11 )

trong x=a11b11-(a11-a21-a22)( b11-b12+b22).

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c) Bng quy np v tch ma trn 2n 2n thnh 4 ma trn n n, chng minh rng c

th nhn hai ma trn 2k 2k ch vi 7k php nhn v khng t hn 7k+1 php cng.
d) T c) suy ra rng c th nhn hai ma trn vung cp n vi O(nlogc7) php tnh bit
nu mi phn t ca ma trn c di c bit, vi hng s c no .
2.12. Dng sng Eratosthenes tm mi s nguyn t b hn 1998.

2.13. Cho Qn=p1p2...pn+1, trong p1,p2,..., pn l n s nguyn t u tin. Tm c

nguyn t b nht ca Qn, vi n=1,2,3,4,5,6.
Trong dy Qn c v hn hay hu hn s nguyn t?

2.14. Chng minh rng tn ti v hn s nguyn t.

2.15. Chng minh rng nu c nguyn t b nht p ca mt s nguyn dng n

vt qu 3 n th n/p l s nguyn t.
2.16. Chng minh rng khng tn ti mt b ba nguyn t no p, p+2, p+4 ngoi
3,5,7.
2.17. Chng minh rng nu a|x, b|x v a, b nguyn t cng nhau th a.b|x.

2.18. Chng minh rng nu a,m nguyn t cng nhau th tn ti nghch o m mod b.
2.19. Cho a,b,c,m l cc s nguyn, m dng. Gi s d l CLN ca c v m. Khi ,
nu ac bc(mod m) th a b(mod m/d).
2.20. Gi s r1, r2,...,rm l mt h thng d y modulo m, a l mt s nguyn,
nguyn t cng nhau vi m, b l s nguyn tu . Chng minh rng ar1+b, ar2+b ,...,
arm+b cng l mt h y cc thng d modulo m
2.21. Gi s a b(mod mj), j=1,2,..., k, trong mj l cc s nguyn t cng nhau
tng cp. Chng minh rng a b(mod m1m2...mk).
2.22. Cho p l s nguyn t. Chng minh rng a2 1(mod p) khi v ch khi
a 1(mod p).
2.23. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn khng m m,n v mi s nguyn a>1, ta
c
(am-1, an-1)=a(m,n)-1.

28

2.24. a) Chng minh rng c th tm c chung ln nht ca hai s nguyn dng

bng thut ton sau

2(a / 2,b / 2)

(a,b)=
(a / 2, b)
(a b, b)

nu a = b
nu a , b ch n
nu a ch n, b l
nu a , b l

b) Dng thut ton trn tm (2106, 8318).

2.25. Chng minh rng, vi mi n, tm c n s t nhin lin tip sao cho mi s
u c c l s chnh phng.

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2.26. Gi s n=p1p2...pk, trong pj l cc s nguyn t, v n l mt s Carmichael.

Chng minh rng k 3. p dng kt qu tm ra s Carmichael nh nht.
2.27. Chng minh rng, nu 6m+1, 12m+1, 18m+1 u l s nguyn t th
(6m+1)(12m+1)(18m+1) l s Carmichael.
Chng minh cc s sau y l s Carmichael:

1729, 294409, 56052361, 118901521, 172947529.

2.28. Chng minh rng 6601 l mt s Carmichael.

2.29. Chng minh rng n=2047=23.89 l s gi nguyn t mnh c s 2.

2.30. Cho b,m l cc s nguyn nguyn t cng nhau, a,c l cc s nguyn dng.
Chng minh rng, nu ba 1(mod m), bc 1(mod m) v d=(a,c) th bd 1(mod m).
2.31. Cho p l s nguyn t, p|bm-1. Chng minh rng, hoc p|bd-1 vi d no l
c thc s ca m (khc m), hoc d 1(mod m). Nu p>2, m l th trong trng hp
sau, ta c p 1(mod 2n).
2.32. p dng bi tp trn phn tch ra tha s cc s 211-1=2047, 213-1=8191,
312-1=531440, 235-1=34355738367.
2.33. Tm phn s lin tc ca cc s

2 , 3,

5, (1+ 5 )/2.

2.34. Bit phn s lin tc ca e l

e=[2;1,2,1,1,4,1,1,6,1,1,8,...]

a) Tm 8 phn s hi t ring u tin ca e.

b) Tm xp x hu t tt nht ca e c mu s b hn 100.
2.35. Cho l mt s v t. Chng minh rng, hoc | -pk/qk|<1/2qk2, hoc
| -pk+1/qk+1|<1/2qk+12.
2.36. Cho f(x) l mt a thc tu vi h s nguyn. Chng minh rng tn ti v hn
s nguyn k sao cho f(k) l hp s.

29

II. Thc hnh tnh ton trn my

i vi tt c cc chng, tnh ton thc hnh trn my tnh vi chng trnh Maple
c bt u bng dng lnh:
[>with(numtheory);

Cc php ton s hc ( php cng [+], php tr [-], php nhn [*], php chia [/],
php lu tha [^], khai cn bc hai [sqrt(.)],...) c vit v thc hin theo th t
quen bit.

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Lun lun ghi nh rng cui dng lnh phi l du chm phy (;) hoc du (:). Mun
thc hin dng lnh no th phi a con tr v dng lnh (sau du chm phy) v
nhn phm [Enter]. Hy thc hin cc dng lnh theo ng trnh t trc sau, v mt
s tnh ton trong cc bc sau c th yu cu kt qu t cc bc trc.

II. 1. Thc hnh kim tra mt s l s nguyn t

kim tra mt s n c phi l s nguyn t hay khng ta thc hin lnh nh sau:
[>isprime(n);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter. Nu trn mn hnh hin ra ch true th n l s

nguyn t, nu trn mn hnh hin ra ch false th n l hp s.
Th d: S 2546789 c phi l s nguyn t hay khng?
[>isprime(n);

False

Vy 2546789 khng phi l s nguyn t.

II. 2. Thc hnh tm c chung ln nht

thc hnh tm c chung ln nht ca hai s a v b, hy vo dng lnh c c

php nh sau:
[>gcd(a,b);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter th vic tm c chung ln nht s c thc hin v s

c ngay kt qu.
Th d: Tm c s chung ln nht ca 2 s 157940 v 78864.

Thc hin bng cu lnh sau:

[> gcd(157940,78800);
20

Vy c chung ln nht ca 157940 v 78864 l 20.

II. 3. Phn tch ra tha s nguyn t

phn tch s n ra tha s nguyn t ta thc hin lnh sau:

30

[>ifactor(n);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter th vic phn tch n ra tha s nguyn t s c thc
hin v s c ngay kt qu.
Th d: Phn tch s 122333444455555666666777777788888888999999999 ra tha
s nguyn t.

Ta thc hin nh sau:

[>

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ifactor(122333444455555666666777777788888888999999999);

(3)(12241913785205210313897506033112067347143)(3331)

Ta cng c th dng lnh trn kim tra xem mt s n c phi l s nguyn t hay
khng

II. 4. Thc hnh kim tra mt s l s Carmichael

Ta nh li nh l 2. 17 nh sau:

nh l 2.17. Nu n=q1q2...qk, trong qj l cc s nguyn t khc nhau tho mn

(qj-1) |(n-1), th n l s Carmichael.

Do kim tra xem mt s n c phi l s Carmichael hay khng ta thc hin

theo cc bc sau:
Bc 1: Phn tch n thnh tch cc tha s nguyn t, ta thc hin bng dng lnh:
[>ifactor(n);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s hin ra kt qu phn tch n ra tha s
nguyn t. Nu n l hp s v c dng n=q1q2...qk, trong qj l cc s nguyn t
khc nhau th thc hin tip bc kim tra th 2. Nu khng th c th khng nh n
khng phi l s Carmichael.
Bc 2:. Thc hin cc php tnh chia (n-1):(qj-1), ta thc hin bng dng lnh sau:

[>(n-1)/(qj-1);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s hin ra kt qu thng ca php chia.
Nu vi mi j=1,2, ..., k cc thng tm c l cc s nguyn th ta khng nh n l
s Carmichael, nu khng th tr li khng phi.
Th d 1: S 6601 c phi l s Carmichael hay khng?

Thc hin kim tra nh sau:

[>ifactor(6601);
(7)(23)(41)

31

6601 c phn tch thnh cc tha s nguyn t khc nhau, vy c th nghi ng n

l s Carmichel. kim tra xem n c thc s l s Carmichel hay khng, ta thc
hin cc lnh sau:
[>(6601-1)/(7-1);
1100
[>(6601-1)/(23-1);
300
[>(6601-1)/(41-1);
165

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Vy 6601 l s Carmichael.

Th d 2: S 6 c phi l s Carmichael hay khng?

Thc hin kim tra nh sau:

[>ifactor(6);

(2)(3)

[>(6-1)/(2-1);

[>(6-1)/(3-1);

5
2

Vy 6 khng phi l s Carmichael.

Th d 3: S 45 c phi l s Carmichael hay khng?

Thc hin kim tra nh sau:

[>ifactor(45);

(3)2(5)

S 45 khng tho mn bc th nht.

Vy 45 khng phi l s Carmichael.

II. 5. Thc hnh kim tra mt s l gi nguyn t

Cho hai s nguyn dng n, b. kim tra xem n c phi l s gi nguyn t c s
b hay khng ta thc hin cc bc nh sau:
Bc 1: Kim tra n l hp s, ta thc hin dng lnh:
[>isprime(n);

32

Sau du (;) n phm Enter. Nu trn mn hnh hin ra ch true th n l s

nguyn t, nu trn mn hnh hin ra ch false th n l hp s. Nu n l s nguyn
t th n khng phi l s gi nguyn t c s b. Nu ngc li thc hin tip bc 2.
Bc 2: Kim tra ng d thc bn-b 0(mod n), thc hin bng dng lnh:
[>b&^n-b mod n;

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s hin ra kt qu. Nu l s 0 th n l

s gi nguyn t c s b.
Th d1: S 561 c phi l s gi nguyn t c s 2 hay khng?

Ta thc hin cc lnh sau:

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[>isprime(561);

false

[>2&^561-2 mod 561;

Vy 561 l s gi nguyn t c s 2.

Th d 2: S 12241913785205210313897506033112067347143 c phi l s gi
nguyn t c s 8 hay khng?

Ta thc hin cc lnh sau:

[>ispime(12241913785205210313897506033112067347143);
true

S 12241913785205210313897506033112067347143 l mt s nguyn t. Do
12241913785205210313897506033112067347143 khng phi l s gi nguyn t
c s 8.
Th d 3: S 326 c phi l s gi nguyn t c s 3 hay khng?

Ta thc hin cc lnh sau:

[>isprime(326);

false

[>3&^326-3 mod 326;

Vy 326 l khng phi l s gi nguyn t c s 3.

II. 6. Thc hnh kim tra mt s l s gi nguyn t mnh

Cho n l s nguyn dng l, b l s nguyn dng. kim tra n c phi l s gi
nguyn t mnh c s b hay khng ta thc hin theo cc bc sau:
Bc 1: Kim tra n l hp s, ta thc hin bng dng lnh:

33

[>isprime(n);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter. Nu trn mn hnh hin ra ch true th n l s

nguyn t, nu trn mn hnh hin ra ch false th n l hp s. Nu n l s nguyn
t th n khng phi l s gi nguyn t mnh c s b. Nu ngc li thc hin tip
bc 2.
Bc 2: Phn tch n-1 ra tha s nguyn t, ta thc hin bng dng lnh:
[>ifactor(n-1);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s hin ra s phn tch ca n-1 v ta thu
c kt qu c dng n-1=2st, trong s l s nguyn dng, t l s nguyn dng
l.

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Bc 3: Kim tra ng d thc bt-1 0(mod n). Vo lnh

[>b&^t-1 mod n;

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s hin ra kt qu. Nu l s 0 th n l

s gi nguyn t mnh c s b, nu kt qu l mt s khc 0 ta thc hin tip bc 4.
Bc 4: Kim tra cc ng d thc
dng lnh:

(b 2 t + 1) 0(mod n) vi j=0,...s-1, ta thc hin

[>seq (b&^((2^j)t)+1 mod n, j=0..s-1);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s hin ra dy kt qu. Nu trong dy kt

qu c mt s l s 0 th n l s gi nguyn t mnh c s b.
Th d: S 2047 c phi l s gi nguyn t mnh c s 2 hay khng?

Thc hin kim tra nh sau:

[>isprime(2047);

false

Do n l hp s. Tip tc thc hin lnh

[>ifactor(n-1);

(2)(3)(11)(31)

Tip tc thc hin lnh

[>2&^(3*11*31)-1 mod 2047;

Vy 2047 l s gi nguyn t mnh c s 2.

II. 7. Thc hnh biu din mt s di dng phn s lin tc

1. Biu din s n di dng phn s lin tc theo cch thng thng vi s thng
trong biu din l k, ta dng lnh:
[>cfrac(n,k);

34

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s xut hin kt qu.

Th d: Biu din di dng phn s lin tc theo cch thng thng vi 6
thng.

Ta thc hin lnh:

[> cfrac (Pi,6);
1

3+

7+

15 +

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1+

292 +

1+

1
1+...

2. Biu din s n di dng phn s lin tc theo cch n gin vi s ch s trong

biu din l k, ta dng lnh:
[>cfrac(n,k,quotients);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s xut hin kt qu.

Th d: Biu din di dng phn s lin tc theo cch vit n gin vi 100 ch
s biu din.

Ta thc hin lnh:

[> cfrac (Pi,100,quotients);

[3,7,15,1,292,1,1,1,2,1,3,1,14,2,1,1,2,2,2,2,1,84,2,1,1,
15,3,13,1,4,2,6,6,99,1,2,2,6,3,5,1,1,6,8,1,7,1,2,3,7,1,
2,1,1,12,1,1,1,3,1,1,8,1,1,2,1,6,1,1,5,2,2,3,1,2,4,4,16,
1,161,45,1,22,1,2,2,1,4,1,2,24,1,2,1,3,1,2,1,1,10,2,...]
3. Biu din s n di dng phn s lin tc theo chu k tun hon, ta dng lnh:
[>cfrac(n,periodic);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s xut hin kt qu.

Th d: Biu din 31/2 di dng phn s lin tc theo chu k tun hon.

Ta thc hin lnh:

[>cfrac (3^(1/2),'periodic');
1

1+

1+

2+
1+

1
2 +...

35

4. Biu din s n di dng phn s lin tc theo chu k tun hon n gin, ta dng
lnh:
[>cfrac (n,'periodic','quotients');

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s xut hin kt qu.

Th d: Biu din 31/2 di dng phn s lin tc theo chu k tun hon n gin.

Ta thc hin lnh:

[> cfrac (3^(1/2),'periodic','quotients');
[[1], [1, 2]]

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II. 8. Thc hnh tm phn s hi t th k ca mt s

thc hnh tm phn s hi t th k ca mt s n, ta thc hin theo cc lnh sau:
Buc 1: Biu din n di dng phn s lin tc
[> cf:= cfrac(n);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s xut hin s biu din
Bc 2: Tnh phn s hi t th k
[> nthconver(cf,k);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s xut hin ra kt qu.

Trong qu trnh thc hin ta khng cn bit kt qu hin th bc 1, do c th

thay du (;) bng du (:) dng lnh u tin ([>cf:=cfrac(n):). Khi trn
mn hnh s hin ra du nhc ([>) thc hin tip lnh th 2.
Th d: Tnh phn s hi t th 5 ca e.

Ta thc hin nh sau:

[> cf:= cfrac(exp(1));

cf : = 2 +

1+

2+

1+

1+

4+

1+

1+
6+
[> nthconver(cf,5);

36

1
1+...

87
32
Nh vy, phn s hi t th 5 ca e l

87
.
32

II. 8. Thc hnh i c s

1. thc hnh i mt s n t c 10 sang c s b ta dng dng lnh sau:
[>convert(n,base,b);

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Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s hin ln mt dng kt qu. Ch rng
kt qu a ra trn mn hnh c vit theo th t ngc li.
Th d 1: i s 24564 t c s 10 sang c s 6.

Ta thc hnh nh sau:

[>convert(24564,base,6);

[0, 2, 4, 5, 0, 3]

Vy ta c s l (305420)6.

Ch : Trong trng hp c s b >10, ta vn thc hin dng lnh i c s nh

bnh thng. Tuy nhin, sau khi nhn c kt qu, trnh nhm ln ta thc hin
vic t tng ng cc s ln hn 10 vi cc k hiu no . Ta xem v d sau:
Th d 2: i s 45676 t c s 10 sang c s 15, trong t 10=A,
11=B,12=C,13=D,14=E.

Ta thc hnh nh sau:

[>L:=convert(45676,base,6):

[>subs(10=A,11=B,12=C,13=D,14=E,L);

[1, 0, 8, D]

Vy ta c s l (D801)15.

2. thc hnh i mt s n t c s a sang c s b ta dng dng lnh sau:

[> convert(n,base,a,b);

Sau du (;) n phm Enter trn mn hnh s hin ln mt dng kt qu. Ch rng
kt qu a ra trn mn hnh c vit theo th t ngc li.
Th d: i s 305420 trong c s 6 sang c s 10.

Ta thc hin dng lnh

37

[> convert([0,2,4,5,0,3],base,6,10);

[4, 6, 5, 4, 2]

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Vy ta c kt qu l (24564)10

38

Chng 3

Cc hm s hc
Khi nghin cu cc s nguyn, ta thng lm vic vi cc i lng nh: s cc c
ca mt s nguyn t cho trc, tng cc c ca n, tng cc lu tha bc k ca cc
c,... Ngoi nhng v d cn c rt nhiu hm s hc quan trng khc. Trong
chng ny, ta ch xt s qua mt vi hm quan trng. Phn ln ca chng c
ginh cho hm Euler, l mt trong nhng hm s hc quan trng nht.

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1. nh ngha.

nh ngha 3.1. Hm s hc tc l hm xc nh trn tp hp cc s nguyn dng.

nh ngha 3.2. Mt hm s hc f c gi l nhn tnh nu vi mi n, m nguyn t
cng nhau, ta c f(mn)=f(m)f(n). Trong trng hp ng thc ng vi mi m,n
(khng nht thit nguyn t cng nhau), hm f c gi l nhn tnh mnh.
Nhng v d n gin nht v hm nhn tnh (mnh) l: f(n)=n v f(n)=1.

D chng minh tnh cht sau y: nu f l mt hm nhn tnh, n l s nguyn dng

c khai trin thnh tha s nguyn t dng n=p1a1p2a2...pkak, th f(n) c tnh theo
cng thc
f(n)=f(pa1)f(pa2)...f(pak).

2. Phi hm Euler.

Trong cc hm s hc, hm Euler m ta nh ngha sau y c vai tr rt quan trng.

nh ngha 3.3. Phi- hm Euler (n) l hm s hc c gi tr ti n bng s cc s
khng vt qu n v nguyn t cng nhau vi n.
V d. T nh ngha ta c: (1)=1, (2)=1, (3)=2, (4)=2, (5)=4, (6)=2,
(7)=6, (8)=4 , (9)=6, (10)=4.
T nh ngha trn y ta c ngay h qu trc tip: S p l nguyn t khi v ch khi
(p)=p-1.
Nu nh l Fermat b cho ta cng c nghin cu ng d modulo mt s nguyn t,
th Phi-hm Euler c dng xt ng d modulo mt hp s. Trc khi i vo
vn , ta cn mt s nh ngha sau.

39