Energy Methods

(Chapter 14)
1. Internal Strain Energy Stored and External Work done
2. Conservation of Energy
3. Impact Loading
4. Principle of Virtual Work
5. Castiglianos Theorem
External Work done
Due to an Axial Load on a Bar
Consider a bar, of length L and cross-sectional area A, to be subjected to an end
axial load P. Let the deformation of end B be
1
. When the bar is deformed by axial load,
it tends to store energy internally throughout its volume. The externally applied load P,
acting on the bar, does work on the bar dependent on the displacement
1
at its end B,
where the load is applied. Let this external work done by the load be designated as u
e
.
Drawing the force-deformation diagram of the bar, as it is loaded by P.
1
1
P
A
B
End displacement
Applied force P
P
F
d
1

1
0
done work External Fd u
e
Since the force versus the end displacement relationship is linear, F at any displacement
can be represented by
F = k , where k = a constant of proportionality
1
1
2
1
0
0 0
2
k P since ,
2 2 2
1
1 1

,
_

P k k
d k Fd u
e
(A)
The external work done on the bar by P increases from zero to the maximum as the load
P increases from 0 to P (in a linear manner). Therefore the total work done can be
represented by the average magnitude of externally applied force (viz., P/2), multiplied
by the total displacement
1
(as given by equation (A)).
Let an additional load P be applied to the bar after the load P has caused an end
extension of
1
at B. Considering the deformation of the end B of the bar due to the
application of an additional load P at B, let the additional deformation of the bar be equal
to .
2
1
P
A
B
End displacement
Applied force
F
G
1
L
P

P
P
H
I
Area = P
Area = P
Area = P1
E
C D
J
O
The total external work done
) )( (
2
1
1
+ + P P u
e

+ + + P P P P
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1 1
Considering
S
OEF and OED, Area of Figure GHIF = Area of Figure CDJH
i.e., P P
1

+ +
+ + +
+ + +
P P P
P P P P
P P P P u
e
2
1
2
1

2
1
) (
2
1
2
1

2
1
) (
2
1
2
1
1
1
1 1
Hence when a bar (having a load P acting on it) is subjected to an additional load P, then
the work done by (the already acting) P due to the incremental deformation (caused by
P) is equal to P. This is similar, to a suddenly applied load P creating an instantaneous
deformation , producing an external work of P.
3
Incremental work
done on the bar
when load P was
applied at B,
initially
Incremental work done
on the bar if the load P is
applied to the bar
resulting in a
displacement
Additional work
done by P as the
bar deforms by
an additional
Area = P1

Work done due to an end moment

Let a moment M be applied to end B of the beam AB. Let the rotation at end B be
1
due
to M. Since M and gradually increase from zero to
1
(following earlier formulations for
an axially loaded bar),
1 1
0
2
1

work external
1

M
Md U
e

________________________________________________________________________
Work done due to the externally applied torque T
1
4

M1
A
B

1
M1
Moment
T1
1 1
0
2
1

1

T
Td u
e

Internal Energy Stored (or Internal Work Done)

Due to an end axial force
The internal strain energy stored in the material is dependent on the amount of stresses
and strains created within the volume of the structure.
5
1
T1
Torque
dx
dy
dz
z
z
P
Z
w is the
displacement
dz
dy
dx
z
z
z
y
x

Stress
Strain
Complementary
strain energy
Strain
energy
The internal strain energy U
i
stored within the body is given by

moved) (distance element)] on force average [(
i i
du U
( )
E
dV
E
dv
dxdydz
d dxdy
z
V
z
V
z z
V
z z
V
z z z

,
_

z
2
since
2 2
1
2
1
) (
2
1
2
1
dz dw
dz
dw
z
z

Due to Shear Stresses and Strains

( )


,
_

dz dydx du U
zy zy i i

2
1
[Force on other faces do not do any work since motion of face ABCD is zero]
6
Average force on
top face, i.e.,
EFGH
distance moved
dz
dy
dx
z
y
x
D C
B A
H G
F E
zy
yz
zy
zydz
G
dv
G
dv
dxdydz
xy
v
xy
v
zy xy
zy xy

xy
2
since
2
1
2
1
2
1
Due to a bending moment

,
_

L
A
V v
i
EI
dx M
dx
EI
I M
dA y dx
EI
M
dxdydz
E
I
My
dV
E
U
0
2 L
0
2
2
L
0
2
2
2
2
2
2 2

2

2 2

I - can be constant or varying

Due to an axial force

,
_

V
i
dV
E
A
N
dV
E
U
2 2
2
2

7
x
y
M
M
N
N

L
2
2

2
2
) (
2
2
2
2

AE
dx N
V L
E A
Adx N
E A
dV N
Due to a transverse shear force
section - cross of shape on depending es shear vari Since
shear. for factor form f where ,
2

2

2GI
V

2
1
2
s
L
0
2
L
0
2
2
2
2
2
2 L
0
2
2
2
2

,
_

,
_

,
_

GA
dx V f
dx dA
t
Q
I
A
GA
V
dx dA
t
Q
dAdx
It
VQ
G
dV
G
U
s
A
A
V V
i

[See pages 11 and 12 for additional details concerning the form factor f
s
]
Due to a torsional moment
8
V
x
z
y
L
T
T
( )

,
_

L
0
2
2
2
L
0
2
2
2
2
2 2

2

2
1
2
dx
GJ
T
dx
GJ
J T
dx dA
GJ
T
dV
J
T
G
dV
G
U
V V
i

Due to Three dimensional Stresses and Strains
Multi-axial Stresses: The previous development may be expanded to determine the
strain energy in a body when it is subjected to a general state of stress, Figure shown
above. The strain energies associated with each of the normal and shear stress
components can be obtained from Eqs. I and II. Since energy is a scalar, the strain energy
in the body is therefore
1
]
1

+ + + + +
V
xz xz yz yz xy xy z z y y x x i
U
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
(I)
The strains can be eliminated by using the generalized form of Hooks law given by
Equations given in Chapter 10. After substituting and combining terms, we have
9
x
y
z
xy
xz
yz
yx
1
3
2
Fig. 14-5
( ) ( ) ( )
1
]
1

+ + + + + + +
V
xz yz xy z x z y y x z x x i
dV
G E E
U
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
1
2
1

(II)
where,
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
( )
) 1 ( 2
1
1
1

+
+
+
E
G
G
G
G
E
E
E
xz
zx xz
yz
yz
xy
xy
y x z z
x z y y
z y x x
If only the principal stresses 3 2 1
, ,
act on the element, as shown in the earlier figure,
this equation reduces to a simpler form, namely,
( ) ( ) dV
E E
U
V
i
1
]
1

+ + + +
3 1 3 2 2 1
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
1

(14 14)
Recall that we used this equation in Sec. 10.7 as a basis for developing the maximum-
distortion-energy theory.
________________________________________________________________________
Using the principle of conservation of energy
Internal strain energy stored in the structure due to the applied load =
External work done by the applied load.
10
_____________________________________________________________
Appendix to: Effect of Transverse Shear Forces

1
]
1

L
A
r
dx dA
y t
y x Q
x I x G
x V
U
0
2
2
2
2
) (
) , (
) ( ) (
) (
2
1
(1)
To simplify this expression for U
r
, let us define a new cross-sectional properties f
s
, called
the form factor for shear. Let
dA
y t
y x Q
x I
x A
x f
A
s

) (
) , (
) (
) (
) (
2
2
2
(2)
(The form factor is a dimensionless number that depends only on the shape of the cross
section, so it rarely actually varies with x). Combining Eqs. 1 and 2 we get the following
expression for the strain energy due to shear in bending :

L
s
r
GA
dx V f
U
0
2
2
1
(3)
The form factor for shear must be evaluated for each shape of cross section. For
example, for a rectangular cross section of width b and height h, the expression

,
_

2
4
2
2
y
h b
Q
was obtained in example Problem 6.14 (Chapter 6). Therefore, from Eq. 2 we get
5
6
4 2
1
12
1
2
2 /
2 /
2
2
2 2
3

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

bdy y
h b
b
bh
bh
f
h
h
s
(4)
11
The form factor for other cross-sectional shapes is determined in a similar manner.
Several of these are listed in Table A, given below. The approximation for an I-section or
box section is based on assuming that the shear force is uniformly distributed over the
depth of the web(s).
Table A: Form Factor f
s
for shear
Section f
s
Rectangle 6/5
Circle 10/9
Thin tube 2
I-section or box section A/A
web
Impact Problems Using Energy Methods
What are impact forces?
Suddenly applied forces that act for a short duration of time
- Collision of an automobile with a guard rail
- Collision of a pile hammer with the pile
- Dropping of a weight on to a floor
12
W
h

st
max
t
Plastic impact
Loaded member vibrates till equilibrium is established.
Assumptions:
1. At impact, all kinetic energy of striking mass is entirely transferred to the structure. It
is transferred as strain energy within the deformable body.
2 2
2
1
2
1
v
g
W
mv U
i

,
_

This means that the striking mass should not bounce off the structure and retain
some of its kinetic energy.
2. No energy is lost in the form of heat, sound or permanent deformation of the striking
mass.
Axial Impact of an Elastic Rod
v
i
= velocity of impact
2
2
1
e
U
2
2
2
2
2
2
i
mv
E
V
x
vol
dV
E
x
dV
vol
E
x
i
U

Equating U
i
= U
e
13
m
vi

L
AL
E
i
mv
Vol
E
i
mv
x
i
mv
E
Vol
x
2 2
,
2
2
1
2
2
1

EA
L
i
mv
AL
E
i
mv
E
L
x
E
L
L
E
x
E
L
x
2 2
,
x
,

Impact Response of an elastic spring

Static deflection of spring
st
k
W

k = spring constant = load per unit deformation
max

= maximum deflection of spring due to impact =

F
e
= maximum force in spring during impact
k k
max
14
W (m = W/g)
h
Velocity = vi (just
before impact)
W
max
max
( )
( )
-I -
2
1 1 2
0 2 2 ., .
0
2 2
0
2
1
., .
2
1
2
1
2
1
) (
2
2
2 2
2
1
]
1

+ t + t



,
_

,
_

+
st
st st st st
st st
e i e
h
h
h e i
k
Wh
k
W
Wh W k e i
k k F h W U U

If we use the velocity at impact as a parameter, just before impact
(II)
2
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
g
v
h
v
g
W
mv Wh
i
i i


Substituting in Eqn. (I),
1
1
]
1

+ +
st
i
st
g
v

2
1 1
(III)
Impact Bending of a Beam
W
+

impact
i e
P h W
U U
2
1
) (
For a central load,
15

h
( )
3
2
3
3
3
L
24EI

48
2
1
) (
48
48

,
_

L
EI
h W
L
EI
P
EI
L P
impact
impact
0
24 24
., .
0
24
3 3
2
3
2

,
_

,
_

h
EI
WL
EI
WL
e i
Wh W
L
EI

Let
EI
WL
st
48
3

1
1
]
1

,
_

+ t
+ t

st
st st st
st st
h
h
h

2 1 1
2
0 2 2
st
2
2
To find the impact bending stress,

,
_

,
_

,
_

I
Lc
I
c
L P
I
c M
impact impact
4 L
48EI

4
3
max

Virtual Work Method for Deflections (or Deformations)

Work-energy method, of equating the external work to internal strain energy, has the
disadvantage that normally only the deflection (or deformation) caused by a single force
16
can be obtained. The method of virtual work provides a general procedure to determine
the deflections and slopes (or rotations) at any point in the structure (which can be a truss,
a beam or frame) subjected a number of loadings.
To develop the virtual work method in a general manner, let us consider a body or
a structure of arbitrary shape (later this body will be made to represent a specific truss,
beam or frame) shown in the figure below.
= Deformation at A, along AB, caused by the loads P
1
, P
2
and P
3
.
Let us assume that we want to determine the deflection of a point A, along the line AB,
caused by a number of actual (or real) forces P
1
, P
2
and P
3
acting on the body, as shown in
Figure (b). To find at A, along AB, due to the applied loads (P
1
, P
2
and P
3
), using the
virtual work method, the following procedure could be used.
17
A
B
1
u
u
P
O
L
(unit virtual
force)
(Internal virtual
force)
A
B
u
u
P
O
L
(Internal virtual
force)
A
u
u
P
O
L
P
1
P
2
P
3
L
(magnitude = 1)

(a) Virtual Forces

(b) Real Forces
(acting on the
body)
Figure (a)
Step 1: Place a virtual force (here we use a unit virtual force) on the body at point A in
the same direction AB, along which the deflection is to be found. The term virtual force
is used to indicate that the force is an imaginary one and does not exist as part of the real
forces. This unit force, however, causes internal virtual forces throughout the body. A
typical virtual force (acting on a representative element of the body) is shown in Figure
(a).
Figure b
Step 2: Next place the real forces, P
1
, P
2
and P
3
on the body [Figure (b)]. These forces
cause the point A to deform by an amount along the line AB, while the representative
element, of length L, now deforms by an amount dL. As these deformations occur within
the body, the external unit virtual force (already acting on the body before P
1
, P
2
and P
3
are applied) moves through the displacement ; similarly the internal virtual force u
18
(unit virtual
force)
A
B
1
u
u
P
O
L
P
1
P
2
P
3
dL

acting on the element (before P

1
, P
2
and P
3
are applied) moves through the displacement
dL. These forces, moving through displacements and dL, do work.
Step 3: The external virtual unit force, moving through displacement , performs
external virtual work given as (1) times (), on the body. Similarly, the internal virtual
force u, moving through displacement dL, performs internal virtual work given as (u)
times (dL). Since the external virtual work is equal to the internal virtual work done on all
elements making up the body, we express the virtual work equation as:

) ( 1 dL u
(A)
The summation sign, in Eqn. (A), indicates that all the internal virtual work in the whole
body must be included. Eqn. (A) gives the deflection along the line of action of unit
virtual force. A positive value for indicates that the deflection is in the same direction
as the unit force.
In writing down Eqn. (A), one has to remember that the full values of the virtual
forces (unit force at A, and all the internal forces, u
i
) were already acting on the body
when the real forces were applied (viz. P
1
, P
2
and P
3
). Therefore, no one-half appears in
any term of Eqn. (A).
In a similar manner, the rotation (or slope) at a point in a body can be determined by
applying a virtual unit moment or couple (instead of a unit force) at the point where the
rotation is desired (see Figure below).
19
Real
deformations
Virtual forces
(a) Virtual unit moment applied (b) Real forces P
1
, P
2
and P
3
applied
(Develop virtual force u, within (Virtual unit moment rotates through an
the body) angle )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) dL u
m


1
(B)
Specific Structures
Trusses
(i) Subjected to applied external loads only
20
A
B
1
u
u
P
O
L
(Virtual unit
moment)
(Internal virtual
force)
A
u
u
P
O
L
P
1
P
2
P
3
dL

Real slope
Real deformation
Virtual unit
moment
Virtual internal forces
If u
i
represents the internal forces developed in the members, due to an applied
unit load (at the point where the deformation is to obtained) in the required
direction, then Eqn. (A) can be expressed as
( ) ( )


i i
i i i
E A
L P u
1
(C)
(ii) For trusses subjected to a temperature change (causing internal forces)
The incremental deformation caused in member due to a temperature rise is dL,
where
( ) L T dL
Also
( ) ( ) ( )

n
i
i i i i
L T u
1
1
(D)
(iii) Trusses with Fabrication Errors
( ) ( )

n
i
i i
L u
1
1
(E)
where
L = difference in length of the member from its intended length, caused
by a fabrication error.
Beams
For loads acting on a beam subjected to bending moments alone, the deformation
, at a given point along a given direction is given by
21
Temperature
change
( ) ( )


EI
mMdx
1
(F)
where m is the bending moment in the member when a unit load is applied on the
structure at the specified point in the specified direction. For a general loading on the
beam, generating axial, shear, bending and torsional forces/moments in the beam
( ) ( )

+ + + dx
GJ
tT
dx
GA
vV f
dx
EI
mM
dx
AE
nN
s
1 (G)
where n is the axial force generated in the beam when a unit load is applied on the beam
in the required direction; similarly m, v and t are the bending moment, shear force and
torsional moment generated under the applied unit load.
Consider a truss subjected to loads F
1
, F
2
and F
3
Unit virtual load is applied in the direction in which the deflection is required, say at B in
the vertical direction. Let u
AB
, u
BC
, u
CA
and u
CD
be the internal forces generated when the
unit load is applied at B.
22
A
C
B
D
A
C
B
D
1
F3
F2
F1
Let P
AB
, P
BC
, P
CA
and P
CD
be the internal forces generated in the truss members due to the
given loads F
1
, F
2
and F
3
acting on the beam. Then the vertical deflection at B is obtained
as,

n
i i i
i i i
B
E A
L P u
v
1
(H)
Considering a Beam Subjected to Bending Loads P
1
, P
2
and P
3
Let us say that it is required to find the vertical deflection at C due to the given loads.
(i) Apply a unit vertical load (virtual) at C in the vertical direction and find the
moment m in the beam.
(ii) Then apply the given loads on the beam (say P
1
, P
2
and P
3
) and compute the
bending moments M in the beam. Then the deflection
v
at C is obtained

EI
mMdx
C
v
(I)
23
L
L/2
A
B
C
L
L/2
A
B C
P1
P2
P3
Castiglianos Theorem
(Based on the strain energy stored in a body)
Consider a beam AB subjected to loads P
1
and P
2
, acting at points B
1
and B
2
,
respectively.
22 21 2
12 11 1
v v v
v v v
+
+
If
11 1 11
v P f ,
where f
11
= deflection at B
1
due to a unit load at B
1
and
21 1 21
v P f with f
21
= deflection at B
2
due to a unit load at B
1
and
2 22 22
P f v , with f
22
= deflection at B
2
due to a unit load at B
2
&
2 12 12
P f v , with f
12
= deflection at B
1
due to a unit load at B
2
.
24
P1 P2
B1 B2
v2
v1
P1
B1
B2
v21
v11
=
P1 P2
v22
v12
+
Then
(I) f
2 12 1 11
12 11 1
P f P
v v v
+
+
Similarly,
(II) f
2 22 1 21
22 21 2
P f P
v v v
+
+
Considering the work done = U
i

(III)
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 1 12
2
2 22
2
1 11
2 12 1 2 22 2 1 11 1
12 1 22 2 11 1
P P f P f P f
P f P P f P P f P
v P v P v P
+ +
+ +
+ +
Now we reverse the order the application of loads P
1
and P
2
, viz., applying P
2
at B
2
first
and then applying P
1
at B
1
,
25
P1 P2
B1 B2
v2
v1
P2
B1 B2
v22
v12
=
P1 P2 v21 v11
+
f
1 11 2 12 11 12 1
P f P v v v + +
Similarly,
f
1 21 2 22 21 22 2
P f P v v v + +
U
i
=
(IV)
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 11 2 1 21
2
2 22
1 11 1 1 21 2 2 22 2
11 1 21 2 22 2
P f P P f P f
P f P P f P P f P
v P v P v P
+ +
+ +
+ +
Considering equation (III) and (IV), and equating them, it can be shown that
2
1 11 2 1 21
2
2 22
2 1 12
2
2 22
2
1 11
2
1
2
1

2
1
2
1
P f P P f P f
P P f P f P f U
i
+ +
+ +
21 12
f f This is called Betti Maxwells reciprocal theorem
26
1
B1 B2
f21
1
B1 B2
f22 f12
Deflection at B
2
due to a unit load at P
1
is equal to the deflection at B
1
due to a unit load
at P
2
.
From Eqn. (III)
1 2 12 1 11
1
v P f P f
P
U
i
+

From Eqn. (IV)

2 1 21 2 22
2
v P f P f
P
U
i
+

This is Castiglianos first theorem.

Similarly the energy U
i
can be express in terms of spring stiffnesses k
11
, k
12
(or k
21
), & k
22
and deflections v
1
and v
2
; then it can be shown that
2
2
1
1
P
v
U
P
v
U
i
i

This is Castiglianos second theorem. When rotations are to be determined,

i
i
M
v

27