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1.1. B ch ci (alphabet)
Mt b ch ci (b k hiu) l mt tp hp khng rng, k hiu l . Cc phn t ca mt b ch ci c gi l cc k hiu (symbol). Th d 2.1: B ch ci Latinh {A, B, C, ... , Z, a, b, c, ... , z} B ch ci Hylp {, , , , } B ch s thp phn {0, 1, 2, ... , 9} B k hiu Moene { . , / , - } B bit nh phn { 0, 1}
di ca mt chui w, k hiu |w| l s cc k hiu to thnh chui w. Chng hn: Chui abca c di l 4 , k hiu : |abca | = 4 Chui rng (k hiu ) l chui khng c k hiu no, v vy | | = 0. Chui v c gi l chui con ca w nu v c to bi cc k hiu lin k nhau trong chui w. Chng hn: Chui 10 l chui con ca chui 010001 Tin t ca mt chui l mt chui con bt k nm u chui v hu t ca mt chui l chui con nm cui chui. Tin t v hu t ca mt chui khc hn chnh chui ta gi l tin t v hu t thc s. Chng hn: Chui abc c cc tin t l a, ab, abc v cc hu t l c, bc, abc Chui ni kt (ghp) t hai chui con l mt chui to c bng cch vit chui th nht sau l chui th hai (khng c khong trng gia). Chng hn : Ni kt chui Long v Int l chui LongInt. S t cnh nhau nh vy c s dng nh l mt ton t ni kt. Tc l, nu w v x l hai chui th wx l s ni kt hai chui . Chui rng l n v ca php ni kt, v ta c w = w = w vi mi chui w. Ta vit v0 = ; v1 = v ; v2 = vv ... hay tng qut vi = vvi - 1 vi i > 0. Chui o ngc ca chui w, k hiu wR l chui w c vit theo th t ngc li, ngha l nu w = a1 a2 ... an th wR = an an-1 ... a1. Hin nhin : R =
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hay
= + + {}
Th d 2.2 : = {a} th * = {, a, aa, aaa, ...} + = {a, aa, aaa, ...} = {0, 1} th * = {, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, ...} + = {0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, ...}
L =U L
* i =0
L =U L
+ i =1
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Th d 2.3 : Cho ngn ng L = { a, ba } th L2 = { aa, aba, baa, baba, } L3 = { aaa, aaba, abaa, ababa, baaa, baaba, babaa, bababa, } L* = { , a, ba, aa, aba, baa, baba, aaa, aaba, abaa, ababa, baaa, baaba, }
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nh ngha quy trn cho ta mt cch sn sinh ra cc chui thuc ngn ng L nh sau : Do (i) nn ta c chui u tin trong L l . Xem l X th theo (ii) ta li c c chui th hai ab hay ab. p dng lp i lp li quy tc (ii) ta li tm c cc chui: aabb, ri li aaabbb, C nh th c th pht sinh tt c cc chui thuc ngn ng L. Bng cch p dng (mt s hu hn) quy tc pht sinh nh trn, ta c th pht sinh bt k chui no trong ngn ng. D dng nhn thy : L = {ai bi i 0}
Trong gio trnh ny, chng ta s tp trung nghin cu hai dng h pht sinh dng biu din ngn ng, nh ni trn, l vn phm v tmt. Bng cch n nh cc dng khc nhau vo cc quy tc pht sinh, ngi ta cng nh ngha nhiu loi vn phm v tmt khc nhau, t n gin n phc tp, nghin cu cc ngn ng sn sinh hay on nhn bi chng v mi lin quan gia chng vi nhau.
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nh ngha : Vn phm cu trc G l mt h thng gm bn thnh phn xc nh nh sau G (V, T, P, S), trong : . V : tp hp cc bin (variables) hay cc k hiu cha kt thc (non terminal) . T : tp hp cc k hiu kt thc (terminal) (vi V T = ) . P : tp hu hn cc quy tc ng php c gi l cc lut sinh (production), mi lut sinh c biu din di dng , vi , l cc chui (V T)*. . S V: k hiu cha kt thc dng lm k hiu bt u (start) Ngi ta thng dng cc ch ci Latinh vit hoa (A, B, C, ...) ch cc k hiu trong tp bin V; cc ch ci Latinh u bng vit thng (a, b, c, ...) dng ch cc k hiu kt thc thuc tp T. Chui cc k hiu kt thc thng c biu din bng cc ch ci Latinh cui bng vit thng (x, y, z, ...). Nhn xt : Bng quy c ny chng ta c th suy ra cc bin, cc k hiu kt thc v k hiu bt u ca vn phm mt cch xc nh v duy nht bng cch xem xt cc lut sinh. V vy, biu din vn phm, mt cch n gin ngi ta ch cn lit k tp lut sinh ca chng. T vn phm, sinh ra c cc cu (t), ta nh ngha khi nim dn xut nh sau : Nu l mt lut sinh th gi l mt dn xut trc tip, c ngha l p dng lut sinh vo chui sinh ra chui . Nu cc chui 1, 2, ...., m * v 1 2, 2 3, ..., m-1 m th ta ni m c th c dn ra t 1 thng qua chui dn xut 1 2, 2 3, ..., m-1 m hay 1 dn xut (gin tip) ra m, vit tt l 1 * m. Ngn ng ca vn phm G (V, T, P, S) l tp hp cc chui k hiu kt thc w T* c sinh ra t k hiu bt u S ca vn phm bi cc lut sinh thuc tp P, k hiu l L(G) : L (G) = {w | w T * v S * w} Mt ngn ng c th c nhiu cch c t, do cng c th c nhiu vn phm khc nhau sinh ra cng mt ngn ng. Hai vn phm sinh ra cng mt ngn ng th gi l tng ng. G1 tng ng G2 L (G1) = L (G2)
1) Vn phm loi 0: Mt vn phm khng cn tha rng buc no trn tp cc lut sinh c gi l vn phm loi 0 hay cn c gi l vn phm khng hn ch (Unrestricted Grammar) 2) Vn phm loi 1: Nu vn phm G c cc lut sinh dng v tha th G l vn phm loi 1 hoc cn c gi l vn phm cm ng cnh CSG (Context-Sensitive Grammar) Ngn ng ca lp vn phm ny c gi l ngn ng cm ng cnh (CSL) 3) Vn phm loi 2: Nu vn phm G c cc lut sinh dng A vi A l mt bin n v l mt chui cc k hiu (V T)* th G l vn phm loi 2 hoc cn c gi l vn phm phi ng cnh CFG (Context-Free Grammar) Ngn ng ca lp vn phm ny c gi l ngn ng phi ng cnh (CFL) 4) Vn phm loi 3: Nu vn phm G c mi lut sinh dng tuyn tnh phi (rightlinear): A wB hoc A w vi A, B l cc bin n v w l chui k hiu kt thc (c th rng); hoc c dng tuyn tnh tri (left-linear): A Bw hoc A w th G l vn phm loi 3 hay cn c gi l vn phm chnh quy RG (Regular Grammar) Ngn ng ca lp vn phm ny c gi l ngn ng chnh quy (RL) K hiu : L0, L1, L2, L3 l cc lp ngn ng sinh ra bi cc vn phm loi 0, 1, 2, 3 tng ng. Ta c : L3 L2 L1 L0 v cc bao hm thc ny l nghim ngt. Th d 2.5 : 1. Xt vn phm G : V = {S, A}, T = {a, b} v tp P = { S aS S aA A bA Ab} y l vn phm loi 3 (v tp lut sinh c dng tuyn tnh phi). Chng hn, mt dn xut t S c dng : S aS aaS aaaA aaabA aaabbA aaabbbA aaabbbb = a3 b4 Hay vn phm sinh ra ngn ng L(G3) = {a+b+} = {anbm n, m 1 } 2. Xt vn phm G : V = {S}, T = {a, b} v tp P = { S aSb S ab } y l vn phm loi 2. Chng hn, mt dn xut t S c dng : S aSb aaSbb aaaSbbb aaaabbbb = a4b4 Hay vn phm sinh ra ngn ng L(G2) = {anbn n 1} 3. Xt vn phm G : V = {S, B, C}, T = {a, b, c} v tp P = { S aSBC
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S aBC CB BC aB ab bB bb bC bc cC cc } y l vn phm loi 1. Chng hn, mt dn xut t S c dng : S aSBC aaBCBC aabCBC aabBCC aabbCC aabbcC aabbcc = a2b2c2 Hay vn phm sinh ra ngn ng L(G1) = {anbncn n > 0}.
IV. C CH TMT
4.1. nh ngha tmt
Ngoi cc vn phm, ngi ta cn s dng mt phng tin khc xc nh ngn ng l tmt. tmt, dch ngha l my t ng, c hiu l cc my tru tng c c cu v hot ng rt n gin nhng c kh nng on nhn ngn ng. Vi mt chui bt k, sau mt s bc lm vic, tmt s cho cu tr li chui c thuc ngn ng hay khng. c c qu trnh t ng nh vy, con ngi thng phi lp trnh sn cho n mt l trnh thc hin, v cc my ch cn hot ng theo ng l trnh ny. Mt trong s nhng my t ng ny in hnh mnh nht c th ni chnh l my tnh s ngy nay. Tuy hot ng theo kiu my, song thc cht mi bc lm vic ca tmt l mt s thay th k hiu, ngha l mt bc dn xut nh ni trn. Ni chung, mt m hnh tmt thng bao gm nhng thnh phn ch yu nh sau :
INP
B iu khin
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OUTPU
Hnh 2.1 - M hnh chung cho mt tmt
Chui nhp cn xc nh s c lu tr trn bng input. Ti mi thi im, ng vi trng thi hin thi, c vo mt k t nhp trn bng input, c th kt hp vi vic xem xt k hiu tng ng trong B nh, B iu khin ca tmt s quyt nh bc chuyn n trng thi k tip. Cc loi tmt tng ng vi tng lp vn phm s c gii thiu ln lt trong nhng chng tip theo.
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B iu BI TP CHNG II
2.1. Chng minh hoc bc b : L+ = L* - {}. 2.2. L+ hay L* c th bng khng ? Khi no th L+ hay L* l hu hn ? 2.3. Hy cho bit cc th t cho php lit k cc phn t ca cc ngn ng sau : a) {a, b}* b) {a}*{b}*{c}* c) {ww {a, b}+ v s a bng s b trong w} 2.4. Mt chui hnh thp c th nh ngha l mt chui c xui hay ngc u nh nhau, hoc cng c th nh ngha nh sau : 1) l chui hnh thp. 2) Nu a l mt k hiu bt k th a l mt chui hnh thp. 3) Nu a l mt k hiu bt k v X l mt chui hnh thp th aXa l mt chui hnh thp. 4) Khng cn chui hnh thp no ngoi cc chui cho t (1) n (3). Hy chng minh quy np rng 2 nh ngha trn l tng ng. 2.5. Cc chui ngoc n cn bng c nh ngha theo 2 cch : Cch 1 : Mt chui w trn b ch ci { ( , ) } l cn bng khi v ch khi : a) w cha cng mt s ')' v '(' b) Mi tin t ca w cha s cc '(' t nht bng s cc ')'. Cch 2 : a) ( l chui ngoc n cn bng b) Nu w l mt chui ngoc n cn bng, th (w) l chui ngoc n cn bng. c) Nu w v x l cc chui ngoc n cn bng, th wx l chui ngoc n cn bng. d) Khng cn chui ngoc n cn bng no khc vi trn. Hy chng minh bng quy np theo di chui rng 2 nh ngha trn l tng ng.
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