.

2012

:

(). ,
/:
. ()
.
:
1. , ..
2. , ..
3. , ..

(Measurements and Instrumentation)
:

Soft measurements

(.. )
, ..

.
( ) .
( !)
. ,
.
5

, ,
.

Oscilloscopes, Analyzers, Meters (5)

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1.
-

2. , ,

3.

,



4. , ,

Wheatstone Kelvin

, , RC, RL Q
Maxwell Hay
Owen, Schering Wien
[ ]

5.



6.

[ ]
[ ]
[]

7. -

1.
1. -
2.
3.
4.
5.

10

1.1 -

[d Arsonval-1890]

FC
FD

FD: (deviation)
FC:

( [Weston-1900])
F: (damping)
.
(eddy currents)
.
11

( ),
.

(taut band) ,
.

.
:
1. 5 50
2. () 1 k 50 k
3. 5 mV 250 mV


F = B I l (= Tesla m)
,
F=2BIl

F=2BIl
( r
)
TD = F r = 2 B I l N r [Nm]
A ( = 2 r l)
TD = B I N A [Nm]
. ,

TC = K0, :
TC = TD,
B I N A = K 0
0 = c I, c: , :
1.
2. ( )
12

1.2
, (1)
(2).

, .
/ (
).

,
.
:
TD = K I I , :
13

 (
, TD = K I2).
.
,
.
. (
).

:
1. 0,02 0,1
2. () 7,5 k
3. 30 V 600 V
4. 25 500 Hz
5. 0,1 0,25 %

1.3

:
, . ,
.

14

( ).
, . ,
, ( marketing ),
.
. , ,

.
() . , ,
.
.

15

, ..
.

-1. ( )
-2. ,

-3. , , .
-4.

+1.
+2.

:
1. 50 m
2. () 10 k
3. 10 V 750 V
4. 15 150 Hz
5. 0,5 %

16

1.4
: ()
. .
, 1-200 kV.
, -
. = V2, .
.
:
1. 30 V 50 kV
2. 15 Hz 300 kHz
3. 0,5 %

1.5
( )
. , ,
. ,

. (
)

. mm
( ).

17

 ,
.
.

R
R = 0 ( )
.
, .
R 0 .
.

.

18

2. ,
,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

19

20

2.1

.
, . , ..
V kV .
, .. nV.

.
. ,
,
. ,
. ,
, .

.
, R
, () .

Rm . , Rm
.

I=

vs
v
I = s
R + Rm
R

A
vs
vs

Rm

R
R

21

 ()
. .
() Rm

Rm. , Rm
.

R.
vs RI m =
vs R

vs
R
=
vs 1
vs
R + Rm
R + Rm

R
V

vs

vs

Im

I=0

Rm

1.
.
2.
.

. ,

Rm
V
V
=
=
2
W V Rm V V

,
:

Rm
1
=
V I m

50 10 100 k/V.
, .
22

1
1
. = 100 k/V. , I m =
10 106 A =
10 A .
=
=
100000

Rm = 2000 ,

Vm =Rm I m =2 103 10 106 =20 103 V =20 mV

20 mV .

(. ).

2.2
, .. ,
. ,
.
.
Rsh, , (shunt resistance).

Rm

Is

Rsh

. 99
() 0,1 mA. Rsh 1 .
(1) (2)
(3) .
(1) Vm = Rm Im = 0,1 mA 99 = 9,9 mV.
Vm = Rsh Is Is = Vm / Rsh = 9,9 mV / 1 = 9,9 mA.
, : I = Is + Im =9,9 + 0,1 = 10 mA.
(2) (3) , .
50 % 25 % . .

, .
,
23

 (
).
,
. make-before-break (. . ).

, Ayrton:

: (R1 + R2 + R3) || Rm (R1 + R2) || (Rm + R3) (R1) || (Rm + R2 +

R3).
24

. 10
10 V.
() 0,1 () 1 .
() Rm = 0,1 10/(10 + 0,1) = 0,99 . 1 ,
(1 0,99)/1 100 = 1%.
() Rm = 1 10/(10 + 1) = 0,909 . 1 ,
(1 0,909)/1 100 = 9,1%.

.

,

.

. ,


.

(clamp meter),
.

2.3
,
. ,
. , ,
. ,
RS, (multiplier resistance).
9 Rm
10 .
25

RS

Rm

. 100 Rm = 1 k
.
100 V 0,75 , 0,5
0,25 ;

V = I m ( RS + Rm ) RS + Rm =

V
V
RS =
Rm
Im
Im

100 V m = 100 , RS =999 k.

, 75 V, 50 V 25 V (
).

, .
,
(
).

26


.
50 , Rm = 1700 10, 50 100 V.

Rm + R1= V I m R1= V I m Rm R1= 10 50 106 1700 R1= 198,3 k

V = 50 100 V:

Rm + R2= V I m R2= V I m Rm R2= 50 50 106 1700 R2= 998,3 k

Rm + R3= V I m R3= V I m Rm R3= 100 50 106 1700 R3= 1,9983 M
R1 = 198,3 k 10 V

Rm + R1 + R2= V I m R2= V I m Rm R1
50 50 106 1700 998300 R=
800 k
R=
2
2
Rm + R1 + R2 + R=
V I m R=
V I m Rm R1 R2
3
3
R
=
100 50 106 1700 998300 800000 R
=
1 M
3
3

.
, 1
100 V. , = 1 / 100 V = 10 k/V. .
.
. 5 V (, ) () 20 k/V
() 200 k/V, ( ).

70 k

12 V

50 k

27

() 20 k/V 5 V 20 k/V = 100 k. ,

50 k 50 k || 100 k = 33,3 k, 12 33,3/(70 +
33,3) = 3,87 V.
(B) 200 k/V 5 V 200 k/V = 1 M. ,

50 k 50 k || 1 M = 47,62 k, 12 47,62/(70 +
47,62) = 4,86 V.
. 200 500 k/V
, .
10 /V
10 G/V.

2.4

( )
. ,
:
: 10 Hz 300 kHz
: 300 kHz 3 GHz
: 3 GHz 30 GHz
: > 30 GHz
nV kV n
k . ,
50/60 Hz 1 V 10 kV 1 10 kA.

: (peak), (RMS) (average)
.
28

1.
.
2. , ,
(Square), (Mean)
(Root):
T

f RMS =

1 2 2
f ( t ) dt
T2 T1 T1

1 = 0.
3. , ,
T

f AVG

1 2
=
f ( t ) dt
T2 T1 T1

RMS.
(dc-direct current). , .. RMS
Vdc VRMS.

(
Hz)
, . , ,
.

29

 , ,
, .
(rectification) (rectifiers)
, (diodes).

-.
,
. ,

(.. , Zener, Schottky, Gunn, LED, . ) (, ,
.). :

.
:

( )
30

 (
) .
.

= 0,637
= / 2 = 0,707
,
(. 0,637 ). ,
(. 0,707
). 0,707/0,637 = 1,11.

.
. 100
Rm = 1 k 100 VRMS.
31

 .
.
IAVG = 100 .
I peak= I=
m

I AVG
100 A
=
= 157 A .
0, 637 0, 637

Im =

( ) ( )

2 VF,
( , ).
VF = 0,7 V. 1,414
VRMS,
=
Im

1, 414 VRMS 2 VF
1, 414 VRMS 2 VF
1, 414 100 2 0, 7
=
RS
=
Rm
1000
157 106
Rm + RS
Im
RS =
890, 7 k

, .. 75 V.
75 , . .
, Im = 157 , IRMS = 0,707 Im = 111 ()
VRMS = 100 V (), R = 100 V / 111 = 900,9 k,

= 900,9 k / 100 V = 9 k/V

() () .

() ,
( 100 mV). , 0,5
0,7 V ,
.
( )
32

 .

.

. (. ) 250 mA.
1 mA Rm = 1700 .
Np = 4 Ns = 500
(VF = 0,7 V). 20 k.
RL.
,
1. ( ) Im = IAVG/0,637 = 1 mA/0,637 = 1,57
mA
2. ( )
Em = Im (Rs + Rm) + 2 VF = 1,57 103 (20000 + 1700) + 1,4 = 35,5 V
3. ( RMS)
Es = 0,707 35,5 V = 25,1 V [RMS]
4. ( RMS)
Im = 1,11 IAVG = 1,11 mA [RMS]
5. ( RMS)
Is = Ip Np / Ns = 250 mA 4/500 = 2 mA
6. , Is = +
2 mA = 1,11 mA + IL IL = 2 1,11 = 0,89 mA
RL = Es / IL = 25,1V / 0,89 mA = 28,2 k
33

2.5
.
. (
) ,
, .

. (break-in cable)
.

34

35

36

3.

1.
2. ,
3.
4.
5.
6.

37

38

 . , , ,
, . ,
/ ,
. ,
.

3.1

100 , (tolerance) 10 .
90 110
100 10 . .


(). , 1000 900 1100 .
|1000 900| / 1000 = 0,1 10 %.
- .
, * , :
:

| *|

( )

| *| /

(, , .. %)

, , 3 V 1%,
2,97 V 3,03 V, . 0,06 V. ,
400 V 1%, 396 V 404 V,
. 8 V.
ppm (parts-per-million)
, ..
ppm/C. 2 100 ppm/C,
39

100
2000000 =
200
1000000

, 2 200 .
. 1,14 k 1,26 k
1,2 k. ; ,
25 C 500 ppm/C,
75 C;
1,26 k 1,2 k = +0,06 k
1,2 k 1,14 k = 0,06 k
= 0,06 k

0, 06 k
100% =
5%
1, 2 k

25 C R = 1,2 + 0,06 k = 1,26 k

500 ppm =
R

500
1, 26 k
= 0, 63 C
1000000

= 75 25 = 50 C
R = 0,63 /C 50C = 31,5
, 75 C 1,26 k = 1,2915 k

3.2 ,

1% 1 .
, 1 1% = 0,99 1,01 .
1%
(accuracy) .
.
40

!: .
100 V 2% (.
2 V 100 V) 10 V

2 V 100%
= 20% , . 8 12 V.
10 V

,
.

(resolution)
. .., ,
(
. ,
. , (
) .

, , 1
( ).

(
) . ,
/(max Xmin)
.

(precision) , :
. ..
41

(, -, .) (
). ,
.

, .
.. ,

10:43:20. ,
!
.
,
: 1/100
. , 1/10
!

, .
( ).

: , ,
.

, (calibration error)
. -
( ).
42

 , .
( )
. ,
.
.
.

3.3

. :
. ,
.
( )
- ( , )

.
. ,
( ).
. ,
(..
V ).

,
,
. .

43

3.4
,
, ,
.
. , ,
.
.

:
. ( , ..)
. (nulling) .
. .
. , ,
, (.. ), .
.
, .

( )
(. ).
, Murphy
.

= , = [( ) + ( )]
= , % = [(% ) + (% )]
= / , % = [(% ) + (% )]
= ,

% = (% )
44

3.5

, .
. ,
,
.

( ), ,
, .
(outliers) .

.

3.6

, ,
,
.
(..
) 0
:
.

Rm
Rsh

(swamping resistance)
. ,
45

 9 ,
1% 0,1%. :
,
. , ,
( ) Rm.
.
0,004 /C.
0,0002 /C
0,0006 /C. 0C,
2 ;
:
R =
R =
RT =
= = 0,004 /C
= = 0,0002 /C
= = 0,0006 /C
0C: R + R
C:
RT = R (1 + ) + R (1 + )
:
RT = (R + R) (1 + )
,
R (1 + ) + R (1 + ) = (R + R) (1 + )
:
R (1 + 0,004 ) + R (1 + 0,0002 ) = (R + R) (1 + 0,0006 )
:
0,0034 R = 0,0004 R

=
R

0, 0034 R
= 8,5 R
0, 0004

R = 8,5 2 = 17
46

4. ,
,

1.
2. Wheatstone Kelvin
3.
4. , , RC, RL Q
5. Maxwell Hay
6. Owen, Schering Wien

47

48

4.1
Ohm,
.
. (
):

I + IV
+

IV

: IV << I R <<

+ EA

I
+
V

E + EA

: EA << E R >>

;
,
. , . ,
.

, ,
, ( )
. ,
. :

49

vo

vs

Rs

RX

vs
(
Rs)

( ).

IH

VH
Rs

vs

vo

RX
VL

IL

.

IH

VH
Rs

vs

vo

RX
VL

IL
.
50

4.2 WHEATSTONE KELVIN

4.2.1 Wheatstone (Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833, Sir Charles Wheatstone 1843)
Wheatstone (
):

I1
P

+
VP

+
Rx

VR

+
VQ

I2
Q

+
VS

S .
Rx =

SP
Q

0, 1
Rx, 2, VP = VQ VR = VS
1 P = I2 Q I1 Rx = I2 S.
.
. P
Q ( ), 0,05%
0,1% S, Rx ( P +
S + Q) (0,05 + 0,05 + 0,1)%, .
0,2%.
,
.
Thevenin (
):
51

r = P || Rx + Q || S

Ig

r
VR VS

rg

Ig =

VR VS
r + rg

Rx
S
V=
EB

R VS
Rx + P S + Q

.
Wheatstone. P = 3,5 k, Q = 7 k, S = 4 k, R = 2 k.
= 10V, 1 /mm
2,5 k. R .
,
r = P || R + Q || S = 3,5 k || 2 k + 7 k || 4 k = 3,82 k

VR VS = I g ( r + rg )= 1 A ( 3,82 k + 2,5 k )= 6,32 mV

V V
R
S
6,32 mV
632 106

=R S =
=
10 V
R+ P S +Q
EB
R, :
R + R
S

=
632 106
R + R + P S + Q
52


R = 5,46772

4.2.2 Kelvin (William Thomson Lord Kelvin, 1861)

Wheatstone, ,
, 5 ( 1012 ).
Kelvin, (

Q S Wheatstone). Kelvin
(: Q
Qx):

I + i1
I

i1

Qx

EB
i1

i2

i2

I i2

: , .

, i1 R
= i2 r + IS IS = i1 R i2 r IS = R i1 i2 .
R

i1 P =i2 p + IQx IQx =i1 P i2 p IQx =P i1 i2 .

P

53


P i1 i2
IQx
=

IS

R i1 i2

P
Q
P
p r
, =
x = ,
r
S
R
P R

Wheatstone. P, R, p, r
. Qx:
Qx =

SP
R

10 1 0,2%.
0,1 .
4.2.3
(.. )
, . .
. , ,
(..
).
(
(surface leakage current).
.
, .

I +

I
V

VE

, (guard
wire)
(surface leakage current)
.
54

V=E

, , ,
(megohmeter megger [
]).
( 100 5000 V)
( ) .

55

4.3
,
, , , .
/
.
:

.

.
, :

G
3

Z1 Z 2
=
Z3 Z 4

,
.
56

4.4 , , RC, RL Q
4.4.1 ( De Sauty)
Cx

C1

, 1/3 = 2/4.

j
j
R
C1 Cx
1
1
=

=
Cx= C1 3
R3
R4
C1 R3 Cx R4
R4

R3

R4

,
. , C1 .
: (G) ()
(null detector) D.

4.4.2 CR LR
Cp
( , ,
). ()
( ) (
).
.
:

=
Rp

Rs2 + X s2
Rs2 + X s2
, Xp
=
Rs
Xs

Cp

Rp

()
=
Rs

R p X p2
R p2 X p
=
,
X
s
R p2 + X p2
R p2 + X p2

Ls

57

Rs


(
).
, .

=
, Q
L

X s Ls
=
, QL [5, 1000]
Rs
Rs

=
Q
L

, D
=
C

Rp
Rp
=
X p Lp

Xp
1
, DC [0,0001 0,1]
=
R p C p R p

.
D=
C

4.4.3 CR, LR, Q

4.4.3.1 -

C1

Rs =

R1 R4
R3

Cs =

C1 R3
R4

Rs

R1

D
R3

Cs

R4

()
Rs R1.

58

Rs
= Cs Rs
Xs

4.4.3.2 -

R1

Rp =

R1 R4
R3

Cp =

C1 R3
R4

Cp
C1 Rp

D
R3

R4

( )

4.4.3.3

, .

Rs =
Ls =

R1 R4
R3

Ls

L1

L1 R4
R3

R1

Rs

D
R3

R4

4.5 MAXWELL HAY

4.5.1 Maxwell
Maxwell ( Maxwell-Wien) .
59

 ():

R1 Rs
=
R3 R4

Ls

C3 R1 =

R1

Ls

Rs

R4

Rs =

C3

R1 R4
R3

R3

R4

Ls = C3 R1 R4

Maxwell

4.5.2 Hay
Hay .

Lp
R1

Rp =

R1 R4
R3

Rp

L p = C3 R1 R4

D
R3
R4
C3

Hay

, .

60

4.6 OWEN, SCHERING WIEN

4.6.1 Owen
Owen

R2

C1

/.

Rs

R
Rs = C1 2
C3

R3
Ls

C3

Ls = C1 R2 R3

4.6.2 Schering
Schering /.

Rs

Rs = C3

R4
C1

Cs = C1

R3
R4

C1

Cs

D
C3
R4

R3

4.6.3 Wien ()

R1

R2

f =

1
2 R3 R4C3C4

R4
R3
C3
61

C4

62

63

Agilent-E4981A Capacitance Meter

64

5.
1.
2.
3.

65

66

5.1
(operational amplifier op-amp)
.
: !
o ( )
o
o
o
()

V+

2
Inverting input

Non-inverting input

Out
3

+
1
V

67

5
Offset null

io = i1 + i2 + i+ + i
i+

i1

VCC

io

VCC

i2

: offset null ( )
.

vd= v2 v1

=
vo Av
=
A ( v2 v1 ) ,
d

A :

v1
Ri

Ro
Avd

vd

vo

v2

,
, Ri
, Ro
, VCC

105 108
105 1013
10 100
5 24 V
68


vout VCC ():

VCC vout VCC

( ) (
).
.
vout/vin .

20 k
i

10 k
1
vs

20 k

741
+

10 k

vd

+
vo

vs

2 M

50

200000 v1

, 741 :
, = 2105
69

 , Ri = 2
, Ro = 50
;
, :

vs v1
v v
v1
=
+ 1 o
10000 2000000 20000
200vs = 301v1 100vo
2vs 3v1 vo
v1 =

2vs + vo
3

vd = v1,

v1 =
v0 400 ( v0 + 200000v1 )

0 26667067vo + 53333333vs

vo
=
1,9999699
vs

.. vs = 2 V, v= 3,9999398 V v1 = 20,066667 V
=
i

v1 v0
= 0,19999 mA
20000

.
.
.
.

v2

v1

vs

741
io
+

40 k
5 k

20 k

vo

70

i1 = 0

i2 = 0
v1

vo

v2 = v1

9 io vs = 1 V 0,65 mA. , .
, : = 9,00041 io
= 0,657 mA vs = 1 V. .

5.1.1
(inverting amplifier)

i1

v v v1 vo
i1 =
i2 i 1 =
R1
Rf
v=
v=
0
1
2

Rf

i2

v1
R1

vi

0A

v2

vo

()

v
v
i = o
R1 R f

vo =

Rf
R1

vi

+
vi

+
Ri

vo

71

5.1.2
(non-inverting amplifier)

Rf

Rf
v=
1 +
vi
o
R1

v1

= 1 Rf = 0 (.)

R1

R1 = (.)

0A

v2

( = 1 voltage follower

vo

vi

5.1.3 ()
(summer)

Rf
Rf
Rf
vo =

v1 +
v2 +
v3
R2
R3
R1
Rf
v1
v2
v3

R1
R2

0A

R3
0A

vo

72

5.1.4
(differential amplifier)
R2

R1

va
R3

v1

vb

v2

+
R4

vo

R
R2 1 + 1
R2 v R2 v
=
vo
2
1
R1
R
R1 1 + 3
R4
,
vo = 0 v1 = v2.

R1 R3
=
R2 R4

=
vo

R2
( v2 v1 )
R1

R2 = R1 R3 = R4 (v2 v1).
.

5.1.5
.
:
R2 2 R3
vo =
1 +
( v2 v1 )
R1
R4

73

+
v1

R2

R1

R3

0A

R4

0A

vo

R3

R1

R2

v2

( RG):
v1
(inverting)

vo

RG

v2
(non-inverting)

: Av = 1 +

R
R

2R
RG
74

5.1.6

vo ( t ) =

1
vi ( z ) dz
RC 0

iC

iR
vi

vo

iR = iC
t

vi
dv
1
1
=
C o dvo =

vi dt vo ( t ) vo ( 0 ) =

vi ( z ) dz
R
dt
RC
RC 0

5.1.7

vo ( t ) = RC

dvi ( t )
dt

vi

vo

75

5.2

Ro

( ):

vi

Ri

vo

Rs

Rm

K=

Ro
Ri

1. (zero drift)
2. (bias)
(nulling) .
www.analog.com/static/imported-files/tutorials/MT-055.pdf
Ro

vi

Ri

vo

R1
Rm

(
. 31).

76

5.3

1 fA (femto: 1015) 50 .
,
.

Rs

Rm

GN

Is

R1

Rf

Rs << Rin ( ),
vi R
=
s Is
Im =

R1
R1
vo
Rm I m
=
R1 + R f
R1 + R f

(R + R ) R
1

R1 Rm

Is

77

Im


741 (IC741, : Philips)

78

6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

79

80

6.1

(3%)

(<0,5%)

, .
(
/, / , .,
.

6.2

ADC

(analog-to-digital converter)

1.702

6.2.1
,
.
analog-to-digital converter
(ADC). ADC
. ,
81

 2. (2 1)
.
. [:
, .]

0 8 V 3
. ADC :

111

110
101
1V

100
011
010
001
000

, 1,5 2,5 V, 2 (0102) V.

, Vin, (

),

Vin k

k:

, :
ADC:
:

X max
2N 1

(
0 )

1
[ LSB (least significant bit)]
2 1
N

. 800-1500 mV 8
010100002 (8010) 100101102 (15010). k 10mV.
:

82

1500 800
= 700 mV/71 = 9,86 mV
150 80 + 1

1
1
=
= 0,4%
2 1 255
8

,
. ,
. ,
.

6.3
:
V ( 0 V).
.
( - 0).

V0
Vin

t
t1

t2
t

V0

(gating)

83

Vramp ( t=
) V0 mt
m . ,

Vramp ( t1 ) =V0 mt1 =Vin

Vramp ( t2 ) =V0 mt2 =0
,

t = t2 t1 =

Vin
m

( , ),

t
=
n + 1)
=n Vin =nmT ( :
T
T

, .

(comparator).
Vin > Vref V+ > V Vo = V (1)= LOGIC HIGH
Vin < Vref V+ < V Vo= V (0)= LOGIC LOW

, 1 ( )
0 .

84

6.4 ()

:
.
.
( - 0).
C

C
Vin

Vin

Vref

Vout

Vref

Vout

2: C
Vref Vout = 0.
( ,

1 : C

Vin (,
VC(0) = 0).

Vref

.
.).

85

 ,
Vout (T ) =

VinT
RC

T s, T .
, .
Tx :

Vout (T + Tx=
)

Vref Tx
RC

+ Vout (T ) T=
x

VinT
Vref

Vout
Vin1 < Vin2
Vin2

Vin1
0

. ()
.
R C
. ,
.
,
( ).
:

86

. ADC R = 100 k C =
0,01 F. Vref 10 V 10 ms.
6,8 V.

=
Tx

Vin
6,8
=
=
T
10 ms 6,8 ms
Vref
10

10 + 6,8 = 16,8 ms.

( 10 V 10 + 10 = 20 ms 30 mV 10 +
0,03 = 10,03 ms.)

6.5

:

.
.
(bit 1)
(bit 0) ( , ).
:
1. (most significant bit-MSB) 1
87

2.
(digital-to-analog converter, DAC)
3. ( ) DAC.
,
1, 0.
.

DAC

Digital-to-Analog Converter

Vref

( )

MSB

START

( 4 )
.
1111 15
1110

14
1101 13

1100

12
1011 11
1010

10
1001 9

1000

8
0111 7
0110

6
0101 5

0100

4
0011 3
0010

2
0001 1

88


.
,
s (, 10 20 s).
DAC (
):

6.6

,
: (1) , (2) (3) .
, ,

() .
. ,
, +1
( ) 0 1 (
!). 1 0
. , 3 0,000
1,999, ( ,000 1,999)
89

 1 2000 (2103). 5 1
200000. 4

1 8 8 8 8
. ,
.

.
.
. ,
( % + [LSD])

( % + [LSD])
LSD (least significant digit) ,
, . ,
3 (0,7% + 1).
, %, .
20 V, ; 3 ,
20,0 V ( ,
), 1 0,1 V. , ,
(0,7 20/100 + 0,1) = 0,24 V.

0, 24 V 100%
= 1, 2% , .19,86 20,24 V.
20 V
,
1,2 V. 3 (0,5 % + 3)
, 200, 20 2 V.
;
,
200 V ( , ). .
01.2. 1,2 0,5/100
= 0,006, .
90

 , . 3 , 1,2
0,3, . 0,9 1,5 V, 25% ( !) ,
. .
20 V, .
1.20 ,
(1,20 0,5/100 + 0,03) = 0,036 V. 1,16 1,24 V
, 3%,
.
2 V, .
1.200 (1,200 0,5/100 + 0,003) = 0,009 V.
1,191 1,209 V 0,75%
( 1,200 V 0,75%).
,
/
.
(sampling),
(Sa/s, Samples per second),
.
!:
(, , .)
(, ).
. ,
()
( 85%) .

91

92


:
[1] Bell, D.A.: Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, Reston (Prentice-Hall),
Reston,VA, 1983.
[2] , .-.: , , , 2001.
[3] Webster, J.G. (Ed.): Electrical Measurement, Signal Processing, and Displays, CRC
Press, Boca Raton FL, 2004. [ ] [ !]
[4] Sanderson, M. L.: Electrical Measurements, Chapter 27, pp. 439-498, in W. Boyles,
(Ed.): Instrumentation Reference Book, 4th Ed., Elsevier, 2010. [
]

[5] Application Notes Agilent ( , .. Fluke,

Hameg, Tektronix, Metrix, Keithley Instruments, Honeywell, Gould, .):

http://www.home.agilent.com/agilent/facet.jspx?t=79831.g.1&cc=GR&lc=eng&sm=g&
pageMode=TM&pageMode=TM
:
[4A] 8 Hints for Making Better Digital Multimeter Measurements
[4B] 8 Hints for Successful Impedance Measurements
[4] Impedance Measurement Handbook, 4th Edition
:
[] Bentley, J.P.: Principles of Measurement Systems, 4th Edition, Pearson Education,
Harlow, England, 2005. [, ]
[] Regtien, P.P.L.: Electronic instrumentation, 2nd edition, VSSD, Delft, The
Netherlands, 2005.
[] Witte, R.A.: Electronic Test InstrumentsAnalog and Digital Measurements, 2nd
Edition, Pearson Education Press, New York, 2003.
:
[] Fraden, J.: Handbook of Modern SensorsPhysics, Designs, and Applications, 4th
Edition, Springer, New York, 2010. [ ]

93

 :
1. [1]
2. http://www.tpub.com/neets/book3/7b.htm
3. http://electricinnn.blogspot.com/2009/11/galvanometer.html
4. http://www.geofex.com/
5. http://commons.wikimedia.org
6. http://www.csgnetwork.com/dimmerdelayproj.html
7. www.analog.com/static/imported-files/tutorials/MT-055.pdf
8. http://www.globalspec.com/
9. http://pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/~tarporn/311/HandOut/DmmPPT.pdf

94