Injection Molding

2.810 Fall 2006 Professor Tim Gutowski

Short history of plastics

1862 first synthetic plastic 1866 Celluloid 1891 Rayon 1907 Bakelite 1913 Cellophane 1926 PVC 1933 Polyethylene 1938 Teflon 1939 Nylon stockings 1957 velcro 1967 The Graduate

Outline
Basic operation Cycle time and heat transfer Flow and solidification Part design Tooling New developments Environment

Readings
Tadmore and Gogos
Molding and Casting pp584 -610

Boothroyd Dewhurst
Design for Injection Molding pp 319 - 359

Kalpakjian (5th ed) see Ch 19 Injection molding case study;Washing machine augers; see on web page

30 ton, 1.5 oz (45 cm3) Engel

Injection Molding Machine for wheel fabrication

Process & machine schematics

*

Schematic of thermoplastic Injection molding machine

* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_process.htm

Process Operation
Temperature: barrel zones, tool, die zone Pressures: injection max, hold Times: injection, hold, tool opening Shot size: screw travel
Processing window
Temp. Thermal degradation Flash Shortshot

Melt

Pressure

Typical pressure/temperature cycle

* *

Time(sec)

Time(sec)

Cooling time generally dominates cycle time

* Source: http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/inj/inj_time.html

thickness ) tcool = 10 3 cm 2 sec for polymers

2

(half =

Calculate clamp force, & shot size

F=P X A = 420 tons
3.8 lbs = 2245 cm3 =75 oz

Actual ; 2 cavity 800 ton

Clamp force and machine cost

Heat transfer Note;

1-dimensional heat conduction equation :
qx qx + qx

Tool >

polymer

Fouriers law

q ( c p T ) xy = x xy t x T q x = k x T 2T T 2T cp = k 2 or = 2 t x t x
1st kind 2nd kind 3rd kind T ( x = x' ) = constant T ( x = x' ) = constant x T k ( x = x' ) = h (T T ) x k

Boundary Conditions:

The boundary condition of 1st kind applies to injection molding since the tool is often maintained at a constant temperature

Heat transfer
T ii t TW x

Let Lch = H/2 (half thickness) = L ; tch = L2/ ; Tch = Ti TW (initial temp. wall temp.) Non-dimensionalize: =

-L

+L

T TW x t ; = + 1; FO = 2 Ti TW L L

Dimensionless equation: Initial condition Boundary condition

2 = 2 FO
FO = 0
=0 =2

=1
=0 =0

Separation of variables ; matching B.C.; matching I.C.

( , FO ) = f ( FO ) g ( )

Temperature in a slab Centerline, = 0.1, Fo = t/L2 = 1

Bi-1 =k/hL

Reynolds Number
Reynolds Number:

V2 inertia VL L Re = = V 2 viscous L

For typical injection molding

= 1 g cm3 = 10 3 N m 4 s 2 ; LZ = 103 m V Part length 10 = ; Fill time 1s

1

thickness

= 103 N s m 2

Re = 10 4

For Die casting

3 10 3 10 1 10 3 Re = 300 3 10

* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_process.htm

Viscous Shearing of Fluids

F h 1 v

F/A

F v A h
Generalization:
= (& ) &

v = h
v/h

Newtonian Viscosity

= &

& : shear rate

Injection molding

Typical shear rate for Polymer processes (sec)-1 Extrusion Calendering Injection molding Comp. Molding 102~103 10~102 103~104 1~10

Shear Thinning ~ 1 sec-1 for PE

&

Viscous Heating
Rate of Heating = Rate of Viscous Work Rate of Temperature rise

P F v F v v = = = Vol Vol A h h

cp

dT v = dt h

or

dT v = dt c p h

Rate of Conduction out

dT k d 2T k T = ~ dt c p dx2 c p h2

Viscous heating v 2 = Conduction kT

Brinkman number

For injection molding, order of magnitude ~ 0.1 to 10

Non-Isothermal Flow
v

Flow rate: 1/t ~V/Lx Heat transfer rate: 1/t ~a/(Lz/2)2

Flow rate V L2 1 VL z Lz z ~ = Heat xfer rate 4 Lx 4 Lx

For injection molding

Small value => Short shot

Flow rate 1 10cm / s 0.1cm 0.1cm ~ = 2.5 3 2 Heat xfer rate 4 10 cm / s 10cm
For Die casting of aluminum

Flow rate 1 10cm / s 0.1cm 0.1cm 2 ~ 10 Heat xfer rate 4 0.3cm2 / s 10cm
* Very small, therefore it requires thick runners

Injection mold

die cast mold

Fountain Flow
*

**

* Source: http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/inj/flw_froz.html ; ** Z. Tadmore and C. Gogos, Principles of Polymer Processing

Shrinkage distributions
sample

Transverse direction

V=3.5cm/s

V=8cm/s

* Source: G. Menges and W. Wubken, Influence of processing conditions on Molecular Orientation in Injection Molds

Gate Location and Warping

Sprue 2.0 60 1.96 60.32

Shrinkage Direction of flow 0.020 in/in Perpendicular to flow 0.012

2.0

1.976

Before shrinkage

After shrinkage

Air entrapment Gate

Center gate: radial flow severe distortion

Edge gate: warp free, air entrapment

Diagonal gate: radial flow twisting

End gates: linear flow minimum warping

Effects of mold temperature and pressure on shrinkage

0.030 0.025

LDPE

PP Acetal Shrinkage Nylon 6/6

0.030 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005

LDPE Acetal PP with flow PP across flow

Shrinkage

0.020

0.015 0.010 0.005

Nylon 6/6

PMMA
0.000 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 0.000 6000

PMMA
8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

Mold Temperature (F)

Pressure on injection plunger (psi)

Where would you gate this part?

Weld line, Sink mark

Gate

Weld line

Mold Filling

Solidified part

Sink mark
* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_design_7.htm

Basic rules in designing ribs to minimize sink marks

Injection Molding
*

* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_design_2.htm

Where is injection molding?

Effects of mold pressure on shrinkage

0.030

LDPE Acetal PP with flow

0.025

0.020

Shrinkage

0.015

PP across flow

Nylon 6/6

0.010

0.005

PMMA
6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000

0.000

Pressure on injection plunger (psi)

Tooling Basics
Sprue Nozzle Cavity Plate Core Plate

Moulding Cavity

Core

Cavity

Basic mould consisting of cavity and core plate

Gate

Runner

Melt Delivery

Tooling for a plastic cup

Nozzle

Knob Runner Cavity

Part Stripper plate Core

Tooling for a plastic cup

Nozzle Nozzle Runner Cavity Runner Part Cavity Cavity Knob

Part

Part
Stripper plate

Tooling
* * *

* * **

* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/; ** http://www.hzs.co.jp/english/products/e_trainer/mold/basic/basic.htm (E-trainer by HZS Co.,Ltd.)

Part design rules

Simple shapes to reduce tooling cost
No undercuts, etc.

Draft angle to remove part

In some cases, small angles (1/4) will do Problem for gears

Even wall thickness Minimum wall thickness ~ 0.025 in Avoid sharp corners Hide weld lines
Holes may be molded 2/3 of the way through the wall only, with final drilling to eliminate weld lines

New developments- Gas assisted injection molding

New developments ; injection molding with cores

Injection Molded Housing

Cores used in Injection Molding

Cores and Part Molded in Clear Plastic

Environmental issues
1. System boundaries 2. Polymer production 3. Compounding 4. Machine types 5. Energy Summary 6. Recycling

CRADLE Naphtha, Oil. Natural Gas Ancilliary Raw Materials

Additives

Compounder
Internal Transport Drying Pelletizing Emissions to air, water & land

Thermoplastic Production
(Boustead)

Polymer Delivery

Extrusion

Building (lights,heating, ect..) Emissions to air, water, & land

Polymer

Delivery

Injection Molder Energy Production Industry

Internal Transport Drying Emissions to air, water & land

Injection Molding
Emissions to air, water, & land Scrap Anciliary Raw Materials Building (lights,heating, ect..) Packaging Note to Reader: = Focus of this Analysis = Also included in the Paper

FACTORY GATE

1 kg of Injection Molded Polymer

Service Period Waste Management

Polymer Production
Largest Player in the Injection Molding LCI
What is a polymer:

How much energy does it take to make 1 kg of polymer = a lot !!!

Sources Boustead Ashby Patel Kindler/Nickles [Patel 1999] Worrell et al. [Patel 1999] 3 E Handbook [OIT 1997] Energieweb HDPE 76.56 111.50 ------------------131.65 80.00 LLDPE 77.79 ------------------------121.18 ------LDPE 73.55 92.00 64.60 71.00 67.80 136.07 68.00 PP 72.49 111.50 ------------------126.07 64.00 PVC 58.41 79.50 53.20 53.00 52.40 33.24 57.00 PS 86.46 118.00 70.80 81.00 82.70 ------84.00 PC 115.45 ------80.30 107.00 78.20 ------------------81.00 PET 77.14 ------59.40 96.00

Values are in MJ per kg of polymer produced. Thiriez 06

Compounding - extrusion
An extruder is used to mix additives with a polymer base, to bestow the polymer with the required characteristics. Similar to an injection molding machine, but without a mold and continuous production. Thus it has a similar energy consumption profile.

Environmentally Unfriendly Additives: Fluorinated blowing agents (GHGs) Phalates (some toxic to human liver, kidney and testicles) Organotin stabilizers (toxic and damage marine wildlife)

Injection Molding Process

Source: http://cache.husky.ca/pdf/br ochures/br-hylectric03a.pdf

Machine types: Hydraulic, electric, hydro-electric

All-electrics have very low fixed energy costs (small idling power). SEC is constant as throughput increases.

SEC pv
9 8 7 All-Electric - 85 tons SEC (MJ/kg) 6 Hydraulic - 85 tons 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 Throughput (kg/hr) 20 Material: PP

Source: [Thiriez]

For Hydraulics and Hybrids as throughput increases, SEC k.

8 7 6 SEC (MJ/kg) 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 50 100 Throughput (kg/hr) 150 200 Variable Pump Hydraulic Injection Molding Machines. HP 25 HP 50 HP 60 HP 75 HP 100 Low Enthalpy - Raise Resin to Inj. Temp - PVC High Enthalpy - Raise Resin to Inj. Temp - HDPE

Does not account for the electric grid.

Source: [Thiriez]

Enthalpy value to melt plastics is just 0.1 to 0.7 MJ/kg !!!

All-electric vs. hybrid

120
Cool Ton Buildup Clamp open-close Inject high

Power Required (kW)

100
Plasticize

80 60 40 20 0 0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 Time (seconds) MM 550 Hybrid NT 440 All-Electric 5 12 13 14

ton
Inject low

Source: [Thiriez]

The hydraulic plot would be even higher than the hybrid curve

Driers
Used to dry internal moisture in hygroscopic polymers and external moisture in non-hygroscopic ones. It is done before extruding and injection molding.
1.8 Specific Power Consumption (MJ/kg) 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 500 1000
W600 W800 W1000 W2400 W1600 W3200 W5000 W150 W300 W400 W200

Power Trendline R2 = 0.8225

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

Throughput (kg/hr)

Source: [Thiriez]

Same as

P0 P E = = SEC = +k & m & m m

LCI Summarized Results

ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY STAGE in MJ/kg of shot

Thermoplastic Production
HDPE LLDPE LDPE 89.8 79.7 73.1 77.9 79.7 64.6 111.5 79.7 92.0 PP 83.0 64.0 111.5 PVC 59.2 52.4 79.5 PS 87.2 70.8 118.0 Extras Generic by Amount Consumed Inj. Molded PC PET 81.2 74.6 95.7 78.8 69.7 62.8 78.2 59.4 102.7 97.6 117.4 96.0 avg low high 0.19 0.12 0.24

avg low high

Polymer Delivery

Compounder
Internal Transport 0.09 --------avg low high 5.51 3.25 8.01 Polymer Delivery avg low high 0.19 0.12 0.24 Drying 0.70 0.30 1.62 Extrusion 3.57 1.82 5.00 Pelletizing 0.16 0.06 0.31 Building (lights, heating, ect..) 0.99 ---------

avg low high Subtotal

Injection Molder
Internal Transport 0.04 --------Drying 0.70 0.30 1.62 Injection Molding - Choose One Hydraulic Hybrid All-Electric 11.29 5.56 4.89 3.99 3.11 1.80 69.79 8.45 15.29 13.08 5.35 72.57 Hydraulic 93.60 71.65 178.68 18.97 8.84 81.04 7.35 4.47 11.22 Hybrid 87.87 70.77 117.34 13.24 7.96 19.70 6.68 3.17 18.06 All-Electric 87.20 69.46 124.18 12.57 6.66 26.54 Injection Molding (look below) Scrap (Granulating) 0.05 0.03 0.12 Building (lights, heating, ect..) 0.99 ---------

avg low high

avg low high Subtotal avg low high

TOTAL w/ Generic Inj. Molded Polymer TOTAL w/o Polymer Prod Notes

avg low high avg low high

Drying - the values presented assume no knowledge of the materials' hygroscopia. In order words, they are averages between hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic values. For hygroscopic materials such as PC and PET additional drying energy is needed (0.65 MJ/kg in the case of PC and 0.52 MJ/kg in the case of PET) Pelletizing - in the case of pelletizing an extra 0.3 MJ/kg is needed for PP Granulating - a scarp rate of 10 % is assumed

Source: [Thiriez]

Energy Production Industry

United States Electricity Composition by Source Hydro 7.1% Nuclear 19.6% Other 0.0% Coal 50.7% Oil 3.1% Gas 16.7% Waste/ Renewable 2.2%

The Grid is about 30% efficient

For every MJ of electricity we also get: 171.94 g of CO2 0.76 g of SO2 0.31 g of NO x 6.24 g of CH4 0.0032 mg of Hg

Scale
HDPE, LDPE, LLDPE, PP, PS, PVC
Compounder and Injection Molder 6 Main Thermoplastics All Plastics U.S. GJ/year 9.34E+07 2.06E+08 Global GJ/year 4.01E+08 6.68E+08

The Injection Molding Industry in the U.S. consumes 6.19 x 107 GJ of electricity (or 2.06 x 108 GJ in total energy). This is larger than the entire electric production of some small countries.

In such a scale imagine what a 0.1 % energy savings mean !!!

The printer goes in the hopper

And comes out.

Does this get recycled?

Plastic Separation in Theory

Polyethylene Polypropylene

Ground Plastic Computer Housings

Lights Hydrocyclone Electrostatic Heavies ABS, HIPS HIPS ABS

Hydrocyclone PC, PC/ABS, PVC, nylon Sink/Float PVC, nylon Electrostatic PC, PC/ABS

PC/ABS

PC

Plastic Separation in Practice

Heavies Hydrocyclone ABS, HIPS Hydrocyclone Lights Manual Disassembly Volume Reduction Hydrocyclone Hydrocyclone Heavies Hydrocyclone Heavies Lights Heavies Heavies Hydrocyclone Lights Sink/Float PC, PC/ABS Electrostatic Heavies Polyolefins Lights Lights Electrostatic ABS, HIPS ABS HIPS PC

PC/ABS

PC, PC/ABS PVC, nylon

Manual Disassembly

Volume Reduction

Hydrocyclone

Sink/Float

Electrostatic

Readings
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Z. Tadmore et al., "Molding and Casting" G. Boothroyd et al., "Design for Injection Molding" S. Shingo, "Single Minute Exchange of Dies Thiriez et al, "An Environmental Analysis of Injection Molding "Injection Molding Case Study Kalpakjian Sec 19.3 (Sec 18.3)