The Nervous System

SMS 1084

Dr. Mohanad R. Alwan

 Study Questions
Distinguish between the peripheral and central nervous
systems.
Describe a neuron, including its shape and distribution
of organelles within the cell body, axon and dendrites.
Describe the formation of the myelin sheath of the
peripheral nerve and its appearance as seen in the
light and electron microscopes.
Describe two types of sensory nerve endings visible in
routine histological preparations.
How do neurons communicate with each other and
with other cells?
What is a synapse and how does it function?
Define axonal transport.
How do axons and dendrites regenerate?
What is a ganglion and where is it found?
Functions of the nervous system
Collects stimuli from the environment
Transform the stimuli into nervous
impulses
Passes them to a largely organized
reception and correlation area for
interpretation and issued to receptor
organs for an appropriate response.
 Central nervous system (CNS)
Brain
Spinal cord
Functions:
Receive all stimuli from outside the body
( exteroceptive)
Receive all stimuli from the body
( interoceptive)
Acts as an integrating and
communications center.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
All other nervous tissues
Function:
Serves to interconnect all other tissues
and organs with the CNS.
Functional division of the nervous
system:
With central and peripheral divisions.
Somatic = concern with structure
derivatives from muscles, bones, skin.
Autonomic,
Autonomic innervates: this function is
independent from the rest of the nervous
system.
smooth muscles
cardiac muscles
glands of the body
Characteristic protoplasm of the
neuron
Irritability = the capacity to respond to
any chemical or physical agent and
initiate an impulse.
Conductibility = the ability to transmit the
impulse and react to the stimuli by
stimulating or inhibiting other neurons
they are in contact with via a “Synapse”.
Nucleus

Cell body

Dendrite

Axon

Schwann cell

Synaptic knobs

Node of Ranvier
Basic nerve cell structure
 Nervous system terminology

Nerve fibers = other name for axon and

dendrites
Neuron = Basic unit of nervous system
Reflex arc = the integrative unit of the
nervous system (e.g.,knee jerk).
Afferent = sensory neuron
Efferent = motor neuron
 Classification of Nerve Cells
(Neurons)
By # of Processes:
 A. Unipolar – one process

B. Bipolar – one dendrite and one
axon
 C. Multipolar – branching to create

more than one of each

99% are
Multipolar
 Neuron
Neuron, functional classification:
n motor = control effector organs – muscles
and glands
n sensory = receive sensory stimuli both
exteroceptive or interoceptive
n interneurons = connects with other neurons
to establish complex functional circuits or
chains of neurons.
 Types of Neurons
type connected to carry carry
impulses impulses
from to
sensory receptors (eyes, sense spinal cord
ears, other sense organs and brain
(afferent) organs)
other neurons

motor effectors (muscles spinal cord muscles

and glands) and brain and glands
(efferent)
other neurons

connector other neurons other other

neurons neurons
(interneuron
) 14
3 main types of nerve cells

sensory motor
neurone neurone
 Types of neurons.
motor neuron cells ( anterior horn cells) = has
large cell bodies with dendrites radiating in all
directions and branching to forma near
symmetrical dendritic area around a
perikaryon.
Stellate = smaller neurons with dentrites
radiating in all directions, flattened in one
plane.
Purkinje cells = flask shaped bodies with single
or branched dendrites.found in the cerebellar
cortex.
 Types of neurons……
Pyramidal cells = of cerebral cortex, with apical
dendrites, 4 or more dendritic process, often
pear shaped.
Golgi type 1 = cells are well developed
dendritic tree with s long axon that leaves the
gray matter , enters the white matter and run in
a major fiber tract of the CNS and terminate
into the nerve endings in muscles or skin.
Golgi type 11 = neurons are shorter axons, do
not leave at the area of the perikarya. Found in
the interneurons of the cerebellar and cerebral
cortex
 1.
Nervous Tissue

Highly cellular
 How does this compare
to the other tissue
types?
2 cell types
1. Neurons
2.
Functional, signal
conducting cells
2. Neuroglia
Supporting cells
NERVOUS TISSUE
Types of Cells:
1. NEURON - structural &
functional unit
Parts: Cell Body ;
Dendrites ; Axon

MYELIN SHEATH -
lipid protein complex
covering axons

SYNAPSE -
neuronal connections
NERVOUS TISSUE
2. NEUROGLIA - 5x more abundant than neurons
- non-neuronal & non-excitable
Functions: Support
Insulation
Nutrition

Types: CNS - Oligodendroglia, Astrocytes,

Ependymal Cells, Microglia
PNS - Satellite Cells, Neurolemma (Schwann
Cells)
 Neuroglia
Neuro = nerve, glia = glue
 binds together the nervous tissue of the CNS

 generally small, nuclei is 3 to 10 um dm

 stain with special silver or gold impregnation

technique.
 Includes astrocytes, oligodendrites

( macroglia), micgroglia and ependymal cells


Form the myelin sheath, phagocytic and
provide supporting framework for the neurons.
 Some are mobile, retains capacity to

subdivide.
 Neuroglia
6 types of supporting cells

4 are found in the CNS:
2. Astrocytes
Star-shaped, abundant, and
versatile
cytoplasm has golgi complex
Guide the migration of
developing neurons
Act as K+ and NT buffers
Involved in the formation of the
blood brain barrier
Function in nutrient transfer
2 types of astrocytes:

protoplasmic astrocytes = found in gray

matter of brain, spinal cordwith short thick
processes..
Fibrous astrocyte = found in white matter,
with long slender processes with few
branches.
 Macroglia or Oligodendrocytes

Oligodendrocytes
 smaller than astrocytes.
 Develop from spongioblasts ( primary ectodermal
cells)
 Fewer than astrocytes with fewer and shorter
processes.
 Nuclei are small, ovoid, irregular, scanty cytoplasm
 On electron microscopy, more dense with numerous
free and attached ribosomes, extensive golgi
complex
 Occur mainly in gray matter and among bundles of
axons in white matter (interfascicular
oligodendrocytes)
 Macroglia…
 acts as supporting structural element of the
CNS.

After damage, it removes debris and seal the
damage area, might lead to scarring.
 Produce the myelin sheath which provides
the electrical insulation for certain neurons in
the CNS
 Neuroglia

3. Microglia
Specialized immune cells that act
as the macrophages of the CNS
Why is it important for the CNS to
have its own army of immune
cells?
4. Ependymal Cells
Low columnar epithelial-esque
cells that line the ventricles of the
brain and the central canal of the
spinal cord
Some are ciliated which
facilitates the movement of
cerebrospinal fluid
 The functional and structural unit Neurons
of the nervous system
Specialized to conduct information from one part of the
body to another
There are many, many different types of neurons but most
have certain structural and functional characteristics in
common:
- Cell body (soma)
- One or more
specialized, slender
processes
(axons/dendrites)
- An input region
(dendrites/soma)
- A conducting
component (axon)
- A secretory (output)
region (axon terminal)
 Soma
Contains nucleus plus most
normal organelles.
Biosynthetic center of the
neuron.
Contains a very active and
developed rough endoplasmic
reticulum which is responsible
for the synthesis of ________.
 The neuronal rough ER is In the soma above, notice the small
black circle. It is the nucleolus, the site
referred to as the Nissl of ribosome synthesis. The light
body. circular area around it is the nucleus.
Contains many bundles of The mottled dark areas found
protein filaments (neurofibrils) throughout the cytoplasm are the Nissl
substance.
which help maintain the shape,
structure, and integrity of the
cell.
 Somata

Contain multiple mitochondria,Why?

Acts as a receptive service for
interaction with other neurons.
Most somata are found in the bony environs of the
CNS.
Clusters of somata in the CNS are known as nuclei.
Clusters of somata in the PNS are known as
ganglia.
 Soma……
. Nucleus
 large up to 20 um dm.

euchromatic and spherical, centrally located in soma
 chromatin is fine and dispersed
 only one large nucleoli indicating active synthesis
 Barr bodies present
 Nuclear envelop is distinct with numerous pores.

With large pale vesicular nucleus and prominent
nucleulos “owls eye”.
 Soma….
. Cytoplasmic organelles
 plasmalemma is 7 – 8 nm thick
 mitochondria usually small ovoid, or spherical with
cristae of both tubular and lamellar type.
 Large golgi apparatus & para-nuclear in position.
 Primary lysosomes are common, located near a golgi
apparatus, associated with hydrolysis of end products
of cellular metabolism
 Secondary lysosomes increase in number with age,
some becomes lipofuscin granules.
 PROMINENT FEATURES OF
NEURONS
NISSL bodies are basophilic component of the
cytoplasm,
stained by basic aniline dyes
bodies are stack of granular endoplasmic reticulum
with associated polysomes and ribosomes both free
and attached.
Present in dendrites but absent in axon and the axon
hillock.
Axon hillock = clear conical areas at the origin of axon
from the soma.
Nissl bodies react to injury by breaking up and diffusing
throughout the cytoplasm called chromatolysis
 Prominent features of
neurons
Neurofibrils

visible by light microscopy
 found through out the parikaryon
 extend into dendrites and axons.

The bundles contain microtubules
( neurotublues, 25 nm dm ) and
microfilaments ( neurofilaments, 10 nm dm).
Prominent features of neuron…
Cytoplasmic inclusions.
 fat droplets commonly found in Soma
 glycogen not present in adult neurons.

Pigments granules various type present

Lipofuscin granules in large neurons.

Granules are yellow brown

Iron granules present in nerve cells of various
regions like in globus pallidus, tend to increase in
number with age.
 Melanin is present in:
substantia nigra of midbrain,
spinal and sympathetic ganglia
Locus ceruleus in 4th ventricle floor.
 Synapses
 sites of transneuronal transmission of nerve impulse.
 Electrical synapses = electrical signals passes directly
to the adjacent cells by a low resistance gap
junctions.
 A. presynaptic element ( synaptic bout on)

B. Postsynaptic element ( dendrite) with narrow
extracellular or synaptic cleft 20 – 30 nm wide with
fine filaments
 Asymmetrical synapse = 30 nm wide postsynaptic
membrane
 Symmetrical synapse = 20 nm wide
 Synapses…
 Neurotransmitter
substances:
acetylcholine
norepinephrine
serotonin
others: enkephalins,
neurotensins, pituitary
peptides.
 Ganglia
 A collection of nerve cell bodies located
outside the central nervous system.
 Types of ganglia:
Craniospinal ganglia ( sensory)
Autonomic nerve system (visceral, motor ganglia).

 vary in size and shape with few nerve cell

bodies to large one up to 50,000 or more
cells.
 Satellite cells = capsule of single layer of
cuboidal cells
Ganglia
 Craniospinal ganglia
spinal ganglia are fusiform or globular swellings
of the posterior roots of the spinal nerves.
Cranial ganglia are pseudounipolar, globular,
with single process (axon) that becomes
convoluted as it leaves the perikaryon to form a
glomerulus.
Impulse transmission in these sensory neurons
appears directly from the peripheral to the
central process, bypassing the soma.
 Craniospinal ganglia….
 appear as swelling along the sympathetic chain
 has a connective tissue capsule that envelops the
ganglia.
 Ganglion cells are multipolar, are adrenergic, with
several dendrites and a single unmyelinated axon,
 smaller than the sensory ganglia, 15 to 45 um dm

 around the perikarya are capsule cells, few and small:

Contains small vesicles with dense core, has
neurotransmitter noradrenaline ( norepinephrine).
Has a few smaller cells with larger dense cored
vesicles, are dopaminergic and release their
contents directly into the blood stream on
stimulation.
 Nerve fibers
 all nerve fibers , nerve cell processes both within and
outside the CNS are covered by one or more sheaths.
 CNS cover:
fibers are covered partially by Glial cells, small
supporting cells of the CNS.
Myelin sheath cover:

* in the PNS as fine sensory fibers, postganglionic fibers of

ANS
* axons of the olfactory nerve.
* in the PNS, it has sheath covered by Schwann sheath
( neurolemma or neurolimma ).
* Myelinated fibers of the PNS have a sheath of myelin &
Schwann sheath.
 Schwann cells
 envelops all nerve fibers of the PNS from attachment to the
spinal cord and brain stem.

 With a heterochromatic nucleus, flattened centrally located

in the cell, numerous mitochondria, microtubules and
microfilaments ( lysosomes), some granular endoplasmic
reticulum and small golgi apparatus.

 Unmyelinated fibers, lie singly or in groups in longitudinal

gutters or invaginations of Schwann cells within the original
line of invagination “ mesaxons”.

 Ectodermal origin, essential to the vitality and function of

the peripheral nerve fibers. Necessary for axon.
 Myelin
 myelinated fibers in the PNS nerve fiber is surrounded by a
tubular sheath of myelin.
 Myelin is responcilbe for the color of the white matter of the
brain and spinal cord.
 Neurokeratin = meshwork of protein material network
around a nerve fiber.
 Nodes or Ranvier = gaps in the sheath of nerve fibers.
 Internodes = segment between nodes of ranvier.
 Period lines = regular mature myeline lamination of
concentric, dense nature, 3 nm thick separated by light
iintervals of 10 nm.
 Intraperiod lines = finer dense lines of 2 nm thickness
bisecting the spaces between period lines. “ Jelly roll “
Hypothesis.
 Schmidt-Lantermann Clefts
(incisures)


visible by light microscopy
 appear as small radial clefts or fissures
extending thru the thickness of the myelin
fixed in osmium tetroxide.
 Peripheral nerves
 composed of bundles of nerve fibers are held
together by connective tissue.


Appear as white due to myelinated fibers.

 Epineurium = capsule of connective tissue sheath

around a nerve, composed of fibroblasts and
collagenous fibers, longitudinal and elastic fibers,
major blood vessels.
 Peripheral nerves
 Fascicles = bundles within an epineurium.

 Perineurium = connective tissue sheath around each

fascicle, formed by concentric layers of flattened
fibroblast-like cells one cell thick.

It is continous with the pia arachnoid membrane of
the CNS.

Provides a barrier to the passage of materials into or
out of the nerve fascicle.
 Endoneurium = strands of delicate connective tissue
extending around and between individual nerve fibers.
 Membranes of CNS

Dura matter or pachymenninx = fibrous tough and

inelastic, lines the cranium and attached firmly to the
bone.
Separated from the bone by an epidural or
extradural space.
Composed of the:
Falx cerebelli= separate the 2 cerebral hemisphere
Tentorium cerebelli= horizontal, between the occipital
lobes of cerebrum above and below the cerebellum.
 Membranes …..

Arachnoid membrane = the middle layer,

composed of fine cobweb like strands of
interlacing reticular fibers
The thin, delicate, nonvascular membrane that
lines the dura.
Has a space” subarachnoid space”between
trabeculae
 Membranes ….

Pia matter = the innermost layer, with blood

vessels supplying the CNS, single layered”
leptomeninnx or leptomeninges.
The deeper layer “ Intima pia” close meshwork
of fine reticular and elastic fibers adherent to
the underlying nervous tissue.
Contains branches of the internal carotid and
vertebral artery into the substance of CNS.