1

Digital Communication
EcE 4034
B.Tech. Second Year for EcE

Date: 14.3.08

Dr. Kyawt Khin
Professor and Head
Department of Electronic Engineering
and Information Technology
Yangon Technological University


2
Chapter 12
Digital Communication Concepts
12.1 Digital Information

Bit
Coding
Coding Efficiency
One bit can define 2 objects
2 bit can define 2 of 2 = 2 . 2 = 2
2
= 4 object
3 bit can define 2 of 2 of 2 = 2 . 2 . 2 = 2
3
= 8 object
4 bit can define 2 of 2 of 2 of 2 = 2.2.2.2 = 2
4
= 16 object






3
2
n
= M
the number of required bits = n
different things or levels = M


M n
2
log =
Actual number of digits used
Exact number of digits required
Coding Efficiency =
7 bits
6.46 bits
e.g Coding Eff : = = 0.923 = 92.3%
4
12.2 Information Transfer rate (f
i
)
Unit bit/ sec or bps
e.g Serial digital word 101001 (6 bits)
Time taken = 6 ms

) 1 sec( / 000 , 1
6
6
kbps bit
ms
bits
f
i
= =
5
12.3 Signaling (BAUD) Rate (f
b
)
1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Signal level (V)
t (ms)
T
b
= 1 ms
f
b
= 1/T
b
= 1 k baud
Note In a purely binary system
the bit rate = the baud rate
Fig 12.1 Binary transmission
0
1
0
6
e.g.
Binary message 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

Quaternary transmission 2V 2V 1V 3V
f
b
= 1 k baud (bit/sec)
f
i
= 1 kbps
Volts
1
0
2
3
4
1 4 5 6 2 3
t (ms)
f
i
(transfer rate) = 8 bits/4ms = 2 kbps
f
b
(band rate) = 4 symbols/4ms =1 k baud
Fig 12.2 Four level transmission of a
binary message
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12.4 System Capacity (OR) Imformation Capacity (C)
C = information x ( 1/T
m
)= (1/T
b
)
M f C
c 2
(min
log 2 =
where T
m
is the message time
1/T
b
is the signaling rate
log
2
M is the number of bits (OR)
Hartly Law C B X T
Where C = information capacity
B = bandwidth ,
T = transmission time


bps
N
S
B C ) 1 ( log
2
+ =
M
2
log
8
12.5 Bandwidth Considerations
the minimum possible bandwidth required for a given
pulse rate
how pulses can be shaped to minimize the bandwidth and
distortion of the data pulses
f
cmim

cut off
> (1/2T
b
) = f
b
Eg. If 1000 bit/s are transmitted NRZ,
f
cmim

cut off
= f
b
= x 1000 = 500 Hz



T
b
T

t
0 1 0
1
0
Fig 11.17 Squarewave
and fundamental
frequency
9
Continued

T
b
= 1/ f
b

f = 1/T = 1/ 2T
b
= f
b

BW
min
= f
b

f
b
= the transmission line bit-rate (baud rate)
10
t
T
A
Volts
Time domain description
t
(

+
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = .........
2
2 cos 2 sin
2
1 1
2 cos sin
2
) ( t
T T
t
T T
A
T
t v t
t
t t
t
t
t
t
The pulse repetition rate is f = 1/T (symbols/sec)
Amplitude
(Volts)
) ( sin
2
volts
T
A t
t
t
( )
( ) T n
T n
T
A
/
/ sin
2
tt
tt t
0 1/T 2/T
f = 1/T
f = 2/T
Frequency domain description
f (Hz)
Figure 12-5 Time and frequency description of a rectangular pulse train
11
t
1 1 1 0 0
Figure 12-6 Return-to-zero (RZ) data stream
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12.6 Power in Digital Signal
Compare the power of an NRZ square wave to NRZ-
bipolar







t A
0
v
1 0 1
NRZ
1 0 1
t
NRZ-B
v B
-v/2
v/2
Fig 12.2 Comparison of NRZ and NRZ-bipolar
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Comparison of NRZ and NRZ- bipolar
power in an NRZ signal NRZ signal

P
NRZ
= v
2
m
/2R

P
NRZ-B
= 2(V/2)
2
/ 2R = V
2
/ 4R
It is seen that the on/off NRZ signal has twice the power of the
NRZ-bipolar signal.
Also, the instantaneous (peak) power for
NRZ is V
2
/R and NRZ-B = V
2
/ 4R,
For a 4:1 difference in peak power dc power for rectangular RZ
and NRZ signal.

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Digital Transmission Formats

1. NRZ : Non-return to zero
2. NRZ-B : NRZ-Bipolar
3. RZ : Return to zero (~ 50% duty cycle)
4. Biphase (Bi- ), also called Manchester code
5. AMI : Alternate mark inversion
|
15
t
t
t
t
t
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
Digital sequence
A. NRZ : Nonreturn to zero
B. NRZ-B : NRZ - Bipolar
C. RZ : Return to zero(~50% duty cycle)
D. Biphase (Bi- )
Also called Manchester code
|
E. AMI : Alternate mark inversion
Figure 12-10 A few digital transmission formats
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Continued

TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) Level Signal Format
0~1.3 volts for a logic 0
3.6~5 volts for a logic 1
current level less than 16 mA
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12.7 PCM System Analysis`
Sampling f
s
> 2 f
A(max)

f
s
= sampling frequency
f
Amax
= input max frequency
Quantization
Encoding

Quantization is the process of approximating sample
levels into their closed fixed value.

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Figure 11.14 : A 3-bit PCM system showing analog to 3-bit digital
Digital signal
Sampling pulses
Digital clock
Serial PCM
output
Analog
input
Pulse
generator
Sampler
Encoder
t
t
T
s
001
011
101
111
1 2 3
000
010
100
110
3
1
5
7
1
011
11 0 10 1
2 3
10 0
4
A(t)
0
4
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Dynamic Range and Resolution

Dynamic range is the ratio of largest to smallest analog
signal.
Resolution is the smallest analog input voltage change
that can be distinguished by A/D converter.
q = V
Fs
/ 2
n

where q = resolution
n = number of bits in the digital code word
V
Fs
= full-scale voltage range for the analog signal
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Dynamic Range( DR)
ADC parameters = V
Fs
/ q
= 2
n
= M
DR = V
max
/ V
min
= 2
n
DR (dB) = 20 log V
max
/ V
min
20 log 2
n
= 20n log 2

= 6.02n

or DR(dB) ~ 6n
For linearly encoded PCM system
DR(dB) = 6 dB/ bit
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Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio
(SQR)
For input signal minimum amplitude
SQR = minimum voltage / quantization noise
For input signal maximum amplitude
SQR = maximum voltage / quantization noise
Linear quantizng in PCM systems has two major
drawbacks.(i)
Companding
Companding is the process of compressing, then
expanding.
Or nonlinear encoding/decoding, called companding


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Companding

Linear quantizng in PCM systems has two major
drawbacks.
(i) The uniform step size means that weak analog
signals will have a much poorer S/N
q
than the strong
signals.
(ii) Systems of wide dynamic range require many
ending bits and consequently wide system
bandwidth.
Companding
Companding is the process of compressing, then
expanding.
Or nonlinear encoding/decoding, called companding


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A
000
001
010
001
100
101
110
111 Linear analog-to-digital converter
transfer characteristic.
N
Full scale, or V
FS
D
i
g
i
t
a
l

o
u
t
p
u
t

c
o
d
e

q
Sample voltage input(Volts)
V
max
(Volts)
}
q
0
+ q / 2
- q / 2
B. Quantum uncertainty or quantization noise, q/2
Fig 12.15Linear ADC characteristic and quantization noise.
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References
1. Advanced Electronic Communication Systems by
WAYNE TOMASI, Mesa Community College,
Second Edition
2. Principles of Digital and Analog Communications
by Jerry D. Gibson, Texas A & M University
3. Electronic Communication Techniques by Paul
H..Young, P.E. , Arizona State University
4. Advanced Electronic Communication Systems by
WAYNE TOMASI, Fifth Edition
5. Introduction to Digital and Data Communication