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Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 145159

Lateglacial and Holocene environmental changes in Ganga plain, Northern India

S. Sharmaa,b,*, M. Joachimskia, M. Sharmaa,b, H.J. Tobschalla, I.B. Singhb, C. Sharmac, M.S. Chauhanc, G. Morgenrothd
a

Institut fur Schlossgarten-5, D-91054, Erlangen, Germany . Geologie und Mineralogie, Universitat . Erlangen-Nurnberg, . b Department of Geology, Lucknow University, Lucknow 226007, India c Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, 58-University Road, Lucknow 226007, India d Physikalisches Instiut, Erwin-Rommel-Str. 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany . Universitat . Erlangen-Nurnberg, . Received 24 October 2002; accepted 10 October 2003

Abstract Stable isotope, elemental geochemistry and pollen analysis of a sediment prole from Sanai lake, Central Ganga Plain, were used to document climatic oscillations during the last B15,000 yr in Indian subcontinent. Micaceous sandy sediments at the base of the prole indicate an active channel and humid conditions before B15,000 14C yr BP. The channel was abandoned during comparatively arid conditions (15,00013,000 14C yr BP) and converted into a swamp. Enhanced humidity around 13,000 14C yr BP led to submergence of marshes and establishment of a large lake. A dry phase is also identied around an estimated age of 11,500 10,500 14C yr BP which might correspond to the Younger Dryas event witnessed globally. The Early to Mid-Holocene climatic optimum (B10,0005800 14C yr BP) is characterised by a lake environment. Occurence of warmth loving aquatic plants, lower d18O values of gastropod aragonite, heavier d13Corg values indicate a sensitive response of the lake ecology to the climatic warming and increased rainfall. This is followed by an arid event during 50002000 14C yr BP and from B1700 14C yr BP there is evidence of climatic amelioration. The sequence and magnitude of the millenium-scale climatic oscillations documented along the lake prole correlate well with records from other parts of the Indian subcontinent indicating that the recorded changes are an expression of broad scale, probably global and climatic change. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The Ganga Plain is part of the Indo-Gangetic plain, which represents one of the largest alluvial plains in the world. It shows development of highly differentiated alluvial features; many of them were formed due to changing climatic conditions during the Late Quaternary. The Central Ganga plain constitutes the bulk of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and shows diverse geomorphic features, i.e., uvial channels of various types and dimensions, terraces, lakes, ponds and swamps. Lakes being natural sediment traps are important archives of palaeoenvironmental information, and the present
*Corresponding author. Current address: Department of Geological and Atmosheric Sciences, Iowa State University, 253 Science Hall I, Ames, Iowa 50011-3212, USA. Tel.: +1-515-294-4477; fax: +1-515294-6049. E-mail address: Shikha Geology@hotmail.com (S. Sharma). 0277-3791/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.10.005

paper attempts to interpret the evolutionary history of Sanai lake, which is a part of a linear belt of lakes in Central Ganga Plain. Most of these lakes are considered to be formed in early Holocene and were gradually lled in response to changing climate during the late Holocene to present day (Agarwal et al., 1992; Singh, 1996). Most of earlier palaeoclimatic studies in India have focussed on the Thar desert (Singh et al., 1972, 1974; Bryson and Swain, 1981; Swain et al., 1983; Enzel et al., 1999), Himalayas (Kusumgar et al., 1986; Bhattacharya, 1989), and the coastal areas of the Indian ocean (Caratini et al., 1991, 1994; Caratini and Rajagopalan, 1992; Gupta and Sharma, 1993; Naidu and Malmgren, 1996; Goodbred Steven and Kuehl, 2000; Thamban et al., 2001). However, apart from a few climatic studies based on the radiocarbon and luminescence dating of sediments combined with sedimentological data (Agarwal et al., 1992; Singh, 1996; Srivastava et al., 2000) and investigation of clay mineral associations (Srivastava

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et al., 1998), there are no well-dated multi-proxy climatic records from the Ganga Plain. The Central Ganga Plain exhibits several major geomorphic surfaces. The Upland Terrace (T2 ) constitutes the prominent upland areas that at present are beyond the reach of oods. The T2 surface is a regional plateau surface located about 1520 m above the active river ood plains, and shows various micro-geomorphic features. A characteristic feature is the presence of abandoned channel belts, abandoned channel and meander cut-offs. Ponds and large linear lakes are segments of abandoned meandering channel belts. Based on radiocarbon dating of freshwater molluscs and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of lake sediments it has been suggested that many of these lakes formed between 8 and 6 ka (Agarwal et al., 1992; Singh, 1996; Srivastava et al., 2003). The lakes are located at a relatively high elevation of the Ganga Plain and do not receive any water or sediment from any major river system. The recharge of the lakes depends mainly on monsoonal rainfall and surface runoff and sediments are locally derived. The impact of changes in evaporation rate is of major importance as the lakes are relatively shallow with a large surface area to depth ratio. As a consequence, the lakes are very sensitive to changes in the ratio of precipitation vs. evaporation with some lakes becoming almost dry during the peak summer season. The studied Lake Sanai Tal is located on the upland interuve (T2 ) surface between rivers Gomati and Sai (Fig. 1) in the central part of Ganga Plain and constitutes a part of an old abandoned channel belt. Climatically, the central part of Ganga Plain lies in the humid subtropical zone. The climate exhibits seasonal variations: (1) cold season (NovemberFebruary) characterised by mean minimum and maximum temperatures of 7.6 C and 21 C, (2) hot season (MarchJune) marked by hot northwestern winds and average mean minimum and maximum temperatures of 27 C and 32.5 C. Peak temperature may reach 46 C in the month of June. (3) Monsoon (rainy) season (July October) characterised by heavy rainfall spells occur from July to September. Average annual precipitation in Lucknow close to the study area is 953 mm. For most part of the year, high-temperature conditions prevail over the plain and large amount of water is lost through evapotranspiration. The area has a negative water budget; more water is lost due to evapotranspiration (about 2000 mm/yr) than added by precipitation (about 900 mm/yr). The main objective of this study was to understand palaeoclimatic changes during the Holocene in Ganga Plain using a multi-proxy approach comprising sedimentology, major and trace element geochemistry, oxygen and carbon isotope ratios of mollusc shells and pollen studies. Chronology of the section is based on

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of Sanai Lake in Central Ganga Plain, India.

seven AMS 14C dates on sedimentary organic matter. Oxygen and carbon isotopes from mollusc shells were used as proxies for palaeoclimate. Lithology and elemental geochemistry were used to infer lake and water conditions and pollen assemblages provide evidence for regional vegetation and lake/watershed ora.

2. Methods The sampling of the lake sediments was done by preparing a 2.20 m deep pit during peak summer (May 2000) when water table was low. The freshly exposed prole (2.10 m thick) was systematically sampled at a 5 15 cm interval. The sediment samples were dried at room temperature, powdered and homogenised with an agate mortar. The samples were kept for 12 h at 1030 C for loss of ignition (LOI measurements). For major and trace element analysis, 1 g of sediment was weighted in a porcelain crucible. To avoid any contamination all porcelain crucibles were cleaned with concentrated HCl

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and dried at 120 C. A 4.830 mg of lithium tetraborate and 12 mg of Diiodine pentaoxide were added to the sediment samples. After homogenisation the samples were heated in platinum containers and pellets were prepared. Major (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O and P2O5) and trace element contents (V, Cr, CO, NI, Cu, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Rb, Sr and Ba) were investigated using a Philips PW 2400 X-ray spectrometer. Precision and accuracy of the data was checked using international reference samples (JSd-1, JSd-2, JLk-1, SARM-46, SARM-52, JB-2, JGb-2 and IAEA-SL-1), which were measured as unknowns with samples and sample duplicates. For pollen studies, typically B10 g of sediment was treated with 10% aqueous KOH solution to deocculate pollen and spores from the sediments. Silica was dissolved by adding 40% HF. Thereafter, the usual acetolysis technique (Erdtman, 1943) was employed using an acetolysing mixture (9:1, acetic anhydride and conc. sulphuric acid). The samples were prepared in 50% glycerine solution for microscopic studies. Few diatoms escaped HF treatment. However, the encountered diatoms in the samples have not been taken into account in the pollen sum calculated for the construction of pollen diagram. Radiocarbon dates were determined on total organic carbon from seven sediment samples (Table 1) using the AMS facility at the Physics Department of the University of Erlangen. All ages reported are uncalibrated conventional radiocarbon dates given in years before present. The calendar ages given in Table 1 were calculated using the program INTCAL98. Stable isotope analyses were performed on total carbonate as well as on gastropod shells extracted from the sediment samples. Shells of the most abundant gastropod species Indoplanorbis sp. were used to determine the long-term variations in carbon and oxygen isotopes. Whole shells were gently cleaned with alcohol using an ultrasonic bath and powdered using a pestle and mortar. To unravel short-term or seasonal variations in the isotopic composition of the gastropod shells, sequential analysis was done along the growth lines of 2 specimens of Viviparous sp. collected from two
Table 1 AMS radiocarbon (14C) dates from Sanai lake Sample name SA SA SA SA SA SA SA 2 5 10 14 17 19 21 Lab no.
14

positions in the prole. Samples were collected from individual growth increments, with the rst sample located near the apex and the following samples taken towards the aperture. Keeping in mind the growth pattern of gastropods, sample numbers increase within a single shell from oldest to youngest material. The analysis of representative gastropod shells used for isotopic analysis by XRD showed that the shells were 100% aragonite. Carbonate powders were reacted with 100% phosphoric acid at 75 C in an online carbonate preparation line connected to a ThermoFinnigan 252 mass spectrometer. Reproducibility and accuracy was monitored by replicate analysis of laboratory standards and was better than 70.1% (1 std.dev.) for both d13C and d18O. For carbon isotope analysis of total organic carbon, sediment samples were treated with 1 N HCl in order to dissolve any carbonate. When visible reaction ceased, the residues were washed several times with distilled water. The residues were dried at 50 C and homogenised. The carbon isotopic composition was measured by combusting the samples in a Carlo-Erba element analyzer connected to a ThermoFinnigan Delta plus mass spectrometer. Precision for d13Corg analyses based on duplicate analyses is better than 70.1% (1 std.dev.). All isotopic values are reported in the standard d-notation in permil relative to V-PDB.

3. Results 3.1. Lithology and chronology Lithologically, the lake prole can be subdivided into four zones (Fig. 2). The basal 20 cm (Zone I) are represented by grey micaceous ne sand. Zone II comprises mixed lithology with varying amount of sand, silt and clay and shows minute mottling. Zone III is made of shell-rich sediments including shell layers. The shell deposit is almost exclusively composed of gastropod shells namely Viviparous sp., Gyraulus sp., Indoplanorbis sp., Lymnea sp. and Melanoides sp. Zone III can be divided into two parts, namely Zone IIIa which is composed of black clayey silt with dispersed shells and Zone III b being a marl with B8090% carbonate essentially consisting of shell accumulation. Zone IV is composed of dark clayey silt near the base followed by a 15 cm thick subsoil at the top. The contacts between all the lithological units are gradational. There are no visible lithological evidences for any hiatus or break in sedimentation between the different zones, or otherwise. Based on the lithological characteristics and geomorphic setting of the lake, it is assumed that sedimentation was continuous though rates of deposition change through time.

C dates

(yr BP) HOLMONSANAI HOLMONSANAI HOLMONSANAI HOLMONSANAI HOLMONSANAI HOLMONSANAI HOLMONSANAI 07/01-2 07/01-3 07/01-4 07/01-5 07/01-6 07/01-7 07/01-8 14,8337147 14,1047159 13,0307114 10,120788 5800765 2264752 1705759

Calendar age (1s) (yr BP) 18,05417,439 17,20711,626 16,03115,323 11,77511,550 67596640 23452303 16321541

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One may argue that using total organic carbon for chronology may give older ages due to the contribution of organic carbon from the catchment. The Sanai lake has a very small catchment area with no streams or creeks meeting the lake. The pollen study also demonstrates that vegetation contribution was essentially from aquatic plants and marginally growing plants. Moreover, the sediments exposed at the surface which contribute to lake sedimentation are always oxidised. The subaerially exposed sediments in the Ganga Plain are always oxidised and do not yield any organic matter due to prolonged seasonal droughts and the relatively high permeability. Even pollen and spores are not preserved. Thus, it can be presumed that organic matter of the Sanai lake sediments is derived from the lake system with only negligible contribution of older carbon. 3.2. Elemental geochemistry Major and trace element concentrations were normalised to Al in order to exclude a dilution effect by varying carbonate contents. The Zone III b shows high ratios of CaO, Sr and MgO. This zone also shows unusually high Mo/Al, Ni/Al, Cu/Al, Zn/Al, Pb/Al, Cr/Al, Co/Al and V/Al ratios (Fig. 3). The LOI (weight loss on ignition) values are also very high in zone III b. 3.3. Pollen stratigraphy Most of the samples yielded pollen, except for the basal sample which is mainly composed of sand. The pollen sum varied from 150 to 300 per sample. The percentages of the recovered pollen taxa were calculated in terms of total terrestrial plant pollen. Based on the changes in frequency of the important pollen taxa, four pollen assemblage zones were identied (Fig 4). Zone SJ I which corresponds to lithological Zone I was almost palynologically barren except for a stray occurrence of grass pollen. The Zone SJ II broadly corresponds to the lithological Zone II, shows high abundance of non-arboreal pollen (NAP) with stray occurrence of arboreal pollen (AP). Among NAP, Poaceae (6070%), Cyperaceae (1025%), Chenopodiaceae/Amrantheaceae (1015%) and Utricaceae (510%) are the prominent elements. Exotic pollen such as Pinus, Cedrus, Abies and Picea are present in small amounts. Tree taxa viz. Moraceae, Holoptelea, Sapotaceae and Melastomaceae also occur, but in low frequencies. Potamogeton o1% is the only representative of aquatic vegetation. Ferns are recorded in high frequencies. Zone SJ III (equivalent to Litho-zone III) exhibits a signicant increase in Poaceae (6195%), simultaneous decline in Cyperaceae (411%), Chenopodiaceae/Amrantheaceae (3%), Caryophyllaceae, Utricaceae and Tubuliorae. Aquatic elements such as Typha (215%)

Fig. 2. Lithological prole of Sanai lake section showing the different lithological zones along with uncallibrated 14C AMS dates.

The radiocarbon dates on total organic carbon (Table 1) provide the chronological control of the lake succession. Zone II can be assigned to the period of B15,00013,000 14C yr BP with a fast sedimentation rate of B41 cm/1000 yr. The lower part of Zone III (Zone IIIa) was deposited between 13,000 and 10,000 14 C yr BP with a slow rate of deposition of B7.7 cm/ 1000 yr. Based on the rate of sedimentation, the age of samples SA12 and SA13 in Zone IIIa can be esitimated to be B11,50010,500 14C yr BP. Zone IIIb has an extremly slow rate of deposition (4 cm/1000 yr) and covers the time span of Early to Middle Holocene (from 10,000 to 5800 14C yr BP). The lower part of Zone IV (SA 18 and SA19) also shows slower rate of deposition and its deposition can be assigned to a time range from 5000 to 2000 14C yr BP. The upper part of this zone (SA 20SA 23) shows high rate of deposition of (B57 cm/1000 yr). The sample SA 22 which lies 20 cm below the top of the zone gives an age of B1700 14C yr BP.

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Fig. 3. MgO, CaO, Sr concentrations, trace element/alumina ratios and LOI in different samples of Sanai Lake.

and Potamogeton (25%) together with fresh water algae Botryococcus (335%) appear for the rst time in high frequencies in this zone. Polygonum plebeium and P. Serrulatum are present in this zone and occur in high abundance in the upper part. Fern spores show an abrupt decline in abundance at the base of this zone. Interestingly, in this zone the interval encompassing an estimated short time span of 11,50010,500 14C yr BP (SA12 and SA13) show signicant decline in the overall vegetation cover, except for grasses followed by Asteraceae and algae Botryococcus which shows slightly increasing trend. The arboreals, ferns and exotic taxa are totally unrepresented in this zone. Pollen Zone SJIV which corresponds to lithological Zone IV is marked by an overall decline in Poaceae (3560%) together with simultaneous improvement in Cerealia and few other pollen taxa such as Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae/ Amrantheaceae and Utricaceae. The marshy elements, Cyperaceae and Polygonum serrulatum show an increasing trend. Aquatic vegetation declines considerably. However, in the upper part of zone SJ IV there are much increased frequencies of Poaceae and aquatic taxa like Potamogeton, Nymphoides and Lemna and Botryococcus. 3.4. Carbon isotopes of organic matter The carbon isotopic composition of total organic carbon was measured in all samples of the prole. The d13Corg values range from 24% to 18% V-PDB and reveal a systematic variation through the prole (Fig 4). d13Corg value in Zone I is around 23.6%. Zone II

shows values ranging from 20% to 21%. A trend towards higher values is observed in Zone III with values between 18% and 19%. However, samples SA12 and SA13 in Zone III show comparatively lower values. Near the base of Zone IV d13Corg values decrease again to 21% but tend to increase towards the top of the prole. In order to get a better understanding of the carbon isotopic signatures, d13Corg values were determined of a few modern plant species inhabiting the Sanai Lake area (Table 2). The isotopic analysis of the perennial grass Dicanthium annulatum that today is very common in Ganga Plain, gave a d13C value of 12.2%. In contrast, average d13C values of modern algae, aquatic plants, ferns and marshy taxa from Sanai area are in the range of 20 to 29% (Table 2). 3.5. Carbon and oxygen isotopes of gastropod shells Carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios were measured on powdered and homogenised complete gastropod shells taken from the shell-rich layers (Zone IIIb, lower and uppermost part of zone IV) as well as on several shell fragments extracted from individual horizons (Zones I, II and IV). The oxygen isotope ratios of the homogenised complete gastropod shells from individual horizons reveal signicant scatter of up to 6% (Fig. 5). This was unexpected since the powdering of whole shells was expected to minimise the inuence of seasonal variations in the isotopic signals. In order to unravel a potential secular change in the isotopic composition of gastropod aragonite, we plotted the spread of isotopic compositions for homogenised whole shells (from shell

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Fig. 4. Pollen diagram of Sanai Lake along with the d13Corg variation in the prole.

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S. Sharma et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 23 (2004) 145159 Table 2 d13Corg values of modern vegetation from Sanai Tal Plant material Perennial grass (Dicanthium sp.) Aquatic grass Fern (Pteris sp.) Algae Marshy plant (Polygonum sp.) Aquatic plant (Iopomea sp.) Aquatic plant (Potamogeton sp.) Aquatic plant (Typha sp.) d13C (%V-PDB) 12.18 12.78 27.75 19.78 28.7 28.29 23.43 29.65 151

variant trends in d18O and d13C. The modern specimen shows a prominent change from a minimum d18O value of 7.4 to a maximum value of +8.7%. Carbon isotope values range from 9.3 to 1.3% (Fig. 6a). In comparison, d18O and d13C values from the fossil specimen (horizon SA 11; Fig. 6b) show a minor variation with d18O and d13C ranging from 4.2% to 1.6% and 3.0% to +0.1%, respectively.

4. Discussion 4.1. Organic carbon isotope values and vegetational history Several sources may contribute to total organic carbon in lake sediments: aquatic plants and bacteria growing within and in moist land areas adjacent to the lake as well as terrestrial grasses and plants growing around the lake catchment. The carbon isotopic composition of lake organic carbon may be determined by varying contributions of these sources (allochthonous vs. autochthonous carbon) and, potentially, by a change in the carbon isotopic fractionation during the photosynthetic xation of carbon. The pollen data reveal that Sanai Tal catchment was dominated by grasslands throughout the recorded depositional history (Fig. 4). The tropical and subtropical grasslands consist almost exclusively of C4 plants with d13C values ranging from 17% to 9% with a mean value of 13% (Nordt et al., 1994). The isotopic analysis of the perennial grass Dicanthium annulatum presently ubiquitous in Ganga plain, gave a d13C value of 12.2%. In contrast, average d13C values of modern aquatic plants, ferns and marshy taxa from this area are in the range of 20% to 29% (Table 2). Measured d13C values of sedimentary organic carbon range from 18% to 24% and suggest a signicant contribution of lacustrine plants, ferns, marshy taxa to lake total organic carbon. The observed variations in d13Corg may be related to changes in the relative input of different type of vegetation during lake history, which in turn can be also inferred from changes in the pollen spectrum. Organic carbon from Zone I (Fig. 5) is characterised by a low d13Corg value of 23.6%. Since this zone is palynologically barren, no information is available with respect to the type of vegetation contributing to this zone. Zone II (B15,00013,000 14C yr BP) shows d13Corg values around 21%. The comparatively lighter values in this zone can be atrributed to the higher contribution of isotopically light ferns (Table 2) to the lake organic matter during this time frame. Zone III (13,0005800 14C yr BP) records comparatively higher values in d13Corg, with an average value of B19%. Zone IIIb (10,0005800 14C yr BP) shows a gradual increase in

Fig. 5. d13C and d18O values of gastropod shell aragonite.

rich layers) as well as average value of several shell fragments from shell poor zones (Fig. 5). The d18O value in Zone I is around 1%, whereas average oxygen isotope values values in Zones II and IIIa are signicantly higher (ranging from 0.5 to +1%). The average d18O values range from +0.5 to +1.0% in Zone IIIa and decrease to average values of 1% to 5% in Zone IIIb. The lower part of Zone IV shows a slight positive shift in d18O values; however d18O values show a prominent decrease towards the top. Average d13C values vary between 7% and +0% and do not reect any signicant secular trend (Fig. 5). The sequential isotope analysis of a modern and fossil gastropod shell was performed in order to unravel the potential seasonal variations in the isotopic composition that might be indicative for climatic changes (Fig. 6). Interestingly, we observed large variations and co-

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(A)

(B)

Fig. 6. Isotopic data collected from sequential analysis of a modern shell (A) and fossil shell (B) from horizon SA11. Samples were taken at B3 mm intervals along the whorl spiral from the apex to the aperture. Sample number 1 is from the apex and numbers increase towards the aperture.

d13Corg with time which coincides with an increasing abundance of isotopically heavy grasses and algae. This phase is characterised by the maximum development of both aquatic and terrestrial vegetation as evidenced by the better representation of most of the taxa. An increase in d13Corg values of lake sediments was used as indicator of enhanced aquatic productivity in several studies (Hollander and MacKenzie, 1991; Hollander et al., 1992; Meyers, 1994; Brenner et al., 1999). The high prevalance of warmth loving aquatic elements such as Potamogeton sp., Typha sp. accompanied by a decline in sedges and ferns further suggest that the lake expanded considerably. However, samples SA12 and SA13 (estimated age B11,50010,500 14C yr BP) show lighter d13Corg values, and, a general decline in all types of vegetation except grasses and algae which show higher abundance. This indicates that during this short period the climate was relatively dry and plant productivity was low. The lighter d13Corg values in this zone could be due to the fact that during cold and arid conditions when surface water pCO2Xatmospheric

pCO2, photosynthetic algae become more enriched in 12 C (Herczeg and Fairbanks, 1987). The lower part of Zone IV (B50002000 14C yr BP) shows lighter d13Corg values which may be due to decrease in contribution from isotopically heavy grasses accompanied by simultaneous improvement in representation of isotopically light marshy plants like Polygonum sp. (Table 2). The upper part of Zone IV shows slightly heavier d13Corg values, which may be due to an increase in the abundance of grasses and algae. It is also characterised by increased representation of warmth loving aquatic taxa like Nymphoides, Lemnia and Potamogeton. These observations suggest relative warm and humid conditions from B170014C yr BP. 4.2. Elemental geochemistry and environmental implications CaO, Sr and MgO ratios show uniform values through the prole with distinct maxima in Zone IIIb which represents the time period of 10,0005800 14C yr

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BP (Fig. 3) due to high carbonate content of the shell rich layers. V/Al, Mo/Al, Ni/Al, Co/Al, Cr/Al, Cu/Al, Pb/Al and Zn/Al ratios show high values in the same interval. The LOI values can be used to estimate the amount of organic matter present in the sediment, as organic matter typically contains approximately 50% carbon, thus LOI values are considered to be approximately twice the TOC values (Meyers and Teranes, 2001). The high LOI values in Zone IIIb (Fig 3) can be taken as an indicator of the higher organic matter content. The d13Corg values as well as the pollen assemblages also indicate that Zone IIIb represents a time period of enhanced biological productivity. The organic matter served as a substrate for absorbing trace elements like Cu, Zn, Cr, Co, Ni, Mo and Mn (Lauquet et al., 2001; Elbaz-Poulichet et al., 1999; Achterberg et al., 1997; Stumm and Morgan, 1996). As a consequence, the trace element enrichment observed in Zone IIIb is explained by high organic productivity. The higher organic matter content and the high carbonate content of Zone IIIb (10,0005800 14C yr BP) suggests that the adjacent landscape was stable during this time period, soil erosion was extremely subdued and there was only a minor terrigenous clastic input from watershed soil erosion. We propose that the lake at this time was enlarged due to intensied rainfall and that the vegetation growing adjacent to the lake was denser during this warmer and more humid climatic phase. 4.3. Oxygen isotopic composition of gastropod shell aragonite Attempts have been made to reconstruct palaeoenvironmental conditions by using the carbon and oxygen isotopic composition of freshwater and terrestrial molluscs (Abell et al., 1995; Ayliffe et al., 1996; Abell and Hoelzmann, 2000; Schmitz and Andreason, 2001). The oxygen isotopic composition of freshwater gastropod shells is determined by ambient water temperature and the oxygen isotopic composition of the water body. In tropical monsoonal climates, recharge of lakes is mainly a function of the amount of precipitation received during the rainy season. Even the contribution by groundwaters to these lakes is linked to precipitation in the rainy season when water table moves closer to the surface. The oxygen isotopic composition of monsoonal precipitation is governed by the amount effect depleting rainwaters in 18O during intense monsoonal rainfall. In contrast, insignicant rains during the cooler winters will result in precipitation enriched in 18O (Rozanski et al., 1993; Wei and Gasse, 1999). This relationship is illustrated in the comparison of seasonal variations in d18O, temperature and amount of precipitation in New Delhi (Fig. 7). Months with heavy rainfalls (July September) have lower d18O values than months with less intense rainfalls. For example, d18O values of

Fig. 7. Variations in monthly d18O values of precipitation over a ten year period (19611971) and their relation to the amount of precipitation (data obtained from IAEA/WMO GNIP database).

precipitation in New Dehli measured in 1963 show a range of 15.3% in September to +6.2% in June. Although, the source of moisture in Ganga Plain broadly remains the same from June to September (i.e Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea) there is considerable difference in mean monthly d18O values of rainfall from June to September. Enrichment in 18O of precipitation in June in comparison to precipitation in July is due to evaporation in the hot and dry summer month, which tends to enrich raindroplets in 18O. The decrease in d18O values of precipitation in July and August can be explained by the amount effect. However, precipitation in SeptemberNovember shows the lowest d18O values, although rain intensity decreases as a consequence of high humidity and low evaporation. In addition to the seasonal changes in the oxygen isotopic composition of precipitation, rather large variations are observed for individual months when compared over a 10 year period (Fig. 7). For example, the oxygen isotopic composition of precipitation in the month of July varies from 7.2% in 1971 to +8.2% in 1965 (IAEA/WMO, 2001). Apart from the interannual variations in the oxygen isotopic composition of monthly precipitation, evaporation of lake waters is increasing during the dry season and is expected to enrich lake waters in 18O. In conclusion, we expect lake waters in Ganga plain to be relatively depleted in 18O in

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the monsoon season and early cold season and to become successively enriched in 18O during late cold season and hot season. The stable isotopic composition was measured on homogenised whole shells and shell fragments to homogenise any seasonal variations in the isotopic compositions and to retrieve information concerning long-term changes in the isotopic composition of lake water and/or ambient temperature. However, the oxygen composition of shells from individual horizons revealed relatively large scatter that could not be explained by variations in the mean isotopic composition of annual precipitation. This suggests that the life span of the freshwater gastropods was short and that shell aragonite of individual shells was precipitated during different time periods of the year. The latter explains the large differences in the average isotopic composition of whole shells. Similar trends were observed for freshwater gastropods from Sudan with differences in d18O being explained by the seasonal climate with high degree of inter-annual rainfall variability and abrupt changes in the local water balance (Soulie-Marsche, 1993; Ayliffe et al., 1996). In order to unravel potential long-term variations in the oxygen isotopic composition of lake water that might be indicative for climatic changes, we plotted the isotopic composition of homogenised whole shells as well as shell fragments from individual horizons (Fig. 5). A relative light d18O value is registered in Zone I (Fig. 5), which can be interpreted as evidence for comparatively humid conditions. This interpretation is supported by the fact that this interval comprises grey micaceous sands, which probably represent deposits of an active channel, which exsisted at that time. Gastropod shells from Zone II (B15,00013,000 14C yr BP) and Zone IIIa (13,00010,000 14C yr BP) show a shift towards heavier d18O values, potentially reecting reduced monsoonal activity and/or enhanced evaporation. Zone IIIb (10,0005800 14C yr BP) is characterised by a shift towards lighter d18O values which may be the result of an enhanced monsoonal precipitation due to onset of humid conditions. A minor increase in d18O values is observed in the lower part of Zone IV (B50002000 14 C yr BP) which is indicative of a spell of dry conditions. Lighter d18O values towards the top of the prole (younger than 1700 14C yr BP) may indicate a return of humid climatic conditions. 4.3.1. Sequential analysis Sequential analyses along growth spirals of mature gastropod shells may provide information on seasonal variations in the isotopic composition of lake waters since fresh water gastropods may have life spans of 12 years (Abell et al., 1995; Abell and Hoelzmann, 2000; Schmitz and Andreason, 2001). Two complete specimens were investigated in order to quantify the potential

seasonal variations in the isotopic compositions and to get a measure for the lifetime of the gastropods. In order to get a better understanding of potential seasonal variations in d18O of shell carbonate, we calculated equilibrium d18O values for aragonite over a 1-year period (using the aragonite-water fractionation equation given by Grossman and Ku, 1986). The oxygen isotopic composition of lake water was estimated using the 10-year average monthly d18O value for precipitation in New Delhi. Lake water temperature was derived by the 10-year average monthly surface temperature measured in New Dehli (IAEA/WMO, 2001; Fig. 7). The calculated seasonal variation in the oxygen isotopic composition of aragonite for Ganga plain is 15% (Fig. 8). This estimate neglects any inuence of evaporation on the stable isotopic composition of lake water, assumes that recharge is mainly occurring during the hot season and that the oxygen isotopic composition of lake waters is initially determined by monsoonal rains. However, evaporation is increasing during the cold season and hot season and is expected to enrich lake waters substantially in 18O. We argue that the approximation of the oxygen isotopic composition of lake water by d18O of precipitation represents a rough estimate of the expected seasonal variations in d18O of shell aragonite. On a rst sight, the variations in d18O obtained from sequential analysis (Fig. 6) resemble the expected trend. Maximum variation in the oxygen isotopic composition is 16% for the modern and 5% for the SA11 specimen. The lower oxygen isotope values in each sample are interpreted to represent the rainy season, whereas the higher values are interpreted to reect the warm and dry season. In modern specimen SA (mod) oxygen isotope values during the early stage of shell growth are increasing from around +6% to +8% and may be interpreted to indicate enhanced evaporation. As a consequence we argue that this modern gastropod hatched during the dry season, probably in early hot season. The interpretation is supported by the following abrupt decrease in the oxygen isotopic composition by almost 16%. This sharp decrease is interpreted to monitor the onset of the monsoon season (Fig. 6a). The gradual increase in d18O from around 7.5% to 4% during the later stage of shell growth may point to enhanced evaporation affecting the isotopic composition of lake water and/or a decrease in lake water temperature in cold season. Seasonal variation in lake water temperature is expected in the range of 1520 C with highest temperatures occurring in hot season (about 30 C) and lower temperatures in cold season (about 10 C). The seasonal variation in lake water temperature may account for a 3%4% change in the oxygen isotopic composition of shell aragonite but is not able to explain the overall variation of 16%. As a consequence, we argue that the isotopic composition of

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Fig. 8. Estimate of equilibrium d18O value of aragonite based on average monthly temperature and d18O value of precipitation in New Delhi ignoring any effect of evaporation on lake water isotopic composition.

monsoonal rains and evaporation of lake water are the dominant factors determining the oxygen isotopic composition of shell aragonite. The isotopic record measured on the fossil gastropod shell (sample SA 11 with an estimated age of B12,500 14 C yr BP) indicates that this specimen also hatched in spring. The onset of warmer temperatures or enhanced evaporation is observed in the subsequent samples recording an increase in d18O of 1%. The decrease in d18O is only 4% and most important is more gradual in comparison to the modern gastropod. Lowest values are around 7% and are interpreted to reect the monsoonal rainy season. The gradual increase in d18O to values around 2% is interpreted as the effect of cooling during the cold season and enhanced evaporation during early hot season. The highest d18O values are interpreted to be representative for the hot season (month of June) immediately before the onset of monsoon. The decrease in d18O in the youngest part of the shell may indicate the beginning of the rainy season. Consequently, the lifetime of the investigated fossil specimen is estimated to be around 1 year. Besides the minor total variation in d18O of only 5%, the decrease in the oxygen isotopic composition is gradual. This is unexpected in comparison to the modern situation, where lakes are shallowing substantially and even may become dry as a consequence of intense evaporation during the hot season. As a consequence, the onset of the rainy season is clearly reected in a pronounced negative shift in d18O of the modern shell. A gradual decrease in d18O of the fossil specimen as well as a total variation of 5% reects a higher lake level that suppressed the seasonal effects of monsoonal precipitation and evaporation on the oxygen isotopic composi-

tion of lake water. In conclusion, we argue that the oxygen isotope pattern measured in the modern gastropd shell reects the modern environmental conditions, whereas the pattern recorded in the fossil specimen indicates the development of extensive lakes and thus wetter climatic conditions. However, further analyses are needed to conrm this, as our interpretation are based on a study of only one modern and one ancient shell which might not be true representative of the respective population. 4.4. Carbon isotopic composition of gastropod shell aragonite The carbon isotope ratio of fresh water gastropods is determined by the carbon isotope ratio of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and by vital fractionation effects effective during shell secretion. The d13C of lake water DIC may be controlled by CO2 exchange with the atmosphere, remineralisation of organic compounds and synthesis of organic matter by photosythesising algae or bacteria. Dissoved atmospheric CO2 (preindustrial CO2 d13C=7.4%) contributes DIC with a carbon isotopic composition of around 0% (for a temperature around 30 C using fractionation factors given by Romanek et al., 1992) whereas the breakdown of organic matter will contribute DIC with a carbon isotope ratio of 14% to 26% (depending on the photosynthetic pathway). Photosynthetic activity will enrich lake water DIC in 13C as a consequence of the synthesis of organic matter depleted in 12C. In conclusion, the carbon isotopic composition of aquatic molluscs is difcult to interpret since both dissolved inorganic carbon and metabolic carbon

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contribute to shell carbonate. However, the comparatively heavier d13C values in Zone IIIb can be interpreted as the expected normal trend of heavy isotope enrichment during higher biological productivity in lake, when uptake of isotopically lighter DIC by aquatic plants enriches the DIC with respect to 13C. 4.4.1. Sequential analysis The oxygen and carbon isotopic composition show parallel trends in sequential analysis of the two specimens SA (mod) and SA 11 (Fig. 6a and b), showing that both are being governed by some common factor. Both carbon and oxygen isotopes are highly depleted during the monsoon season. This is unexpected since lake water DIC is expected to become progressively enriched in 13C due to enhanced photosynthetic activity during and after the rainy season. The depletion in carbon isotopic composition may be explained by an enhanced metabolic activity during these months. As shown by Veinott and Cornett (1996), the d13C values of gastropod shells may be as much as 10% lower than expected equilibrium values due to enhanced metabolism during summer months. Subsequent increase in the d13C values during the dry months may reect primarily a lowered inuence of light vegetation cover and plant decomposition rates which decrease during dry periods (Talbot, 1990). The carbon isotope pattern also reects that seasonality during the life span of specimen SA11 with an estimated age B13,000 14C yr BP was less pronounced compared to the modern specimen.

5. Summary The multiple proxy data from Sanai Lake provide a reconstruction of lake vegetation and climatic changes during the Last GlacialInterglacial transition and Holocene in Ganga Plain. It appears that before B15,000 14C yr BP a channel existed which produced a meander cutoff lake by evolution of a river course. It is probable that the wet and humid phase (prior to B15,000 14C yr BP) in which this channel existed, corresponds to the warming event during 22,00018,000 14C yr BP inferred from palynological data from Kashmir (Kusumgar et al., 1986) and Tsokar lake in Ladakh (Bhattacharya, 1989) isotopic measurements from Dundi ice core in Tibet (Thompson et al., 1989) and a meltwater spike in the Bay of Bengal (Gupta and Sharma, 1993). The formation of Sanai Lake took place around 15,000 14C yr BP (Zone II) in the form of a meander cutoff of the active channel. The mottled sandy and silty clays of this zone indicate that the channel was abandoned and got converted into a lake. The change from a uvial facies to lake facies is also accompanied

by a positive shift in d18O suggesting the onset of comparatively less humid conditions. The lack of aquatic pollen and abundance of sedges and ferns pollen implies that rainfall was not enough to support a large water body so the lake was shallow with prominent marshes. This phase can be correlated with a decrease in SW monsoon intensity around 14,400 14C yr BP (Naidu and Malmgren, 1996; Zonneveld et al., 1997). During this time the region probably was covered with open scrubby vegetation consisting mainly of sedges (Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae), which inhabited the areas of lake margins or low levees. The recovery of Cerelia pollen associated with culture pollen taxa, e.g Chenopodiaceae/Amranthaceae, Caryophyllacae, Utricaceae, etc. demonstrates that the region was under anthropogenic activities. Sediments of Zone III (B13,0005800 14C yr BP) predominantly comprise shell-rich muddy sediments, indicating lake expansion. This inference is supported by a prominent contribution of aquatic plants and a contemporary decline in the marshy taxa such as sedges. It can be inferred that around 13,000 14C yr BP rainfall increased which led to submergence of marshy and adjoining areas, expanding the lake. The onset of strengthened monsoon at B13,000 14C yr BP is also reported from northern Indian Ocean (Sirocko et al., 1993) subtropical North Africa (deMenocal et al., 2000) and eastern China (Wang et al., 1996). This is followed by a short event with a distinct decline in all plant taxa including trees, shrubs, aquatic taxa, herbs and ferns, except for grasses and Botryococcus sp. which exhibit an increasing trend. Based, upon the rate of sedimentation in this zone an age of 11,50010,500 14C yr BP can be estimated for this short event. This phase represents a deterioration of the climate and may coincide chronologically with the Younger Dryas event witnessed globally. In the upper part of Zone III, i.e during 10,0005800 14C yr BP (Zone IIIb) the lake further enlarged, reaching its maximum development. This phase is characterised by the maximum development of vegetation cover as evidenced by the better representation of most plant taxa. The high prevalance of aquatic elements such as Potamogeton sp., and Typha sp. and a decline in sedges and ferns further suggest that the lake expanded considerably. This scenario of lake expansion implies that the region experienced a humid climate during this period on account of the prevalence of an active SW monsoon. A decline in cultural pollen taxa (probably due to inundation of the marginal areas of the lake) is also recognised. This phase could correspond to the early mid-Holocene climatic optimum recorded from different regions in India, like Son valley in north central India (Williams and Clarke, 1984) and Rajasthan in western India (Singh et al., 1972, 1974; Bryson and Swain, 1981; Swain et al., 1983). There are evidences of a high Ganges-Brahmaputra sediment

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discharge during the early Holocene due to strengthened monsoon (Goodbred Steven and Kuehl, 2000). Zone IV (50002000 14C yr BP) shows a considerable reduction in aquatic elements and a simultaneous increase of marshy plants such as sedges. This suggests an increase of swamps along the lake margins. This reduction in lake area could be due to the onset of a relatively dry spell and reduced monsoon activity, accompanied by a slight positive shift in d18O values. In central Ganga Plain there is strong evidence of increased aridity around 5 ka that resulted in disruption of channels and formation of aeolian ridges (Singh, 1996; Srivastava et al., 2000). This event also appears to be synchronous with the mid-Holocene dry phase recorded in lakes of Rajasthan (Singh et al., 1974, 1990; Bryson and Swain, 1981). Enzel et al. (1999) have reported complete dessication of Lunkaransar Lake at B4800 14C yr BP. A decrease in the strength of monsoon between 4000 and 3000 14C yr BP is reported from studies along the Karntaka coast (Caratini and Rajagopalan, 1992), in Son valley (Williams and Clarke, 1984), the Western Ghats and the eastern Arabian Sea (Caratini et al., 1991, 1994). A drier climate in this time frame is also reported from Tibet (Gasse et al., 1996; Van Campo et al., 1996; Liu et al., 1998), western China (Thompson et al., 1997) and Africa (Maley, 1996; Vincens et al., 1999; Gasse, 2000). From 1700 14C yr BP to the present a trend towards climatic amelioration can be discerned as indicated by an increasing number of warmth loving aquatic plants, better representation of grassses and comparatively lighter gastropod shell d18O values. However, inspite of the increased monsoonal strength, the lake shrank further and at present it becomes almost dry during peak hot season. This shrinkage of lake could be due to enhancement of anthropogenic activities, as evidenced by a marked increase in Cerelia and other cultural pollen in the upper part of the prole. A similar trend towards higher humidity around 1500 14C yr BP is inferred from pollen data of Dunde ice cap, Tibet (Liu et al., 1998) and speleothem evidence from Pokhara Valley Nepal (Denniston et al., 2000).

6. Arid conditions during 5000 to 2000 14C yr BP 7. Evidence of climatic amelioration from B1700 14C yr BP onwards. The climatic oscillations recorded from the Sanai lake match broadly with the climatic records from other parts of the Indian subcontinent, suggesting that these oscillations are an expression of broad scale probably global climatic changes rather than local climatic variations.

Acknowledgements Postdoctoral fellowships of S.S. and M.S. at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg were funded by Deutscher Akademisher Austausch Dienst (DAAD). Danielle Lutz and Umesh Yadav are thanked for the help rendered in the laboratory and eld, respectively.

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