2

8 2010

: ,
: ,

.
" , ...
. .

noga.rotman@gmail.com

0.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.2

1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1

1.2

1.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5
5

1.1.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

1.2.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T r

13

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

1.3.1

14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.2

)( 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

1.3.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

1.3.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

1.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

1.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

2.1.1

30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.2

31

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

2.2.1

33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.2

35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.3

35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.4

36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.5

39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.6

41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45

2.3.1

45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.2

46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.3

48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.4

50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.5

52

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56

2.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1

62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V

2.5.2

65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5.3

67 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

' 69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.0.4
3.1

3.2

69 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1

61

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71
71
75

76 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

4.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

4.3

4.4

4.2.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.2

78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

80

4.3.1

80 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3.2

83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1

4.5

77

84

85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

0.1

,.
, ' ,12 : 00 13 : 00 .108

0.2

:
0.1 ) B Mn (F )( ) ,A Mn (F
) P Mn (F
.A = P 1 BP
, :
, .A = IAI 1
A B B .A
A B B C A .C
,
!

1
23.02.2010

1.1

1.1.1

1.1 V" ,F
T : V V" .1
v V )"( ,T
F .T v = v
, )"( .v
1.2 .
:
v1 , v2 ,V :
T v1 = 2v1 , T v2 = v1 + v2
v1 ,T v1 = 2v1" , 2" . :
T (v1 v2 ) = T v1 T v2 = 2v1 (v1 + v2 ) = v1 v2
v1 v2" " .1
1.3 v" ,T
cv 0 6= c F " " .v
?
)T (cv) = c (T v) = c v = (cv

1.4 ) A Mn (F ,
.0
, :

a11

0
a22

A=

..

ann

n ,:

an11
0

an22

..

.
0
annn
1 .

An =

 1.5 T : V V".
T " ,v1 , ..., vn
T " .
, T : , .
: T :v1 , ..., vn
T vi = i vi
i :

..
.

.
..
0
" :

0
2

A=

..

.
1.6 "
.2
1.7 T : V V".
v1 , ..., vk" " 1 , ..., k,
.i 6= j i 6= j
v1 , ..., vk".
1.8 ,dimV = n
" v1 , ..., vn " ,1 , .., n
.i 6= j i 6= j
v1 , ..., vn " ,V
,1.5
T " .
1.9 ,dimV = n ,T : V V
n" .3
2 " , ".
3 n + 1 .

 : : v1 , ..., vk .
, :
ai vi = 0

k
X
i=1

.ai = 0
,
, .
:
ai vi = 0

m
X
i=1

.m k ,
,m > 1 v1 , ..., vk " , .
T .:

X
X
m
m
X
m

=
a
T
v
=
ai i vi
ai vi
0=T
i
i

i=1
i=1
i=1
} | {z
=0

, :
ai 1 vi = 0

m
X

ai vi = 0

i=1

m
X
i=1

.
, ,:
ai (i 1 ) vi = 0

m
X

= ai (i 1 ) vi

i=2

m
X

= ai 1 vi

i=1

.i 6= 1 i 6= 1
" , ,
,ai = 0 m 1,
.m

i=1

i=1

}
,1 1 = 0 i = 1

m
X

a i i vi

{z

=0

m
X

{z

=0

=0

1.1.2

x1
.
.
.

1.10 ) ,a Mn (F F n

.0 6=

xn

x1

.
.
.

,A:

xn

x1

.
.
.

x1
.
.
.

xn

xn
0 6= F.
1.11 V" v1 , ..., vn ,F ,V
T : V V",

) A Mn (F T .v1 , ..., vn
Pn
V 3 i=1 xi vi = v 6= 0
T " ,

x1

" ... " A " .

xn
1.12 T : V V",
) A Mn (F ,T
T A ".
: :
, .
Pn
i=1 xi vi = v " T " .:
xi vi

n
X
i=1

= x i vi

n
X

T v = v T v =

i=1

:
T

v Tv

x1
x1
x1
.. A ..
.
. . = ..
xn
xn
xn

x1
.
.
.

" .A

xn

 1.13 A, B .
A B ".

x1
.
.
.

" B " .

xn

x1
.
.
.

:P 1

xn

x1

.
.
.

1
= P

xn

24.02.2010

1.2

x1
.
.
.

x1
.
.
.

1
= P

xn

1
1
= P BP P

xn

x1
.
.
.

AP 1

xn

1.14 ] F [x . :
an xn + an1 xn1 + ... + a0 , ai F
.
:
} ,F7 = {0, 1, 2, ..., 6 :
p (x) = 3x4 + 0x3 + 2x2 + 0x + 1

1.2.1

bi xi

n
X

= )ai x , p2 (x

i=0

m
X

= )p1 (x

i=0

,n > m "" , ) p1 (x:

ai xi

n
X

= )p1 (x

i=0

:
(ai + bi ) xi

n
X
i=0

= bi x i

n
X

ai xi +

i=0

n
X

= )p1 (x) + p2 (x

i=0

!
!
n
n
n X
n
2n
k
X
X
X
X
X
i
i
i+j
ai x
bi x
ai bi x
=
al bkl xk
l=0

k=0

j=0

i=0 j=0

i=0

= )p1 (x) p2 (x

 ,
,:
)(p1 (x) + p2 (x)) p3 (x) = p1 (x) p3 (x) + p2 (x) p3 (x

1.15 :
ai xi

n
X

= )p (x

i=0

)) deg (p (x
i .ai 6= 0
1.16 ) p (x .an = 1
:
))deg (p1 (x) p2 (x)) = deg (p1 (x)) + deg (p2 (x
, :
)))deg (p1 (x) + p2 (x)) max (deg (p1 (x)) , deg (p2 (x

1.17 ).F [x] 3 h (x) , p (x

) h (x ) p (x )h (x) |p (x
) q (x :
)p (x) = q (x) h (x
:
))deg (h (x)) deg (p (x

1.18 ) F [x] 3 p (x ,
) h (x) , r (x:
)p (x) = h (x) r (x
) h (x ) r (x .
:
F ) ax + b (1 .
C .
R
.p (x) = x2 + 1
C :
)p (x) = (x + i) (x i
10

 ) p (x ,R:
)p (x) = l1 (x) l2 (x
l1 , l2 ) ,2
(.
) p (x !R
.
) 1.19 (
R
.
) F [x] 3 h (x) , p (x :
))p (x) = q (x) h (x) + r (x) , deg (r (x)) < deg (h (x

1.2.2

),A Mn (F

x1

... " ,A :
xn

x1

.
.
.

x1
.
.
.

xn

xn
:

.
.
.

x1
.
.
.

xn

x1
.
.
.

In

xn

.
:

.
.
.

x1
.
.
.

(In A)

xn

).B = (In A
B ) (,
.det (B) = 0 rank (B) < n

11

..

In =

 , B,

y1
0
y1

... 6= 0 ,B ... = ... :
yn
0
yn

y1
y1
..
..
In . = A .
yn
yn

y1

" , ...

yn
!
) det (In A :

a1n
a2n

= n + bn1 n1 + bn2 n2 + ... + b0

) ( a11
a12

a21
) ( a22

.
.
.

) ( ann

.
.
.

..

an2

det

an1

.n
1.20 ) .A Mn (F :
)det (I A) = pA (x
.A
1.21 " A ).pA (x
1.22 , , .n
02.03.2010
:


= x2 + 1

x 1
1 x

1
0


0
1


=A

pA (x) = det

A " .R
C A " .i, i
, ,
" , .:


0
i

i
0

= P AP 1

A Mn (F ) , A = (aij )1i,jn , pA (x) = xn + bn1 xn1 + bn2 xn2 + ... + b0

)aii = (a11 + a22 + a33 + ...

n
X
i=1

12

bn1 =

:
(x a) (x b) = x2 ax bx + ab

1.2.3

T r

1.23 ) ,A Mn (F:
)aii = T r (A

n
X
i=1

.A
)) T r (A (:
)1.T r (A + B) = T r (A) + T r (B
)2.T r (A) = T r (A
)3.T r (AB) = T r (BA

:b0
+ ... + b0

n1

pA (x) = x + bn1 x
?

)pA (0) = b0 = det (A) = (1) det (A

: ?
)p1 (x) p2 (x) = p (x
)c F p1 (c) p2 (c) = p (c
)p1 (x) + p2 (x) = h (x
)p1 (c) + p2 (c) = h (c

1.24 ,:
) pB (x) = pA (x

B = P AP

1.25 !
:
)( )pA (x) = det (xI A
,:


1

= det (P ) det P

1

1 = det P P

:

() = det (P ) det (xI A) det P

= det P (xI A) P




1
= det (P (xI) P A) P
= det P (xI) P 1 P AP 1
P AP 1 = B P (xI) P 1 = (xI) P P 1 = xI
) pA (x) = det (xI B) = pB (x

13

 "?

0
x1

Ax = x = (I A) ... = ...
0
xn

1.3

1.26 ) A Mn (F .:
n

pA (x) = x + bn1 xn1 + ... + b0 = I xn + bn1 I xn1 + ... + b0 I

) pA (A) = bn I An + bn1 I An1 + ... + b0 I = 0 Mn (F

1.3.1

1
0

..
i ,A = " ,A
:
.
0
n

b0
.

..

b0

n1

+ ... +

..

)(

) pA (1
.

) pA (n

..

=
0

pA (x) = xn + bn1 xn1 + ... + b0

n
1
0
1
1
0

.
.
.
.
pA
=
+ bn1
.
.
0
n
0
0
n

k k
1
0
1
1
0

.
..
..
..
pA

=
.
.
k
0
0
n
0
n
n
n1
1 + bn1
+ ... + b0
0

..
=
.
0
n1 + bn1 n1 + ... + b0
) pA (i ) = 0 () = 0 Mn (F

1.3.2

)(

A,B = P AP 1 ,
) pA (x) = pB (x ,
,pA (x) = 0
4

:
p (B) = P p (A) P 1
:
pB (B) = P pA (A) P 1 = 0
.
4 ,B k = P Ak P 1 .

14

1.3.3

) (:
> 0 ) U Mn (F,
B B U ,:
)|pu (u)| < f (

, .5
,
.
] ,f (x) F [x:
f (x) = bn xn + bn1 xn1 + ... + b0
:
)f (x) = bn Ixn + bn1 Ixn1 + .... + bn I, f (A) , A Mn (F
)f (x) F [x] f (x) Mn (F) [x] = Cn xn + Cn1 xn1 + Cn2 xn2 + ... + C0 , Ci Mn (F
.
1.3.4

1.27 ).A Mn (F
] m (x) F [x ,A
:
F [x] 3 m (x) m
(x) Mn (F) , m
(A) = 0

1.28 .
: , :
dim (Mn (F)) = n2
:
2
) I, A, A2 , ..., A(n

,6 :
C0 , ..., Cn2
, :
2

)C0 I + C1 A + C2 A2 + ... + Cn2 An = 0 Mn (F

f (x) = C0 + C1 x + C2 x2 + ... + Cn2 xn f (A) = 0
"5 " .
6 n2 + 1 , n2

15

 ) f (x " ,A
.
:
) m1 (x) , m2 (x
, :
m
1 (A) = m
2 (A) = 0
))deg (m1 (x) m2 (x)) < deg (mi (x
) m2 ) (A
0=m
1 (A) m
2 (A) = (m1
03.03.2010

,m1 , m2 !
1.29 ) A Mn (F,
] f (x) F [x .f (A) = 0
,mA (x) |f (x) ,
).f (x) = q (x) mA (x
1.30 :
) pA (x ,A
:
pA (A) = 0
:
)mA (x) |pA (x

: :
)f (x) = q (x) m (x) + r (x
)).deg (r (x)) < deg (m (x
, .r (x) = 0:
f (x) = q (x) m (x) + r (x) f (x) = q (x) m
) (x) + r (x
f (A) = q (A) m
) (A) + r (A
.
,m ":
,f (A) = 0 (A) = 0 ,
r (A) = 0
r (x) , ,
,7 !
7 , mA .

16

n
= D, pD (x) = (x 2) , mD (x) = x 2

2
.

..

1.3.5

2In =
0

0
0
) , p (x) = (x 2)3 (x 1) , mB (x) = (x 2)2 (x 1
0 B
1

0
0
2
0

)x 2| (x 2

2 1
0 2

B=
0 0
0 0

: , A .
:
]F [x .
] Mn (F) [x ,
,:
)Bn xn + Bn1 xn1 + ... + B0 , Bi Mn (F
)] Mn (F [x ,
,:

)f11 (x) f12 (x) f1n (x

.
.
.
.

.
)f22 (x
.

.
.
..
.
.

.
.
.
)fn1 (x

) fnn (x

1.31 " :

]Mn (F [x]) Mn (F) [x

: :
Bk xk + Bk1 xk1 + ... + B0
:

)f1n (x

.
.
.
.
.
.

)fnn (x

)f12 (x
)f22 (x
.

..

)f11 (x

.
.
.
.
.
.

)fn1 (x

:
k1
f11 (x) = bk11 xk + bk1
+ ... + b011
11 x
k1
fij (x) = bkij xk + bk1
+ ... + bij 0
ij x

17

 .
:
)) (p1 (x)) + (p2 (x)) = (p1 (x) + p2 (x
)) (p1 (x)) (p2 (x)) = (p1 (x) p2 (x

:
)p1 (x) p2 (x) = p (x) p1 (A) p2 (A) 6= p (A

1.32 ],G (x) Mn (F) [x

G (x) = Bk xk + ... + B0
) G (A) = 0 .A Mn (F ] H (x) Mn (F) [x :
)G (x) = H (x) (xI A
: , :


G (x) G (A) = Bk xk + Bk1 xk + ... + B0 Bk Ak + Bk1 Ak1 + ... + B0




)( )= Bk xk Ak + Bk1 xk1 Ak1 + ... + B1 (x A


)xi In Ai = xi1 + xi2 A + xi3 A2 + ... + xAi2 + Ai1 (xI A) = Ui (x) (xI A
|
{z
}
]Ui (x)Mn (f )[x

) () = Bk Uk (x) (xI A) + Bk1 Uk1 (x) (xI A) + ... + B1 (xI A

)= (Bm Uk (x) + Bk1 Uk1 (x) + ... + B1 ) (xI A) = V (x) (xI A
, ,G (A) = 0:
)G (x) = V (x) (xI A
, :
)G (x) = S (x) (xI A
.G (A) = 0 :
)G (x) G (A) = V (x) (xI A
:
)G (A) = (S (x) V (x)) (xI A
:
, .x
.x
)) (S (x) V (x ,
.
)) (S (x) V (x ,
,G (A) = 0.
18

 , :
) ,A Mn (F :
)]pA (x) = det (xI A) Mn (F [x
).U Mn (F :1
U Adj (U ) = det (U ) In = Adj (U ) U
:
Adj (xI A) (xI A) = pA (x) In
:

)Adj (xI A) H (x
] .H (x) Mn (F) [x:
)H (x) (Ix A) = pA (x
].Ix A Mn (F) [x
, :
pA (A) = 0
!

09.03.2010

1.4

,
.
1.33 F .
.
:
mA () = 0 pA () = q () mA () = 0

1.34 "!
:
1.35 " .
:" :
mA (A) = 0
" )( :
mA (x) F [x] m
] A (x) 3 Mn (F) [x
:
19

 ] ,G (x) Mn (F) [x ).A Mn (F

G (A) = 0 ] H (x) Mn (F) [x :
)G (x) = H (x) (xI A

,m
, ) A (x
:
m
A = 0 m
) A (x) = H (x) (xI A
] Mn (F) [x)]Mn (F [x
.
.:
(m
) A (x)) = (H (x)) (Ix A
:
mA (x) = xk + bk1 xk1 + bk2 xk2 + ... + b0

b0

..

m
A (x) = I xk + bk1 Ixk1 + bk2 Ixk2 ... + b0 I

k
b0
bk1 xk1
0
x
0

.
.
.
.

+ ... +
+
.
.
0
0
bk1 xk1
0
xk

)mA (x
0

.
..
=
= mA (x) I
0
)mA (x

, :

0
x a11
aij

..
A (x)) = (H (x)) (Ix A) = (H (x))
= (m

.
)mA (x
aij
x ann

)mA (x
.

..

, .
,:

x a11
aij
0

..
= det ( (H (x))) det

.
|
{z
}
)mA (x
a
x

a
)q(x
ij
nn
}

)mA (x
.

..

det

0
{z

=(mA (x))n
n

) (mA (x)) = q (x) pA (x

1.36
n

))pA (x) | (mA (x

20

 , F ,:
n

pA () = 0 (mA ()) = 0 mA () = 0

1.37 ,
, ,
, "!
) pA (x ] ,F [x:
un

) ... (x n

u2

) (x 2

u1

) pA (x) = (x 1

u1 + u2 + ... + un = n
,:
, 1 vi ui

vn

) ... (x n

v2

) (x 2

v1

) mA (x) = (x 1

vi " .

.1

..

1
2
.

..

2
.

..

n
.

..

n
un

) ... (x n

u2

) (x 2

u1

) pA (x) = (x 1

) mA (x) = (x 1 ) (x 2 ) ... (x n

.2
n

)A = In , pIn = (x 1) , mIn = (x 1

.3

1
.

..

..

..

A=

0
n

pA = (x ) , mA (x ) = pA

21

.4

1 0
2 0
2

5 0

5 0
5
4

0
4
1
5

0
2

A=

)pA (x) = (x 2) (x 4) (x 5
2

)mA (x) = (x 2) (x 4) (x 5

!
" " ".

22

1.5
07.03.2010

1.38 ai x

Pn

i=0

= ) f (x an = 1 ) f (x .

1.39 ,1
f (x) = ax + b, a 6= 0
) ).x = a1 (b
1.40 f, g ,F
.g 6= 0
] q, r F [x ,f = g q + r
,r = 0 ).deg (r) < deg (g
f = 0 ),deg (f ) < deg (g
.f = 0 g + f
, .
:
:R
f (x) = x4 + x 1, g (x) = x 1


x4 + x 1
= x3 + x2 + x + 2 x4 + x 1 = (x 1) x3 + x2 + x + 2
x1
:
) Z5 = 3

2 ,Z'(:
f (x) = x2 + 1, g (x) = 2x + 4

x2 + 1
= 3x + 4 x2 + 1 = (2x + 4) (2x + 4) , r = 0
2x + 4
g (x) |f (x) : ) q (x ).g (x) q (x) = f (x
, F ,f (x) F [x] 1.41
). x |f (x) f (x
: ) x a|f (x:
f (x) = (x ) q (x) f () = ( ) q () = 0
, .f () = 0
f:x
f (x) (x ) q (x) + r
r.
:
)0 = f () = r f (x) = (x ) q (x

23

 1.42 ] f (x) F [x 1 , F
) f (x) = g (x) h (x ],g (x) , h (x) F [x
h g .0
1.43 ].f (x) F [x
f 1 f .
f 2 3 f F
" f .F
: f ,
).x |f (x
, f ,2, 3
,1
.
:

x2 + 2

x2 + 1 ,R

,4 .
:
3

x + x 2 .R
:
1 . :


x2 + x x
= x2 + x + 2 x2 + x 2 = (x 1) x2 + x + x
x1
,R
.
C
1.44 :
f (x) C =.0 6
:
) f (x) = k (x r1 ) (x r2 ) ... (x rm
.k, ri C

.
1.45 z C ],f (x) R [x
z ).f (x

24

 : ai xi

Pn

i=0

= ) .f (z) = 9 ,ai R ,f (x:

ai z i = 0 f (z) = 0

n
X

ai z i = 0 = 0

i=0

n
X

ai z i = 0

i=0

n
X
i=0

:
(x z) (x z) = x2 (z + z) x + zz
2

,(z + z) = 2Re (z) R .zz = |z| R

1.46 ].f (x) R [x
) f (x :
)f (x) = kp1 (x) ...pm (x
,k R) pi (x ] R [x 1 .2
: C :
) f (x) = an (x r1 ) ... (x rk ) (x z1 ) (x z 1 ) ... (x zl ) (x z l
.zj C\R ,ri R
) (x zj ) (x z j ) = pj (x 2 R
) R .(R

.T : V W
.T : V V
,
:
) (v

) [T ](vii
T .v1 , ..., vn
1.47 Mn (F ) 3 A, B
) P Mn (F :
P 1 AP = B

1.48 :
A .1 " .
.2 A B B .A
.3 A B B C A .B

25

 A, B Mn (F ) 1.49 "
) = (.
: ,:
) (v

) (u

) A = [T ](vii ) , B = [T ](uii
:
) (v

) (u

) (u

) (v

)[T ](uii ) = [Id](uii ) [T ](vii ) [Id](vii

1
.

..

) (u
) [Id](uii

) (u
)[Id](vii

) (v
) [Id](uii

..

) (v
) [Id](vii

.
, .B = P 1 AP:
TA : F n F n , TA (x) = Ax
:
) (e

) A = [TA ](eii

P .v1 , ..., vn
n

P vi" .F:
) (e

) (e

) P = [Id](eii ) , P 1 = [Id](vii
:
) (v

) (e

) (e

) (u

[T ](uii ) = [Id](vii ) [T ](eii ) [Id](eii) = P 1 AP = B

A, B , .TA
1.50 V" ,F
T : V V".
V 3 v 6= 0 F ,T v = v
" ,T
v " T " .
1.51 :
}V = {v V |T (v) = v

26

 1.52 , ) ,A Mn (F
0 6= v F n F ,Av = v
" ,A
v " A " .
:
" ,T
".
v1 , ..., vn " ,T (vi ) = i vi ,:

1
.

..

) (v
) [T ](vii

,A
B .
!
1.53 ) A = (aij:

x a11 a12 ...

a1n

..

.
fA = det (xI A) = det

an1
x ann

F 1.54 " ) ,A Mn (F
" ).fA (x
1.55 .
1.56 ) A Mn (F F"
m :
m

)(x ) |fA (x

1.57 :
}dim (V ) , V = {v F n |Av = v

1.58 .
: .dimV = k
v1 , ..., vk" " ".
.F n

27

 A ,B:

..

) (v
) [T ](vii

=B=
0

k .
, ,:
k

)fA (x) = fB (x) = (x ) g (x

k

) ,(x ) |fA (x .
1.59 1 , ..., k" ,
0 6= vi Vi ,
v1 , ..., vk ".
A
).A Mn (F
.1 ).fA (x
.2 ) .fA (x " .A
.3 " .(I A) x = 0
.4 v1 , ..., vm ) 3 "(.
m < n . A .
. :m = n
P " v1 ..., vn ) A v = i vi .(1 , .., n
:

1
.

..

AP =

:



2
x4
2
, fA (x) = det
)= (x 4) (x + 1) 6 = x2 3x 10 = (x 5) (x + 2
1
3
x+1

 


1 1
1 2
x1
= 1 = 55I A
,
3 6
0 0
x2


2
= (5I A) x = 0 v1
1


6 2
= 2 = 2 2I A
3 1


1
= (2I A) x = 0 v2
3




2 1
5 0
= ) P = (v1 |v2
=, D
1 3
0 2
4
3

28

=A

2
10.03.2010

2.1

:
.1 .
.2 .
V" .R
:
Rn , :

x1

.
.
.

n
R , xi R

xn
)(:

xi yi
= :
i=1

y1

x1

.
.
.

.
.
.

yn

xn

:

v

v
x1 u
x1
x1
u n
u

X
.. u
.. .. u
u
xi
. = t . , . = t


i=1
xn
xn
xn
:

y1

.
.
.

, v2 =

yn

x1
.
.
.

v1 =

xn

, v1 v2 :
Pn

xi yi
) (v1 , v2
= pPn i=1 pPn
kv1 k kv2 k
i=1 xi
i=1 yi

= ) cos (v1 , v2

,:
1 cos (v1 , v2 ) 1

2.1 V" .R
F : V V R ) ,(V
:
.1 .:
) v1 , v2 V (v1 , v2 ) = (v2 , v1
29

 .2:
) c R v1 , v2 V (cv1 , v2 ) = c (v1 , v2
.3:
( (v1 + v1 , v2 ) = (v1 , v2 ) +
) v1 , v2
.4:
0 6= v V (v, v) > 0

2.2:
) 1. (cv1 , v2 ) = (v1 , cv2 ) = c (v1 , v2
) 2. (v1 , v2 + v2 ) = (v1 , v2 ) + (v1 , v2
: 2 ,1 :
) c (v1 , v2

Symatry

) c (v2 , v1

Commutative

Symatry

) (cv2 , v1

2.3 !!
2.4" R .
2.1.1

.1 :
n

X
xi yi
=
i=1

y1

x1

.
.
.

.
.
.

yn

R ,

xn

V" n ,R
v1 , ..., vn .:
n

X
xi yi
=
i=1

y1

x1

.
.
.

.
.
.

R ,

xn

yn

.2 V" n ,R
v1 , ..., vn .:
i vi , i , i R

= i vi , w
i i

n
X

=v

= )(v, w

i=1

.3 :Rn
n

X
ci xi yi , ci > 0
=
i=1

y1

x1

.
.
.

.
.
.

yn
30

xn

) (v1 , cv2

 .4 V ],[0, 1
f : [0, 1] R
:

f (x) g (x) dx

= ))(f (x) , g (x
0

k (x) f (x) g (x) dx

= (f (x) , g (x))k

2.1.2

2.5
)c2 = a2 + b2 2abcos (

2.6 V" R ) .(,

v V :
)(v, v

= kvk

, ,0 6= v1 , v2 V:
) (v1 , v2
kv1 k kv2 k

= ) cos (v1 , v2

2.7
1 cos (v1 , v2 ) 1

) 2.8 (:

) (v1 , v2
kv1 k kv2 k

kv2 v1 k = kv1 k + kv2 k 2 kv1 k kv2 k

: :
2

) kv2 v1 k = (v2 v1 , v2 v1 ) = (v2 , v2 v1 ) (v1 , v2 v1

) = (v2 , v2 ) (v2 , v1 ) (v1 , v2 ) + (v1 , v1
2

= kv2 k 2 (v1 , v2 ) + kv1 k

31

2.2

2.9 V .C
f : V V C ) (,
:
c C, v1 , v1 , v2 V :
.1:
) (v1 , v2 ) = (v2 , v1
.2:
) (cv1 , v2 ) = c (v1 , v2
.3:
( (v1 + v1 , v2 ) = (v1 , v2 ) +
) v1 , v2
.4:
v 6= 0 (v, v) > 0
)1 (v, v) = (v, v

2.10 V .
:

y1

x1

.
.
.

.
.
.

X
i xi yi , i R, i > 0
=
i=1

yn

2.11 V" C ) .(,

v V :
)(v, v

= kvk

, ,0 6= v1 , v2 V:
) (v1 , v2
kv1 k kv2 k

= ) cos (v1 , v2

.
2.12:
p
|a + ib| = a2 + b2

2.13
1 cos (v1 , v2 ) 1

32

xn

C ,

 2.14
c C, v1 , v2 , v2 V :
) 1. (v1 , cv2 ) = c (v1 , v2
) 2. (v1 , v2 + v2 ) = (v1 , v2 ) + (v1 , v2

:
) 1. (v1 , cv2 ) = (cv2 , v1 ) = c (v2 , v1 ) = c(v2 , v1 ) = c(v1 , v2 ) = c (v1 , v2
( 2. (v1 , v2 + v2 ) = (v2 + v2 , v1 ) = (v2 , v1 ) +
) v2 , v1 ) = (v1 , v2 ) + (v1 , v2

2.15
1.v = 0 kvk = 0
2.c C kcvk = |c| kvk
2

) 3. kv1 v2 k = kv1 k + kv2 k 2Re (v1 , v2

16.03.2010
2.16 v1 , v2 V )(
.(v1 , v2 ) = 0
2.17:
V , v1 , v2 V .:
2

kv1 + v2 k = kv1 k + kv2 k , kv2 k = kv2 k

:
2

) kv1 + v2 k = kv1 k + kv2 k + 2Re (v1 , v2

, .(v1 , v2 ) = 0

2.2.1

2.18 V .v1 , v2 V , :



 )  (v1 , v2

 = |cos (v1 , v2 )| 1
0
 kv1 k kv2 k
:
|(v1 , v2 )| kv1 k kv2 k
" v2 , v1 .

33

:
.1

x1

y1

.
.
.

.
.
.

xn

yn
v
 v

u n
n
n
 u
X
X
u
uX


2
2
|xi | t
|yi |
|(x, y)| = 
xi y i  t


i=1

i=1

i=1

.2
f, g : [0, 1] C
v
 1
 v
u1
1

 u

u
u

 u
 f (x) g (x) dx t |f 2 (x)| dxu
t |g 2 (x)| dx




0

v1 6= 0 v1 :=

v1
, (
v1 , v1 ) =
kv1 k

:v1 v1 :

v1
v1
(v1 , v1 )
,
=
=1
kv1 k kv1 k
kv1 k kv1 k
:v1 v2


t = (v2 , v1 ) v1 =

v2 ,

v1
kv1 k

v1
v1
= (v2 , v1 )
2
kv1 k
kv1 k
v1

u := v2 t = v2 (v1 , v2 )

v1
kv1 k

:
. u, v1 2.19
:
(u, v1 ) =

v2 (v2 , v1 )

v1

!
2 , v1

kv1 k

= (v2 , v1 )

(v2 , v1 )
2

kv1 k

(v1 , v1 ) = (v2 , v1 ) (v2 , v1 ) = 0

0 kuk = (u, u) = (u, v2 t) = (u, v2 ) (u, t) = (u, v2 )

!
v1
(v2 , v1 )
= v2 (v2 , v1 )
= (v2 , v2 )
2 , v2
2 (v1 , v2 )
kv1 k
kv1 k
2

0 kv2 k

|(v1 , v2 )|
kv1 k

|(v1 , v2 )| kv2 k kv1 k

, u, v1 ( u, t) = 0
.v1 t
.(! ), ,u = 0 ,v2 v1

34

2.2.2

2.20
kv1 + v2 k kv1 k + kv2 k
" v1 = 0 v2 = c v1 .R 3 c 0
:
2

) kv1 + v2 k = (v1 + v2 , v1 + v2 ) = kv1 k + kv2 k + 2Re (v1 , v2

2

kv1 k + kv2 k + 2 kv1 k kv2 k

CouchyShwartz

|) kv1 k + kv2 k + 2 |(v1 , v2

2

)= (kv1 k + kv2 k

" .
" ) .(v2 = cv1

2.21
|kv1 k kv2 k| kv1 + v2 k

:
v1 = (v1 + v2 ) v2
kv1 k kv1 + v2 k + kv2 k
kv1 k kv2 k kv1 + v2 k
kv2 k kv1 k kv1 + v2 k

2.2.3

2.22 V )(:
d:V V R
:
1.v1 6= v2 d (v1 , v2 ) > 0, v1 d (v1 , v1 ) = 0
) 2.d (v1 , v2 ) = d (v2 , v1
) 3.d (v1 , v2 ) + d (v2 , v3 ) d (v1 , v3

2.23:
d (v1 , v2 ) := kv1 v2 k
" .

35

17.03.2010

2.2.4

2.24 v1 , ..., vk
1 i, j k (vi , vj ) = ij
:
(
0 i 6= j
= ) ij = (vi , vj
1 i=j

2.25 v1 , ..., vk , ai vi
2

| |ai

k
X

Pk

= .v:

i=1

= kvk

i=1

k
k
k X
k
X
X
X
2
kvk = (v, v) =
ai vi ,
= aj vj
) (ai vi , aj vj
i=1 j=1
2

| |ai

k
X

j=1

= ) ai ai (vi , vi

i=1

i=1

k
X

= ) ai aj (vi , vj

i=1

2.26 vi , ..., vk .
v1 , ..., vk".
: v1 , .., vk .
:
ai vi

k
X

=0

i=1

:
2

| |ai

k
X

=0

i=1

ai = 0 ,1 i k
v1 , ..., vk".
2.27 V , .B V
u V )( ,(uB) B
v B .(u, v) = 0
2.28 .b1 , ..., bl V
u } {b1 , ..., bl" u ) .span (b1 , ..., bl
36

k X
k
X
i=1 j=1

.span (b1 , ..., bl ) u , :

.b1 , ..., bl u
,b1 , ..., bl u ,
P
: .span (b1 , ..., bl ) 3 v =
ci bi
(u, v) =

u,

l
X

!
ci bi

i=1

l
X
i=1

ci (u, bi ) = 0
| {z }
=0

. v1 , ..., vk 2.29
: ,v V
u := v

k
X

(v, vi ) vi

i=1

1.u {v1 , ..., vk }

2

2. kuk = kvk

k
X

|(v, vi )|

i=1

(u, vj ) =

k
X

!
= (v, vj )

(v, vi ) vi , vj

i=1

= (v, vj )

k
X

k
X

:1 :
!
(v, vi ) vi , vj

i=1

(v, vi ) (vi , vj ) = (v, vj ) (v, vj ) 1 = 0

i=1

:2
=0 f rom 1
2

kuk =

k
X

!
(v, vi ) vi , u

= (v, u)

i=1

= (v, v)

k
X
i=1

k
X

}|

!{

(v, vi ) vi , u

v, v

i=1
2

(v, (v, vi ) vi ) = kvk

k
X

k
X
i=1

37

!
(v, vi ) vi

i=1

(v, vi ) (v, vi ) = kvk

i=1

k
X

|(v, vi )|

 2.30 v1 , ..., vk ,:
(v, vi ) vi

k
X

u := v

i=1

:
.1 :v V
2

|(v, vi )| kvk

k
X
i=1

v1 , ...vk .2 " :v V
2

|(v, vi )| = kvk

k
X
i=1

: :1
2

|(v, vi )| kvk

k
X

k
X

|) |(v, vi

0 kuk = kvk

i=1

i=1

2 v1 , ..., vk .:

!
(v, vi ) vi

k
X

(u, v) = 0
!
u,

= (u, v)

previously proven

(v, vi ) vi

k
X

u, v

) v span (v1 , ..., vk

2

= ) kuk = (u, u

i=1

i=1

=0

{ |} k z
X
(u, vi ) (v, vi ) = 0
=
i=1
2

|) |(v, vi

k
X

= |(v, vi )| kvk

i=1

k
X

0 = kvk

i=1

:
:v V
2

|) |(v, vi

k
X

= kvk

i=1

,:
(v, vi ) vi

k
X

u := v

i=1

, :
2

|(v, vi )| = 0

k
X

kuk = kvk

i=1

.:
(v, vi ) vi

k
X

= kuk = 0 kuk = 0 u = 0 v

i=1

v1 , ..., vk" ,8 v1 , .., vk.

8 "

38

 2.31 v1 , ..., vk , .v V

(v, vi ) vi

k
X

u := v

i=1

u , .(u, vj ) = 0
, ) :t span (v1 , ..., vk
kuk kv tk
"
(v, vi ) vi

k
X

=vt=ut

i=1

::
(v, vi ) vi

k
X

s=t

i=1

:
!
=us

(v, vi ) vi t

k
X

(v, vi ) vi +

i=1
2

k
X

vt=v

i=1

kuk + ksk kuk

= kv tk = ku sk

? " !s = 0 s :
(v, vi ) vi

k
X

=t

i=1

2.2.5

V ,
v1 , ..., vn .v
,u1 , ..., un V
:1 l n

) 1 l n span (v1 , ..., vl ) = span (u1 , ..., ul

2.32 "" .
2.33 .
,
.
39


v1 , ..., vk" .V
v1
) span (v1 ) = span (u1
kv1 k

=u1 :

:
u
2 = v2 (v2 , u1 ) u1
(
u2 , u1 ) = 0
span (u1 , u
2 ) = span (v1 , v2 ) :
) u1 span (v1 , v2 ) , u2 = v2 c v1 span (v1 , v2
span (u1 , u
) 2 ) span (v1 , v2
u
2
=u2 :
k
u2 k
u2 , u1 ,:
(
u2 , u1 ) = 0 (u2 , u1 ) = 0

) span (u1 , u2 ) span (v1 , v2
"
) span (u1 , u2 ) = span (v1 , v2
23.03.2010
, u1 , ..., ul , :i i l
) span (v1 , ..., vi ) = span (u1 , ..., ui
(vl+1 , uj ) uj

l
X

u
l+1 = vl+1

j=1

vl+1 6= span (v1 , ..., vl ) = span (u1 , ..., ul ) u

l+1 6= 0
u ) ,span (v1 , ..., vl ) = span (u1 , ..., ul
l+1
.u1 , ..., ul
, ,
) span (v1 , ..., vl+1 ) = span (u1 , ..., ul , ul+1

,:
u
l+1
k
ul+1 k

= ul+1

u1 , ..., ul+1 .
2.34 u1 , ..., uk V .n
V .u1 , ..., uk , uk+1 , ..., un

40

 u1 , ..., uk :" , :V
u1 , ..., uk , vk+1 , ..., vn
,.
2.35 V
u1 , .., un .V
:v V

(v, ui ) ui

n
X

= ci u i

n
X

=v

i=1

i=1

. :s V
(s, ui ) ui

n
X

= di ui

i=1

n
X

=s

i=1

n
n
n X
n
X
X
X
(v, s) =
ci ui ,
= di ui
) (ci ui , dj uj
i=1 j=1

)(v, ui ) (ui , s

n
X
i=1

2.2.6

j=1

= ) (v, ui )(s, ui
} | {z }| {z
di

ci

i=1
n
X

= ci di

n
X

i=1

i=1

2.36 V ,
U V .:
}U = {v V |u U (v, u) = 0
.
:

(v, u
) = 0


| = U = v V
u U

2.37 V :
1.U U
}2.U U = {0

41

:
}1.U = {v V |u U (v, u) = 0
v U u U (v, u) = 0
u U v U (v, u) = 0


u U u U


U U
2.v U U

v =0
} |{z
}v , |{z
U

2.38 V :
V = U + U
u U, u :
v V U
v =u+u

U : .V
u1 , ..., uk .U
.v V:
(v, ui ) ui

k
X

u
=v

i=1

.:
u ,9 u1 , ..., uk ,U u U

!
k
X
}v = |{z
u
+
(v, ui ) ui
i=1

{z

10

2.39 V" U1 , U2 , .V
V = U1 U2
1.V = U1 + U2
}2.U1 U2 = {0

9 .
10

42

 2.40 V ) (,
U .V:
V = U U

V 2.41" U1 , U2 , .V
V = U1 U2" v V :
v = u1 + u2

: v V :
v = u1 + u2
.v U1 U2:
v =v+0=0+v v =0
, ,V = U1 U2
,v V :
v = u1 + u2 = u
1 + u
2
:
0 = v v = u1 + u2 u
1 u
2 = (u1 u
1 ) + (u2 u
2 ) u
1 u1 = u2 u
2
,
. u u2 u2 U2
,U1 U2 = 0 1 u1 U1
u ,0 .
1 u1 , u
2 u2 U1 U2
2.42 V" ,
U1 , U2 :
V = U1 U2
:
dimV = dimU1 + dimU2

: u1 , ..., ul U1 s1 , ..., sm .U2

) dim (U1 + U2 ) = dimU1 + dimU2 din (U1 U2

43

 2.43 V ,
U V .:
1.V = U U
2.dimV = dimU + dimU


3.U = U

1,2 : .
:3

V = U U , V = U U

2 :

U U

dimV = dimU + dimU = dimU + dim U

U = U

44

24.03.2010

2.3

2.3.1

2.44 V , T : V V .
, c1 , c2 C, v1 , v2 , u1 , u2 V:
)1. (T (v1 + v2 ) , u) = (T v1 , u) + (T v2 , u
) 2. (T v, u1 + u2 ) = (T v, u1 ) + (T v, u2
)3. (T (cv) , u) = c (T v, u
)4. (T v, cu) = c (T v, u

: . :
)(T (v1 + v2 ) , u) = (T v1 + T v2 , u) = (T v1 , u) + (T v2 , u

2.45 " :
.1 v V:
(v, u) = (v, u
) u = u

u V:
( = )(v, u
v , u) v = v
, ,
.
.2 .T : V V, S : V V:
v, u V (T v, u) = (Sv, u) S = T
, .
.3 .T : V V:
v, u V (T v, u) = 0 T 0

.(v, u) = (v, u
.1 : v V )
,(u u
, u u
,v = u u ) = 0
,(v, u u
) = 0 v V
u = u.
,u u
= 0
.2 .(T v, u) = (Sv, u) v, u V
v V . :u U
1

(T v, u) = (Sv, u) = T v = Sv
:
v V T v = Sv T S

.3 ,2 S .

45

2.3.2

) 2.46 ( V ,F
T : V V .
) g : V V F, (u, v) (T v, u:
v G (u, v) .1 .u V
u G (u, v) .2 .v V
. .gT
gT : V V C v, u V)) (T v, u T
(.
) .(T v, u) = (v, Ru , ?R
.
.T





x1
y1
= .x
= ,y
,V = C2
x2
y2
:
(x, y) = x1 y 1 + x2 y 2
:


0
1


= , v2

1
0


= v1

:
T v1 = v1 + v2 , T v2 = 2v1 + iv2
:


c
d


=, u

a
b


=v

:
v = av1 + bv2 , u = cv1 + dv2
) T v = aT v1 + bT v2 = a (v1 + v2 ) + b (2v1 + iv2
= (a + 2b) v1 + (a + ib) v2
)(T v, u) = ((a + 2b) v1 + (a + ib) v2 , cv1 + dv2 ) = c (a + 2b) + d (a + ib

2.47 V ,F
T : V F .

46

 V .
,u V u : V C ).V 3 v (v, u
, :
) 1.v1 , v2 V u (v1 ) + u (v2 ) = u (v1 + v2
)2.v V, c C u (cv) = cu (v
:
)u (v1 ) = (v1 , u) , u (v2 ) = (v2 , u) , u (v1 + v2 ) = (v1 + v2 , u

V V 1 ).V = Hom (V, C

) : V Hom (V, C u V . (u) = u
R .C
,:
(u1 ) + (u2 ) = (u1 + u2 ) u1 + u2 = u1 +u2
:
c C, u V (cu) = c (u) cu = cu

2.48 )) : V Hom (V, C ( " .

: ":
(u1 ) = (u2 ) u1 = u2 v V u1 (v) = u2 (v) v V (v, u1 ) = (v, u2 ) u1 = u2
, :
) Hom (V, C .V
: V C . u V (u) = u = .
, .C
.{v1 , ..., vn } V , (vi ) = ci .ci C 1 i n
.u = c1 v1 + ... + cn vn :
u = 2.49 : . (vi ) = ci ::
) u (vi ) = (vi , u) = (vi , c1 v1 + ... + cn vn ) = (vi , c1 v1 ) + .... + (vi , cn vn
, ,(vi , cj vj ) = 0 i 6= j ,(vi , vj ) = 1 i = j:
(vi , ci vi ) = (ci vi , vi ) = ci (vi , vi ) = ci 1
,":
) u (vi ) = ci = (vi
.
, .v V " ":
) v = b1 v1 + ... + bn vn (v) = (b1 v1 + ... + bn vn
47

 " , . ,:
) = b1 (v1 ) + ... + bn (vn
:
)u (v) = (b1 v1 + ... + bn vn , u
, " , .:
= b1 (v1 , u) + ...bn (vn , u) = b1 c1 + ... + bn cn
} | {z
} | {z
c1

cn

) u (v) = (v .v V

14.4.2010

2.3.3

2.50 V )( , T : V V".
)( T : V V :
)v, u V (T v, u) = (v, T u

2.51 T ) (adjoint .T
: " , :
)v, u V (T v, u) = (v, M1 u) = (v, M2 u
) (v, M1 u) = (v, M2 u) (M1 u, v) = (M2 u, v
(M1 u, v) = (M2 u, v) ((M1 M2 ) u, v) = 0
M1 M2 = 0

) .(T v, u ,u:
)(T (v1 + v2 ) , u) = (T v1 , u) + (T v2 , u
)(T (cv) , u) = c (T v, u
V 3 v (T v, u) C !V
u ,u :
,2.48 e
v V Hom (V, C) 3 (T v, u) = (v, u
})e) {u (v

u .u
,
u u" " .:


^(T v, u1 + u2 ) = v, u
1 + u2


:
(T v, u1 + u2 ) = (T v, u1 ) + (T v, u2 ) = (v, u
1 ) + (v, u
2 ) = (v, u
1 + u
) 2
48

 :


^v, u
1 + u
) 2
1 + u2 = (v, u

:
^u
1 + u
2
1 + u2 = u
,e . :
:
v V hT v, cui = hv, cui

, ,
hT v, cui = c hT v, ui = c hv, u
i = hv, c
ui
, .
2.52 V" . T : V V" , v1 , ..., vn .V
A T ,v1 , ..., vn
A T v1 , .., vn:
aij = a
ji

2.53 R .A = At
: A T .v1 , ..., vn

aij vi

n
X

= T vj

i=1

+
akj vk , vi

n
X

*
= hT vj , vi i

k=1

haij vi , vi i = aij kvi k = aij

:
hT vj , vi i = hvj , T vi i
n
X

= T vi
ali vl
l=1

:
+
=

ali vl

n
X

*
vj ,

l=1
a
ji

= hvj , T vi i


= = vj , aji vj

:
a
ji = aij aji = a
ij aij = a
ji

49


V , .T, S : V V :
)(T + S) = T + S (1
)(cT ) = cT (2
)(T S) = S T (3
)(T ) = T (4

11

.
2.3.4

2.54 V )( , T : V V ) .(T = T:
v V (T v, v) = 0 T 0

!
:
T : R2 R2 :90o
v R2 (T v, v) = 0
:


0
1


= , e2

1
0


= e1

T e1 = e2 , T e2 = e1
(T (ae1 + be2 ) , ae1 + be2 ) = (be1 + ae2 , ae1 + be2 ) = ab + ab = 0
! :
u, v V (T (u + v) , u + v) = 0
) (T (u + v) , u + v) = (T u + T v, u + v) = (T u, u + v) + (T v, u + v
= (T u, u) + (T u, v) + (T v, u) + (T v, v) = (T u, v) + (T v, u) = 0
} | {z
} | {z
=0

=0

:R
)(T v, u) = (v, T u) = (v, T u) = (T u, v
v, u R 2 (T u, v) = 0 = 2 (T v, u) T 0
:C
u, v V (T (v + u) , v + u) = 0
= (T iv, iv) + (iT v, u) + (iT u, iv) + (T u, u) = 0
} | {z
} | {z
=0

=0

i (T v, u) i (T u, v) = 0
i (T v, u) + i (T u, v) = 0 f rom bef ore
2i (T v, u) = 0
v, u (T v, u) = 0 T 0
11

50

 C T , C
.

T : V V ,
v1 , ..., vn ,V
A T ".
T = T A = A A,
.R
2.55 V ) C!(,
T : V V .:
v V (T v, v) R T = T

: , .T = T:
v V (T v, v) = (v, T v) = (v, T v) = (T v, v) (T v, v) R

, .(T v, v) R v V:
)(v, T v) = (v, T v) = (T v, v) = (v, T v
v V (v, (T T ) v) = 0
.M = T T C ,M = 0 .T = T
2.56 V )(.
T : V V ,:
T = T

T .1 2.57 " iT .
T .2 " (T v, v) v V.
.1 : , T .:
) (iT ) = iT = (iT
iT .
, iT .:
iT = (iT ) = iT = iT T = T
T.
.2 , T . ,T = iM M .12
12

51

:
)v V C 3 (T v, v) = (iM v, v) = i (M v, v

, (T v, v) v V.
.M = iT :
)(iT v, v) = i (T v, v
} | {z
R

M , 1 .

2.3.5

2.58 V )( , T : V V .
T )( :u, v V
)(u, v) = (T u, T v
! .v = w u:
p
)(w u, w u) = (T (w u) , T (w u)) d (w, u) = kw uk = (w u, w u

2.59 V )( , T : V V .
:
T .1 )(.
.2
)v V kT vk = kvk , (v, v) = (T v, T v

.3
T T =I
I .
T .4 .
T .5 .
2.60 3
T T = I T = T 1

52

:2 1 :
u, v V (u, v) = (T u, T v)
v V (v, v) = (T v, T v)

:3 2
2

v V (T T v, v) = (T v, (T ) v) = (T v, T v) = (v, v)
(T T v, v) = (Iv, v) ((T T I) v, v) = 0
(T T I) = (T T ) I = T (T ) I = T T I
T T I =T T I =0T T =I

:4 3
: . v1 , ..., vn
(
1 i=j
(vi , vj ) = ij =
0 i=
6 j
: .(T vi , T vj ) = ij :
3

(T vi , T vj ) = (vi , T T vj ) = (vi , Ivj ) = (vi , vj ) = ij

:1 5
: . T v1 , ..., vn
(vi , vj ) = ij , (T vi , T vj ) = ij
: .(u, w) = (T u, T w) u, w
u=

n
X

i vi , w =

i=1

n
X

i vi

i=1

:
(u, w) =

n
X

i vi ,

i=1

Tu = T

n
X

n
X

!
i vi

i=1

!
i vi

i=1

n
X

n
X

(i vi , i vi ) =

i=1

n
X

i i

i=1

n
n
X
X
i T vi , T w = T
j vj =
j T vj

i=1

j=1

j=1

n
n
n
n
X
X
X
X
(T u, T v) =
i T vi ,
j T vj =
(i T vi , i T vi ) =
i i
i=1

j=1

i=1

i=1

21.04.2010
.AA = A A = In )( A Mn (C) \Mn (R) 2.61
.( )V 2.62
( )T : V V
. T A "
53

 : v1 , ..., vn .
, A T ,v1 , ..., vn
13 T .A
, T T .AA:
AA = In T T = I

A Mn (C) \Mn (R) 2.63 )(,

" ) ( A Cn \Rn
.
: A , .AA = In .AA = rij :
) vi = (ai1 , ai2 , ..., ain ) , vj = (aj1 , aj2 , ..., ajn

) (:
(
1 i=j
= = (vi , vj ) = ij
= In
0 i 6= j

rij = ai1 aj1 + ai2 aj2 + ... + ain ajn

v1 , ..., vj .
) Cn (Rn ,n v1 , ..., vn .
.
:
Rn .
) ,M2 (R :
AAt = At A = In At = A1




1
a b
b d
=A
= A1
c a
c d
)det (A






t
t
AA = In 1 = det AA = det (A) det At = det A2




1
d b
a c
= At = A1 At
=
b d
c a
)det (A


1 = det A2 det (A) = 1 .det (A) = 1
.1 ,det (A) = 1 :


a b
= a = d, b = c A
b a

d b
c a


=

c
d

a
b

.a2 + b2 = 1 ) .a = cos () , b = sin (:



)cos () sin (
=A
)sin () cos (
? !90o
13 . !

54

 .2 ,det (A) = 1:

a = d, c = b

d b
c a


=

) .a = cos () , b = sin (:


)cos () sin (
=A
)sin () cos (
? .

55

c
d

a
b

2.4

:
,T : V V , v1 , ..., vn .V
D T , :

1
0

..
D=

.
0
n
T , ,D:

1
.

..

D =

DD = D D T T = T T

2.64 T : V V ,v1 , .., vn

.T T = T T
" .
,C ) ( , ,
.
R , . .:
2.65 V )( , T : V V.
T .T T = T T
, ,
.
:
C . :

2+i 0
0
3


=A

A ,
.
2.66 V )( . T : V V.
" T " ,v v " T " .:
v V T v = v T v = v

: .v V

56

)(

.kT vk = kT vk 2.67
:
(v, T T v) = (T T v, v) = (T v, T v) = (T v, T v) = kT vk2

T is normal

)kT vk2 = (T v, T v) = (v, T T v

,!
.(T I) = M:


M M = (T I) (T I) = (T I) T I = T T +I T T


2
M M = (T I) (T I) = T I (T I) = T
T} + || I T T
| {z
TT

MM = M M
)(

T v = v (T I) v = 0 M v = 0 kM vk = 0 = kM vk = 0 M v = 0
(T I) v = 0 T v = v
27.04.2010
2.68 T : V V , ,T T = T T
v" T " , u" T " .:
6= (v, u) = 0
," " .
: ) .(T u, v :
)(T u, v) = (u, v) = (u, v
:

)(T u, v) = (u, T v) = u, v = (u, v

:
(u, v) = (T u, v) = (u, v) ( ) (u, v) = 0
, 6= ,(u, v) = 0.
2.69 V ) C!( , T : V V' .
V .
, ' T .
C ?R
,

2.70 ] an xn + an1 xn1 + ... + a0 = p (x) C [x.ai C ,
) p (x :C
z C p (x) = 0
!R
57

 2.71 V" T : V V ,C".

T ".
: ) p (x" ' V .T ,C ].p (x) C [x
,) p (x ,0 .p (0 ) = 0
A T .V:
p (x) = det (I A) p (0 ) = det (0 I A) = 0
) (0 I A , .dimKer (0 I A) 1 0 6= v V :
(0 I T ) v = 0 T v = 0 v
v" ,T.
.
: : T : V V , " ,T
V " ,:
}V = {v V |T v = v
V .V
V :
) n = dim (V

v1 , v2 , ..., vn

:
n
o n
o
n
o
v11 , v21 , ..., vn1 v12 , v22 , ..., vn2 ... v1n , v2n , ..., vnnn
2

, !
" :
V1 V2 ... Vn
:
ni=1 Vi = V
, .
.U = ni=1 Vi V

,U U .U= V ,

.U U

, .T u U
U 2.72 ,T .T u U : u U
vi .V1 , ..., Vn:


u, vi ) = 0
(T u
( = ) , vi
u, T vi ) = u
( , i vi =
T u ,ni=1 Vi
T u ,V1 , ..., Vn

.T u
T u ,U U

, T |U : U U T .U
T |U " v U "
) ( .:
v
T v = T |U v =
} ,V U 6= {0 },U U = {0
,U = 0 ,U = V.
:
58

 2.73 ,T : V V
V .T
T.
: v1 , v2 , ..., vn V .T
T :

1
.

..

D=

n
, T:

1
.

..

D =

, , ,DD = D D
,T T = T T T ,.
2.74 V" T : V V , .
V T " .
2.75 :
) A Mn (C , .AA = A A
, ) U Mn (C U AU.
: ,A Cn .
A , , , ,Cn
.A
v1 , ..., vn " . ,(vi , vj ) = ij Avi = i vi .1 i n

|
|
U v1 vn :
|
|

1
.

..

(1 v1 , ..., n vn ) = i ij =
0

.
.
.

59

v1

.
.
.

.
.
.

vn

AU = (1 v1 , ..., n vn ) U AU =


) A Mn (C . ?
.1 ) pA (x .A
.2 ) pA (x .1 , ..., k
.3 Vi ,1 i k .
28.04.2010

.4 .Vi
2.76 V" T : V V' .:
T .1 " " T.
T .2 " " T .|| = 1
T : ' V , , ,V
T " ,D:

1
0

..
D=

.
0
n

:1

1 i n i = i

..

:2

..

.
1

=
0

1
.

..

1
.

..

T = T D = D D =

=
0

..

T T = I DD = In AA =

1 i n i i = 1 1 i n |i | = 1

2.77 H : V V V ,14 ,
U : V V , .HU = U H
T = HU .
: ,T T = T T .(HU ) (HU ) = (HU ) (HU ) : ,:
H=H

U H = HU (HU ) = (U H) U H = H U U H = HU
H .U:
) (HU ) (U H) = U HU H = U U HH = H 2 = U U HH = U HHU = (HU ) (HU

, :1
)z = rei = r (cos + isin
" , :
14 H = H

60

 2.78 V T : V V .
H U .HU = U H = T
T : , V " , T "
,D:

1
0

..
D=

.
0
n
j F :
zj ,|zj |=1

z
|}
{
) j = rj (cosj + isinj
D :
U

|}
.

zn

z1

..

z
{

|}
.

r1

..

D=
0

rn

, ,
H U ,.
, R.

2.5

C .R
, , T : V V.
" , ,T : V V ,
V.
T .
, :C
2.79 V , T : V V .
,v1 , ..., vn T " :

aj

, 2 2 cell is
bj

2 2 cell
no. r

1
.


, aj , bj R

bj
aj

61

..

k
2 2 cell
no. 1
.
.

..

..

2.5.1

V " , .V
,V V .V V:
} V = {[u, v] |u, v V
, C :V
.
:

}z C |{z
]z [u, v
=a+ib

" :
[u, v] = u + iv
, :
)z [u, v] = (a + ib) (u + iv) = au bv + i (bu + av
] z [u, v] = (a + ib) [u, v] = [au bv, bu + av] , i [v, 0] = [0, v

) 2.80 ( V , .C
: V .V
, .V
)) ([u1 , v1 ] , [u2 , v2 ]) = (u1 + iv1 , u2 + iv2 ) := (u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 ) + i ((v1 , u2 ) (u1 , v2

) 2.81 ( .
.
2.82:
z C, , V , = [u, v] = u + iv, = [u, v] = u iv
:
)(1

+ =+

)(2

z =z

)(3

) + = 2Re (

)(4

) = 2Im (

)(5

)(, ) = (,

)(6

= Im () = 0, meaning R

62

 : , :
] (1) = [u1 , v1 ] , = [u2 , v2
+ = [u1 , v1 ] + [u2 , v2 ] = [u1 + u2 , v1 v2 ] = [u1 + u2 , v1 + v2 ] = +

) =(v1 ,v2

{ |} z
{ |} z }| { z

)] (5) [u1 , 0v1 ], [u2 , v2 ] = (u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 ) i ((v1 , u2 ) (u1 , v2 )) = ([u1 , v1 ] , [u2 , v2

V V , , T : V V .
T ,T : V V :
]T ([u, 0]) = [T u, 0

2.83 T : V V ".
: ::
)]T ([u, v]) = ([T u, T v
, :
)]T ([u, 0]) = ([T u, 0

: S : V V ] .S ([u, 0]) = [T u, 0:
)]S ([u, v]) = S ([u, 0] + i [v, 0]) = S ([u, 0]) + iS ([v, 0]) = [T u, 0] + i [T v, 0] = [T u, T v] = T ([u, v

4.5.2010

V V , , T : V V, S : V V",
T, S T, S .:
)(7

\T
+ S = T + S

)(8

[T
S = T S
 
[
T = (T
)

)(9

: ,3 .

  def
 

) = u1 + iv1 , T (u2 + iv2


) T (u1 + iv1 ) , u2 + iv2 = (T u1 + iT v1 , u2 + iv2 ) = (T u1 , u2 ) + (T v1 , v2 ) + i (T v1 , u2 ) i (T u1 , v1
T (u1 + iv1 ) , u2 + iv2

) = (u1 , T u2 ) + (v1 , T v2 ) + i (v1 , T u2 ) i (u1 , T v2 ) = (u1 + iv1 , T u2 + iT v2


 
 

 
= u1 + iv1 , T (u2 + iv2 ) = u1 + iv1 , T (u2 + iv2 ) T = T

63

 2.84 V , V ,V
,T : V V T : V V .T
T " T.
: T ,T T = T T :
 
 
T .T T = T T
:
 
 
3
2
3
\ 2
[
T T = T(T
) = Td
T , T T = T T = T
T
" , S = R
.S = R :
 
 
\
T T = T T Td
T = T
T
, !
R 2.85" R T" .T
, V " ,V V " ,V
, u1 , ..., um ,V ] [u1 , 0] , [u2 , 0] , ..., [un , 0 .V
: R" ,T .0 6= v V T v = v:
]T ([v, 0]) = [v, 0] = [v, 0
" ,T.
:
2.86 T : V V .15 Span (kerT ) = kerT : :
.u KerT .T u = 0:
]T ([u, 0]) = [T u, 0] = [0, 0
.Span (kerT ) kerT
.[u, v] KerT:
[T v, T v] = T ([u, v]) = [0, 0] T u = 0 T v = 0 u, v KerT
) [u, v] = [u, 0] + i [v, 0] Span (kerT

,V V = Ker (T I) : .(T I) v = 0 T v = v:






= ker T I = V
\Span (V ) = Span (ker (T I)) = ker T
I = ker T I
V
, u1 , .., un ,V ] [u1 , 0] , ..., [un , 0 .V
: ] [u1 , 0] , ..., [un , 0" ,V .

:
15 ) Span (kerT ,V V .

64

 2.87 C\R" ,T v1 , .., vk .V

" ,T v 1 , ..., v k .V
: C\R" T " ,w .Tw = w .w = [u, v] , w = u + iv:
Tw = w [T u, T v] = [T u, T v] = w T (w) = T [u, v] = w
" T " .w
} {v1 , ..., vl .V.v 1 , ..., v l V ,
" .V
.w V .w V v1 , ..., vl ,V:
w = z1 v1 + ... + zl cl w = w = z1 v1 + ... + zl v l
w , ,v 1 , ..., v l .V
.:
(v i , v j ) = (vi , vj ) = ij = ij
!

5.5.2010

2.5.2

, . :
2.88 V , T : V V .
,v1 , ..., vn T " :

1
.

aj

, 2 2 cell is
bj

2 2 cell
no. r
0


, aj , bj R

bj
aj

..

k
2 2 cell
no. 1
.
.

..

..

: 1 , ..., m" )( .T
i .Vi :
Vm
}|{z

m
um
1 ,...,unm

V1 , V2 , ...,
}|{z
}|{z
u21 ,...,u2n

u11 ,...,u1n

ni .
, ".
C .ni=1 Vi = V .ni=1 Vi V
" " ,2 2 .
65

 , T .ni=1 Vi $ V ni=1 Vi $ V
" . T
, T " . / R
" .T
, / R
, } {v 1 , ..., v n } {v1 , ..., vc V , V.
,v1 , v 1 V :
v1 + v1
v v
! , w = 1
2
i 2
v1 + v 1
v 1 + v1
=u
=
= u = [t, 0] R
2
2

=u

:
v 1 + v1
v1 v 1

=
= w = [s, 0] R
i 2
2

=w

. ? ,u :w



v 1 + v 1 v 1 + v1
1

,
= )(u, u
= (v1 , v1 ) + (v 1 , v 1 ) + (v1 , v 1 ) + (v 1 , v1 ) = 1
} 2 | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z
2
2
=0

=0

=1

=1

.
T u, w":

v1 = (u + iw) 2, = (a + ib) C

Tv1 = v1 T (u + iw) 2 = (a + ib) (u + iw) 2

) T (u + iw) = (a + ib) (u + iw) T u + iT w = au bw + i (bu + aw
T u = au bw, T w = bu + aw


a b
= ) T |span(u,w
b a
vi v i , , "
.
,m i .
, 2c ,V i=1 Vi
.
,V
T ,vi Vj , T vi = j vi .
, ,.
2.89 V . T : V V " T ,T = SO
S O , S .O
: ,
T = (SO) (OS) = SOO S = S 2
T = (SO) (SO) = O SSO = S 2
T = T

66

 , T . , T ":

..

.
0

2 2 cell



a j bj

no. 1
, aj , bj R
, 2 2 cell is
bj aj

..

..

0
2 2 cell
no. r
" .


aj bj
:
,
bj aj



q
bj
cosi sini
= ri
ri = a2i + b2i
aj
sini cosi

aj
bj

:
1

sinl
cosl

..

1
sin1
cos1
.
.

cos1
sin1

..

..

cosl
sinl

, B =

..

k
0
r1
.
.

r1
0

..

..

rl

A=

rl
, , ,1
,
.AB = BA , T.
, A S , ,
B O . .AB = BA SO = OS
, , S !
, ,O ,BB = I , " ,OO = I
O ,.

11.5.2010

2.5.3

T , :
 
   
T = T T = T = T
T " T .
, S , " S.
67

 2.90 V T : V V , .
V T " :

..
D=

.
k

? , T , " ,
.
2.91 ) A Mn (R , ,A = AT T "
.
, ) P Mn (R .D = P 1 AP
T 2.92 " T.
T ,:
 
 
   

T = T T T = T T = T T = IV = IV


S , " S ,
.1
T , T , " .
, V T " :
1

sinj
cosj

cosj
, 22 cell is

sin
j

2 2 cell
no. 1

..

1
1
.

..

1
2 2 cell
no. 1
.
.

..

68

..

'

:
V F , T : V V .
T .
V " ,T
T " :

..
D=

.
k
:
m
1

..

DTm =

m
k

.
, .
) (.
, ,'...
) ( '.
, :
3.1 T : V V" , ,V = li=1 Ui
Ui T , .T Ui Ui
V :Ui

Ui = span v1i , ..., vni i

T ,
ni ) 1 i l l (.
T ?
, T?
3.0.4

T : V V , .v V
v U T .V


.U span v, T v, T 2 v, ...


3.2 " v, T v, T 2 v, ... T.

69

 " " T.
.dimV = n n k N T k v
.v, T v, T 2 v, ..., T k1 v:


T k v span v, T v, T 2 v, ..., T k1 v

3.3


span v, T v, T 2 v, ..., T k1 v = span v, T v, T 2 v, ...

: ,k m N:




span v, T v, T 2 v, ..., T k1 v = span v, T v, T 2 v, ..., T m v
m = k .
:

span v, T v, T 2 v, ..., T k1 v = span v, T v, T 2 v, ..., T m1 v

.T m v span v, T v, T 2 v, ..., T k1 v :
T k v = a0 v + a1 T v + ... + ak1 T k1 v
T mk :
T mk T k v = a0 T mk v + a1 T mk+1 v + ... + ak1 T mk T k1 v

Induction


=
span v, T v, ..., T k1 v

T m v = a0 T mk v + a1 T mk+1 v + ... + ak1 T m1 v span v, T v, ..., T m1 v

T T :


Uc = v, T v, ..., T k1 v , T |Uc : Uc Uc
" :
T v = T v, T (T v) = T 2 v, ..., T T k1 v = c0 v + ... + ck1 T k1 v

0
c0
1 0
c1

.
..
.

.
1
.

.
..
.

. 0
.
1 ck1

1 ,
.c0 , c1 , ..., ck1

70

3.1

'

3.1.1

3.4 T : V V ,
m N .T m = 0
3.5 T : V V . r > 0 T r = 0
.T
3.6 ,dimV = n T : V V . ,r ,.r n :
: T , ) ( , } ,kerT 6= {0 .T k1 v kerT
,U % T V
dim (kerT ) + dim (ImT ) = dimV
|
{z
| }
{z
} } | {z
=n

dimV 1

:
V ' T v ' T 2 v = T (T v) ' T 3 v = ... T |T V : T V : T V
25.05.2010

n , .r n
3.7 V" ,dimV = n T : V V.
r .T

v, T v, T v, ..., T".
v V v
r1

r : ,T T r1 .
, v V .T r1 v 6= 0 v, T v, T 2 v, ..., T r1 v".
" . , 0 :
a0 v + a1 T v + ... + ar1 T r1 v = 0
i .ai 6= 0 ":

=0
z
|}
{

T r1i a0 v + a1 T v + ... + ai1 T i1 v + ai T i v + ai+1 T i+1 v + ... + ar1 T r1 v = 0

exponent equals/bigger then r so this =0

z
|}
{
ai T r1 v + ai+1 T r v + ... + an1 T 2(r1)i + ... = 0
" ai T r1 v = 0 , =.0 6
, U T , .dimU = r
,U W = V U T.
U W ?W T , T |W . :
3.8 " , U T ) r T .(r
W .V = U W

71

 : .r N
: .T 0 r = 1 ,v 6= 0 } span {v .
W U ,V .V = U W T .0
> ,r .r
ImT .T V = ImT T . .T |ImT
r

T , .0 = T r |ImT = (T |ImT ) T r = 0
T |ImT .r 1?
v ImT u V .T u = v:
(T u) = T r u = 0

r1

v=T

r1

U .v, T v, ..., T r1 v
} .ImT |{z T U:
T U



T v, ..., T r1 v
" , .

T U = U ImT r 1
.T |ImT

, W :
W

ImT = U

W .T |ImT T .
:
n
o
= w V |T w W

W . :

kerT W
? v KerT:

Tv = 0 W
} 6= {0
,U W T r1 v 6= 0 .
3.9
,V = U + W
v =u+w
v V u U w W

: .s V .ImT 3 T s :
}T s = |{z
u
} + |{z
w

,T u = u:
,T U = U u U
w
s=u+w
Ts = Tu + w
T (s u) = w
suW
W

72

 3.10
} = {0
U W

:
.s U W:
, s W
Ts W

s U Ts U
}T s = {0

ImT =U

Ts U

0 6= s = a0 v + a1 T v + .... + ar1 T r1 v, T s = 0 s = ar1 T r1 v

, T ,
.

,r 2 s U:
sU
W
s=0
sU

, :
:
=V
1.U + W
W

2.W
} = {0
3.U W
W

4.U W
:


= U W
W
= {0} U W
W
W

2, 4 U W


U W
W

W

,W:


W
W
=W

U W

W

.W = W
W .
, W T , .V = U W:


=W
W
W
TW
TW = T W
} | {z

W T . :
 


=U + U W
W
W
= U + U W

+W
=U +W
V =U +W
+W
} | {z
|
{z
}
=W


=U

, }:U W = {0
}{0

=U W
W
W

W
U W =U W

73

 !!
T : V V .r:
U = U1 W1
W1 , T , U1 .r :
T |W1 : W1 W1
.r :
W1 = U2 W2
W2 U2 .r
T |W2 : W2 W2 ,r :
W2 = U3 W3
...:
V = U1 W1 = U1 (U2 W2 ) = U1 U2 (U3 W3 ) ...
) :(n
V = U1 U2 ... Uk
26.05.2010

Ui 1 i k .T |Ui
'?
i ) (i + 1) (i + 1,
) .ni (J :
of chains of length 1=number of blocks of size 22 and up

= number

n1 (J) n1 J

,:


2

)rank (J) rank J = n1 (J

)rank J 2 rank J 3 = n2 (J
.
.
.

)rank J i rank J i+1 = ni (J




)rank J i+1 rank J i+2 = ni+1 (J






= rank J i 2rank J i+1 rank J i+2
i!
n

) A Mn (F , .TA : F F
Fn TA " ' ,J
, B .A = BJB 1
.:




rank (J) = rank (A) = i rank J i = rank Ai , Ai = BJ 1 B 1

3.11 ' )( , .
3.12 T : V V .r
r

T ,xn = 0 T .x = 0
: .

74

 '

3.2

3.13 V" ,F T : V V .
T ,:
mk

) ... (x k

m1

) pt (x) = (x 1

:
V = U1 ... Uk
,dimUi = mi T |Ui = i I + Ni Ni.
3.14 ,T i I|Ui = Ni Ni.
Ui T i I '.
, T |Ui , " ' , ) i
(.
1.6.2010
3.15 V ,Ui
T " :
* !*
:
".
" .i
' .Ni
" .i
.
::
m

)Ui = {v V | m (T I) v = 0} Ui = ker (T I

T |Ui = Ni + i I Ni.
Ui .
. , :
3.16 i, j .i 6= j T = i I ,Ui:
ker (T j I) Ui = {0} , T |Ui : Ui Ui

: ...0

75

2.6.2010

4.1 V, W" .F
f : V W F :c F, w1 , w2 W, v1 , v2 V
)(10

) f (v1 + v2 , w1 ) = f (v1 , w1 ) + f (v2 , w1

)(11

) f (v1 , w1 + w2 ) = f (v1 , w1 ) + f (v1 , w2

)(12

) f (cv1 , w1 ) = cf (v1 , w1

)(13

) f (v1 , cw1 ) = cf (v1 , w1

, .

.
V" V , ,V } ,V = { : V F :
)f : V V F, f (, v) = (v
.
V, W" , V , W , . V , W :
)f : V W F, f (v, w) = (v) (w
.
.W = Fn , V = Fm f : V W F :

x1
y1

W 3 w = ... , V 3 v = ... , A = (aij ) Mmn F

xm
yn
XX
= f (v, w) = v T Aw
xi yi aij

4.1

4.2 V, W" ,F f : V W F .
v1 , ..., vm w1 , ..., wn ,V .W
, ) (aij ) = A Mmn (F :
xi yj aij

m X
n
X

= )yj wj , aij = f (vi , wj ) f (v, w

i=1 j=1

n
X
j=1

= x i vi , w

m
X

= xi , yi F, v

i=1

m
n
m X
n
m X
n
m X
n
X
X
X
X
X
f (v, w) = f
x i vi ,
= yj wj
= ) f (xi vi , yj wj
= ) xi yj f (vi , wj
xi yj aij
i=1 j=1

i=1 j=1

i=1 j=1

76

j=1

i=1

 4.3 V, W" ,F f : V W F .
v1 , ..., vm w1 , ..., wn ,V .W
" V W ).Mmn (F
: f . , ,
f ) A Mmn (F ) "(.
) .A Mmn (F :
xi yj aij

m X
n
X

= )f (v, w

i=1 j=1

4.4 A" f : V W F .

4.2

4.2.1

4.5 V, W" ,dimW = n, dimV = m f : V W F .

A, B Mmn f .V, W
) Q Mn (F) , P Mm (F .B = P AQt :
4.6 A, B , .
w
1 , ..., w
: v1 , .., vm V w1 , ..., wn ,W v1 , ..., vm ,V n
.W:
cs vs

m
X

= dt wt , v

s=1

n
X

w
= j

t=1

:
!
dt wt

n
X

cs vs ,

t=1

m
X

( B = bij = f
vi , w
j ) = f

s=1

m
n
Mm (F) 3 P = (cis )i,s=1 , Mn (F) 3 Q = (djt )i,t=1 , Qt = dttj = djt
:P AQt
!
dttj = bij

m X
n
n
m
X
X
X


= P AQt ij
= cis ast djt
cis ast
s=1

t=1 s=1

t=1

,B = P AQt!
4.7 ) A, B Mmn (F f : V W F
," A .B
," ) Q Mn (F) , P Mm (F .B = P AQt
.

77

 : :
Pm Pn
f : F m F n F .f (v, w) = i=1 j=1 xi yj aij
,wj , vi , .1
A ) .(vi , wj , Q, P,
.B
4.8 ) A, B Mm (F
,

16

f : V V F

" A ,B ) P Mn (F .B = P AP t

08.06.2010

4.2.2

.
, " ?
, "?
!
, " ,
.
, ,f : V W F ),A Mmn (F
) B Mmn (F k .A
B f )( V ?W
4.9 V, W" ,F f : V W F ,
.dimV = m, dimW = n
V W f :

..

.
0

A=

..

.
0
0
.min {m, n} r
, v1 , ..., vm V w1 , ..., wn :W

1 1 i = j r
f (vi , wj ) = 0 r < i = j

0 i 6= j
4.10 ) ,A Mmn (F A :

Ir

Dr =

..

.
0
).rank (Dr ) = rank (A
)16 (

78

 : f .
, f ,:
v V, w W f (v, w) 6= 0
.f (v1 , w
,v1 , w 1 ) = c F
" 1

w
1
c

= .w1:
c
=1
c


=

w
1
c


v1 ,

f (v1 , w1 ) = f

:
}W W1 = span {w1 } , V V1 = span {v1 } , W2 = {w W |f (v1 , w) = 0
W2 .W
W = W1 W2 4.11
: ,w W1 W2 , .w = w1 ,w W1
, :w W2
f (v1 , w) = 0 0 = f (v1 , w1 ) = w = 0
} .W1 W2 = {0 .W1 + W2 = W
,w W .f (v1 , w) = :w w1
f (v1 , w w1 ) = f (v1 , w) f (v1 , w1 ) = 0 w w1 W2
| } | {z
{z
}
=

w
:= w w1 W2 w = w
+ w1 W 1 + W 2

,:
}V2 = {v V |f (v, w1 ) = 0
, .V1 V2 = V ,
, }.min {m, n
" .m = 1 .W = W1 W2 , V = V1
V1 ,v1 w1 , ..., wn W W2 .w2 , .., wn:
(
1 j=1
= ) f (vi , wj
0 j>1
.
.f : V W F .f |V2 W2 : V2 W2 F
, v2 , ..., vm w2 , ..., wn ,V2 ,W2 :

}1 2 i = j r min {m, n
f (vi , wj ) = 0 r < i = j

=0 i
6 j
79

 V :W
V v2 , ..., vm ,v1 W2 w2 , ..., wn .w1:

}1 1 i = j r min {m, n
f (vi , wj ) = 0 r < i = j

0 i 6= j
? ,i = j i = j = 1 .
i = j r i 6= j .
,1 < j 6= i = 1:
f (v1 , wj ) , 1 < j = wj W2 , w W2 f (v1 , w) = 0
" .1 < i j = 1
4.12 V, W" ,F ,dimV = m, dimW = n T : V W".
v1 , .., vm w1 , ..., wn ,V ,W T :

Ir

Dr =

..

.
0
Ir .r r
: V ,W ) A Mmn (F T .
,1 P, Q ,B = P AQ1
B T .


P .Q Q . ,
= Q1 t
Q.
t
,B = P AQ , A, B ,
A P, Q B = Dr .

4.3

4.13 V" . f : V V F .
.

09.06.2010

4.3.1

4.14 f : V V F ,:
) v1 , v2 V f (v1 , v2 ) = f (v2 , v1

4.15 f : V V F .
f " ) f ( .

80

 : f . v1 , ..., vm .V
f :
)) A = (aij ) = (f (vi , vj
:
) (f (vi , vj )) = (f (vj , vi )) = (aij
A.
v1 , ..., vm .V f : V V F ,:
)) A = (aij ) = (f (vi , vj )) (aij ) = (aji ) (f (vi , vj )) = (f (vi , vj
:
yj vj , xi , yj F

m
X

= xi v i , V 3 w

m
X

=V 3u

i=1

j=1

m
m
m X
m
m X
m
X
X
X
X
f (u, w) = f
xi ui ,
= yj vj
= ) xi yj f (vi vj
) yj xi f (vj , vi
i=1 j=1

j=1 i=1

i=1

j=1

m
m
X
X
=f
y j vj ,
)xi vi = f (w, u
i=1

j=1

!
4.16 f : V V F , .2
, v1 , ..., vm V f " .
: , .
u, w V .f (u, w) 6= 0
f 4.17 " u V .f (u, u) 6= 0
: .f (v, v) = 0 v V .u, w V:
)0 = f (u + w, u + w) = f (u, u) + f (w, w) + f (u, w) + f (w, u
} | {z } | {z
=0

=0

= 2f (u, w) f (u, w) = 0 f 0
, ) (.
.2
, f .
, , u V .f (u, u) 6= 0:
}V1 = span {u} , V2 = {v V |f (u, v) = 0
.V = V1 V2
:m = dimV
81

 ,m = 1 ) || 1 1 (.
,m > 1 :
f |V2 V2 : V2 V2 F
, v2 , ..., vm f |V2 V2 " :
(
2 i = j m ci F
= ) f (vi , vj
i 6= j
0
v1 , v2 , ...vm :V
}|{z
=u

(
1 i = j m ci F
= ) f (vi , vj
i 6= j
0
f , .
4.18 A , .2
t

A . ) P Mm (F P AP.
,
0 OAOt
, , , .
4.19 f : V V C .17
V f ":

Ir
0

..

Dr =

0
Ir .r r
: , v1 , ..., vm V f " :

c1

..
A=

.
cm
,v1 , ..., vm :V

0
i 6= j
f (wi , wj ) = i = j, ci = 0 0

i = j, ci 6= 0 1

ci = 0 vi
ci 6= 0 vci i

(
= wi

:
) f (vi , vi
ci
= =
=1
ci ci
ci

vi
vi
,
ci
ci


f (wi , wj ) = f

4.20 ) Mn (C .Dr
4.21 C .
17 , , .

82

4.3.2

4.22 f : V V R .
v1 , ..., vm f ":

0
.

..

1
1

0
.

..

0
.

..

Dpk

0
,p .k
.
V f " Dpk p = p, k = k
: , ,F
v1 , ..., vm f " .Dpk
, .Dpk
f v1 , ..., vm " ,Dpk f w1 , ..., wm " .Dpk
.m = p + k = p + k , )" , ( .p > p
:
v1 , ..., vp , wp+1
, .., wm
| } | {z
{z
}

p vectors mp+1

vectors

,p > p " m , ,:
m
X

bj wj

= ai vi

p
X
i=1

j=p+1

ai , bj .
,:
a2i > 0

p
X
i=1

a2i f

= ) (vi , vi
} | {z
=1

m
X

m
X
= ) b2j f (wj , wj
b2j 0
{z
}
|
j=p+1

j=p+1

p
X

!
=

ai vi

i=1

= bj wj

p
X

ai vi ,

i=1
m
X
j=p+1

bj w j ,

p
X
i=1

m
X
j=p+1

, ,
15.06.2010

,k = k ,p = p!
p k 4.23 .
4.24 A " .

83

4.4

)!!( .
4.25 f : V V F .
" f:
q:V F
:
)v V q (v) = f (v, v

4.26
)c F v V q (cv) = f (cv, cv) = c2 f (v, v) = c2 q (v

4.27 char (F) 6= 2 f :q

) q (v1 + v2 ) = f (v1 + v2 , v1 + v2 ) = f (v1 , v1 ) + f (v2 , v2 ) + 2f (v1 , v2
) q (v1 + v2 ) = q (v1 ) + q (v2 ) + 2f (v1 , v2

" :
) A = (aij

,v1 , ..., vm:

x i vi

m
X

=v

i=1

x1

.
.
.

xi xj aij = (x1 , ..., xm ) A

.
.
.

x i vi

i,j=1

xm
x1

m
X

m
X

x i vi ,

i=1

x = :

xm
q (v) = xt Ax

:
aij xi xj

m
X
i,j=1

, m .2
84

m
X
i=1

q (v) = f (v, v) = f

 4.28 P m ,2
q " ) A Mm (F ,v1 , ..., vm
Pm
v V " v = i=1 xi vi ::
) q (v) = P (x1 , ..., xm

: P m :2
bij xi xj

m
X

= ) P (x1 , ..., xm

i,j=1

,bij = bji :
bij + bji
2

= aij = aji

:
m
X

aij xi xj

m
X

= bij xi xj

i,j=1

= ) P (x1 , ..., xm

i,j=1

? :
bij xi xj + bji xj xi = aij xi xj + aji xj xi
) A = (aij
!

4.4.1

4.29 q : V F :
.1 . q (v) 0 v V
.2 .q (v) > 0 v V
4.30 q : v R , v1 , ..., vm ,V
A )( q .:
q .1 " A .
q .2 " A .
4.31 " , .
A : , O :

1
t
..
= D = OAO = OAO
.
n

A D .
A , D ) ( , A D ".
q ,:
i x2i

m
X

= )xi wi , q (v

i=1

m
X
i=1

.v 6= 0, q (v) > 0 i > 0 ,q (v) 0 i 0

85

=v

4.5

4.32 p : R R .2 ) (x, y:
p (x, y) = 0

:
, , , , .
4.33 V .R
T : V V
v0 V T0 : V V :
T v = T0 v + v0

4.34 x1 , x2 ) xi .(2
x1 x2 :
T x1 = x2

4.35:
.1 .
.2 T : V V' , ' S : V V :
T S = S T = Id

: . : T0 , S0
.:
1.Sv = S0 v + v0 , T v = T0 v + v0
) (S T ) v S (T (v)) + s0 = S (T0 v + v0 ) + s0 = (S0 T0 ) v + (S0 T0 + s0
|
{z
}
w0 constant

T v = T0 v + v0

T01 v0 ,

T01 v

= 2.Sv

(T S) v = T (Sv) = T0 (Sv) + v0 = T0 T01 v T01 v0 + v0
= v v0 + v0 = v V (T S) v = Id
16.06.2010
:


d e
x
e f
y


4.36

d e
e f


)p (x, y) = a + 2 (b, c) + (x, y


.x

86


X ,:

b c
1
d e x
e f
y

a
P (x, y) = (1, x, y) b
c

) A M3 (R , ).A1 M2 (R
) ,Y = T (x T .
?y
4.37 X " A .A1
) ,Y = T (x T .:
Y .1.
.2 B, B1 ,Y B, B1 A, A1.
B1 , A1 ,:
B1 = Q1 A1 Qt1 , B = QAQt

::


x
,X
y


.Y:

1
x
=T
, (1, x, y) A x = 0
y
y





x

x0
= T01
T0
y
y0
{z
}
|

y0

87