Hidrodin

amica e Propuls

ao
Engenharia de Maquinas Martimas
Jorge Trindade
ENIDH
2012

Indice
1 Introducao 1
1.1 Geometria do navio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Principais dimensoes dos navios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Coecientes de forma do navio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Comportamento hidrodinamico do navio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Metodos empricos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Metodos experimentais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Simulacoes numericas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Resistencia 13
2.1 Analise dimensional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Leis da semelhanca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Semelhan ca geometrica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Semelhan ca cinematica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.3 Semelhan ca dinamica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Decomposicao da resistencia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 Resistencia de onda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 Resistencia de atrito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.3 Resistencia viscosa de pressao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Ensaios de resistencia em tanques de reboque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Calculo da resistencia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.1 Metodos de extrapolacao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.2 Resistencias adicionais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Previsao com dados sistematicos ou estatsticos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.7 Ensaios `a escala real . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 Propulsao 35
3.1 Sistemas de propulsao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1 Helices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.2 Outros meios de propulsao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Helices propulsores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.1 Geometria do helice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.2 Valores caractersticos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Teoria da quantidade de movimento . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.1 For ca propulsiva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
i
ii

INDICE
3.3.2 Coeciente de carga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3.3 Rendimento ideal do helice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4 Ensaios com modelos reduzidos de helices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.1 Diagrama em aguas livres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.2 Rendimento . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.3

Indice de qualidade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5 Series sistematicas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5.1 Serie sistematica de Wageningen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.2 Outras series sistematicas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.3 Diagrama de 4 quadrantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6 Cavitacao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.1 Origem da cavita cao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.2 Controle da cavitacao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.3 Considera cao da cavitacao na seleccao do helice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6.4 Ensaios experimentais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7 Selec cao do helice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.7.1 Variaveis de optimiza cao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.7.2 Tipos de problema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8 Interaccao entre casco e helice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8.1 Ensaios de propulsao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8.2 Potencia e velocidade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.8.3 Extrapola cao dos resultados do ensaio de propulsao . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 Instalacoes Propulsoras 67
4.1 Introdu cao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Propulsao diesel-mecanica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2.1 Accionamento de auxiliares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.2 Engrenagens redutoras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2.3 Congura cao pai-e-lho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 Propulsao diesel-electrica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.1 Propulsao por motor electrico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.2 Propulsores azimutais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4 Selec cao do motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.4.1 Turbinas e motores electricos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4.2 Motores diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Indice Remissivo 83
A Previsao Baseada nos Ensaios de Propulsao 87
B Provas de velocidade e Potencia 121
C Condi coes das Provas de Velocidade e Potencia 133
D Seleccao de Motores Propulsores 141
E Derating 175
Lista de Figuras
1.1 Plano de utuacao, longitudinal e transversal de um navio. . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Plano geometrico de um navio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Principais dimensoes dos navios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Marcacao no costado das linhas de carga do navio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Tanque de provas utilizado por W. Froude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Tanque de testes actual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Bacia para testes com ondulacao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8 Bacia para testes com aguas geladas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9 Escoamento num helice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Malha colocada `a esquerda e desfasada `a direita. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.11 Representa cao esquematica de um PC-cluster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.12 Um PC-cluster com 24 nos computacionais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.13 Decomposicao 1D, 2D ou 3D do domnio espacial de um problema. . . . . . . . 11
1.14 Troca de valores nas fronteiras dos sub-domnios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Decomposicao da resistencia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Sistema de ondas gerado por um ponto de pressao em movimento. . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Sistemas de ondas da proa e da popa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Interaccao entre os dois sistemas de ondas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Curva da resistencia de onda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Varia cao do coeciente da resistencia de atrito com o n umero de Reynolds e
com a rugosidade da superfcie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7 Distribui cao de pressao num escoamento ideal, invscido. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.8 Modelo `a escala reduzida para ensaios de resistencia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.9 Representa cao graca da dependencia de
c
T
c
F0
com
Fr
4
c
F0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.10 Reducao de velocidade (%) em aguas pouco profundas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Helice com tubeira. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2 Helices de passo xo e de passo controlavel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Helices em contra-rota cao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Helices supercavitante. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5 Propulsao por jacto de agua. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Propulsores azimutais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.7 Propulsores cicloidais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
iii
iv LISTA DE FIGURAS
3.8 Geometria do helice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.9 Distribui cao espacial de velocidade e pressao para a teoria da quantidade de
movimento. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.10 Diagrama de aguas livres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.11 Aspecto geometrico das pas da serie B de Wageningen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.12 Diagrama em aguas livres de um helice da serie sistematica de Wageningen. . . 50
3.13 Notacao do diagrama com 4 quadrantes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.14 Diagrama em aguas livres de 4 quadrantes para os helices Wageningen B-4.70. 53
3.15 Efeito da cavitacao no valor dos parametros relativos a aguas livres. . . . . . . 54
3.16 Pressao de vapor da agua em fun cao da temperatura. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.17 Diagrama de Burrill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.18 Instalacoes de ensaio do RINA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.19 Imagem da cavitacao num helice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.20 Modelo para ensaios de propulsao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.21 Resultados dos ensaios de propulsao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.1 Variantes de instala coes propulsoras diesel-mecanicas lentas e de media veloci-
dade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2 Instalacoes propulsoras diesel-mecanica (em cima) e diesel-electrica (em baixo). 69
4.3 Acoplamento com relacao variavel de velocidades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4 Conversao da frequencia da energia electrica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5 Instalacao propulsora com quatro motores, engrenagens redutoras e dois helices. 73
4.6 Instalacao com dois motores diesel diferentes, engrenagens redutoras, embrai-
agens e geradores acoplados aos veios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.7 Motor electrico de propulsao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.8 Instalacao diesel-electrica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.9 Representa cao esquematica de uma instalacao diesel-electrica. . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.10 Propulsores azimutais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.11 Diagrama de carga de um motor diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Lista de Tabelas
1.1 Valores de K na formula de Alexander. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Valores do coeciente de correc cao c
A
em funcao do comprimento do navio. . . 29
3.1 Series sistematicas de propulsores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2 Coeciente para atribui cao do diametro maximo do helice pela Eq. (3.34). . . . 59
3.3 Constante para o calculo do diametro equivalente em agua livres pela Eq. (3.35). 59
v
vi LISTA DE TABELAS
Cap

tulo 1
Introducao
1.1 Geometria do navio
A variacao da proporcao relativa das dimensoes principais de um navio tem um importante
efeito nas suas caractersticas operacionais. Afecta as suas caractersticas hidrodinamicas, a
sua resistencia estrutural e, naturalmente a capacidade de carga.
Os navios existentes, em particular as unidades de constru cao mais recente, constituem
uma boa fonte de inspira cao para o pre-dimensionamento de um navio novo. No que diz
respeito `a informa cao mais detalhada, estas bases de dados sao, regra geral, bem resguardadas
pelos gabinetes de estudo e projecto, bem como pelos estaleiros construtores. No entanto,
alguns destes dados estao disponveis nos registos publicados pelas sociedades classicadoras
e por alguns gabinetes de estudo.
Depois de um processo iterativo de dimensionamento do navio, durante o qual sao tidas
em considera cao as variaveis de optimiza cao seleccionadas, a solu cao nal da forma do navio
constitui o plano geometrico do navio. Na pratica, este plano geometrico e gerado por uma
das seguintes vias:
- deformacao de um navio de referencia;
- modelo matematico para denicao de forma em funcao de parametros do navio;
- utilizacao das series sistematicas.
1.1.1 Principais dimensoes dos navios
O casco de um navio e uma forma tridimensional, na maior parte dos casos simetrica rela-
tivamente a um plano vertical longitudinal do navio. O contorno do casco ca denido pela
sua interseccao com tres planos ortogonais (Fig. 1.1):
- o plano de utuacao de projecto;
- o plano longitudinal;
- o plano transversal.
1
2 CAP

ITULO 1. INTRODU C

AO
Figura 1.1: Plano de utua cao, longitudinal e transversal de um navio.
O plano longitudinal, unico plano de simetria do navio, e o plano de referencia. A forma
do navio cortada por este plano e o perl. O plano de utua cao de projecto e um plano
perpendicular ao plano longitudinal, escolhido como plano de referencia. Os planos paralelos
ao plano de utuacao de projecto sao conhecidos como planos de agua, ou de utuacao, e as
linhas de interseccao como linhas de agua. Os planos de utuacao sao simetricos relativamente
ao plano longitudinal. Os planos perpendiculares ao plano longitudinal e ao plano de utua cao
de projecto sao os planos transversais. As sec coes transversais exibem simetria relativamente
ao plano longitudinal.
A seccao do navio equidistante das perpendiculares e normal aos planos de utua cao de
verao e longitudinal e designada por seccao de meio-navio, ou seccao mestra. Na Fig. 1.2
esta representado um plano de linhas do navio, que inclui o plano do casco, no qual, por
convencao, sempre que o navio e simetrico, se exibem metades das seccoes. Do lado direito
representam-se metades das seccoes avante de meio-navio e do lado esquerdo metades das
sec coes a re. O plano de linhas do navio inclui ainda o plano da metade da boca, no qual sao
representados os planos de utuacao.
Figura 1.2: Plano geometrico de um navio.
1.1. GEOMETRIA DO NAVIO 3
Na Fig. 1.3 estao representadas as dimensoes mais frequentemente utilizadas para denir
o navio. Quanto ao comprimento do navio, sao tres as denicoes a considerar:
- o comprimento entre perpendiculares, L
pp
, distancia medida ao longo do plano de u-
tuacao de verao entre a perpendicular da popa e a perpendicular da proa;
- o comprimento na linha de agua, L
wl
, distancia na linha de utuacao que se verique, se
nada for referido devera entender-se a linha de utua cao de verao, entre as intersec coes
da proa e popa com a mesma linha de utua cao;
- o comprimento fora a fora, L
oa
, distancia entre os pontos extremos a vante e a re do
navio, medida numa direc cao paralela `a linha de utuacao de verao.
Designa-se por boca, a maxima distancia entre as faces interiores das chapas de costado
nos dois bordos do navio, na sec cao mestra, se outra seccao nao for indicada. O pontal e a
distancia na vertical, medida a meio navio, entre a face inferior do conves e a face superior
da chapa da quilha. O calado de um navio em qualquer ponto do seu comprimento e a
distancia na vertical entre a quilha e a linha de agua. O calado varia nao so com o estado de
carregamento do navio mas tambem com a densidade da agua em que este se encontra.
A altura desde a linha de utua cao e o conves e designada por bordo livre. Pode ser
calculado pela diferenca entre o pontal e o calado.
Um aspecto importante relativamente `a seguranca de um navio mercante prende-se com
a alocacao regulamentar de um valor mnimo do bordo livre, como forma de garantir uma
reserva de estabilidade suciente para a seguran ca da navegacao. Este valor mnimo do bordo
livre depende do local de navegacao e da epoca do ano. No costado do navio estao marcadas
as linhas de carga por forma a permitir vericar facilmente se as condi coes de seguranca sao
vericadas. O valor de referencia e a linha de Verao que e marcada no centro de um crculo,
Fig. 1.4. Ao lado deste crculo, sao marcadas na horizontal linhas adicionais que correspondem
ao:
- bordo livre de Inverno, superior em 1/48 avos do bordo livre de Verao;
- bordo livre de Inverno no Atlantico Norte, ainda superior em 50 mm;
- bordo livre tropical, inferior em 1/48 avos do bordo livre de Verao;
- bordo livre em agua doce, inferior em / (40 t) cm, sendo o deslocamento em ton e
t as ton por cm de imersao;
- bordo livre tropical em agua doce e inferior em 1/48 avos do bordo livre de Verao ao
bordo livre em agua doce.
1.1.2 Coecientes de forma do navio
O deslocamento do navio e o peso do volume de agua que o navio desloca quando a utuar
em aguas tranquilas,
= g (1.1)
em que e a massa vol umica da agua em que o navio se encontra a utuar, g e a acelera cao
da gravidade e o volume deslocado.
A partir das principais dimensoes da navio, denem-se os seguintes coecientes de forma:
4 CAP

ITULO 1. INTRODU C

AO
Figura 1.3: Principais dimensoes dos navios.
- o coeciente de nura total (block coecient):
C
b
=

L
pp
BT
(1.2)
onde:
- e o volume do deslocamento;
- L
pp
o comprimento entre perpendiculares;
- B a boca (maxima abaixo da linha de agua);
- e T e o calado medio do navio.
- o coeciente de nura da utua cao:
C
wp
=
A
wp
L
wp
B
(1.3)
em que:
- A
wp
e a area do plano de utuacao;
1.1. GEOMETRIA DO NAVIO 5
Figura 1.4: Marca cao no costado das linhas de carga do navio.
- L
wp
o comprimento na linha de utua cao;
- e B a boca (maxima na linha de utua cao).
- o coeciente de nura da seccao mestra:
C
m
=
A
m
BT
(1.4)
representando por:
- A
m
a area imersa na seccao mestra;
- B a boca na seccao mestra;
- e T o calado a meio navio.
- o coeciente prismatico longitudinal:
C
p
=

A
m
L
pp
(1.5)
em que novamente:
- e o volume da querena;
- A
m
a area imersa a meio navio;
- e L
pp
o comprimento entre perpendiculares.
Como exemplo da utilizacao dos coecientes de forma no estabelecimento de relacoes
empricas para incio do projecto de um navio, pode-se indicar a formula de Alexander,
C
b
= K 0.5
V

L
(1.6)
em que K apresenta os valores da Tab. 1.1 de acordo com o tipo de navio. A formula de
Alexander estabelece uma rela cao emprica entre o coeciente de nura total do navio, a sua
velocidade e o comprimento. Pela especicidade de cada caso, o coeciente de nura total
C
b
do navio podera depois desviar-se do valor inicialmente previsto durante o processo de
optimizacao das caractersticas do navio.
6 CAP

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Tipo de Navio K
Petroleiro 1.13
Graneleiro 1.11
Carga geral 1.10
Navio de linha 1.05
Ferry 1.08
Rebocador 1.18
Tabela 1.1: Valores de K na formula de Alexander.
1.2 Comportamento hidrodinamico do navio
A analise do comportamento hidrodinamico do navio pode ser decomposta em diversas areas,
de entre as quais se pode salientar:
- a resistencia;
- a propulsao;
- o comportamento do navio no mar;
- a capacidade de manobra.
O calculo do escoamento e o projecto de helices pode ser considerado como um sub-topico do
tema resistencia e propulsao.
As metodologias para o calculo ou para a previsao dos parametros relevantes do compor-
tamento do navio podem ser classicadas como:
- empricas e estatsticas;
- experimentais em modelos `a escala reduzida, ou `a escala real;
- numericas, atraves de solucoes analticas ou com recurso `a mecanica de uidos compu-
tacional.
Os princpios fundamentais destas metodologias sao sumariamente descritos nas seccoes
seguintes.
1.3 Metodos empricos
Os metodos empricos baseiam-se num modelo fsico relativamente simples e na analise por
regressao para a determinacao dos coecientes relevantes, a partir de um so navio ou de uma
serie de navios. Os resultados assim obtidos sao depois expressos sob a forma de constantes,
formulas, tabelas, gracos, etc.
Numerosos estudos realizados entre 1940 e 1960 permitiram criar series de boas formas
de carenas. O efeito da varia cao dos principais parametros do casco, como por exemplo o
coeciente de bloco, foi determinado por alteracao sistematica daqueles parametros.
1.4. M

ETODOS EXPERIMENTAIS 7
Figura 1.5: Tanque de provas utilizado
por W. Froude. Figura 1.6: Tanque de testes actual.
1.4 Metodos experimentais
Esta abordagem baseia-se no teste de modelos em escala reduzida para extrair informacao que
possa ser extrapolada para a escala do navio. Apesar dos grandes esfor cos de investiga cao e
normalizacao, a correlacao modelo-navio esta sujeita a algum grau de empirismo. Cada uma
das principais instalacoes de teste (t uneis, bacias, etc.) tende a adoptar os metodos de ensaio
e tratamento da informacao que melhor se adaptam `a experiencia ja incorporada nas suas
bases de dados. Esta nao uniformidade de processos diculta, se nao mesmo em muitos casos
impossibilita, o aproveitamento estatstico dos dados de uma forma agregada.
Embora a metodologia base para a avalia cao da resistencia de um modelo num tanque de
testes se mantenha praticamente inalterada desde os tempos de Froude (1874), varios aspectos
tecnicos sofreram grande evolucao. De entre estes, podem-se salientar:
- as tecnicas experimentais nao-intrusivas, como a Laser-Doppler Velocimetry, que per-
mitem a medicao do campo de velocidades na esteira do navio para melhorar o projecto
do helice;
- a analise do padrao da forma cao ondosa gerada pelo modelo para estimar a resistencia
de onda;
- nos testes de modelos com propulsao autonoma, e possvel agora medir grandezas rela-
cionadas com o propulsor como o impulso, binario, rpm, etc.
Instalacoes com caractersticas bem diferentes surgiram entretanto para possibilitar outro
tipo de estudos. Trata-se de bacias equipadas com geradores de ondas, para ensaios de modelos
com o objectivo de estudar as questoes de manobrabilidade e de comportamento do navio no
mar, Fig. 1.7.
Outro tipo de bacias para ensaios de modelos de navios, Fig. 1.8, dedica-se preferencial-
mente a estudos e ensaios relacionados com a presenca de gelo no mar.
Por ultimo, um outro tipo de instala cao de teste nesta area dedica-se ao estudo do desem-
penho de helices propulsores. Neste tipo de instala cao, que iremos abordar com um pouco
mais de detalhe no Cap. 3, para alem da determina cao de varias caractersticas de desempenho
do helice, pode-se vizualizar o padrao de cavitacao no helice.
8 CAP

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Figura 1.7: Bacia para testes
com ondula cao.
Figura 1.8: Bacia para testes com
aguas geladas.
Figura 1.9: Escoamento num helice.
1.5 Simulacoes numericas
As simula coes de escoamento obtidas pela mecanica de uidos computacional sao ainda consi-
deradas pela ind ustria como pouco precisas para a previsao da resistencia de um casco ou da
for ca propulsiva de um helice. No entanto, o contributo da mecanica de uidos computacional
esta a tornar-se cada vez mais importante em determinados passos do processo de projecto.
Casos tpicos de aplicacao sao, por exemplo:
- a simula cao de escoamento invscido, com superfcie livre, para analise do comporta-
mento da proa, interaccao com o bolbo, formacao ondosa, etc.
- as simulacoes de escoamento viscoso na zona da popa, desprezando a formacao ondosa
para avaliacao do comportamento de apendice ou analise do escoamento de aproximacao
ao helice.
No caso mais geral, o escoamento de uidos incompressveis em regime nao-estacionario e
modelado pelas seguintes equa coes:
1.5. SIMULA C

OES NUM

ERICAS 9
- Equa cao da continuidade,
u
i
x
i
= 0 (1.7)
- Equa cao de conservacao da quantidade de movimento,
u
i
t
+

x
j
(u
i
u
j
) =
p
x
i
+

2
u
i
x
j
x
j
+b
i
(1.8)
- Equa cao de conservacao da energia (forma simplicada),

t
+
(u
j
)
x
j
=

c

x
j
x
j
(1.9)
em que x
i
e a coordenada na direccao i, u
i
e a componente da velocidade na direccao i,
e sao a massa especca e a viscosidade do uido, respectivamente, p e a pressao, e a
condutividade termica, c e o calor especco, e a temperatura, b e a componente na direc cao
i das for cas exteriores por unidade de massa e t e o tempo.
As equa coes sao discretizadas no espaco de acordo com uma malha colocada ou desfasada.
Na Fig. 1.10 esta indicada a localizacao das variaveis, no caso bi-dimensional, para cada
uma daqueles tipos de malhas. Cada um daqueles tipos de malha de discretizacao apresenta
Figura 1.10: Malha colocada `a esquerda e desfasada `a direita.
algumas vantagens e desvantagens. As mais importantes estao relacionadas com:
- a complexidade da programacao;
- o tratamento das fronteiras do problema;
- a solu cao para o acoplamento pressao-velocidade (formato xadrez na solu cao da pressao).
Selecionado o tipo de malha a utilizar, outras op coes ha a tomar para desenvolver o metodo
de solucao. Algumas das mais comuns sao:
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Figura 1.11: Representa cao esquematica
de um PC-cluster.
Figura 1.12: Um PC-cluster
com 24 nos computacionais.
- SIMPLE / metodo de projeccao;
- volume nito / diferen cas nitas;
- aproximacao dos termos convectivos/difusivos das equacoes;
- upwind;
- diferencas centrais de ordem 2;
- diferencas centrais de ordem 4;
- o metodo de integracao para a evolucao temporal;
- Euler;
- Crank-Nicolson;
- Adams-Bashforth;
- Runge-Kutta.
Tratando-se de calculos complexos, o tempo de calculo podera ser reduzido, sem acrescimo
signicativo de custos, com recurso de um PC-cluster, Fig. 1.11.
Este tipo de estruturas computacionais caracterizam-se por dispor de:
- 20 a 1000 CPU;
- 2 a 8 GB RAM por no;
- comunica cao em rede com velocidade superior a 1 Gbps;
- elevada capacidade para armazenamento de dados;
- sistema operativo estavel.
1.5. SIMULA C

OES NUM

ERICAS 11
Para a solucao de um problema de mecanica de uidos numPC-clustere necessario pro-
ceder `a decomposi cao do domnio espacial do problema (Fig. 1.13) e recorrer a rotinas de uma
das varias bibliotecas disponveis para efectuar a troca de dados entre os nos computacionais,
como por exemplo a biblioteca Message Passing Interface, necessaria para a continuacao do
calculo. Na Fig. 1.14 estao representados esquematicamente aquelas comunica coes de dados
relativos `as fronteiras dos sub-domnios de calculo.
Figura 1.13: Decomposi cao 1D, 2D ou 3D do domnio espacial de um pro-
blema.
Figura 1.14: Troca de valores nas fronteiras dos sub-domnios.
12 CAP

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Cap

tulo 2
Resistencia
2.1 Analise dimensional
A resistencia do navio a uma velocidade constante e a for ca necessaria para rebocar o navio
a essa velocidade em aguas tranquilas. Se a querena nao tiver apendices, a resistencia diz-se
da querena simples. Designaremos por potencia efectiva, ou potencia de reboque, a potencia
necessaria para vencer a resistencia do navio a uma dada velocidade,
P
e
= V R
T
(2.1)
em que V e a velocidade do navio e R
T
a sua resistencia total.
A resistencia do navio R
T
= f (V, L, , , g) depende:
- da velocidade do navio V ;
- das dimensoes do navio, representadas aqui por uma dimensao linear L;
- da massa especca do uido ;
- da viscosidade cinematica do uido ;
- da aceleracao da gravidade g.
Assim, a resistencia do navio devera ser uma funcao da forma
R
T
= V
a
L
b

d
g
e
(2.2)
Ao estudar a resistencia de um navio e importante calcular nao o seu valor absoluto, mas
tambem a sua relacao com outro valor, dimensionalmente semelhante, tomado como referen-
cia. Vamos dar o nome de coecientes especcos a estas relacoes. No caso da resistencia
total do navio, o valor do coeciente e obtido por
c
T
=
R
T
1
2
SV
2
(2.3)
em que e a massa especca do uido, S a superfcie molhada do navio e V a sua velocidade.
13
14 CAP

ITULO 2. RESIST

ENCIA
Resolvendo o sistema de equacoes gerado pela Eq. (2.2) em ordem a a, b e c, e considerando
a denicao do coeciente em 2.3 dada pela Eq. (2.3), temos
R
T
= V
2
L
2
f
_
V L

,
gL
V
2
_
(2.4)
Ou seja, a analise dimensional mostra que o coeciente de resistencia total do navio,
c
t
= f
_
V L

,
gL
V
2
_
(2.5)
depende dos grupos adimensionais designados por n umero de Froude,
Fr =
V

gL
(2.6)
e por n umero de Reynolds,
Re =
V L

(2.7)
calculados para o navio.
2.2 Leis da semelhanca
No caso dos ensaios de modelos para avaliacao da resistencia de uma querena, podemos
considerar tres formas de semelhanca:
- semelhanca geometrica;
- semelhanca cinematica;
- semelhanca dinamica.
2.2.1 Semelhanca geometrica
Vericar-se semelhan ca geometrica signica a existencia de uma razao constante entre qual-
quer dimensao linear na escala real do prototipo (comprimento, boca, calado do navio, etc.)
L
s
e o dimensao linear na escala do modelo L
m
. Aquela razao e a escala geometrica do modelo
,
L
s
= L
m
(2.8)
Consequentemente, temos para as areas,
A
s
=
2
A
m
(2.9)
e para os volumes,

s
=
3

m
(2.10)
2.2. LEIS DA SEMELHAN CA 15
2.2.2 Semelhanca cinematica
A semelhan ca cinematica signica a existencia de uma razao constante entre o tempo na
escala real, t
s
e o tempo na escala do modelo t
m
, a escala cinematica :
t
s
= t
m
(2.11)
A verica cao simultanea das condicoes de semelhan ca geometrica e cinematica resulta nos
seguintes factores de escala:
- para a velocidade:
V
s
=

V
m
(2.12)
- e para a aceleracao:
a
s
=

2
a
m
(2.13)
2.2.3 Semelhanca dinamica
Obter semelhanca dinamica signica que a razao entre cada uma das forcas actuantes no navio
`a escala real e as correspondentes forcas actuantes no modelo e constante, escala dinamica do
modelo ,
F
s
= F
m
(2.14)
As forcas presentes, actuantes sobre o navio e sobre o modelo, podem ser classicadas de
acordo com a sua natureza como:
- as forcas de inercia;
- as forcas gravticas;
- as forcas de atrito.
Forcas de inercia
As forcas de inercia regem-se pela lei de Newton, expressa por
F = m a (2.15)
em que F e a forca de inercia, m a massa do corpo, e a a aceleracao a que ele e sujeito.
Considerando o volume deslocado pelo navio , a massa do navio e
m = (2.16)
sendo a massa vol umica da agua.
Entao, a razao entre as forcas de inercia e uma equa cao que incorpora os tres factores de
escala, lei da Semelhan ca de Newton, e dada por
=
F
s
F
m
=

s

s
a
s

m

m
a
m
=

s

2
(2.17)
que pode ser re-escrita como
=
F
s
F
m
=

s

m

2

_
2
=

s

A
s
A
m

_
V
s
V
m
_
2
(2.18)
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ITULO 2. RESIST

ENCIA
Forcas de origem hidrodinamica
As forcas de origem hidrodinamica sao normalmente descritas recorrendo a um coeciente
adimensional c na seguinte forma, semelhante `a Eq. (2.3),
F = c
1
2
V
2
A (2.19)
em que V e uma velocidade de referencia, por exemplo a velocidade do navio e A uma area de
referencia como, por exemplo, a area das obras vivas com mar calmo. Aplicando a Eq. (2.19)
ao navio e ao modelo e combinando as duas equacoes, obtem-se
F
s
F
m
=
c
s

s
V
2
s
A
s
c
m

m
V
2
m
A
m
=
c
s
c
m

A
s
A
m

_
V
s
V
m
_
2
(2.20)
Daqui resulta que igualando o valor dos coecientes no navio e no modelo, c
s
= c
m
, ca
garantida a verica cao da lei da semelhanca de Newton.
Forcas Gravticas
As forcas gravticas podem ser descritas de forma semelhante `as forcas de inercia, para o
navio
G
s
=
s
g
s
(2.21)
e para o modelo
G
s
=
s
g
s
G
m
=
m
g
m
(2.22)
daqui resultando uma nova escala,

g
=
G
s
G
m
=

s

m
=

s

m

3
(2.23)
Para que se possa vericar a semelhan ca dinamica, os factores de escala devem apresentar
o mesmo valor, ou seja, =
g
. Se
=

s

2
e

g
=

s

m

3
entao, para que =
g
e necessario vericar-se
=

(2.24)
Esta nova rela cao permite eliminar a escala temporal em todas as relacoes apresentadas,
cando a proporcionalidade apenas dependente de como, por exemplo, na Eq. (2.12), fazendo
V
s
V
m
=

(2.25)
2.2. LEIS DA SEMELHAN CA 17
N umero de Froude
A Eq. (2.25) pode ainda assumir a forma de uma rela cao entre a dimensao linear e a
velocidade do modelo e do navio,
V
s

L
s
=
V
m

L
m
(2.26)
Adimensionalisando a razao entre a velocidade V e a raiz quadrada do comprimento L
com a acelera cao da gravidade, g = 9.81 m/s
2
, obtemos o n umero de Froude
Fr =
V

g L
(2.27)
Na ausencia de forcas viscosas, igual n umero de Froude assegura semelhanca dinamica.
Para igual n umero de Froude, as ondulacoes no modelo e `a escala real, desde que de pequena
amplitude, podem considerar-se geometricamente semelhantes.
A lei de Froude e vericada em todos os ensaios de modelos de navios, ensaios de resis-
tencia, propulsao, comportamento no mar e manobrabilidade. A aplicacao da lei de Froude
impoe os seguintes factores de escala para a velocidade,
V
s
V
m
=

(2.28)
for ca,
F
s
F
m
=

s

m

3
(2.29)
e potencia,
P
s
P
m
=
F
s
V
s
F
m
V
m
=

s

m

3.5
(2.30)
Forcas de atrito
As forcas viscosas R, com origem no atrito entre camadas de uido, sao modeladas por
R =
u
n
A (2.31)
em que e a viscosidade dinamica do uido, A a area sujeita ao atrito e
u
n
o gradiente de
velocidade, avaliado na direc cao normal ao escoamento.
A razao das for cas de atrito no navio e no modelo e dada por

f
=
R
s
R
m
=

u
s
n
s
A
s

u
m
n
m
A
m
=

s

(2.32)
Na presenca das forcas de atrito, para vericar a condi cao de semelhanca dinamica, sera
necessario que
f
= , ou seja:

=

s

2
(2.33)
18 CAP

ITULO 2. RESIST

ENCIA
Se introduzirmos a viscosidade cinematica, como = /, obtem-se:

m
=

2

=
V
s
L
s
V
m
L
m
ou seja,
V
s
L
s

s
=
V
m
L
m

m
(2.34)
N umero de Reynolds
Entao, de acordo com a Eq. (2.34), se apenas estiverem presentes for cas de inercia e de
atrito, a igualdade do n umero de Reynolds,
Re =
V L

(2.35)
assegura semelhan ca dinamica entre o modelo e o navio.
Para o calculo do n umero de Reynolds, a viscosidade cinematica da agua do mar (m
2
/s)
pode ser estimada, em funcao da temperatura (

C) e da salinidade s (%), por

= (0.014 s + (0.000645 0.0503) + 1.75) 10
6
(2.36)
Semelhanca dinamica
O n umero de Froude e o n umero de Reynolds estao relacionados por,
Re
Fr
=
V L

gL
V
=
_
gL
3

(2.37)
A semelhanca de Froude e facilmente obtida para testes em modelos porque para modelos
mais pequenos a velocidade de teste diminui. A semelhan ca de Reynolds e mais difcil de
obter pois modelos mais pequenos exigem superior velocidade de teste para igual viscosidade
cinematica.
os navios de superfcie estao sujeitos a forcas gravticas e de atrito. Assim, nos testes de
modelos `a escala reduzida ambas as leis, de Froude e de Reynolds, deveriam ser satisfeitas;
Re
s
Re
m
=

m

L
3
s
L
3
m
=

m

s

1.5
= 1 (2.38)
No entanto, nao existem, ou pelo menos nao sao economicamente viaveis, uidos que permitam
satisfazer esta condi cao. Para diminuir os erros de extrapolacao dos efeitos viscosos, a agua em
que sao realizados os testes pode ser aquecida para aumentar a diferen ca entre as viscosidades.
2.3 Decomposicao da resistencia
A resistencia do navio tem origem complexa e, para facilidade de analise, e tradicionalmente
decomposta em varios termos. No entanto, nao existe uniformidade nos diversos textos quanto
`a forma como realizar aquela decomposicao. Uma das abordagens a este assunto consiste
em considerar as decomposi coes constantes na Fig. 2.1. De acordo com a gura, podemos
considerar a seguinte decomposi cao da resistencia total:
2.3. DECOMPOSI C

AO DA RESIST

ENCIA 19
- a resistencia de onda;
- a resistencia de atrito;
- a resistencia viscosa de pressao.
Figura 2.1: Decomposi cao da resistencia.
Para alem dos termos relativos a uma querena simples em aguas tranquilas, outras com-
ponentes adicionais da resistencia deverao ser consideradas:
- a resistencia aerodinamica, resistencia ao avan co no ar da parte emersa do casco e
superestruturas do navio;
- a resistencia adicional em mar ondoso, resistencia resultante da accao de ondas inciden-
tes sobre a estrutura do navio;
- a resistencia adicional devida aos apendices da querena.
2.3.1 Resistencia de onda
Quando o navio avanca na superfcie tranquila do mar e rodeado e seguido por uma formacao
ondosa. Esta formacao e quase imperceptvel a baixa velocidade. No entanto, a partir de
uma dada velocidade torna-se claramente visvel e, a partir da, tem dimensao crescente
com a velocidade. Para alem da dependencia com a velocidade, a formacao ondosa depende
tambem da forma da querena.
20 CAP

ITULO 2. RESIST

ENCIA
Nos estudos de resistencia de onda nao se pode armar que uma dada velocidade e elevada
ou baixa sem conhecermos tambem a dimensao do navio. Assim, surge frequentemente a
referencia ao conceito de velocidade relativa, como razao entre a velocidade do navio e um
parametro representativo da dimensao do navio,
v
rel
=
V

L
(2.39)
com V em nos e L em pes, em substituicao do adimensional n umero de Froude.
Numa perspectiva do estudo hidrodinamico do escoamanto, o navio pode ser considerado
como um campo de pressao em movimento. Kelvin resolveu analiticamente o caso simplicado
do sistema de ondas criado pelo movimento de um ponto de pressao. Demonstrou que o padrao
da formacao ondosa inclui um sistemas de ondas divergentes e um outro sistema cujas cristas
das ondas se apresentam normais `a direccao do movimento, como representado na Fig. 2.2.
Ambos os sistemas de ondas viajam `a velocidade do ponto de pressao.
Figura 2.2: Sistema de ondas gerado por um ponto de pressao em movi-
mento.
O sistema de ondas associado ao movimento de um navio e bastante mais complicado.
No entanto, como primeira aproximacao, o navio pode ser considerado com um campo de
pressao em movimento composto por uma sobrepressao considerada pontual na proa e uma
depressao, tambem pontual, na popa. Assim, num navio que se desloque a uma velocidade
relativa elevada, a forma cao ondosa provocada e constituda por dois sistemas principais de
ondas, Fig. 2.3:
- o sistema da proa;
- o sistema da popa.
Cada um dos sistemas de ondas formados, com origem na proa e na popa do navio, e
constitudo por dois tipos de ondas:
- as ondas transversais;
- as ondas divergentes.
Geralmente, os dois sistemas de ondas divergentes sao detectaveis apesar de o sistema da
popa ser muito mais fraco. Nao e normalmente possvel isolar o sistema transversal da popa,
sendo apenas visvel a re do navio a composi cao dos dois sistemas, transversal e divergente.
2.3. DECOMPOSI C

AO DA RESIST

ENCIA 21
Figura 2.3: Sistemas de ondas da proa e da popa.
A proa produz um sistema de ondas semelhante ao descrito por Kelvin para um ponto de
pressao em movimento e, pelo contr ario, na popa forma-se um sistema de ondas semelhante,
mas com uma depressao localizada na popa. Conforme representado na Fig. 2.3, se a linha
que une os pontos de maior elevacao das cristas das ondas divergentes zer com a direc cao
longitudinal do navio um angulo , entao a direccao destas fara um angulo 2 com a mesma
direccao.
O comprimento de onda de ambos os sistemas transversais e igual e dado por:
=
2V
2
g
(2.40)
Existe uma interaccao entre as formacoes ondosa transversais dos sistemas de ondas da
proa e da popa. Se os sistemas estiverem em fase, de tal forma que as cristas das ondas
coincidam, o sistema resultante ter a maior altura e, consequentemente, maior energia. Se,
pelo contrario, a cava de um dos sistemas de ondas car sobreposta com uma crista do outro
sistema, a energia consumida para gerar o sistema de ondas sera reduzida. A velocidade V
e o comprimento do navio L sao muito importantes para a determinacao da energia total do
sistema de ondas gerado e, consequentemente, para a resistencia de onda do navio.
Continuando a assumir o modelo fsico que aproxima o movimento do navio por um
campo de pressao em movimento, a distancia entre os dois pontos de pressao, proa e popa,
e aproximada por 0, 9 L. Sabendo que uma onda gravtica com comprimento de onda se
desloca em aguas profundas `a velocidade
C =
_
g
2
(2.41)
para que haja coincidencia de uma crista ou cava do sistema da proa com a primeira cava
gerada na popa, devera vericar-se
V
2
0, 9L
=
g
N
(2.42)
Tomando em consideracao a Fig. 2.4, verica-se que as cavas vao coincidir para N =
1, 3, 5, ... enquanto que para N par as cristas do sistema da proa coincidem com as cavas do
sistema da popa. Se nao existisse esta interaccao entre os dois sistemas de ondas a resistencia
de onda apresentaria uma evolu cao bem comportada crescente com a velocidade do navio,
22 CAP

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Figura 2.4: Interaccao entre os dois sistemas de ondas.
conforme representado pela linha tracejada da Fig. 2.5. Na realidade, a partir de uma dada
velocidade a partir da qual esta interaccao se torna signicativa, verica-se a existencia de
eleva coes e depressoes na curva correspondendo aos casos extremos de interac cao entre os
sistemas de ondas.

E de esperar que a maior eleva cao se verique para N = 1 porque a
velocidade e mais elevada para esta condi cao.
Como a curva de resistencia de onda exibe estes maximos e mnimos locais, o navio deve
ser projectado para operar num mnimo local da curva de resistencia de onda, a velocidade
economica.
Quando o comprimento de onda das ondas transversais e igual ao comprimento do na-
vio, o n umero de Froude e aproximadamente 0, 4. Ate este valor do n umero de Froude, as
ondas transversais sao as principais responsaveis pelas elevacoes e depressoes na curva da
resistencia de onda. Se o n umero de Froude aumentar, aumentara tambem a resistencia de
onda sobretudo `a custa da inuencia das ondas divergentes. O maximo da resistencia de
onda verica-se para Fr 0, 5. A velocidade correspondente designa-se por velocidade da
querena. Acima da velocidade da querena a resistencia de onda do navio decresce. Navios
rapidos que operem acima da velocidade de querena deverao naturalmente dispor de potencia
instalada suciente para vencer aquele pico de resistencia.
Bolbo de proa
A nalidade da instalacao dos bolbos de proa e a redu cao da resistencia de onda. O
mecanismo de reducao consiste na interferencia dos sistemas de onda. O sistema de ondas
gerado pela pressao elevada no bolbo interfere com o sistema de ondas da proa, reduzindo a
sua amplitude. A interferencia favoravel ocorre quando a cava do sistema transversal de ondas
2.3. DECOMPOSI C

AO DA RESIST

ENCIA 23
Figura 2.5: Curva da resistencia de onda.
do bolbo surgir na crista do sistema de ondas da proa do navio. Esta situa cao de interferencia
favoravel sendo optimizada para uma dada velocidade, pode no entanto ser considerada como
tendo efeito favoravel num determinado intervalo de velocidades.
Efeito da profundidade restrita
Os efeitos da profundidade nita come cam a fazer-se sentir quando a profundidade h e
menor que metade do comprimento de onda da formacao ondosa gerada pelo movimento do
navio, h < /2. Doutra forma, podemos considerar profundidade innita sempre que,
h >

2
(2.43)
No caso de profundidades muito pequenas, h < 0, 05

, a velocidade de propagacao deixa

de depender do comprimento de onda, Eq. (2.41) e passa a depender apenas da profundidade
C =
_
gh (2.44)
Neste caso, a velocidade de grupo e igual `a velocidade de propaga cao, a velocidade crtica:
C
g
= C =
_
gh (2.45)
Para caracterizar o efeito da profundidade e usado o n umero de Froude baseado na pro-
fundidade h:
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- se V/

gh < 0, 4, o padrao de ondas e semelhante ao caso de profundidade innita;

- se V/

gh se aproximar de 1, o angulo da envolvente aproxima-se de 90

;
- se V/

gh > 1, sin =

gh/V .
2.3.2 Resistencia de atrito
A resistencia de atrito do navio resulta do escoamento em torno da querena com n umero de
Reynolds elevado. Quando um corpo se move num uido em repouso, uma na camada de
uido adere ao corpo em movimento, ou seja, tem velocidade nula relativamente ao corpo.
A variacao de velocidade e elevada nas proximidades da superfcie do corpo e diminui com
o aumento da distancia ao mesmo.

E pratica habitual convencionar-se para a denicao da
espessura da camada limite, a distancia a partir da superfcie do corpo ate que a velocidade
do uido seja 1% da velocidade do corpo.
Desenvolve-se assim da proa para a popa do navio uma camada limite tridimensional. Esta
camada limite inicia-se em escoamento laminar e sofre transi cao para o regime turbulento.
Normalmente, esta transicao ocorre junto `a proa do navio. Esta transi cao e controlada pelo
n umero de Reynolds do escoamento. Considerando o caso da placa lisa plana, a transi cao
ocorre para valores entre Re = 310
5
e Re = 10
6
. Em regime turbulento os efeitos dissipativos
de energia vao alem do atrito molecular. Com crescente n umero de Reynolds, vericam-se
intensas trocas de quantidade de movimento em camadas adjacentes do uido, ou seja, maior
transporte de energia.
No caso de uma placa plana, a espessura da camada limite turbulenta pode ser aproximada
por:
x
L
= 0, 37 (Re
L
)
1/5
(2.46)
Num navio, o gradiente lontitudinal de pressao na regiao da proa e, em geral, favoravel
ao escoamento. Pelo contrario, este gradiente e adverso na regiao da popa e a camada limite
aumenta signicativamente de espessura deixando de poder ser considerada pequena quando
comparada com o comprimento ou a boca do navio. Para todos os efeitos praticos, a camada
limite de um navio pode ser considerada completamente turbulenta.
A dependencia da resistencia de atrito com o n umero de Reynolds e com a rugosidade da
superfcie e indicada pelo graco da Fig. 2.6. Para uma superfcie rugosa, a resistencia segue
a linha da superfcie lisa ate que, para um dado valor de Re, se separa e tem a partir da
um andamento quase horizontal, ou seja, o coeciente torna-se independente do Re. Quanto
mais rugosa for a superfcie mais cedo se evidencia este comportamento.
A resistencia de atrito de um navio e habitualmente dividida em duas componentes:
- a resistencia a que caria sujeita uma placa plana com area equivalente;
- o aumento de resistencia originado pela forma do navio.
A resistencia de atrito foi estimada durante decadas por expressoes empricas como, por
exemplo, a formula de Froude:
R
F
= 1 0, 0043 ( 15) fSV
1,825
(2.47)
2.3. DECOMPOSI C

AO DA RESIST

ENCIA 25
Figura 2.6: Varia cao do coeciente da resistencia de atrito com o n umero
de Reynolds e com a rugosidade da superfcie.
em que e a temperatura do uido, expressa em

C e
f = 0, 1392 +
0, 258
2, 68 +L
(2.48)
Outra formula emprica muito popular para a previsao do coeciente da resistencia de atrito e
devida a Schoenherr e conhecida como formula da ATTC (American Towing Tank Conference)
0, 242

c
F
= log (Re c
F
) (2.49)
Esta correla cao preve coecientes de atrito excessivos quando aplicada a modelos muito
pequenos. Para ultrapassar este problema foi proposta na ITTC (International Towing Tank
Conference) de 1957 uma nova formula,
c
F
=
0, 075
(logRe 2)
2
(2.50)
designada por linha de correlacao modelo-navio da ITTC 1957.
2.3.3 Resistencia viscosa de pressao
A componente da pressao originada pelas ondas formadas pelo movimento do navio ja foi
considerada. Resta agora considerar a resistencia originada por diferencas de pressao a actuar
no casco devida a efeitos viscosos do escoamento. Num escoamento ideal, ver Fig. 2.7, a
pressao exercida na popa do navio seria igual `a exercida na proa, ou seja forca resultante
nula. Na pratica, os efeitos viscosos vao reduzir a pressao exercida na popa do navio.
Parte desta resistencia sera devida `a gera cao de vortices nas descontinuidades do casco.
Outra parte sera devida a um aumento de espessura da camada limite nalguns casos po-
tenciada por fenomenos de separa cao do escoamento. Estes aspectos sao fundamentalmente
condicionados pela forma do casco pelo que sao normalmente considerados como uma resis-
tencia de forma.
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Figura 2.7: Distribui cao de pressao num escoamento ideal, invscido.
2.4 Ensaios de resistencia em tanques de reboque
Apesar da crescente importancia dos metodos numericos, os ensaios com modelos `a escala
reduzida de navios em tanques de reboque sao ainda essenciais para a avalia cao hidrodinamica
dos novos projectos e para a validacao de novas solu coes.
Os testes devem ser realizados em condi coes que permitam considerar que o modelo e o
navio tem comportamentos semelhantes por forma a que os resultados obtidos para o modelo
possam ser extrapolados para a escala real do navio. Com este objectivo, os ensaios realizam-
se respeitando a igualdade do n umero de Froude.
Os testes sao realizados em tanques de reboque, com agua imovel e o modelo rebocado por
um carrinho ou, em alternativa, os testes podem ser realizados em tanques de circulacao,
em que o modelo esta imovel e a agua circula.
No primeiro caso, apos um percurso inicial de acelera cao, a velocidade do carrinho deve
ser mantida constante para obter um regime estacionario e garantir o rigor das observa coes
efectuadas. A fase nal e de desaceleracao e imobiliza cao do modelo. Assim, os tanques de
reboque apresentam frequentemente centenas de metros de extensao.
O comprimento do modelo, como o exemplo representado esquematicamente na Fig. 2.8,
e escolhido de acordo com as condi coes experimentais no tanque de reboque. O modelo deve
ser tao grande quanto possvel por forma a minimizar efeitos de escala relativos aos aspectos
viscosos, nomeadamente as diferencas relativas a escoamentos laminares e turbulentos e as
questoes relacionadas com fenomenos de separacao do escoamento. Por outro lado, a dimensao
do modelo deve ainda permitir evitar deforma coes resultantes de esfor cos no modelo e no
equipamento de teste.
A dimensao do modelo deve ser sucientemente pequena para permitir que o carrinho
de reboque do modelo atinja a velocidade correspondente e evitar os efeitos de aguas res-
tritas nos testes efectuados. Estes constrangimentos conduzem naturalmente a um intervalo
pratico de comprimentos admissveis. Os modelos para ensaios de resistencia e propulsao
tem normalmente comprimentos entre 4 m < L
m
< 10 m. A escala dos modelos esta entre
15 < < 45.
2.5. C

ALCULO DA RESIST

ENCIA 27
Figura 2.8: Modelo `a escala reduzida para ensaios de resistencia.
Durante o movimento, o modelo mantem o rumo atraves de os-guia, sendo livre para
adoptar o caimento que resultar do seu movimento. Ainda de acordo com a Fig. 2.8, a
resistencia total de reboque do modelo e dada por,
R
T
= G
1
+ sin G
2
(2.51)
Com os ensaios de resistencia com o modelo `a escala reduzida pretende-se obter dados
que permitam estimar a resistencia do navio sem o propulsor e apendices, ou seja, dita da
querena simples. Dos ensaios no tanque de reboque obtem-se a resistencia nas condicoes do
tanque, ou seja:
- aguas sucientemente profundas;
- ausencia de correntes;
- ausencia de vento;
- agua doce `a temperatura ambiente.
O n umero de Reynolds e normalmente superior duas ordens de grandeza na escala do navio
que na escala do modelo, tipicamente na ordem de 10
9
e 10
7
, respectivamente. O modelo tem
frequentemente uma ta rugosa para estimular articialmente a transicao da camada limite
laminar para turbulenta mais perto da proa do modelo. Globalmente, o desvio originado
pelo facto de nao se manter constante o n umero de Reynolds no ensaio e depois compensado
atraves de correccoes empricas.
2.5 Calculo da resistencia
2.5.1 Metodos de extrapolacao
A resistencia do modelo tem depois de ser convertida por forma a obter-se uma estimativa
da resistencia do navio na escala real. Para tal, estao disponveis, entre outros, os seguintes
metodos:
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- o metodo ITTC 1957;
- o metodo de Hughes/Prohaska;
- o metodo ITTC 1978;
- o metodo Geosim de Telfer.
Actualmente, o metodo mais frequentemente utilizado na pratica e o metodo ITTC 1978.
Metodo ITTC 1957
Para a aplica cao deste metodo, a resistencia total da querena, R
T
, e considerada decomposta
nos seguintes termos,
R
T
= R
F
+R
R
(2.52)
a resistencia de atrito, R
F
, e a resistencia residual, R
R
.
Os coecientes de resistencia, adimensionais, sao genericamente calculados por,
c
i
=
R
i
1
2
V
2
S
(2.53)
Na aplicacao deste metodo de previsao e considerado igual para o modelo e para o navio
o coeciente de resistencia residual,
c
R
= c
Tm
c
Fm
(2.54)
determinado a partir do coeciente de resistencia total do modelo,
c
Tm
=
R
Tm
1
2

m
V
2
m
S
m
(2.55)
e da formula ITTC 1957 (Eq. (2.50)) para o calculo do coeciente de resistencia de atrito
c
F
,
c
F
=
0.075
(log
10
Re 2)
2
O coeciente de resistencia total para o navio e entao estimado por:
c
Ts
= c
Fs
+c
R
+c
A
= c
Fs
+ (c
Tm
c
Fm
) +c
A
(2.56)
em que c
A
e um factor de correccao tradicionalmente associado `a rugosidade do casco. De
facto, embora o modelo esteja construdo a uma dada escala geometrica, a rugosidade das
superfcies do modelo e do navio nao respeitam esta escala. O valor de c
A
pode ser obtido
por correla coes empricas como, por exemplo,
c
A
= 0.35 10
3
2 L
pp
10
6
(2.57)
ou a partir de valores tabelados (Tab. 2.1).
A previsao da resistencia total do navio e dada por
R
Ts
= c
Ts

1
2

s
V
2
s
S
s
(2.58)
2.5. C

ALCULO DA RESIST

ENCIA 29
L
pp
(m) c
A
50 - 150 0,0004-0,00035
150 - 210 0,0002
210 - 260 0,0001
260 - 300 0
300 - 350 -0,0001
350 - 400 0,00025
Tabela 2.1: Valores do coeciente de correccao c
A
em funcao do compri-
mento do navio.
Metodo de Hughes-Prohaska
O metodo de Hughes-Prohaska e normalmente classicado como um metodo de factor de
forma.

E considerada a decomposi cao da resistencia total em duas componentes, uma asso-
ciada `a resistencia de onda e outra dependente da forma do casco. Considerando entao os
coecientes adimensionais, ca
c
T
= (1 +k) c
F0
+c
w
(2.59)
Para a determina cao do factor de forma, presume-se aqui a rela cao
c
T
c
F0
= (1 +k) +
Fr
4
c
F0
(2.60)
que e particularmente valida para valores reduzidos de velocidade.
Apos varios ensaios a diferentes velocidades, diferentes n umeros de Froude, e possvel
construir um graco semelhante ao representado na Fig. 2.9 e, com base naqueles valores,
obter o valor de k por regressao linear.
Figura 2.9: Representa cao graca da dependencia de
c
T
c
F0
com
Fr
4
c
F0
.
Este factor de forma, (1 +k),e assumido como independente dos valores de Fr e de Re e
igual para o navio e modelo.
O procedimento de calculo do metodo de Hughes-Prohaska e o seguinte:
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ITULO 2. RESIST

ENCIA
- determinar o coeciente de resistencia total,
c
Tm
=
R
Tm
1
2

m
V
2
m
S
m
- determinar o coeciente de resistencia de onda, o mesmo para o modelo e o navio,
c
w
= c
Tm
c
F0m
(1 +k) (2.61)
- determinar o coeciente de resistencia total para o navio,
c
Ts
= c
w
+c
F0s
(1 +k) +c
A
(2.62)
- determinar a resistencia total para o navio, novamente por
R
Ts
= c
Ts

1
2

s
V
2
s
S
s
O coeciente da resistencia de atrito, c
F0
, e neste caso obtido pela correla cao de Hughes,
c
F0
=
0.067
(log
10
Re 2)
2
(2.63)
Quanto ao coeciente de correcc ao c
A
, a ITTC recomenda a aplicacao universal de
c
A
= 0.0004 (2.64)
na aplica cao deste metodo.
Metodo ITTC 1978

E uma modicacao do metodo de Hughes-Prohaska, geralmente mais preciso que os ante-

riormente apresentados. Ao contrario dos metodos anteriormente descritos, este metodo de
extrapola cao dos resultados obtidos nos ensaios com modelos `a escala reduzida inclui o efeito
da resistencia do ar.
A previsao do coeciente de resistencia total para o navio e, tambem aqui, descrita em
termos do factor de forma, ou seja,
c
Ts
= (1 +k) c
Fs
+c
w
+c
A
+c
AA
(2.65)
em que:
- c
w
e o coeciente de resistencia de onda, igual para o navio e modelo;
- c
A
e o coeciente de correccao;
- e c
AA
a resistencia do ar, c
AA
= 0.001
A
T
S
.
2.5. C

ALCULO DA RESIST

ENCIA 31
O coeciente da resistencia de atrito e determinada de forma semelhante `a preconizada
para o metodo ITTC 57, Eq. (2.50).
Para a determinacao da correc cao devida pela varia cao da rugosidade da querena, e acon-
selhada aqui a seguinte formula:
c
A
10
3
= 105
3
_
k
s
L
oss
0.64 (2.66)
em que k
s
e a rugosidade do casco e L
oss
e o comprimento do navio no plano de utuacao.
Para navios novos k
s
/L
oss
= 10
6
e c
A
= 0.00041.
Os detalhes sugeridos pela ITTC na aplicacao deste metodo estao indicados no Apendice
A.
Metodo Geosim
Este metodo foi proposto por Telfer em 1927. Dos metodos aqui enunciados, e considerado
como o metodo de extrapolacao com previsoes mais precisas da resistencia do navio. A
grande vantagem do metodo resulta de nao recorrer a qualquer decomposicao, teoricamente
questionavel, da resistencia total.
Sao realizados varios ensaios com modelos geometricamente semelhantes mas a diferentes
escalas. Isto signica que os testes podem ser realizados, para a mesma velocidade equivalente,
com igual n umero de Froude e diferente n umero de Reynolds. O coeciente de resistencia total,
obtido naqueles ensaios, e representado em funcao de logRe
1/3
. Para cada um dos modelos,
obtem-se uma curva da resistencia, em funcao do Fr, que permite fazer a extrapola cao para
a escala do navio.
Pela grande quantidade de modelos a construir e ensaios a realizar, trata-se de um metodo
muito dispendioso, utilizado sobretudo apenas para ns de investigacao.
2.5.2 Resistencias adicionais
As condicoes de ensaio dos modelos sao substancialmente diferentes daquelas em que o navio
ira operar. As principais diferen cas a considerar resultam de:
- a presen ca de apendices na querena;
- a navega cao em aguas pouco profundas;
- o vento;
- a crescente rugosidade do casco durante a vida do navio;
- as condi coes de mar.
Para estimar as alteracoes causadas por estes itens no comportamento do navio, usam-se
correccoes empricas, baseadas em pressupostos fsicos, para correlacionar os valores obtidos
no modelo, ou no navio em provas de mar, com os estimados para as condicoes normais de
servi co do navio. A resistencia adicional devida a apendices e a resistencia do navio em aguas
pouco profundas sao os topicos sucintamente abordados nos paragrafos seguintes.
32 CAP

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Resistencia adicional dos apendices
Os modelos de navios `a escala reduzida podem ser testados com apendices `a escala geome-
trica apropriada. No entanto, nem sempre nesta altura do projecto estes estao completamente
denidos. Por outro lado, o escoamento em torno dos apendices e predominantemente go-
vernado pelas forcas de origem viscosa. Seria entao necessario, para obter resultados aveis,
vericarem-se condicoes de semelhan ca de Reynolds, o que, como ja referido, nao e viavel
se, cumulativamente, pretendermos manter a igualdade do n umero de Froude. Consequente-
mente, a presenca dos apendices em condicoes de semelhan ca de Froude tem pouca relevancia.
Em primeira analise, os apendices do casco contribuem para um aumento da superfcie
molhada do navio. Por outro lado, da sua presenca surgem tambem alteracoes no factor de
forma do casco. Para a determinacao da resistencia de forma dos apendices pode recorrer-se a
dois ensaios, com e sem apendices, a uma velocidade superior. Se admitirmos que a resistencia
de onda e igual nos dois casos, a diferenca de resistencia vericada, tendo descontado a
diferen ca de resistencia de atrito resultante da varia cao da area molhada, da-nos a resistencia
de forma dos apendices.
Os valores tpicos de acrescimo de resistencia originados pela presenca de apendices sao
os seguintes:
- robaletes: 1 a 2%;
- impulsores:
- de proa: 0 a 1%;
- transversais de popa: 1 a 6%;
- aranhas de veios: 5 a 12% (twin-screw pode chegar a 20%);
- leme: 1%.
Resistencia em aguas pouco profundas
Quando um navio navega em aguas pouco profundas verica-se um aumento, quer da resis-
tencia de atrito, quer da resistencia de onda. Em particular, a resistencia aumenta signi-
cativamente para valores proximos do n umero de Froude crtico, baseado na profundidade,
F
nh
= V/

gH = 1.
O aumento da resistencia do navio quando a navegar em aguas pouco profundas foi es-
tudado por Schlichting. A sua hipotese de trabalho foi a seguinte: a resistencia de onda e a
mesma se o comprimento de onda da ondulacao transversal for igual.
O graco da Fig. 2.10 permite prever a perda de velocidade do navio em aguas pouco
profundas. Correccoes simples nao s ao possveis para aguas muito pouco profundas ja que os
fenomenos envolvidos sao complexos. Nestes casos, so testes em modelos ou simulacoes por
CFD poderao contribuir para uma melhor previsao.
2.6 Previsao da resistencia com dados sistematicos ou estats-
ticos
Na fase preliminar do projecto de um navio podem ser utilizados metodos aproximados para a
previsao da resistencia baseados em ensaios de series sistematicas de navios ou, pela regressao
2.6. PREVIS

AO COM DADOS SISTEM

ATICOS OU ESTAT

ISTICOS 33
Figura 2.10: Redu cao de velocidade (%) em aguas pouco profundas.
estatstica de dados experimentais relativos a modelos e a navios `a escala real.
Series sistematicas sao conjuntos de formas de querena em que se provocou a varia cao,
sistematica, de um ou mais dos seus parametros de forma. As variacoes sistematicas sao
feitas em torno de uma forma mae (parent form). Os resultados dos ensaios de resistencia
dos modelos que constituem a serie permitem determinar um coeciente adimensional de
resistencia para uma forma de querena contida ou interpolada na serie.
Taylor mediu, entre 1907 e 1914, 80 modelos obtidos por variacao sistematica de:
- a razao entre o comprimento e a raiz c ubica do deslocamento (5 valores de L/
1/3
);
- a razao entre a boca e o calado (B/T = 2, 25; 3, 75);
- o coeciente prismatico (8 valores de 0,48 a 0,86);
a partir de uma forma mae: o cruzador Leviathan.
Estes dados foram posteriormente re-trabalhados por Gertler em 1954, disponibilizando
diagramas de resistencia residual.
Outra serie sistematica, com particular interesse para os navios mercantes, e a serie 60,
devida aos trabalhos de Todd. Consta de 5 formas mae com coecientes de nura, 0,60,
0,65, 0,70, 0,75 e 0,80. Para cada uma daquelas formas mae existem variacoes de L/B,
B/T, etc.
Como exemplo de um metodo de previsao da resistencia de navios envolvendo dados
estatsticos pode-se indicar o metodo de Holtrop e Mennen. Este metodo pode ser aplicado
para efectuar uma analise qualitativa do projecto de um navio no que diz respeito `a sua
resistencia. O metodo baseia-se na regressao estatstica de resultados de ensaios em modelos
e de resultados de provas de mar de navios. A base de dados e muito vasta cobrindo uma
gama muito alargada de tipos de navios. No entanto, para formas muito especcas de navio,
34 CAP

ITULO 2. RESIST

ENCIA
a precisao das previsoes pode reduzir-se pelo menor n umero de elementos daquele tipo na
base.
2.7 Ensaios `a escala real
Os resultados obtidos nas provas de mar de um navio sao talvez o mais importante requisito
para a aceitacao deste pelo armador. A especicacao detalhada destas provas deve estar
claramente contratualizada entre o armador e o estaleiro. Entre outros organismos, a ITTC
recomenda alguns procedimentos para a realizacao destas provas. As recomendacoes para as
provas de velocidade e de potencia estao includas no Apendice B.
Os problemas surgem normalmente em consequencia de as provas se realizarem em condi-
coes diferentes, quer das que foram consideradas como condi coes de projecto, quer daquelas
que se vericaram nos ensaios com o modelo `a escala reduzida.
O contrato de construcao deve especicar uma velocidade contratual do navio, `a carga de
projecto, para uma dada percentagem da MCR do motor, em aguas tranquilas e profundas e
na ausencia de vento. Sao raras as ocasioes em que e possvel realizar as provas de mar em
condi coes proximas das condi coes contratuais. As condicoes em que se realizam as provas de
mar incluem, frequentemente:
- condicao de carga parcial ou em condicao de lastro;
- presen ca de correntes e ondulacao;
- aguas pouco profundas;
Para prevenir maior diversidade de resultados, e habitual denir contratualmente valores
limite para as condi coes ambientais em que as provas de mar se realizarao. As condicoes
recomendadas pela ITTC para a realizacao das provas de velocidade e potencia estao no
Apendice C. As diferen cas entre as condi coes contratuais e vericadas durante a realiza cao
das provas de mar impoem a utilizac ao de correla coes para corrigir os resultados obtidos para
as condicoes de contrato. Para alem de todas as incertezas experimentais, todo este processo
de correccao, com recurso a gracos e tabelas, oferece muitas d uvidas de aplica cao.
A prova da milha pode ser avaliada com velocidade over ground ou velocidade in
water. A velocidade na agua exclui o efeito das correntes. A velocidade over ground
era avaliada atraves de equipamentos de navegacao mas, a disponibilidade de sistemas de
posicionamento por satelite (GPS) permitiu eliminar muitos problemas e incertezas destas
provas. Para reduzir os efeitos de ventos e correntes, as provas de velocidade, consumo, etc.
devem ser realizadas repetidamente em sentidos opostos.
De notar que as provas de mar de um navio vao muito para alem das provas de veloci-
dade e potencia. Todas as funcionalidades do navio, operacionais e de seguranca, deverao ser
demonstradas. Para as restantes provas, nomeadamente as que dizem respeito `a manobrabi-
lidade do navio, existem tambem recomendacoes exaustivas da ITTC para a sua realizacao.
Cap

tulo 3
Propuls ao
3.1 Sistemas de propulsao
Em qualquer tipo de navio temos presente um propulsor cuja nalidade e a gera cao de uma
for ca propulsiva. As solu coes propulsivas sao muito diversas mas predominantemente os navios
continuam a utilizar helices simples como meio de propulsao. Outros meios de propulsao com
expressao signicativa em aplica coes especcas sao:
- os helices especiais, com particular destaque para os helices com tubeira e os helices
contra-rotativos;
- os sistemas de jacto de agua (water-jets ou pump-jets);
- os propulsores azimutais (AziPods);
- e os propulsores cicloidais (Voith-Schneider).
Na escolha da solucao propulsiva devera ser sempre considerado o seu rendimento e a
interaccao com a querena. Outro aspecto generico a considerar durante o projecto da solucao
propulsiva e o fenomeno da cavita cao originada pela velocidade elevada do movimento das
pas do helice na agua.
3.1.1 Helices
O helice e colocado tradicionalmente `a popa do navio para recuperar parte da energia dis-
pendida para vencer a resistencia da querena. Na forma mais tradicional da popa dos navios,
a esteira nominal e muito nao-uniforme. A uniformidade da esteira da querena e uma das
condi coes necessarias para o bom funcionamento do helice. A utilizacao da popa aberta ou
de um bolbo na popa permite melhorar a esteira.
As pas do helice, animadas de velocidade de rotacao e de avanco, funcionando como
superfcies sustentadoras, estao distribudas simetricamente em torno do cubo. As sec coes
das pas funcionam como pers alares a angulo de ataque gerando uma for ca de sustentacao.
Esta for ca de sustenta cao contribui para a forca propulsiva axial e para o binario resistente
ao veio.
Classicam-se com helices direitos aqueles que, quando observados de re, rodam no
sentido horario. Nos navios com dois helices, sao normalmente utilizados:
35
36 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
- um helice direito a estibordo;
- e um helice esquerdo a bombordo.
Nestes navios, a popa e relativamente plana e os veios estao expostos e suportados por
aranhas (shaft brackets). A presen ca destas aranhas provoca ainda nao-uniformidades na
esteira em que, devido `a forma da popa, o escoamento entra no helice com um certo angulo.
Figura 3.1: Helice com tubeira.
A aplica cao de uma tubeira aceleradora, Fig. 3.1, permite aumentar o rendimento, relati-
vamente a um helice convencional, no caso de helices fortemente carregados como os aplicados
em rebocadores, arrastoes, petroleiros, etc. Outro objectivo da aplicacao das tubeiras pode
ser a uniformizacao do escoamento de entrada no helice. Para este m trata-se normalmente
de tubeiras assimetricas colocadas avante do helice. Frequentemente este tipo de tubeiras e
instalada depois de o navio estar em servico.
Figura 3.2: Helices de passo xo e de passo controlavel.
3.1. SISTEMAS DE PROPULS

AO 37
Para um helice de passo xo, a velocidade do navio e a forca propulsiva sao controladas
pela velocidade de rota cao do helice. Para um helice de passo controlavel, a for ca propulsiva
pode tambem ser controlada por varia cao do passo do helice. A variacao do passo obtem-se
por rota cao das pas em torno de um eixo, `a direita na Fig. 3.2. Utiliza-se quando a velocidade
de rotacao e constante, ou variavel numa gama restrita, quando o helice tem de funcionar em
mais de uma condicao.
Apesar de constiturem uma solucao cara, pela complicacao de chumaceiras e engranagens
necessaria, encontram-se exemplos de propulsao por helices contrarotativos. Sao dois helices,
em que o helice de tras tem um diametro ligeiramente menor que o helice da frente, a rodar
em sentidos contrarios, permitindo ao helice de tras eliminar a perda de energia cinetica
de rotacao do helice da frente, Fig. 3.3. Em consequencia, apresentam rendimentos tpicos
superiores a um helice isolado.
Figura 3.3: Helices em contra-rota cao.
Outro tipo particular de helice e o helice supercavitante, Fig. 3.4.

E um helice para
funcionar com elevada velocidade de rota cao em que as sec coes das pas sao concebidas para
provocar uma bolsa de cavita cao que envolve toda a pa. O perigo de implosao e eliminado
porque a implosao das bolhas de cavita cao ocorre longe das faces das pas. Aplicam-se em
navios de alta velocidade com rendimento, em geral, fraco.
3.1.2 Outros meios de propulsao
Jacto de agua
Nestes sistemas, a forca propulsiva e obtida pela descarga de um jacto de agua `a popa do
navio. Para transmitir a energia pretendida ao jacto podem ser utilizadas bombas axiais,
como no caso da Fig. 3.5, ou bombas centrfugas.
Os sistemas de jacto de agua constituem actualmente um solu cao comprovada para a pro-
pulsao de embarcacoes rapidas, com divulgacao crescente nas embarcacoes de recreio, ferries,
embarca coes de patrulha, etc. Sao boas solucoes quando os principais requisitos colocados
passam pela manobrabilidade do navio, bom rendimento propulsivo, bom comportamento em
aguas restritas e pouca necessidade de manuten cao. Actualmente, ja estao disponveis no
mercado solu coes deste tipo para potencias propulsivas da ordem dos 30MW.
38 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
Figura 3.4: Helices supercavitante.
Figura 3.5: Propulsao por jacto de agua.
Propulsores azimutais
Esta conguracao, ver Fig. 3.6, possibilita a gera cao de forca propulsiva em qualquer direccao
por rotacao do propulsor em torno do eixo vertical. No sistema tradicional de propulsao
azimutal, o motor era colocado no interior do casco e um sistema mecanico relativamente
complexo fazia a transmissao do movimento `as pas. Actualmente, o accionamento e feito
por um motor electrico colocado no veio de propulsor. Estes sistemas permitem combinar a
propulsao e o governo do navio, dispensando a presenca do leme.
Apresentam como principais vantagens um bom rendimento, justicado em grande parte
pela maior uniformidade do escoamento `a entrada do propulsor, elevada capacidade de ma-
nobra e economia de espa co. A sua aplicacao, inicialmente quase que restrita a ferries, tem-se
alargado nos tempos mais recentes a praticamente quase todos os tipos de navios.
3.1. SISTEMAS DE PROPULS

AO 39
Figura 3.6: Propulsores azimutais.
Propulsores cicloidais
Esta solucao propulsiva, representada na Fig. 3.7, desenvolvida pela Voight a partir duma
ideia inicial de Ernst Schneider, permite gerar impulso de magnitude variavel em qualquer
direccao. As variacoes daquele impulso sao rapidas, contnuas e precisas, combinando assim
as fun coes de propulsao e governo do navio.
Figura 3.7: Propulsores cicloidais.
O propulsor, colocado no fundo do navio, e composto por um conjunto de laminas paralelas
com movimento de rotacao, segundo um eixo vertical, com velocidade variavel. Para gerar o
impulso, cada uma daquelas laminas tem um movimento oscilante em torno do seu proprio
eixo. O percurso das laminas vai determinar a forca impulsiva gerada, enquanto um angulo
de fase entre 0

e 360

vai denir a direccao do impulso. Desta forma, pode ser gerada a

mesma forca propulsiva em qualquer direccao. A intensidade e a direc cao da forca propulsiva
40 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
sao controladas por um conjunto cinematico de transmissao mecanica.
Pelas suas caractersticas, esta solucao apresenta bom desempenho na propulsao de re-
bocadores, ferries, grandes iates, navios de apoio a plataformas petrolferas e outros navios
especiais.
3.2 Helices propulsores
O projecto do helice devera dar resposta `as seguintes questoes:
- sera que o helice desenvolvera a desejada forca propulsiva `a velocidade rpm de projecto?
- qual vai ser a eciencia do helice?
- qual vai ser o desempenho do helice em condi coes diferentes das condi coes de projecto?
- sera a distribui cao de pressoes favoravel `a prevencao da cavita cao?
- qual sera o valor das forcas e momentos gerados pelo helice sobre o veio propulsor e
chumaceiras de apoio e de impulso?
- qual a pressao induzida pelo funcionamento do helice no casco do navio, potencialmente
responsavel por vibra coes e rudo?
Os principais metodos de calculo disponveis para, de alguma forma, dar resposta `aquelas
questoes sao:
- a teoria da quantidade de movimento;
- a teoria dos elementos de pa;
- a teoria da linha sustentadora;
- a teoria da superfcie de sustentacao;
- o metodo de painel;
- as simulacoes RANSE.
Outro contributo importante para o projecto do helice vem das series sistematicas de
helices, para as quais sao ja conhecidos os principais parametros de funcionamento em aguas
livres.
Por ultimo, ha que citar o contributo importante dos ensaios experimentais em modelos
`a escala reduzida, os ensaios do helice em aguas livres e o ensaio de propulsao.
3.2.1 Geometria do helice
Na complexa geometria do helice, conjunto de pas distribudas uniformemente em torno do
cubo montado na extremidade do veio, representada esquematicamente na Fig. 3.8, distinguem-
se as seguintes areas, linhas e pontos:
- o bordo de ataque (leading edge), a linha frontal das pas;
- o bordo de fuga (trailing edge), a aresta atras;
3.2. H

ELICES PROPULSORES 41
Figura 3.8: Geometria do helice.
- a extremidade da pa (tip) e o ponto linha ou sec cao de maior raio;
- o dorso (back) e a face da pa sao, respectivamente, a superfcie da pa do lado do veio,
aspiracao, e a superfcie do lado de pressao;
No cubo, com uma forma axisimetrica, unem-se as pas pela sua raiz ( blade root).
A geometria do helice propulsor e caracterizada, entre outras, pelas seguintes dimensoes,
tambem representadas naquela gura:
- diametro do helice (propeller diameter), D;
- diametro do cubo (boss (or hub) diameter), d;
- n umero de pas do helice (propeller blade number), Z;
- passo do helice (propeller pitch), P;
- area do disco, A
0
= D
2
/4;
- area projectada, area da projeccao das pas num plano normal ao eixo do helice, A
P
;
- area expandida, soma das areas das faces das pas, A
E
;
- deslocamento circunferencial (skew);
- abatimento axial (rake), i
G
.
3.2.2 Valores caractersticos
Como parametros adimensionais para caracteriza cao dos helices propulsores podemos apontar:
- a razao entre os diametros do cubo e do helice, d/D;
- a razao entre a area expandida e a area do disco, A
E
/A
0
, frequentemente designada por
blade area ratio (BAR);
42 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
- e a razao entre o passo e o diametro do helice, P/D.
Sao valores tpicos para a razao de area expandida 0.3 < A
E
/A
0
< 1.5. Razoes superi-
ores a 1 signicam que o helice tem pas sobrepostas o que o torna dispendioso. O valor de
A
E
/A
0
e selecionado de tal forma que a carga das pas seja sucientemente baixa para evitar
uma situacao inaceitavel de cavita cao. Quanto mais carregada for a condicao de funciona-
mento prevista para o helice maior devera ser a razao A
E
/A
0
considerada na sua selec cao. O
rendimento do helice diminui com o aumento da razao A
E
/A
0
.
O n umero de pas Z e um parametro muito importante para as vibracoes induzidas pelo
helice. Em geral, um n umero mpar de pas Z proporciona melhores caractersticas no que diz
respeito a vibracoes. Maior n umero de pas reduz a vibracao, devido aos inferiores picos de
pressao, mas aumenta os custos de fabrico.
Os helices propulsores para navios sao sempre adaptados `as caractersticas especcas do
navio apos exaustivo estudo hidrodinamico. O n umero de pas esta normalmente entre 4 e 7.
Os helices propulsores para pequenas embarcacoes, regra geral com o n umero de pas entre 2
e 4, sao produzidos em massa.
3.3 Teoria da quantidade de movimento
A teoria mais simples para representar o funcionamento de um helice propulsor e a teoria da
quantidade de movimento, tambem designda por vezes como do disco actuante. Esta teoria
permite relacionar a for ca propulsiva do helice com as velocidades induzidas. Tem como
principais hipoteses simplicativas:
- considerar o escoamento de uido perfeito e incompressvel;
- o n umero de pas do helice e innito;
- o helice propulsor exerce uma for ca axial T que se distribui uniformemente sobre o disco
do helice de diametro D;
- o helice nao induz velocidade velocidade de rota cao no uido, ou seja, nao ha velocidade
circunferencia induzida.
3.3.1 Forca propulsiva
Consideremos o escoamento axisimetrico atraves do plano do helice, representado na Fig. 3.9,
e denotar por V
A
a velocidade de aproxima cao da agua ao helice e por p

a pressao em
pontos sucientemente afastados quer a vante quer a re do helice. Conforme representado,
sendo a agua incompressvel, a sec c ao do escoamento reduz-se pelo aumento de velocidade
transmitido pelo helice ao escoamento de agua. Na gura podemos ainda ver que no disco
existe uma descontinuidade de pressao p. Esta descontinuidade, como resultado do referido
disco actuante, gera uma for ca propulsiva do helice dada por
T = pA
0
(3.1)
Quanto `a distribui cao de velocidades, vamos considerar que a velocidade no disco e V
A
+V
0
e, no innito, a velocidade e V
A
+V

.
3.3. TEORIA DA QUANTIDADE DE MOVIMENTO 43
Figura 3.9: Distribuicao espacial de velocidade e pressao para a teoria da
quantidade de movimento.
Representando por A

e A

as areas no innito, a montante e a juzante, respectiva-

mente, do tubo de corrente que passa pelo disco actuante, para se vericar a conservacao de
massa no escoamento sera necessario que,
V
a
A

= (V
a
+V
0
) A
0
= (V
a
+V

) A

(3.2)
Entao, aquelas areas, A

e A

estao relacionadas com a area do disco e com a velocidade

induzida por
A

=
V
a
+V
0
V
a
A
0
(3.3)
e
A

=
V
a
+V
0
V
a
+V

A
0
(3.4)
Aplicando agora o princpio da conserva cao da quantidade de movimento ao escoamento
de uido no tubo de corrente, obtemos a equacao,
T = (V
a
+V

)
2
A

V
2
a
A

(3.5)
Usando a equacao de conservacao da massa, Eq. (3.2), podemos dizer entao que a forca
propulsiva T e dada por,
T = (V
a
+V
0
) V

A
0
(3.6)
e, que o salto de pressao no disco actuante vale
p = (V
a
+V
0
) V

(3.7)
44 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
Por m, vamos aplicar a equa cao de Bernoulli ao tubo de corrente. A montante do disco
temos,
p

+
1
2
V
2
a
= p
0
+
1
2
(V
a
+V
0
)
2
(3.8)
e, a juzante,
p

+
1
2
(V
a
+V

)
2
= p
0
+ p +
1
2
(V
a
+V
0
)
2
(3.9)
Fazendo agora a subtraccao das equacoes, Eq. (3.9) Eq. (3.8), temos uma nova equacao
para avaliar o valor de p
p =
_
V
a
+
1
2
V

_
V

(3.10)
Naturalmente que osalto de pressaoavaliado pela ultima equacao nao pode ser diferente
daquele que resulta da Eq. (3.7). Logo,
(V
a
+V
0
) V

=
_
V
a
+
1
2
V

_
V

(3.11)
e, entao, daqui resulta que a velocidade induzida no disco e metade da velocidade induzida
na esteira no innito,
V
0
=
1
2
V

(3.12)
A for ca propulsiva T obtida no disco actuante pode ser calculada, em funcao da velocidade
induzida no disco, por
T =
D
2
4
(V
a
+V
0
) 2V
0
(3.13)
3.3.2 Coeciente de carga
Se denirmos para um helice propulsor como coeciente de carga, C
T
,
C
T
=
T

4
D
2
1
2
V
2
a
(3.14)
e considerarmos a for ca propulsiva resultante da teoria do disco actuante, obtem-se
C
T
= 4
V
0
V
a
_
1 +
V
0
V
a
_
(3.15)
ou, em termos de velocidade induzida no disco,
V
0
V
a
=
1
2
_
1 +
_
1 +C
T
_
(3.16)
3.4. ENSAIOS COM MODELOS REDUZIDOS DE H

ELICES 45
3.3.3 Rendimento ideal do helice
O rendimento ideal do helice e o rendimento maximo que pode ser obtido em uido perfeito
com um helice propulsor que nao induza velocidade de rotacao no uido.
Num referencial em repouso no uido, considere-se que o helice avanca com velocidade
V
a
, exercendo uma for ca propulsiva T. A potencia efectiva do helice e dada por
P
E
= T V
a
(3.17)
A perda de energia cinetica axial por unidade de tempo e o uxo de energia por unidade
de tempo atraves de um plano perpendicular `a direc cao de avanco, no innito, a juzante.
Este uxo de energia e calculado pelo produto do caudal massico que se escoa pelo tubo de
corrente pela energia cinetica especca,

E
p
=
D
2
4
(V
a
+V
0
)
1
2
V
2

ou seja, considerando a rela cao conhecida entre a velocidade no disco e na esteira no innito,

E
p
=
D
2
2
(V
a
+V
0
) V
2
0
(3.18)
O rendimento ideal do helice propulsor sera entao dado por

i
=
TV
a
TV
a
+

E
p
(3.19)
ou, considerando (3.13) e (3.18), e simplicando, camos com

i
=
1
1 +
V
0
V
a
(3.20)
3.4 Ensaios com modelos reduzidos de helices
Apesar de o helice ir funcionar numa esteira nao-uniforme do navio, sao realizados ensaios
para avaliacao do seu desempenho numa esteira uniforme, recorrendo ao ensaio em aguas
livres de um modelo `a escala reduzida do helice, em condicoes apropriadas de semelhan ca.
Neste ensaio, o chamado open water test, um modelo do helice e deslocado com a velocidade
da avanco V
a
num uido em repouso. O escoamento de aproximacao deve ser tao uniforme
quanto possvel. Durante o deslocamento do helice este e posto a rodar por um pequeno motor
electrico `a velocidade n (rps) pretendida. O ensaio realiza-se normalmente a uma velocidade
de rotacao constante, ou seja, para um dado n umero de Reynolds.
As caractersticas propulsivas em aguas livres, nomeadamente a forca propulsiva T e o
binario Q, sao medidas em regime estacionario de funcionamento. Depois de adimensionaliza-
dos, os valores medidos da for ca propulsiva e do binario para varios regimes de funcionamento
constituem o diagrama em aguas livres do helice em questao.
A for ca propulsiva T e o binario Q disponibilizados por um helice propulsor dependem de
varias variaveis:
- a velocidade de avanco V
a
;
46 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
- a velocidade de rotacao n;
- o diametro D;
- a massa especca do uido ;
- a viscosidade cinematica do uido .
Aplicando a analise dimensional, expressando a dependencia dos coecientes de for ca
propulsiva e de binario dos seguintes grupos adimensionais:
- coeciente de avanco, J =
V
a
nD
;
- e n umero de Reynolds, aqui denido como Re =
nD
2

;
ou seja,
K
T
= K
T
(J, Re) e K
Q
= K
Q
(J, Re)
obtem-se os seguintes expressoes para os referidos coecientes adimensionais:
- coeciente de forca propulsiva K
T
=
T
n
2
D
4
;
- coeciente de binario K
Q
=
Q
n
2
D
5
.
3.4.1 Diagrama em aguas livres
O diagrama em aguas livres do helice integra a representacao graca da variacao dos coeci-
entes da for ca propulsiva, K
T
, e de binario, K
Q
, com o coeciente de avanco, V
a
. Um exemplo
de diagrama em aguas livres esta representado na Fig. 3.10.
As curvas tracadas nestes diagramas servem principalmente para a optimiza cao do helice
e determina cao do ponto de funcionamento. Na pratica, ja nao sao utilizadas aquelas re-
presentacoes gracas no projecto de helices, mas sim os polinomios representativos daquelas
evolucoes para permitir o calculo computacional. As tabelas tem cerca de 50 coecientes
para os polinomios relativos `a serie sistematica de helices de Wageningen. Embora o trabalho
inicial de registo destes coecientes seja moroso e fastidioso, os processos de calculo e optimi-
za cao posteriores cam muito facilitados e expeditos pela utilizacao de programas ou folhas
de calculo. A importancia da representa cao graca esta actualmente restrita `a vericacao
da tendencia de variacao do desempenho do helice com a alteracao de algumas condicoes
operacionais.
3.4.2 Rendimento
Denindo o rendimento de um helice propulsor como sendo a razao entre a potencia efectiva
e a potencia fornecida pelo veio ao helice, o rendimento em aguas livres e calculado por

0
=
P
E
P
D
=
V
a
T
2nQ
(3.21)
3.5. S

ERIES SISTEM

ATICAS 47
Figura 3.10: Diagrama de aguas livres.
a partir das medicoes observadas durante o ensaio.
Ou, se quisermos expressa-lo em termos dos coecientes adimensionais, podemos obter,

0
=
JK
T
2K
Q
(3.22)
3.4.3

Indice de qualidade
A qualidade de um propulsor nao ca bem caracterizada apenas pelo seu rendimento maximo.
O ndice de qualidade, que permite caracterizar melhor um helice para uma dada aplica cao
especca, e dado por
q =

0

i
(3.23)
em que
0
e o rendimento em aguas livres e
i
e o rendimento ideal.
Como C
T
=
8K
T
J
2
, substituindo em (3.23):
q =
K
T
4K
Q
_
J +
_
J
2
+
8

K
T
_
(3.24)
3.5 Series sistematicas
Uma serie sistematica de helices e um conjunto de helices obtidos por variacao sistematica de
parametros geometricos. Ao longo de decadas, por todo o mundo tem sido realizados ensaios
em series sistematicas de propulsores para navios. As principais caractersticas de alguns
exemplos de series sistematicas de helices propulsores simples de passo xo estao includas na
Tab. 3.1.
O principal objectivo perseguido na realizacao dos ensaios sistematicos nestes conjuntos
de helices e criar uma base de dados que permita ajudar o projectista a entender os principais
48 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
Serie N
o
Z A
E
/A
0
P/D D(mm)
Wageningen B 120 2 7 0, 3 1, 05 0, 5 1, 4 250
Au 34 4 7 0, 4 0, 758 0, 5 1, 2 250
Gawn 37 3 0, 2 1, 1 0, 4 2, 0 508
KCA 30 3 0, 50 1, 25 0, 6 2, 0 406
Ma 32 3 e 5 0, 75 1, 20 1, 0 1, 45 250
Newton-Rader 12 3 0, 5 1, 0 1, 05 2, 08 254
KCD 24 3 6 0, 44 0, 80 0, 6 1, 6 406
Meridian 20 6 0, 45 1, 05 0, 4 1, 2 305
Tabela 3.1: Series sistematicas de propulsores.
factores que inuenciam o desempenho do helice, bem como a ocorrencia de cavitacao, em
varias condicoes de funcionamento. Um segundo objectivo e a construcao de diagramas que
permitam ajudar `a seleccao das caractersticas mais apropriadas para uma dada aplica cao `a
escala do navio.
3.5.1 Serie sistematica de Wageningen
Uma das series sistematicas de helices propulsores mais populares e a serie B de Wageningen.
Esta serie, em que os trabalhos iniciais datam de 1940, sera talvez a mais vasta. As principais
caractersticas destes helices sao:
- ter distribuicao radial do passo constante;
- um pequeno deslocamento circunferencial (skew);
- distribuicao radial do abatimento axial (rake) linear 15

;
- contorno largo da pa junto `a extremidade;
- seccao das pas NSMB, indicada na Fig. 3.11.
Figura 3.11: Aspecto geometrico das pas da serie B de Wageningen
Os parametros cuja varia cao sistematica foi considerada na realiza cao desta serie foram
os seguintes:
3.5. S

ERIES SISTEM

ATICAS 49
- o n umero de pas: 2 Z 7;
- a razao de area expandida: 0.3 A
E
/A
0
1.05;
- a razao passo-diametro: 0.5 P/D 1.4.
A nomenclatura dos helices desta serie, considerando a ttulo de exemplo um helice B-4.85,
e a seguinte:
- Serie B;
- N umero de pas: 4;
- razao de area expandida: 0.85.
Para cada caso existe um diagrama, ou uma tabela com os ja referidos coecientes po-
linomiais, com as curvas caractersticas dos diagrams de aguas livres, para diferentes razoes
passo-diametro, P/D. Na Fig. 3.12 esta representado o caso dos helices com duas pas, razao
de area expandida 0, 3 e razao passo-diametro compreendida entre 0, 5 e 1, 4.
3.5.2 Outras series sistematicas
A serie sistematica de helices propulsores Au e muito popular no Japao mas, fora dele, nao
conseguiu uma divulga cao semelhante `a serie de Wageningen podendo, no entanto, considerar-
se como uma serie complementar daquela.
A serie Gawn apresenta como caracterstica distintiva o maior diametro dos helices que
a integram. Isto signica que muitos dos efeitos de escala presentes nas outras series foram
aqui evitados ou, pelo menos, reduzidos. A serie KCA, tambem designada por vezes como
Gawn-Burrill, e complementar da serie de Gawn. Sao 30 helices com 3 pas, tambem com
grande diametro, 400mm. Esta serie foi ensaiada num tanque de cavitacao, e nao num tanque
de reboque, a diferentes n umeros de cavitacao e, consequentemente, permite vericar num
determinado projecto de aplicacao os aspectos relacionados com o fenomeno da cavitacao.
Os helices da serie de Lindgren, serie Ma, sao mais pequenos, 250mm, e as suas pas
tem passo constante. Foram testados num tanque de reboque e num tanque de cavitacao e,
assim, resultou dos ensaios um extenso e integrado conjunto de dados adequado para a fase
preliminar do projecto.
A serie de Newton-Rader compreende um conjunto limitado de 12 helices com tres pas
vocacionados para a propulsao de embarcacoes rapidas.
Para alem destas series sistematicas de helices simples, existem tambem alguns estudos
relativos a formas particulares de helices como, por exemplo, as series de helices contra-
rotativos do MARIN e SSPA, ou a serie de Wageningen de helices com tubeira.
50 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
F
i
g
u
r
a
3
.
1
2
:
D
i
a
g
r
a
m
a
e
m
a
g
u
a
s
l
i
v
r
e
s
d
e
u
m
h
e
l
i
c
e
d
a
s
e
r
i
e
s
i
s
t
e
m
a
t
i
c
a
d
e
W
a
g
e
n
i
n
g
e
n
.
3.5. S

ERIES SISTEM

ATICAS 51
3.5.3 Diagrama de 4 quadrantes
No caso dos helices de passo xo, a forma convencional de operacao do helice, velocidade de
rotacao positiva e velocidade de avanco nula ou positiva, corresponde ao funcionamento no
primeiro quadrante do diagrama de funcionamento.
No diagrama completo, ver Fig. 3.13, necessario por exemplo para estudar a manobrabi-
lidade do navio ou o seu desempenho em marcha a re, estao denidos quatro quadrantes, de
acordo o angulo de avan co,
= tan
1
_
V
a
0, 7 n D
_
(3.25)
Figura 3.13: Nota cao do diagrama com 4 quadrantes.
Como ja referido, o primeiro quadrante corresponde a:
- velocidade de rotacao do helice correspondente `a marcha a vante;
- velocidade do navio a vante;
- ou seja, angulo de avanco 0 90

.
O segundo quadrante corresponde a:
- velocidade de rotacao do helice correspondente `a marcha a re;
- velocidade do navio a vante;
- ou seja, angulo de avanco 90

< 180

.
No terceiro quadrante, as condicoes de operacao do helice sao:
- velocidade de rotacao do helice correspondente `a marcha a re;
52 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
- velocidade do navio a re;
- ou seja, angulo de avanco 180

< 270

.
E, por m, no quarto quadrante temos naturalmente:
- velocidade de rotacao do helice correspondente `a marcha a vante;
- velocidade do navio a re;
- ou seja, angulo de avanco 270

< < 360

.
Se existirem dados experimentais sucientes torna-se possvel denir uma funcao para
estimar o desempenho do helice, no que diz respeito `a forca propulsiva e ao binario, nos
quatro quadrantes do diagrama em aguas livres. Um exemplo de um diagrama deste tipo,
multi-quadrante, esta representado na Fig. 3.14, relativo aos helices da serie de Wageningen
B4-70 com rela cao P/D entre 0, 5 e 1, 4.
Justica-se a introducao de uma nota cao para obter maior exibilidade para trabalhar
nestes diagramas multi-quadrante. De notar que para = 90

ou = 270

, situacoes em
que a velocidade de rota cao do helice e nula, o coeciente de avanco resultaria J = . De
forma semelhante, para prevenir o mesmo tipo de situacoes, sao tambem denidos os seguintes
coecientes:
- coeciente de forca propulsiva modicado,
C

T
=
T
1
2
V
2
R
A
0
(3.26)
- coeciente de binario modicado,
C

Q
=
Q
1
2
V
2
R
A
0
D
(3.27)
em que V
R
e a velocidade relativa de avan co para 0, 7R, ou seja,
C

T
=
T

_
V
2
a
+ (0, 7nD)
2
_
D
2
(3.28)
e
C

Q
=
Q

_
V
2
a
+ (0, 7nD)
2
_
D
3
(3.29)
Na Fig. 3.14 pode-se ver o efeito que a razao P/D tem no coeciente de binario C

Q
para praticamente toda a gama de . Em particular, e nos intervalos 40

< < 140

e
230

< < 340

que a magnitude de C

Q
varia mais signicativamente.
3.6. CAVITA C

AO 53
Figura 3.14: Diagrama em aguas livres de 4 quadrantes para os helices
Wageningen B-4.70.
3.6 Cavitacao
3.6.1 Origem da cavitacao
A velocidade elevada do escoamento de agua pelo helice provoca regioes com baixa pressao.
Se a pressao cair o suciente, formar-se-ao cavidades preenchidas com vapor. Estas cavidades
desaparecerao quando a pressao aumentar. O crescimento e o colapso destas bolhas e
extremamente rapido.
A cavitacao envolve fenomenos fsicos complexos uma vez que se trata de escoamentos a
duas fases, com modelacao nao-linear. Nos helices dos navios, a velocidade em torno das pas
pode ser suciente para reduzir a localmente a pressao e desencadear a cavitacao. Devido `a
pressao hidrostatica, a pressao total sera superior nas imedia coes da pa que se encontre com
a maxima imersao (posicao 06:00) do que naquela que se encontra na posi cao 12:00. Assim,
as pas dos helices em cavita cao alternadamente passarao por regioes em que tendencialmente
se formarao bolhas de cavitacao e regioes onde as mesmas tenderao a colapsar.
Esta rapida sucessao de explosoes e implosoes nas proximidades das pas do helice tem
varias consequencias nefastas. As principais sao:
- vibra cao;
54 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
Figura 3.15: Efeito da cavita cao no valor dos parametros relativos a aguas
livres.
- rudo;
- erosao da superfcie das pas (sobretudo se o colapso das bolhas ocorrer na proximidade);
- reducao da for ca propulsiva.
No diagrama em aguas livres da Fig. 3.15 esta assinalada a redu cao que e tipicamente
provocada pela cavitacao nos coecientes de for ca propulsiva e binario.
3.6.2 Controle da cavitacao
Num meio ideal, agua sem impurezas ou ar dissolvido, a cavitacao ocorrera quando a pressao
total atingir localmente a pressao de vapor a essa temperatura. Na pratica, a cavitacao inicia-
se para valores de pressao superiores pela presenca de partculas microscopicas e da existencia
de ar dissolvido na agua que facilitam e precipitam o incio do processo de vaporiza cao.
O n umero de cavitacao e um parametro adimensional que estima a possibilidade de
aparecimento do fenomeno de cavitacao num escoamento,
=
p
0
p
1
2
V
2
0
(3.30)
em que:
- p
0
e a pressao ambiente de referencia;
- p e a pressao local;
- e V
0
e a velocidade de referencia correspondente.
3.6. CAVITA C

AO 55
Figura 3.16: Pressao de vapor da agua em funcao da temperatura.
Para inferior a
v
, o n umero de cavitacao avaliado para a pressao de vapor p
v
, nao
ocorrera cavitacao num uido ideal. Na pratica, e necessario considerar um coeciente de
seguranca, considerando uma pressao limite superior `a pressao de vapor.
Para um helice e habitual denir o n umero de cavitacao
n
como:

n
=
p
0
p
1
2
n
2
D
2
(3.31)
adoptando-se como velocidade caracterstica nD.
3.6.3 Consideracao da cavitacao na seleccao do helice
O fenomeno da cavitacao e predominantemente dominado pelo campo de pressao no esco-
amento da agua pelo plano do helice. Prevenir a cavitacao passa consequentemente pelo
controlo da mnima pressao absoluta naquele escoamento. A possibilidade de ocorrencia de
cavitacao e evitada pela distribui cao da for ca propulsiva por uma area maior, aumentando o
diametro do helice ou a razao da area expandida A
E
/ A
0
. A forma mais usual de estimar,
ainda que de uma forma nao completamente rigorosa, o perigo de ocorrencia da cavita cao
passa pela utilizacao do diagrama de Burrill (Fig. 3.17). O diagrama indica um limite inferior
para a area projectada do helice de um navio mercante. Nos eixos do diagrama de Burrill es-
tao o n umero de cavitacao, em abcissas, e o coeciente de Burrill nas ordenadas. O coeciente
56 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
Figura 3.17: Diagrama de Burrill.
de Burrill e calculado por

c
=
T
q
0,7R
A
p
(3.32)
em que, A
p
e a area projectada do helice, e o parametro q
0,7R
e dado por
q
0,7R
=
1
2
V
2
R
em que V
R
e o valor absoluto da velocidade local a 0, 7 do raio do helice, ou seja,
V
R
=
_
V
2
a
+ (0, 7 nD)
2
com V
a
a velocidade de entrada do escoamento no plano do helice.
Nos helices da serie de Wageningen, a area expandida esta relacionada com a area projec-
tada por
A
E
=
A
P
1, 67 0, 229P/D
(3.33)
3.6.4 Ensaios experimentais
Os ensaios de cavitacao, bem como frequentemente os ensaios em aguas livres, realizam-se em
instalacoes que compreendem um canal fechado na qual e imposta a circulacao da agua por
um impulsor. Na Fig. 3.18 esta representada esquematicamente uma instalacao deste tipo.
Estes t uneis sao concebidos por forma a proporcionar um escoamento tao uniforme quanto
possvel na sec cao de teste. A sec cao de teste, o tro co horizontal superior, dispoe de visores
para inspec cao e vizualiza cao do escoamento. O impulsor para a circulacao da agua esta
3.6. CAVITA C

AO 57
Figura 3.18: Instala coes de ensaio do RINA.
colocado no troco inferior horizontal para garantir que, mesmo quando a pressao no tanque
for reduzida, a coluna hidrostatica vai impedir a cavitacao neste propulsor.
Normalmente, a pressao e reduzida por bombas de vacuo para ajuste do n umero de cavi-
tacao e a instala cao dispoe de equipamento para reduzir o ar dissolvido na agua. Podem ser
instaladas grelhas metalicas para induzir a turbulencia desejada no escoamento.
Os helices em teste sao sujeitos a iluminacao estroboscopica por forma a serem vistos
sempre com as pas na mesma posi cao. Obtem-se assim uma visualizacao do padrao de cavi-
tacao estacionaria.
O funcionamento do helice tem alguns pontos caractersticos que se passa a identicar. A
primeira destas situa coes acontece quando o motor electrico faz rodar o veio do helice a uma
velocidade n mantendo-se a velocidade de avanco nula, ou seja V
a
= 0. Nestas condi coes,
verica-se J = 0 e = 0, e diz-se que o helice funciona a ponto xo. Se em seguida se
zer avancar o helice a uma velocidade V
a
, mantendo a mesma velocidade de rota cao, este
desenvolvera um impulso T e absorvera um certo momento Q. Esta fase e a fase propulsora,
utilizada para a propulsao dos navios. Continuando a aumentar o coeciente de impulso por
diminuicao da velocidade de rotacao n, o impulso vai diminuindo ate o helice chegar ao ponto
de impulso nulo. Inicia-se a fase de travagem, ate um ponto, no qual o helice trabalha em
concordancia com o coeciente de avan co J, com K
Q
= 0, helice livre. Um helice livre opoe
resistencia ao avanco. Continuando a reduzir a velocidade de rota cao do helice e mantendo
V
a
, entra-se na fase motora, em que o helice poderia fornecer energia. Quando a velocidade
do helice for nula, o helice diz-se bloqueado.
58 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
Figura 3.19: Imagem da cavita cao num helice.
3.7 Seleccao do helice
No calculo do helice procura-se a optimizacao das principais variaveis, n umero e area das
pas, diametro, velocidade de rota cao e passo, por forma a que a propulsao se fa ca com bom
rendimento em todas as condi coes de carga do navio.

E possvel obter uma boa estimativa
das caractersticas de funcionamento do helice utilizando uma das varias series sistematicas
referenciadas. As variaveis de optimiza cao do helice sao descritas sucintamente nos paragrafos
seguintes.
3.7.1 Variaveis de optimizacao
Diametro
O rendimento do helice aumenta o diametro do mesmo, estando no entanto a dimensao
deste limitada pela geometria da popa. Deve-se referir no entanto que o aumento do diametro
de helice provoca vibracoes mais fortes e a redu cao do rendimento do casco. As sociedades
classicadoras tem normas proprias para denir valores mnimos de folga entre o helice e o
casco do navio.
O diametro maximo do helice e normalmente considerado como uma fraccao do calado
maximo do navio,
D
max
= a T (3.34)
dependente do tipo de navio, conforme indicado na Tab. 3.2.
Para compensar a nao uniformidade do escoamento de aproximacao ao helice quando este
se encontra atras da querena, o diametro equivalente em aguas livres e considerado como:
D
0
=
D
1 b
(3.35)
em que b toma os valores constantes na Tab. 3.3.
3.7. SELEC C

AO DO H

ELICE 59
Tipo de Navio a
Graneleiros/Petroleiros <0,65
Porta-contentores <0,74
Tabela 3.2: Coeciente para atribuicao do diametro maximo do helice pela
Eq. (3.34).
Helice b
Simples 0.05
Duplo 0.03
Tabela 3.3: Constante para o calculo do diametro equivalente em agua
livres pela Eq. (3.35).
Velocidade de rotacao
Em instalacoes propulsoras com transmissao directa, a velocidade de rota cao do helice e
estabelecida pela velocidade do motor. Neste caso, o diametro e ajustado para se obter um
coeciente de avan co apropriado para a velocidade pretendida e a potencia exigida. Quando
e utilizada uma caixa redutora, procura-se utilizar o maior diametro possvel, sendo depois
ajustada a velocidade de rota cao do helice ajustada de acordo com o coeciente de avan co
pretendido. Devem evitar-se velocidades que multiplicadas pelo n umero de pas do helice
sejam proximas das frequencias de ressonancia do casco e da instalacao propulsora. Do ponto
de vista da preven cao da cavita cao, sao favoraveis as velocidades de rota cao mais baixas.
N umero de pas
O factor determinante na selec cao do n umero de pas e a irregularidade das for cas geradas
pelo helice. Estas forcas, aplicadas com a frequencia correspondente `a velocidade de rota cao,
induzem vibracoes no casco e instalacao propulsora. O objectivo passa por obter um bom
compromisso entre a vibra cao gerada e o rendimento obtido ja que este diminui com o aumento
do n umero de pas do helice.
Distribuicao radial da pressao
A distribui cao da pressao nas pas esta relacionada com a susceptibilidade de ocorrencia da
cavitacao. Em particular, e normalmente vantajoso reduzir a pressao no extremo radial das
pas. Esta redu cao e ainda vantajosa na perspectiva do esforco estrutural das pas e da pressao
irregular induzida no casco.
Geometria das pas
A formula de Keller permite escolher a razao de area expandida para evitar o fenomeno da
cavitacao,
A
e
A
0
=
(1, 3 + 0, 3Z) T
(p
0
p
v
) D
2
+k (3.36)
em que k e uma margem de seguranca, que variara entre k = 0 para navios de guerra e
k = 0, 2 para navios mercantes com helices muito carregados. Quanto maior a razao de areas,
menor sera o risco de cavitacao mas, em compensacao menor o rendimento do helice devido
ao atrito. A solucao sera a menor area que garanta o criterio de cavita cao.
60 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
No entanto, a curvatura, o angulo de ataque e a espessura das tem tambem uma grande
importancia no controle da cavita cao. A maior espessura das pas favorece a cavita cao nas cos-
tas das pas enquanto que as pas pouco espessas tem maior propensao para gerarem cavita cao
no bordo de ataque.
Quanto ao rendimento, ele e favorecido pela diminuicao da corda das pas, ou seja da sua
area, mas por razoes estruturais, esta redu cao tem que ser acompanhada por um aumento de
espessura que vai provocar um aumento da resistencia de forma.
A utilizacao apropriada do desvio circunferencial das pas do helice (skew) permite con-
trolar muito ecazmente a cavita cao e a vibra cao induzida tendo apenas como contrapartida
uma redu cao do rendimento do helice em marcha a re.
3.7.2 Tipos de problema

E possvel obter uma boa estimativa das caractersticas de funcionamento do helice utilizando
uma das varias series sistematicas referenciadas. Uma vez determinado o n umero e a area
das pas, resta a determinar a combina cao do passo e do coeciente de avan co que permite
optimizar o rendimento do helice. De acordo com o tipo de problema em causa, podemos
considerar varias situacoes. Quando a potencia e a velocidade de rotacao sao conhecidas, da
eliminacao do diametro resulta a seguinte equacao:
K
Q
J
5
=
P
D
n
2
2V
5
a
(3.37)
Quando a potencia e o diametro do helice estao determinados, a eliminacao da velocidade
de rotacao permite estabelecer:
K
Q
J
3
=
P
D
2D
2
V
3
a
(3.38)
Sendo prescritas a for ca propulsiva e a velocidade de rota cao, a eliminacao do diametro
conduz `a equa cao:
K
T
J
4
=
Tn
2
V
4
a
(3.39)
Por m, quando sao conhecidos o diametro do helice e a forca propulsiva, a eliminacao da
velocidade de rotacao permite estabelecer a seguinte rela cao:
K
T
J
2
=
T
D
2
V
2
a
(3.40)
3.8 Interaccao entre casco e helice
Os ensaios de helices `a escala reduzida em aguas livres, conseguindo efectuar uma avaliacao
preliminar das caractersticas propulsivas de um helice, nao permitem uma previsao do seu
desempenho numa dada aplicacao especca, porque, na realidade, o helice nao vai operar em
aguas livres mas sim atras do navio.
As caractersticas de um helice trabalhando atras de um navio a uma dada velocidade
diferem consideravelmente das caractersticas obtidas em ensaios com modelos em aguas livres,
`a velocidade correspondente, devido aos seguintes factores:
3.8. INTERAC C

AO ENTRE CASCO E H

ELICE 61
- a velocidade da agua na esteira do navio e menor que a velocidade do navio;
- a nao-uniformidade da esteira do navio afecta a distribuicao das forcas aplicadas nas
pas do helice;
- a aceleracao da agua pelo helice reduz a pressao sobre o casco e, consequentemente
aumentando a resistencia efectiva da querena.
3.8.1 Ensaios de propulsao
Os ensaios de propulsao tem por objectivo determinar, para cada velocidade de rotacao, a
potencia propulsiva e a consequente velocidade do navio. Os resultados dos ensaios permitem
tambem a determinacao dos coecientes de dedu cao da for ca propulsiva e da velocidade da
esteira necessarios para a seleccao ou projecto do helice. O modelo e equipado com um
helice pre-seleccionado de acordo com as necessidades operacionais previstas para o navio. A
optimizacao a partir deste helice-base decorrera a partir dos resultados obtidos neste ensaio
de auto-propulsao. O accionamento deste helice e normalmente realizado por um pequeno
motor electrico, conforme representado esquematicamente na Fig. 3.20.
Figura 3.20: Modelo para ensaios de propulsao.
As condicoes de realizacao do ensaio de propulsao contemplam:
- semelhanca geometrica;
- semelhanca cinematica;
- semelhanca de Froude;
- igual n umero de cavita cao.
Pelas razoes apontadas anteriormente, nao e possvel acumular com aquelas condicionan-
tes a igualdade do n umero de Reynolds. Assim, existem efeitos de escala a considerar na
extrapola cao dos resultados para a escala do navio.
O primeiro efeito de escala a considerar no ensaio de propulsao e o efeito de escala na
resistencia. O coeciente de resistencia total e superior no teste do modelo ao que se vericara
no navio porque o coeciente de resistencia de atrito diminui com o aumento do n umero
62 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
de Reynolds. Este efeito resultante da variacao do n umero de Reynolds e resolvido pela
aplicacao de uma for ca de compensa cao. A intensidade da forca de compensa cao necessaria
F
D
e determinada por,
F
D
=
1
2
V
2
m
S
m
((1 +k) (c
Fm
c
Fs
) c
A
c
AA
) (3.41)
O helice tem portanto que produzir uma for ca propulsiva igual `a resistencia total R
T
menos
a for ca de compensacao F
D
.
Outro efeito de escala a considerar no ensaio de propulsao diz respeito `a esteira. A
espessura da camada limite e esteira do modelo e relativamente maior que a correspondente
espessura no navio. Ou seja, o coeciente de esteira do modelo e maior que o do navio. A
velocidade media de aproximacao ao helice, adimensionalizada pela velocidade do modelo, e
menor que a correspondente velocidade adimensionalizada do navio.
Por ultimo, devera ser considerado o efeito de escala nas caractersticas propulsivas do
helice. De facto, o n umero de Reynolds do helice no modelo e menor que no helice do navio
e os coecientes de forca propulsiva e de binario sao diferentes.
Na realiza cao dos ensaios de propulsao e normalmente mantida a velocidade do carro de
reboque constante e e variada a velocidade de rotacao do helice ate ser obtida uma condicao
de equilbrio. Sao assim obtidos dados de for ca propulsiva e binario em funcao da velocidade.
Adicionalmente, podem ainda ser registados dados sobre o calado e o caimento do modelo
durante o ensaio.
O ponto de auto-propulsao do modelo e encontrado quando as for cas exteriores sobre o
modelo sao nulas. O ensaio e realizado com o n umero de Froude do navio, fazendo variar a
velocidade de rotacao do helice ate que a forca de reboque se anule. Nesta situacao, a for ca
propulsiva iguala a resistencia da querena, alterada pela presenca de helice. Para compensar
a diferenca no coeciente de resistencia do navio e do modelo, e aplicada a for ca adicional de
reboque F
D
determinada pela Eq. (3.41).

E portanto mais correcto armar que no ponto de
auto-propulsao do modelo, a unica forca exterior aplicada ao modelo e a forca F
D
.
Para alem do chamado ensaio de auto-propulsao, realizam-se os ensaios em sobrecarga.
Cada ensaio em sobrecarga realiza-se tambem com o helice a operar atras do modelo com este
a ser rebocado a velocidade constante. Faz-se variar a velocidade de rotacao do helice e, para
cada uma das velocidades ensaiadas n
m
regista-se a for ca de reboque F
m
, a forca propulsiva
T
m
e o binario Q
m
. Pode-se encontrar tambem o ponto de auto-propulsao do modelo por
interpolacao nos resultados dos ensaios em sobrecarga, mais concretamente interpolando na
curva da for ca de reboque em fun cao da velocidade de rota cao, para o valor requerido de F
D
.
3.8.2 Potencia e velocidade
A potencia efectiva P
E
, potencia necessaria para rebocar a querena, sem os apendices associ-
ados `a propulsao, `a velocidade V
s
, e obtida por
P
E
= R
T
V
s
(3.42)
em que:
- R
T
e a resistencia total em aguas livres excluindo a resistencia adicional dos apendices
associados `a propulsao;
- e V
s
e a velocidade do navio.
3.8. INTERAC C

AO ENTRE CASCO E H

ELICE 63
De forma analoga, a potencia propulsiva P
T
pode ser obtida por
P
T
= T V
a
em que:
- T e a forca propulsiva calculada a partir dos ensaios de propulsao;
- e V
a
e a velocidade de avanco do helice.
A forca propulsiva T e superior `a resistencia R
T
avaliada a partir do ensaio de resistencia
realizado sem helice. Isto signica, como referido antes, que a presenca do helice induz uma
resistencia adicional porque:
- a presenca do helice aumenta a velocidade do escoamento na zona da popa do navio e,
em consequencia a resistencia de atrito;
- a presen ca do helice provoca uma diminui cao da pressao nos paineis da popa do navio.
O segundo destes factores e normalmente o mais signicativo.
O aumento da resistencia devido ao efeito da presen ca do helice e usualmente representado
por uma reducao da forca propulsora expressa como fraccao dessa for ca. O coeciente de
dedu cao da forca propulsiva t associa entao a for ca propulsiva e a resistencia,
t = 1
R
T
T
(3.43)
em que t e normalmente considerado igual no modelo e no navio.
Depois de realizados os ensaios de propulsao e calculados os coecientes de forca propul-
siva, K
Tm
e K
Qm
, o coeciente de deducao da forca propulsiva e calculado por
t
m
=
T
m
+F
D
R
C
T
m
(3.44)
em que R
C
e a resistencia corrigida para a diferen ca de temperatura entre os dois ensaios,
resistencia e propulsao. O valor de R
C
sera,
R
C
=
(1 +k) c
FmC
+c
R
(1 +k) c
Fm
+c
R
R
T
m (3.45)
em que c
FmC
e o coeciente da resistencia de atrito avaliado `a temperatura da agua no ensaio
de propulsao.
Para corrigir o efeito da velocidade da esteira, dene-se o coeciente de deducao da esteira,
w, que permite relacionar a velocidade de avanco V
a
com a velocidade do navio V ,
w = 1
V
a
V
(3.46)
Considerando o diagrama em aguas livres do helice, com o valor de K
Tm
avaliado com a
for ca propulsiva experimental do ensaio de propulsao, pode obter-se atraves daquele diagrama
um valor para o coeciente de avanco J
0m
. O coeciente de esteira do modelo sera entao dado
por
w
m
= 1
J
0m
D
m
n
m
V
m
(3.47)
64 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
Ou seja, a velocidade media axial no plano do helice atras do navio `a velocidade V , no
ensaio de resistencia sem helice, e a velocidade da esteira nominal,
V
a
= (1 w
n
) V (3.48)
e, com o helice em opera cao atras do navio, o escoamento devido `a presen ca da querena e
modicado obtendo-se a velocidade da esteira efectiva,
V
e
= (1 w
e
) V (3.49)
A velocidade total sera a soma da velocidade da esteira efectiva e da velocidade axial induzida
pelo helice.
O rendimento rotativo relativo
R
e calculado por

R
=
K
Q0m
K
Qm
(3.50)
em que K
Q0m
e obtido a partir do diagrama em aguas livres do helice e o coeciente de binario
K
Qm
e calculado com base nos resultados experimentais do ensaio de propulsao.
Designa-se por rendimento do casco a razao entre a potencia efectiva e a potencia propul-
siva, ou seja,

H
=
P
E
P
T
=
R
T
V
s
T V
a
=
1 t
1 w
(3.51)
A determinacao de w, t e
H
e feita preferencialmente atraves de ensaios de modelos em
ensaios de auto-propulsao utilizando um helice de stock com caractersticas conhecidas, tao
aproximadas quanto possvel do helice optimo. Se nao for possvel utilizar um modelo, aqueles
parametros poderao ser estimados com base em dados estatsticos. Para navios com um ou
dois helices, o diagrama de Harvald permite estimar os valores de w, t e
H
em funcao do
coeciente de nura total e da razao B/L, com correccoes associadas ao tipo de popa, cota do
veio e diametro do helice. Outros autores propuseram algumas expressoes para a estimativa
daqueles parametros. Destas, destacam-se as de Taylor, Schoenherr e Luke, para navios com
um helice,
w = 0, 5C
b
+ 0, 025 (3.52)
e,
t = 0, 5w (3.53)
com
H
= 1, 02. Para navios com dois helices,
w = 0, 4533C
b
0, 114 (3.54)
e,
t = 0, 7w + 0, 01 (3.55)
com
H
= 0, 985. Poderao aqui ser referidas as expressoes mais complexas apresentadas por
Holtrop, com base em mais de duzentos ensaios de auto-propulsao em modelos de navios de
diversos tipos.
3.8. INTERAC C

AO ENTRE CASCO E H

ELICE 65
A potencia absorvida pelo helice pode ser expressa em termos da velocidade de rota cao n
(em rps) e do binario Q por
P
D
= 2 n Q (3.56)
Devido `as perdas mecanicas no veio e chumaceiras, a potencia recebida pelo helice P
D
e
inferior `a potencia efectiva do motor (brake power ) P
B
,
P
D
=
s
P
B
(3.57)
em que
s
e o rendimento da linha de veios. A eciencia do propulsor atras do navio, avalia
as perdas desde a potencia recebida pelo helice P
D
e a potencia propulsiva P
T
,
P
T
=
B
P
D
(3.58)
Esta eciencia do propulsor atras do navio
B
e diferente da eciencia em aguas livres
0
vericada experimentalmente. O rendimento rotativo relativo
R
avalia as perdas associadas
`a diferen ca entre o escoamento em aguas livres e o escoamento tridimensional nao-uniforme
no plano do propulsor,

B
=
R

0
(3.59)
Em resumo, verica-se sempre a relacao,
P
B
> P
D
> P
T
> P
E
em que os valores daquelas potencias sao calculadas por
P
E
=
H
P
T
=
H

B
P
D
=
H

0

R
P
D
=
H

0

R

S
P
B
Se o rendimento quase-propulsivo
D
espressar o conjunto de eciencias hidrodinamicas
consideradas,

D
=
H

0

R
(3.60)
entao, a potencia efectiva pode ser dada por
P
E
=
D

S
P
B
As leis de semelhanca permitem a extrapola cao das medi coes efectuadas para a escala do
navio,
V
s
=

V
m
, (3.61)
n
s
= n
m
/

, (3.62)
T
s
= T
m
(
s
/
m
)
3
(3.63)
e,
Q
s
= Q
m
(
s
/
m
)
4
(3.64)
66 CAP

ITULO 3. PROPULS

AO
3.8.3 Extrapolacao dos resultados do ensaio de propulsao
O procedimento recomendado pela ITTC para o tratamento dos dados experimentais resul-
tantes dos ensaios de resistencia e de propulsao para a previsao do desempenho do navio esta
includo no Apendice A. Para alem dos ja referidos ensaios de reboque e propulsao, sao ainda
necessarios testes do helice em aguas livres. De uma forma sucinta, o referido procedimento
envolve os seguintes passos:
- prever a resistencia total do navio a partir da resistencia avaliada no modelo, corrigindo
de acordo com as resistencias adicionais que devam ser consideradas;
- estimar as caractersticas do helice propulsor com base nos coecientes propulsivos de-
terminados para o modelo;
- estimar a esteira do navio e as condicoes de funcionamento do helice;
- estimar a velocidade de rota cao do helice e potencia necessaria com base em factores de
correlacao entre o modelo e o navio.
Os detalhes de cada um destes passos, bem como o formulario de calculo, devem ser
consultados no referido Apendice A.
As varias condi coes consideradas nos ensaios do modelo servirao para fazer uma previsao
do desempenho do navio numa gama de velocidades para as condi coes de lastro e carregado,
conforme representado na Fig. 3.21.
Figura 3.21: Resultados dos ensaios de propulsao.
Cap

tulo 4
Instalacoes Propulsoras
4.1 Introducao
A escolha de uma maquina propulsora ou da congura cao mais apropriada para a instala cao
propulsora num projecto de nova constru cao ou reconversao nao e actualmente uma decisao
simples.

E imperioso que esta decisao seja precedida de uma analise rigorosa das varias op coes
disponveis para o perl de operacao futura denido para o navio.
Uma vez determinada a potencia absorvida pelo helice, torna-se necessario identicar as
solucoes que satisfazem os requisitos de potencia, velocidade de rota cao, consumo e dimensoes.
A sua avalia cao tecnico-nanceira sera entao realizada por criterios baseados nos seguintes
factores:
- o investimento inicial;
- a abilidade;
- os custos de manutencao previstos;
- os custos de opera cao previstos;
- a margem do motor, relacionada com a diferen ca entre a potencia maxima e a potencia
de servi co do motor.
Este processo de selec cao terminara sempre numa solu cao de compromisso ja que nenhum
tipo de instalacao apresentara apenas vantagens comparativas.
No passado, o armador ou o projectista tinha como escolha imediata um motor diesel lento
acoplado directamente a um helice de passo xo, ou um motor diesel de media velocidade,
a quatro tempos, accionando atraves de engrenagens redutoras um helice de passo xo ou
controlavel.
Actualmente, a propulsao dos navios que entram em servi co e obtida com o acoplamento
directo, muito esporadicamente com engrenagens redutoras, de motores a dois tempos a helices
de passo xo ou controlavel, motores de media velocidade a quatro tempos e engrenagens
redutoras ou ainda por instalacoes diesel-electricas com recurso a motores diesel, a quatro
tempos, rapidos ou de media velocidade. Algumas variantes de instalacoes propulsoras estao
representadas nas Fig. 4.1 e 4.2.
67
68 CAP

ITULO 4. INSTALA C

OES PROPULSORAS
Figura 4.1: Variantes de instalacoes propulsoras diesel-mecanicas lentas e
de media velocidade.
Os motores diesel lentos predominam no sector do transporte de graneis, lquidos e solidos,
e contentores de longo curso. Motores de media velocidade sao preferidos em navios de
carga com menor dimensao, ferries, turismo de passageiros, RoRos, bem como em nichos de
mercado muito especcos como os quebra-gelos, navios de apoio a plataformas de exploracao
petrolfera, etc.
No passado recente, estas tradicionais zonas de inuencia de cada um dos referidos tipos
de motores tem-se sobreposto. As novas geracoes de motores a quatro tempos, com cilindros
de grande diametro e media velocidade apresentam-se como solucoes competitivas para navios
a operar em viagens de longo curso. Em contrapartida, os motores lentos a dois tempos com
cilindros de pequeno diametro tambem se apresentam como solu coes validas para os mercados
costeiro e uvial.
Um aspecto fundamental a considerar no processo de decisao na escolha da instalacao
propulsora sera necessariamente o custo. Nao so o custo inicial, o investimento a fazer na
aquisi cao do motor, mas tambem os custos associados `a operacao do navio ou, de uma forma
mais geral, os custos totais do ciclo de vida do navio. Naqueles custos de opera cao deverao
ser tidos em conta, entre outros, os seguintes aspectos:
- o tipo de combustvel que a instala cao vai permitir consumir;
- uma previsao dos custos de manuten cao;
- os recursos humanos exigidos para a operacao/conducao da instalacao;
- a disponibilidade e quantidade/custo dos sobressalentes.
4.2. PROPULS

AO DIESEL-MEC

ANICA 69
Figura 4.2: Instala coes propulsoras diesel-mecanica (em cima) e diesel-
electrica (em baixo).
A avalia cao dos custos de operacao ao m da vida de exploracao do navio pode variar de
forma muito signicativa com o tipo de motor escolhido, e com a conguracao da instalacao
propulsora adoptada.
A dimensao da casa da maquina, a cujo aumento correspondera uma reducao do espa co
de carga disponvel para a exploracao do navio, e essencialmente condicionada pela dimensao
da maquina principal. A propria altura da casa da maquina e importante em alguns tipos de
navios como os ferries com conves para veculos.
4.2 Propulsao diesel-mecanica
Conforme ja referido, a propulsao por um helice de passo xo accionado directamente por um
motor diesel lento a dois tempos continua a ser o sistema mais frequentemente encontrado em
navios de carga de longo curso. A ligeira redu cao no rendimento de propulsao reconhecida e
admitida face `a simplicidade da solucao obtida e, a introdu cao de motores de longo, super-,
e ultra-longo curso veio diminuir aquelas perdas. No entanto, a velocidade de 100/110 rpm
nao e necessariamente a mais adequada para a propulsao de um grande navio. Os motores
actualmente disponveis com maior curso desenvolvem a sua potencia nominal a velocidades
tao baixas como 55 rpm ate cerca de 250 rpm. Para um dado navio, e entao possvel prescrever
uma solucao de acoplamento directo motor/helice que permita optimizar o rendimento de
propulsao.
Um outro aspecto a considerar e o n umero de cilindros do motor. Os motores lentos actu-
ais, com cilindros de grande diametro, permitem extrair a potencia necessaria `a propulsao de
um navio de um motor com um reduzido n umero de cilindros. Um motor com menos cilindros
inuencia naturalmente de forma favoravel a dimensao da casa da maquina, o volume de tra-
balho afecto `a sua manuten cao e a quantidade de sobressalentes a manter no navio. Este tipo
de solu cao e portanto bem acolhida desde que daqui nao resultem problemas de equilbrio
do motor e vibra coes. Estes motores com cilindros de grande diametro queimam bem com-
bustveis pesados de fraca qualidade e proporcionam um consumo especco de combustvel
70 CAP

ITULO 4. INSTALA C

OES PROPULSORAS
inferior ao obtido em motores com cilindros de menor diametro.
Neste tipo de instala coes, a energia electrica necessaria ao funcionamento dos equipamen-
tos auxiliares e normalmente fornecida por geradores accionados por motores diesel rapidos
ou de media velocidade. A grande parte dos fabricantes de motores diesel para acciona-
mento de alternadores esta ja hoje em condi coes de oferecer solucoes capazes de consumir o
mesmo combustvel que a maquina principal, ou marine diesel-oil ou ainda uma mistura
(blended) de combustveis pesado e destilado. Actualmente, sao ja comuns instalacoes pro-
pulsoras Unifuel , nas quais maquina principal e motores auxiliares consomem o mesmo tipo
de combustvel.
4.2.1 Accionamento de auxiliares
Os custos associados `a producao da energia electrica necessaria ao funcionamento dos equi-
pamentos auxiliares da instalacao sao tambem um factor importante na seleccao da maquina
principal. O desenvolvimento das maquinas tem tido como principais objectivos nesta area:
- maximizar o aproveitamento de energia para permitir complementar a produ cao de
energia electrica durante as viagens;
- permitir o uso de alternadores accionados pela maquina principal atraves de engrenagens
multiplicadoras ou directamente montados na linha de veio;
- possibilitar o accionamento de equipamentos auxiliares directamente pela maquina prin-
cipal.
A principal motivacao para a producao de energia electrica a partir da maquina principal
resulta do seu superior rendimento termico, menor consumo especco de combustvel e ca-
pacidade para consumir combustveis de inferior qualidade e custo. Outra vantagem resulta
naturalmente do menor consumo de oleo lubricante, de menos intervencoes de manuten cao e
inferiores custos com sobressalentes resultantes da reducao do tempo de funcionamento obtida
com a paragem dos diesel-geradores durante a viagem.
No caso de uma instalacao com helice de passo xo, a utilizacao de um acoplamento por
engrenagens, que permita manter constante a velocidade de rotacao do alternador (Fig. 4.3),
possibilita a utilizacao do gerador a plena carga numa gama de velocidades da maquina
principal que habitualmente ronda os 70 a 100% da sua velocidade nominal.
A localizacao do alternador e tambem um aspecto importante para permitir a desejavel
redu cao de espa co ocupado pela casa da maquina. Sao actualmente possveis diversos arranjos
que vao desde a colocacao lateral ao motor ou em qualquer uma das suas extremidades.
Em alternativa, quer no caso das instalacoes com helice de passo xo, quer no caso daquelas
que dispoem de passo controlavel, podem ser utilizados sistemas baseados na conversao da
frequencia da energia electrica produzida (Fig. 4.4).
Mais recentemente, as opcoes para a producao de energia electrica a bordo alargaram-
se `a utiliza cao de turbinas movimentadas pelos gases de evacuacao do motor. O elevado
rendimento dos sobrealimentadores mais modernos torna excedentaria uma frac cao dos gases
de evacua cao. O aproveitamento destes gases de evacua cao em pequenas turbinas podera
integrar-se em sistemas, que contemplando ainda grupos diesel-geradores, geradores-ao-veio e
turbo-geradoras a vapor, de forma isolada ou combinada, permitirao a optimizacao dos custos
de producao da energia electrica para os varios estados de operacao do navio.
4.2. PROPULS

AO DIESEL-MEC

ANICA 71
Figura 4.3: Acoplamento com rela cao variavel de velocidades.
4.2.2 Engrenagens redutoras
Em muitas instalacoes propulsoras espera-se da caixa redutora:
- a determinacao da velocidade e do sentido de rotacao do helice, e a capacidade de
inversao;
- que proporcione uma forma de acoplamento, permitindo estabelecer e interromper a
transmissao de potencia entre o motor e o helice;
- que seja capaz de absorver o impulso recebido do helice.
O projecto de engrenagens, embraiagens ou outras formas de acoplamento usadas em ins-
talacoes navais tem de satisfazer varios, e por vezes conituantes, requisitos quanto `a sua
exibilidade operacional, abilidade, rudo emitido e espaco ocupado. Os desenvolvimentos
nas areas do projecto, dos materiais e dos sistemas de controlo contriburam para solucoes
inovadoras para instala coes propulsoras versateis com um ou mais motores, envolvendo toma-
das de extra cao de potencia (Power Take-Os - PTO) para accionamento de alternadores
e tomadas para recep cao de potencia (Power Take-Ins - PTI ) para aumentar a potencia
de propulsao.
A forma mais comum do accionamento indirecto do helice passa pela utiliza cao de um
ou mais motores a quatro tempos de media velocidade, ligados atraves de embraiagens e
acoplamentos a uma caixa redutora, para movimentar um helice de passo xo ou controlavel
(Fig. 4.5 e 4.6).
A utilizacao de helices de passo controlavel permite eliminar a necessidade da reversibili-
dade do motor. Por outro lado, a utiliza cao da caixa redutora permite escolher a velocidade
de funcionamento do helice mais apropriada. De uma forma geral, pode-se armar que as per-
das mecanicas na transmissao sao compensadas por um maior rendimento propulsivo, quando
72 CAP

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OES PROPULSORAS
Figura 4.4: Conversao da frequencia da energia electrica.
comparado com um caso de acoplamento directo para a mesma potencia. Os custos adicio-
nais da transmissao sao tambem, pelo menos parcialmente, compensados pelo menor custo
do motor a quatro tempos, quando comparado com um motor lento a dois tempos.
Sao normalmente identicadas como principais vantagens das instala coes propulsoras com
mais de um motor, rapido ou de media velocidade:
- a redundancia permite maior disponibilidade para a opera cao do navio:
- no caso de avaria num motor, o outro ou os outros mantem a navegabilidade;
- o n umero de motores em servico para a propulsao pode variar para garantir a forma
mais economica para uma viagem:
- quando o navio viaja em lastro, carga parcial ou a velocidade reduzida um
dos motores pode ser utilizado `a sua potencia nominal, com bom rendimento,
enquanto outro ou outros podem ser parados;
- pelo contrario, em condi coes operacionais semelhantes, um motor unico, aco-
plado directamente ao helice, funcionaria durante longos perodos a carga par-
cial com pouco rendimento;
- A possibilidade de alterar o n umero de motores em servico facilita o planeamento e a
execucao das tarefas de manutencao e repara cao uma vez que estas poderao ser realiza-
das em viagem.
- Esta exibilidade de operacao e particularmente valorizada numa epoca em que se
pretende uma exploracao intensiva dos navios.
- As opera coes de manuten cao e reparacao podem ainda decorrer em porto sem
preocupa coes particulares relativas `a necessidade de mudan ca de cais ou partida
antecipada.
- As instala coes propulsoras de uma frota de navios pode ser baseada num so modelo
de motor, ajustando o n umero de motores no navio e o n umero de cilindros por motor
para as necessidades de propulsao de cada um dos navios, com reducao do custo de
4.2. PROPULS

AO DIESEL-MEC

ANICA 73
Figura 4.5: Instalacao propulsora com quatro motores, engrenagens redu-
toras e dois helices.
sobressalentes e inventarios, para alem dos benefcios resultantes da familiarizacao das
tripula coes.
Este conceito pode ainda ser alargado aos motores auxiliares (uniform machinery instal-
lations ), em que os motores principais e auxiliares sao do mesmo modelo.
4.2.3 Conguracao pai-e-lho
A exibilidade de opera cao e potenciada pela adopcao das instala coes do tipo pai-e-lho.
Nestas instala coes, motores a quatro tempos do mesmo modelo, ou de dois modelos muito
semelhantes, mas com diferente n umero de cilindros, fazem o accionamento do veio do helice
acoplados a uma caixa redutora comum. Cada um daqueles motores pode ser ainda acoplado
a uma maquina electrica que pode funcionar como motor ou gerador.
Numa conguracao deste tipo, a propulsao pode ser assegurada:
- conjuntamente pelos dois motores diesel;
- apenas por qualquer um dos motores diesel.
Em qualquer dos casos, podem ser ainda utilizados os, nesta situacao, motores electricos
acoplados ao veio como motores propulsores, alimentados com energia electrica produzida
pelos geradores auxiliares.
74 CAP

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OES PROPULSORAS
Figura 4.6: Instala cao com dois motores diesel diferentes, engrenagens re-
dutoras, embraiagens e geradores acoplados aos veios.
4.3 Propulsao diesel-electrica
4.3.1 Propulsao por motor electrico
A propulsao diesel-electrica, baseada em grupos electrogeneos de media velocidade, e uma
forma de accionamento indirecto com crescente implantacao no mercado. Apos um perodo
em que a utiliza cao deste tipo de sistemas esteve connada a nichos de mercado de actividades
com elevada especicidade, como por exemplo os quebra-gelos, navios de investigacao etc.,
as mais recentes tecnologias para a conversao AC/DC alargaram o potencial de utiliza cao da
propulsao electrica ao mercado dos navios de passageiros, shuttle tankers no Mar do Norte.
Estando ja estabelecido como uma boa solu cao neste mercados, comecam a surgir refe-
rencias da aplica cao deste tipo de instala coes propulsoras a navios de transporte de qumicos
(costeiro e longo curso), ferries e RoRos. Discute-se ainda as vantagens da sua aplica cao
pelo menos a algumas classes de porta-contentores. A propulsao diesel-electrica, combinada
com motores dual-fuel , esta tambem bem implantada no sector do transporte de LNG.
A propulsao diesel-electrica exige grandes motores electricos para accionamento dos he-
lices (Fig. 4.7) e grupos electrogeneos para fornecer a potencia electrica. Pode parecer em
primeira analise algo ilogico usar geradores electricos, conversores e motores electricos para o
accionamento quando um acoplamento directo ou uma engrenagem redutora pode ser suci-
ente para cumprir aquela missao. As principais razoes que justicam a complexidade e custo
acrescidos daquele tipo de instalacao sao:
- maior exibilidade na distribui cao dos equipamentos na casa da maquina;
- maior diversidade de condicoes de fundionamento;
- funcionamento mais economico a carga partial;
- facilidade de controlo;
- menor rudo;
- maior seguranca de opera cao e proteccao ambiental.
Estes aspectos serao abordados nos paragrafos seguintes.
4.3. PROPULS

AO DIESEL-EL

ECTRICA 75
Figura 4.7: Motor electrico de propulsao.
Flexibilidade na distribuicao dos equipamentos
A vantagem da transmissao electrica resulta de se poder escolher a localizacao em cada
caso mais apropriada para os grupos electrogeneos.

E entao possvel colocar os motores, bem
como os respectivos auxiliares, afastados do veio propulsor. Sempre que seja adoptado este
tipo de instalacao, a referida exibilidade permite aos arquitectos navais criar navios com a
casa da maquina muito compacta, libertando espa co para passageiros e/ou carga. O facto
de a casa da maquina ser mais compacta permite reduzir ainda a cablagem e a tubagem, em
particular a tubagem a instalar para a evacua cao dos gases do motor (ver Fig. 4.8).
A op cao por uma instalacao diesel-electrica facilita tambem ao estaleiro de construcao a
recepcao de modulos de grupos electrogeneos pre-testados e prontos para serem incorporados
na instala cao.
Deve aqui ser tambem referida a diculdade de uma instala cao diesel-electrica atingir o
rendimento obtido com um motor lento, a dois tempos, acoplado directamente ao veio do
helice, quando a funcionar `a sua carga ideal, tal como acontece numa viagem de longo curso
de um navio petroleiro. No entanto, alguns navios deste tipo tem um perl de operacao
que inclui tambem largos perodos a carga parcial em lastro, navegacao em aguas restritas
e manobras. Numa instalacao diesel-electrica, a elevada disponibilidade para produ cao de
energia electrica pode ser aproveitada para movimentar as bombas de carga e impulsores de
proa/popa, conforme representado esquematicamente na Fig. 4.9.
Variedade de carga
Alguns tipos de navios necessitam de quantidades signicativas de energia para auxiliares
quando as necessidades de propulsao sao reduzidas. Uma grande instala cao de produ cao
76 CAP

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OES PROPULSORAS
Figura 4.8: Instala cao diesel-electrica.
de energia electrica nos navios de passageiros/cruzeiros e exigida pela carga dos servi cos de
hotelaria e pelos propulsores tranversais de manobra. A potencia electrica necessaria nestes
casos ronda os 30 a 40 % da potencia de propulsao instalada e ainda ha que contar com
signicativa redundancia por motivos de seguranca.
Estes factores tem promovido um novo conceito de instala cao, a diesel-electrica power
station, nas quais varios grupos electrogeneo movidos por motores diesel de media velocidade
satisfazem as necessidades de energia para a propulsao, manobra e servicos de hotelaria nos
grandes navios de passageiros.
Funcionamento economico a carga parcial
Funcionamento economico a carga parcial e facilmente alcancado numa instalacao diesel-
electrica power station. Uma instala cao tpica inclui quatro grupos electrogeneos, podendo
ir no entanto ate aos nove, e, atraves do funcionamento em paralelo dos grupos, e facil ajustar
a capacidade de produ cao `as necessidades de carga electrica. Por exemplo, no caso de quatro
geradores, aumentar o n umero de grupos em funcionamento de dois, `a carga maxima, para
tres a carga parcial resulta numa condicao de carga a 67 % que, nao sendo ideal tambem nao
e problematica.
Os sistemas de reducao instantanea da potencia propulsora tornam desnecessario colocar
em funcionamento geradores a carga parcial para prevenir a ocorrencia s ubita de avaria num
grupo electrogeneo. O sistema de controlo monitoriza a capacidade de producao de energia
electrica, e a sobrecarga de um gerador provoca um ajuste imediato no consumo dos motores
de propulsao.
4.3. PROPULS

AO DIESEL-EL

ECTRICA 77
Figura 4.9: Representa cao esquematica de uma instalacao diesel-electrica.
Facilidade de controlo
Os accionamentos electricos permitem alcan car, com larga margem, as necessidades de
controlo para um sistema de propulsao.
Baixo rudo
Um motor electrico proporciona um accionamento com vibra coes reduzidas, caracterstica
particularmente valorizada nalguns tipos de navios como, por exemplo, os navios para cru-
zeiros, navios de investiga cao marinha e navios de guerra. A transmissao electrica permite
procurar a melhor localiza cao para os motores por forma a minimizar os efeitos da vibracao
transmitida `a estrutura do navio. A emissao de vibracoes pode ainda ser reduzida atraves do
recurso `a montagem de amortecedores de vibracao.
Proteccao ambiental e seguranca de operacao
O controlo das emissoes de oxidos de azoto pelos motores diesel dos navios favorece tambem
a especicacao de instalacoes com transmissao electrica, uma vez que o funcionamento dos
motores a velocidade constante e carga optimizada permite obter menores emissoes.
O aumento da seguranca da navega cao e tambem obtido nestas instalacoes pela redun-
dancia dos seus elementos constituintes. A redundancia pode ser obtida nao apenas pela
existencia de dois propulsores mas ainda pode ser acrescida colocando os dois, ou mais, mo-
tores de propulsao em diferentes compartimentos e ligando-os por uma engrenagem redutora.
4.3.2 Propulsores azimutais
As vantagens tecnicas e economicas na concep cao, constru cao e operacao de navios com
propulsao por azipods, inicialmente restritos a navios quebra-gelos e navios de passageiros,
tem vindo a alargar o seu campo de aplica cao a outro tipo de navios.
Um propulsor azimutal incorpora o motor electrico num alojamento submerso de formas
hidrodinamicas optimizadas que, podendo rodar 360

no plano horizontal, permite extraor-

78 CAP

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OES PROPULSORAS
dinaria capacidade de propulsao e manobra (ver Fig. 4.10). O motor electrico e acoplado
directamente a um helice de passo xo. A energia electrica e provida pelos varios grupos
electrogeneos do navio.
Figura 4.10: Propulsores azimutais.
Este tipo de propulsores, quando comparados com instala coes diesel-electricas com linha(s)
de veio(s) apresentam as seguintes vantagens:
- maior liberdade para a concepcao do casco e para o arranjo de maquinas no interior da
casa da maquina;
- o espa co no interior do casco destinado aos motores pode ser libertado para outras
nalidades;
- melhor capacidade de manobra quando comparado com o tradicional leme e possibidade
de eliminar propulsores transversais;
- excelente reversibilidade e capacidade de manobra com propulsao a re;
- menor rudo e vibracao, caractersticos da propulsao electrica, agora potenciados pela
posicao mais favoravel dos helices;
- na constru cao do navio, as unidades de propulsao podem ser incorporadas mais tarde
reduzindo assim os custos de investimento;
- menor custo de produ cao do navio.
4.4 Seleccao do motor
Seleccionado o tipo de instala cao pretendido para a propulsao do navio, chega-se nalmente
`a escolha do motor. Como as caractersticas de funcionamento das turbinas e dos motores
4.4. SELEC C

AO DO MOTOR 79
electricos sao bastante diferentes das caractersticas dos motores diesel, a abordagem tera de
ser tambem diferente.
Em qualquer dos casos, devera ser tida em conta a margem de servico MS. A margem
de servico tem em conta a diferenca entre a potencia requerida para nas condicoes ideais da
prova de mar e a potencia requerida pelas condicoes de servi co.

E pratica habitual denir-se
a margem de servico como uma fraccao da potencia na prova de mar, ou seja,
MS =
P
D
serv
P
D
trial
P
D
trial
(4.1)
O valor da margem de servico esta normalmente entre os 10 e os 25%, dependendo das opcoes
estrategicas do armador e da importancia da pontualidade do servi co. Em princpio, a margem
de servi co atribuda a um navio de linha sera superior `a margem considerada para um navio
que vai operar no mercado dotramping. O valor estabelecido da margem de servi co deve em
conta uma estimativa da degrada cao de velocidade, para as condi coes de opera cao do navio,
bem com as condicoes habituais de mar e vento e a degrada cao do casco.
4.4.1 Turbinas e motores electricos
No caso da turbinas, de vapor ou gas, a potencia desenvolvida depende essencialmente do
caudal de uido em circulacao, sendo portanto relativamente pouco sensvel `a velocidade de
rotacao.
As caractersticas dos sistemas com transmissao electrica sao semelhantes `as das turbinas,
independentemente de os geradores serem movidos por turbinas ou motores diesel, uma vez
que a velocidade destes pode ser mantida constante.
Neste tipo de situacao, em que a maquina propulsora pode trabalhar proximo da potencia
maxima em qualquer condicao de servico, a potencia instalada (P
I
) pode ser proxima da
potencia de servi co. Na pratica, a turbina e ajustada para operar com o maximo rendimento
a uma potencia 10% inferior `a maxima potencia em contnuo (MCR, Maximum Continuous
Rating). Assim, a potencia instalada sera
P
I
(MCR) =
P
D
serv
0, 9
s
= P
D
trial
1 +MS
0, 9
s
(4.2)
em que P
D
serv
e P
D
trial
sao as potencias absorvidas pelo helice nas condicoes de servico e na
prova de mar, respectivamente, para a velocidade de servi co e MS e a margem de servi co.
4.4.2 Motores diesel
Ao contrario das turbinas e dos motores electricos, em que a potencia disponvel e pouco
sensvel `a velocidade, os motores diesel caracterizam-se por ter uma curva do binario bastante
plana. Esta caracterstica faz com que a potencia varie de forma aproximadamente linear com
a velocidade de rotacao.
Para alem dos principais criterios considerados na avaliacao dos projectos, outros aspectos
que nao devem ser descurados na escolha do motor sao:
- a possibilidade de queimar combustvel pesado de baixa qualidade sem impacto nos
componentes do motor e consequentemente nos custos previstos para sobressalentes e
operacoes de manutencao;
80 CAP

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OES PROPULSORAS
- o volume de trabalho de manuten cao, o n umero de cilindros, valvulas, camisas, aros
e chumaceiras a necessitar de atencao periodica em relacao ao n umero de tripulantes
embarcados;
- a adequabilidade para operacao nao assistida explorando sistemas de controlo automa-
tico e sistemas de monitorizac ao;
- a dimensao e o peso da instalacao propulsora.
O valor maximo da potencia desenvolvida por um motor diesel e condicionada pela carga
termica. Este limite e normalmente expresso em termos da pressao media efectiva. Depen-
dendo das caractersticas do helice seleccionado e das condicoes operacionais, assim o valor
limite da pressao media efectiva sera atingido, ou nao, antes de o motor atingir a velocidade
de rotacao correspondente `as condi coes MCR.
Figura 4.11: Diagrama de carga de um motor diesel
Os fabricantes de motores diesel incluem diagramas de carga nos guias de seleccao de
motores para auxiliar a escolha do ponto de funcionamento. Nestes diagramas, como o repre-
sentado na Fig. 4.11, estao marcados:
- o ponto L
1
, que corresponde ao MCR do motor;
- a linha vertical L
1
L
2
, velocidade de rotacao maxima do motor, que limita a zona de
funcionamento do motor;
No Apendice D incluiu-se documenta cao da Burmeister & Wain que permite ilustrar a
forma de seleccao do motor para uma aplica cao concreta, considerando varias hipoteses: com
ou sem gerador acoplado ao veio, com helice de passo xo ou de passo controlavel.
4.4. SELEC C

AO DO MOTOR 81
Alguns fabricantes anunciam um valor de Normal Continuous Rating (NCR) cerca de
10% inferior ao valor MCR e a uma velocidade inferior, ao qual corresponde um desempenho
optimizado do motor em termos de consumo e de necessidades de manutencao. Pode ainda
denir-se uma Service Continuous Rating (SCR) que, dependendo da poltica do armador,
podera ser igual ou nao do NCR indicado pelo fabricante do motor.
A diferen ca entre a MCR e a SCR, ou, caso nao esteja denida, a NCR, da origem `a
chamada margem do motor (MM). A margem do motor e avaliada por,
MM =
MCR SCR
MCR
(4.3)
Valores tpicos desta margem de motor rondam os 10 a 15%. De notar que as margens de
servi co e de motor surgem frequentemente combinadas numa so, a margem de servico, apesar
de as suas origens serem bem distintas.
Uma vez atribudas as margens de servico e de motor, a potencia instalada e calculada
por
P
I
(MCR) = P
D
trial
1 +MS
(1 MM)
s
(4.4)
Nas provas de mar, nas condicoes de imersao e caimento contratuais, a potencia absorvida
pelo helice, `a velocidade de rota cao correspondente ao MCR, deve ser igual `a potencia SCR,
deduzida das perdas na linha de veios. Como objectivo das provas, devera garantir-se que a
combinacao motor e helice permite que o anvio atinja a velocidade requerida sem ultrapassar
os limites impostos pelo diagrama de carga.
Sem prejuzo do exposto, o forte aumento do pre co dos combustveis nos anos mais recen-
tes faz com que os custos operacionais dos navios sejam cada vez mais dominados por este
factor. Neste contexto, pode ser uma hipotese de trabalho interessante a opcao por um motor
com a mesma potencia, a potencia calculada como necessaria para a propulsao nas condi-
coes contratuais, mas com um cilindro extra. Esta tecnica, o chamado derating do motor,
exigindo maior valor de investimento inicial, pode apresentar um perodo de retorno atrac-
tivo. Wettstein e Brown apresentam as principais motiva coes para aplicacao desta tecnica e
discutem quatro casos de aplica cao numa publicacao da Wartsilla, includa no Apendice E.
82 CAP

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OES PROPULSORAS
Bibliograa
[1] Jose P. Saraiva Cabral. Arquitectura Naval, estabilidade, c alculos, avaria e bordo livre.
Centro do Livro Brasileiro, 1979.
[2] Eric C. Tupper. Introduction to Naval Arquitecture. Elsevier, 2004.
[3] Volker Bertram. Practical Ship Hydrodynamics. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.
[4] Jorge dAlmeida. Arquitectura Naval - o dimensionamento do navio. Prime Books, 2009.
[5] Editor Doug Woodyard. Pounders Marine Diesel Engines and Gas Turbines. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2004.
[6] H. Schneekluth and V. Bertram. Ship Design for Eciency and Economy. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1998.
83

Indice Remissivo
Auto-propulsao, 62
Boca, 3
Bolbo de proa, 22
Bordo livre, 3
Calado, 3
Camada limite, 24
Cavitacao, 37, 53, 60
Coeciente
de avan co, 46
de binario, 46
de Burrill, 55
de carga do helice, 44
de dedu cao da esteira, 63
de dedu cao da forca propulsiva, 63
de for ca propulsiva, 46
de resistencia, 28
de resistencia total, 13
Comprimento
entre perpendiculares, 3
fora a fora, 3
na linha de agua, 3
Consumo especco de combustvel, 69
Custos
de manuten cao, 68
de operacao, 68, 69
totais, 68
Diagrama
de Burrill, 55
em aguas livres, 45, 46
Dual-fuel, 74
Engrenagens redutoras, 71
Ensaios
de auto-propulsao, 62
de cavitacao, 56
de helices em aguas livres, 45
de propulsao, 61
de resistencia, 26
em sobrecarga, 62
Formula
de Alexander, 5
de atrito da ATTC, 25
de atrito da ITTC, 25
de Keller, 59
do atrito de Froude, 24
do atrito de Hugues, 30
For ca
de compensacao, 62
de inercia, 15
de origem hidrodinamica, 16
gravtica, 16
propulsiva, 42
Helice, 35
rendimento ideal, 45
a ponto xo, 57
bloqueado, 57
com tubeira, 36
contrarotativo, 37
de passo controlavel, 37, 67, 70, 71
de passo xo, 37, 67, 70, 71, 78
diametro do, 58
distribui cao radial de pressao, 59
geometria do, 40, 59
ndice de qualidade do, 47
interaccao com o casco, 60
n umero de pas do, 59
projecto do, 40
razao de area expandida, 41
supercavitante, 37
Metodo
de Hughes/Prohaska, 28
84

INDICE REMISSIVO 85
Geosim, 28, 31
Hughes-Prohaska, 29
ITTC 1957, 28
ITTC 1978, 28, 30
Margem
de servi co, 79
do motor, 81
Maximum Continuous Rating, 79
N umero
de cavitacao, 54
de Froude, 17, 23
de Reynolds, 18, 27, 46
Navio
coecientes de forma, 3
de passageiros, 68, 74, 76, 77
deslocamento do, 3
dimensoes do, 3
linhas de bordo livre do, 3
planos do, 1
quebra-gelos, 68, 77
tipo ferry, 37, 38, 40, 68, 69, 74
tipo RoRo, 68, 74
tipo shuttle tanker, 74
Normal Continuous Rating, 81
PC-cluster, 10
Pontal, 3
Potencia
absorvida, 65
de reboque, 13
efectiva, 13, 62
efectiva do motor, 65
propulsiva, 63
Power Take O/In, 71
Profundidade restrita, 23, 32
Propulsao
azimutal, 35, 38, 77
cicloidal, 35, 39
diesel-electrica, 74
diesel-mecanica, 69
por jacto de agua, 35, 37
por motor electrico, 74
Provas
de mar, 34
de potencia, 121, 133
de velocidade, 121, 133
Rendimento
aguas livres, 46
da linha de veios, 65
do casco, 64
do helice, 46
rotativo relativo, 64
Resistencia, 13
adicional, 31
aerodinamica, 19
de atrito, 24
de onda, 19
decomposicao, 18
dos apendices, 32
viscosa de pressao, 25
Rugosidade do casco, 28, 30, 31
Serie sistematica
60, 33
de helices, 47, 58
de querenas, 32
de Taylor, 33
de Wageningen, 48
Semelhanca
cinematica, 15
dinamica, 15
geometrica, 14
leis da, 14
Service Continuous Rating, 81
Sobrealimentadores, 70
Tanque
de cavitacao, 56
de Froude, 7
de reboque, 26
Unifuel, 70
Velocidade
da querena, 22
de aproxima cao, 42
de rotacao do helice, 59
economica, 22
Vibra coes, 42, 53, 5860, 77
86

INDICE REMISSIVO
Ap

endice A
Procedimento Recomendado pela
ITTC para a Previs ao do
Desempenho de Navios Baseada nos
Ensaios de Propuls ao em Modelos
87
88 AP

ENDICE A. PREVIS

AO BASEADA NOS ENSAIOS DE PROPULS

AO
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Procedures
7.5 02
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



Edited by 22
nd
ITTC QS Group 1999 Approved
15
th
ITTC 1978 pp388 402
17
th
ITTC 1984 pp326 - 333
18
th
ITTC 1987 pp266 - 273
15
th
ITTC 1978, 17
th
ITTC 1984
and 18
th
ITTC 1987
Date Date

CONTENTS

1. PURPOSE OF PROCEDURE
2. DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE
2.1.1 Introduction for the Original 1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Method
for Single Screw Ships
2.1.2 Introduction for the 1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Method as Modified
in 1984 and 1987
2.2 Model Tests
2.3 Analysis of the Model Test Results
2.4 Full Scale Predictions
2.4.1 Total Resistance of Ship
2.4.2 Scale Effect Corrections for Propeller Characteristics.
2.4.3 Full Scale Wake and Operating Condition of Propeller
2.4.4 Model-Ship Correlation Factors
2.5 Analysis of Speed Trial Results
2.6 Input Data
2.7 Output Data
2.8 Test Example
3. PARAMETERS
3.1 Parameters to be Taken into Account
3.2 Recommendations of ITTC for Parameters
3.3 Input Data
4. VALIDATION
4.1 Uncertainty Analysis
4.2 Comparison With Full Scale Results
5. ITTC- 1978 PERFORMANCE PREDICTION METHOD (COMPUTER CODE)




COMMENTS OF PROPULSION COMMITTE OF 22
nd
ITTC
In its original form the ITTC 1978 Performance Prediction Method offers a valuable and rea-
sonably accurate prediction tool for reference purposes and conventional ships.
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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Method

1. PURPOSE OF PROCEDURE

The method predicts rate of revolution and
delivered power of a ship from model results.


2. DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE

2.1.1 Introduction for the Original 1978
ITTC Performance Prediction Method
for Single Screw Ships

The method predicts rate of revolution and
delivered power of a ship from model results.
The procedure used can be described as fol-
lows:

The viscous and the residuary resistance of the
ship are calculated from the model resistance
tests assuming the form factor to be independ-
ent of scale and speed.

The ITTC standard predictions of rate of revo-
lutions and delivered power are obtained from-
the full scale propeller characteristics. These
characteristics have been determined by cor-
recting the model values for drag scale effects
according to a simple formula. Individual
corrections then give the final predictions.


2.1.2 Introduction for the 1978 ITTC Per-
formance Prediction Method as
Modified in 1984 and 1987

The 1978 ITTC Method developed to pre-
dict the rate of propeller revolutions and deliv-
ered power of a single screw ship from the
model test results has been extended during the
last two terms of the ITTC for a better and
more convenient use of the program. These
extensions are summarized as follows.

(1) Inclusion of prediction of propeller revo-
lutions on the basis of power identity.

(2) Temporary measure for w
TS
> w
TM


(3) Extension to twin screw ships

(4) Addition of speed trial data

(5) Extension for the case of a stock propel-
ler in the self-propulsion test

(6) Adaptation to the input of the non-
dimensional resistance coefficient and
self-propulsion factors.

In recent years, many member organizations
have been asked by their customers for a gen-
eral description of the method, viz., model test
and analysis of their results, calculation of full-
scale power and rate of propeller revolutions,
and the model-ship correlation factors used.
Considering the above, it was decided to pre-
pare a user's manual of the 1978 ITTC method
which includes all of the extensions and modi-
fications made.


2.2 Model Tests

Model tests required for a full scale com-
prise the resistance test, the self-propulsion test
and the propeller open-water test.
In the resistance test the model is towed at
speeds giving the same Froude numbers as for
the full scale ship, and the total resistance of
the model R
TM
is measured. The computer pro-
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Procedures
7.5 02
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



gram accepts either R
TM
in Newton, or in a non-
dimensional form of residuary resistance coef-
ficient C
R
assuming the form factor 1 + k. In
the latter case, the friction formula used can
then be either of the ITTC 1957, Hughes,
Prandtl-Schlichting or Schnherr's formulae.

The form factor 1 + k is usually determined
from the resistance tests at low speed range or
by Prohaskas plot of C
FM
against Fn
4


The ship model is not in general fitted with
bilge keels. In this case the total wetted surface
area of them is recorded and their frictional
resistance is added in calculating the full-scale
resistance of the ship.

In the self-propulsion test the model is
towed at speeds giving the same Froude num-
bers as for the full-scale ship. Generally a tow-
ing force F
D
is applied to compensate for the
difference between the model and the full-scale
resistance coefficient.

During the test, propeller thrust (T
M
), torque
(O
M
) and rate of propeller rotation (n
M
) are
measured.

In many cases, stock propellers are used
which are selected in view of the similarity in
diameter pitch and blade area to the full-scale
propeller. Then the diameter and the open-
water characteristics of the stock propeller
have to be given as input data in the program.
In the open-water test, thrust, torque and rate of
revolutions are measured, keeping the rate of
revolutions constant whilst the speed of ad-
vance is varied so that a loading range of the
propeller is examined.

In the case when a stock propeller is used in
the self-propulsion test, both the stock propel-
ler and the model similar to the full-scale pro-
peller should be tested in open water.


2.3 Analysis of the Model Test Results

Resistance R
TM
measured in the resistance
tests is expressed in the non-dimensional form


2
2
1
SV
R
C
TM
TM

=
This is reduced to residual resistance coef-
ficient C
R
by use of form factor k,
viz.,
C
R
= C
TM
- C
FM
(1 + k)

Thrust, T, and torque Q, measured in the
self-propulsion tests are expressed in the non-
dimensional forms

2 4
n D
T
K
TM

= and
2 5
n D
Q
K
QM

=

With K
TM
as input data, J
TM
and K
QTM
are read
off from the model propeller characteristics,
and the wake fraction


V
D J
w
M TM
TM
=1
and the relative rotative efficiency

QM
QTM
R
K
K
=
are calculated. V is model speed.
The thrust deduction is obtained from


T
R F T
t
C D
+
=
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1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



with

( ) | |
F FS FM M M M D
C C C V S F + =
2
2
1


where R
C
is the resistance corrected for differ-
ences in temperature between resistance and
self-propulsion tests:


( )
( )
TM
R FM
R FMC
C
R
C C k
C C k
R
+ +
+ +
=
. 1
. 1


where C
FMC
is the frictional resistance coeffi-
cient at the temperature of the self-propulsion
test.


2.4 Full Scale Predictions

2.4.1 Total Resistance of Ship

The total resistance coefficient of a ship
without bilge keels is

C
TS
=(1+k)C
FS
+C
R
+ C
F
+C
AA


Where

- k is the form factor determined from the
resistance test

- C
FS
is the frictional coefficient of the ship
according to the ITTC-1957 ship-model
correlation line

- C
R
is the residual resistance calculated from
the total and frictional coefficients of the
model in the resistance tests:
( )
FM TM R
C k C C + = 1

-.
F
C is the roughness allowance
3
3
1
10 64 . 0 105

(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
WL
S
F
L
k
C

where the roughness k
S
=150.10
-6
m and

- C
AA
, is the air resistance
S
A
C
T
AA
. 001 . 0 =

If the ship is fitted with bilge keels the total
resistance is as follows:

( ) | |
AA R F FS
BK
TS
C C C C k
S
S S
C + + + +
+
= 1


2.4.2 Scale Effect Corrections for Propeller
Characteristics.

The characteristics of the full scale propel-
ler are calculated from the model characteris-
tics as follows

T TM TS
K K K =

Q QM QS
K K K =
where


D
Z c
D
P
C K
D T
.
. 3 . 0 . =


D
Z c
C K
D Q
.
. 25 . 0 . =

The difference in drag coefficient
D
C is


DS DM D
C C C =

where
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Procedures
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1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00




( ) ( )
(
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
3
2
6
1
5 04 . 0
2 1 2
nco nco
DM
R R
c
t
C
and
5 . 2
log . 62 . 1 89 . 1 2 1 2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
p
DS
k
c
c
t
C

In the formulae listed above c is the chord
length, t is the maximum thickness, P/D is the
pitch ratio and R
nco
is the local Reynolds num-
ber at x=0.75. The blade roughness k
p
is put
k
p
=30.10
-6
m. R
nco
must not be lower than 2.10
5

at the open-water test.


2.4.3 Full Scale Wake and Operating Con-
dition of Propeller

The full scale wake is calculated from the
model wake, w
TM
, and the thrust deduction, t:

( ) ( )
( )
( )
FM
F FS
TM TS
C k
C C k
t w t w
+
+ +
+ + =
1
1
04 . 0 04 . 0

where 0.04 is to take account of rudder effect.
The load of the full scale propeller is obtained
from


( )( )
2 2 2
1 1
.
2
TS
TS T
w t
C
D
S
J
K

=

With this
2
/ J K
T
as input value the full
scale advance coefficient J
TS
and the torque
coefficient K
QTS
are read off from the full scale
propeller characteristics and the following
quantities are calculated
- the rate of revolutions:

( )
D J
V w
n
TS
S TS
S

=
1
(r/s)

- the delivered power:

3 3 5
10 2

=
R
QTS
S DS
K
n D P

(kW)

- the thrust of the propeller:

2 4 2
2
. . .
S TS
T
S
n D J
J
K
T = (N)

- the torque of the propeller:

2 5
S
R
QTS
S
n D
K
Q

= : (Nm)

- the effective power:

3 3
10 . . . 2 / 1

= S V C P
S TS E
(kW)

- the total efficiency:

E
DS
D
P
P
=

- the hull efficiency:

TS
H
w
t

=
1
1



2.4.4 Model-Ship Correlation Factors

Trial prediction of rate of revolutions and de-
livered power with C
P
- C
N
corrections

if CHOICE=0 the final trial predictions will be
calculated from

n
T
= C
N
.n
S
(r/s)

for the rate of revolutions and
P
DT
= C
P
.P
DS
(kW)
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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00




for the delivered power.

Trial prediction with C
FC
- w
C
corrections

If CHOICE=1 the final trial predictions are
calculated as follows:


( )( )
2 2 2
1 1
.
2
C TS
FC TS T
w w t
C C
D
S
J
K
+
+
=

With this K
T
/J as input value, J
TS
and K
QTS

are read off from the full scale propeller char-
acteristics and

( )
D J
V w w
n
TS
S C TS
T
.
1 +
= (r/s)


3 3 5
10 . . . . . 2

=
RM
QTS
T DT
K
n D P

(kW)


Trial prediction with C
NP
correction

If CHOICE = 2 the shaft rate of rotation is pre-
dicted on the basis of power identity as fol-
lows.

( ) 1 . . 2
. . 1000

3
TS S
DS P
T
Q
w V D
P C
J
K

=
|
|
.
|

\
|




RM
T
Q Q
J
K
J
K
.

0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

( ) D J w V n
TS TS S S
. / 1 =


S NP T
n C n =


2.5 Analysis of Speed Trial Results

The analysis of trials data is performed in a
way consistent with performance prediction but
starting P
D
and n backwards, i.e. from

10 . .
. . . 2
3 5
RM
D
Q
n D
P
K

=

J
S
is obtained from the full-scale open-water
characteristics K
Q
J
S
then

V D n J w
S T
/ . . 1 =

Further from K
T
J
S
characteristics


4
. . D n K T
T
=


( )
S V
t T
C
T
. . .
2
1
1 .

=

Then we obtain

TS T FC
C C C =

T TS C
w w w =


2.6 Input Data

Input data sheets are given in ENCL.1


2.7 Output Data

- Output data I gives ITTC Standard Pre-
diction with C
P
= C
N
= 1.0, together with
model and full scale propulsive coeffi-
cients (ENCL. 4).
- Output data II gives the final ship predic-
tion (ENCL. 5).

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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



- Output data III gives the analysis of the
speed trial results (ENCL. 6).


2.8 Test Example

To illustrate the program a prediction was
made for a hypothetical ship with the following
particulars:
length between
perpendiculars Lpp = 251.5m
breadth B = 41.5m
draft T = 16.5m
propeller diameter D = 8.2m

Calculations were carried out with the
ITTC Trial Prediction Test Program with:

C
P
= 1.01
C
N
= 1.02

The input data were taken as shown in
ENCL. 1 and the printout of the input data and
results are given in ENCL. 4 - 6.

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Procedures
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1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
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Procedures
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1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
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Procedures
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1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
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Procedures
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1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00




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1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
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3. PARAMETERS

3.1 Parameters to be Taken into Account

Froude scaling law
ship-model correlation line ,friction line
kinematic viscosity
mass density
blockage
form factor
propeller loading
hull roughness

see also 3.3 Input Data


3.2 Recommendations of ITTC for Pa-
rameters
see 4.9-03-03-01.1 Propulsion Test
1987 p.263 In using the 1978 ITTC Method
it is recommended that the rudder(s) be fitted
in hull resistance experiments for barge type
forms where inflow velocity is relatively
large.


3.3 Input Data

All data are either non-dimensional or
given in SI-units.

Every data card defines several parameters
which are required by the program; each of
these parameters must be input according to a
specific format.

"I" format means that the value is to be input
without a decimal point and packed to the
right of the specified field.

"F" format requires the data to be input with a
decimal point; the number can appear
anywhere in the field indicated.
"A" format indicates that alphanumeric char-
acters must be entered in the appropriate
card columns.

The card order of the data deck must fol-
low the order in which they are described
below.


Card No. 1 Identifications

Card
column
Form
at
CC
Symbol
Definition
1- 8 A - Project No.
9-16 A - Ship model No
17-24 A -
Propeller model No.
25-32 F SCALE Scale ratio

Card No. 2 Ship particulars

Card
column
For-
mat
CC
Symbol
Definition
9-16 F LWL Length of waterline
17-24 F TF Draft, forward
25-32 F TA Draft, aft
33-40 F B Breadth
41-48 F S Wetted surface, with-
out bilge keels
49-56 F DISW Displacement
157-64 F SBK Wetted surface of
bilge keels
65-72 F AT Transverse projected
area of ship above
waterline
72-80 F C3 Form factor deter-
mined at resistance
tests

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1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
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Card No. 3 Particulars of full scale
Card
column
For-
mat
CC
Symbol
Definition
8- 8 I NOPROP Number of propellers
should be 1 since method
is valid only for single
screw ships
15-16 I NPB Number of propeller
blades
17-24 F DP Diameter of propeller
25-32 F PD075 Pitch ratio at x=0.75
33-40 F CH075 Chord length of Propeller
blade at x=0.75
41-48 F TMO75 Maximum blade thick-
ness of propeller at
x=0.75
49-56 F RNCHM Reynolds number at
open-water test based on
chord length and local
velocity
2
75 . 0 .
1 |
.
|

\
|
+ =
J
V V
A


at x-0.75.
Card No. 4 General
Card
column
For-
mat

CC Sym-
bol
Definition
2.- 4 I NOJ Number of J-values in the
open-water characteristics
(J NOJ 10)
7- 8 I NOSP Number of speeds in the
self- propulsion tests
(NOSP
max
=10)
9-16 F RHOM Density of tank water
17-24 F RHOS Density of sea water
25-30 F TEMM Temperature of resistance
test
31-36 F TEMP Temperature at self-
propulsion test -
36-41 F TEMS Temperature of sea water
48-48 I CHOICE
CHOICE=0
N P
C C
trial corr.
CHOICE==1:
C FC
w C trial corr.
49-56 F CP Trial correction for shaft
power.
57-64 F CN Trial correction for rpm
65-72 F DELT
CFC
Trial correction for
F
C
72-80 F DELTWC
Trial correction for w
Mean values of the trial correction figures,
C
p
and C
N
can be obtained from the trial test
material of the individual institutions by run-
ning the ITTC Trial Prediction Test Program.
If an institution wishes to give predictions
with a certain margin the input C
P
-C
N
-values
must be somewhat higher than these mean
values.

Cards Nos. 5-14 Result of resistance and self-
propulsion tests and model propeller charac-
teristics.

Card
column
Format CC
Symbol
Definition
1- 8 F VS Ship speed in knots
9-16 F RTM Resistance of ship
model
17-24 F THM Thrust of propeller
25-32 F QM Torque of propel-
ler:Q
M
:100
33-40 F NM Rate of revolution
41-48 F FD Skin friction correc-
tion force
49-56 F ADVC Advance coefficient,.
open water
57-64 F KT Thrust coefficient,
open water
65-72 F KQ Torque coefficient,
open water

The J-margin in the open-water character-
istics must be large enough to cover the
model and full scale J-values with some mar-
gin.
Input data sheets are given in ENCL. 1.

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1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



4. VALIDATION

4.1 Uncertainty Analysis
not yet available


4.2 Comparison With Full Scale Results

The data that led to t ITTC-78 method can
be found in the following ITTC proceedings:

1) Proposed Performance Prediction Factors
for Single Screw Ocean Going Ships
(13
th
1972 pp.155-180) Empirical Power
Prediction Factor ( 1+X )

2) Propeller Dynamics Comparative Tests
(13
th
1972 pp.445-446 )

3) Comparative Calculations with the ITTC
Trial Prediction Test Programme
(14
th
1975 Vol.3 pp.548-553)

4) Factors Affecting Model Ship Correlation
(17
th
1984 Vol. 1, pp274-291)



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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
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Revision
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5. ITTC- 1978 PERFORMANCE PREDICTION METHOD (COMPUTER CODE)

C
C ****************************************************************************************************
C * *
C * 1978 ITTC PERFORMANCE PREDICTION METHOD FOR SINGLE SCREW *
C * SHIPS *
C * (REVISED 1983 TO INCLUDE TRIAL ANALYSIS AND TWIN SCREW SHIPS* *
C * *
C ****************************************************************************************************
C
C DECLARATIONS
C
COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2), MODELP(2), LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,
* SCALE,RNCHM,DISW,NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075.
* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCF,DELWC,KSI,KPI,
* RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10),THM(10),
* QM(10),NM(10),ADVC(10),KT(10),KQ(10),THD(10),
* FD(10),IC,NOJ,NOSP,PI
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10),ETAO(10),ETAH(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* AWTS(10),ACFM(10),ACTM(10),AVS(10),AVM(10),
* ATS(10),AQS(10),APDS(10),APE(10),APDT(10),
* ANS(10),ANT(10),BPDT(10),BNT(10),KTSJ2(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
DIMENSION FILE1(2),MODLS1(2),MODLP1(2)
C
REAL LPP, LWL, KS1, KS, KP1, KP, NM1, NM, KT, KQ, KTM, KQ0, JTM,
* KTSJ2, JTS, NS, KQTS, KTS, KQS, KQM
DATA TRIAL /TRIA/
500 FORMAT(6A4,F8.0)
501 FORMAT(10F8.0)
502 FORMAT(2I4,9F8.0)
503 FORMAT(2I4,2F8.0,3F6.0,I6,4F8.0)
504 FORMAT(9F8.0)
600 FORMAT(/5X,NUMBER OF ADV,KT AND KQ POINTS =,15/
* 5X,NUMBER OF SPEEDS =,15/
* 5X,NUMBER OF SPEEDS OR ADVC POINTS >10/)


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7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C
C CONSTANTS
C
G=9.81
PI=3.14159
KP1=30.0
KS1=150.0
KS=1.5E-4
KP=0.3E-4
C
C READ INPUT DATA
C
1000 CONTINUE
READ(5,500,END=999) FILE,MODELS,MODELP,SCALE
READ(5,501) LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,DISW,SBK,AT,C3
READ(5,502) NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075,TM075,RNCHM
READ(5,503) NOJ,NOSP,RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS
* IC,CP,CN,DELCF,DELWC
NMAX=MAX0(NOJ,NOSP)

IF(FILE(1).EQ.TRIAL) GOTO 100

READ(5,504)(VS(I),RTM(I),THM(I),QM(I),NM(I),FD(I),
* ADVC(I),KT(I),KQ(I);I=1,NMAX)


C
C WRITE INPUT DATA
C
CALL OUTPUT(1)
C
C CHECK
C
IF(NOJ.LE.10.AND.NOSP.LE.10) GOTO 2
WRITE(6,600) NOJ.NOSP
GOTO 1000
2 CONTINUE
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7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C
C RECALCULATION OF INPUT DATA
C
DO 3 I=1,NOJ
KT(I)=KT(I)*0.1
KQ(I)=KQ(I)*0.01
....3 CONTINUE
DELCF=DELCF*0.001
RNCHM=RNCHM*100000.
VISCP=((0.585E-3*(TEMP-12.0)-0.03361)*(TEMP-12.0)+
* 1.2350)*1.0E-6
VISCM=((0.585E-3*(TEMM-12.0)-0.0361)*(TEMM-12.0)+
* 1.2350)*1.0E-6
VISCS=((0.659E-3*(TEMS-1.0)-0.05076)*(TEMS-1.0)+
* 1.7688)*1.0E-6
C
C CORRECTION OF PROPELLER CHARACTERISTICS
C
CDM=2.0*(1.0+2.0*TM075/CH075)*(0.044/RNCHM**0.16667-
* 5.0/RNCHM**0.66667)
CDS=2.0*(1.0+2.0*TM075/CH075)/(1.89+1.62*ALOG10(CH075
* /KP))**2.5
DCD=CDM-CDS
DKT=-0.3*DCD*PD075*CH075*NPB/DP
DKQ=0.25*DCD*CH075*NPB/DP
DO 4 I=1,NOJ
KTS(I)=KT(I)-DKT
KQS(I)=KQ(I)-DKQ
KTSJ2(I)=KTS(I)/ADVC(I)**2
4 CONTINUE
DO 5 I=1,NOSP
VS1=VS(I)*0.15444
VM1=VS1/SQRT(SCALE)
NM1=NM(I)
C
C
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7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C CALCULATE ROUGHNESS ALLOWANCE AND SHIP TOTAL RESISTANCE
C
RNLP=LWL*VM1/(VISCP*SCALE)
RNLM=LWL*VM1/(VISCM*SCALE)
RNLS=LWL*VS1/VISCS
CFMC=0.075/(ALOG10(RNLP)-2)**2
CFM=0.075/(ALOG10(RNLM)-2)**2
CFS=0.075/(ALOG10(RNLS)-2)**2
CTM=RTM(I)*SCALE**3/(0.5*RHOM*VS1**2*S)
CR=CTM-(1.0+C3)*CFM
RTMC=RTM(I)*(1.0+C3)*CFMC+CR)/((1.0+C3)*CFM+CR)
THD(I)=(THM(I)+FD(I)-RTMC)/THM(I)
DELCF=(105.0*(KS/LWL)**0.33333-0.64)*0.001
CAA=0.001*AT/S
CTS=((1.0+C3)*CFS*DELCF)*(S+SBK)/S+CR+CAA
C
C MODEL PROPULSIVE COEFFICIENTS
C
FNOP=NPROP
KTM=(THM(I)/FNOP)/(RHOM*(DP/SCALE)**4*NM1*NM1)
KQM=(QM(I)*0.01/FNOP)/(RHOM*(DP/SCALE)**5*NM1*NM1)
JTM=APOL(0,KT,ADVC,NOJ,KTM,IX)
KQ0=APOL(0,ADVC,KQ,NOJ,JTM,IX)
WTM=1.0-JTM*DP*NM1/(VM1*SCALE)
C
C FULL SCALE WAKE
C
IF(JRUDER) 6,5,6
5 WTS=(THD(I)+0.04)+(WTM-THD(I)-0.04)*((1.0+C3)*CFS+DELCF)/
* ((1.0+C3)*CFM)
GOTO 7
6 WTS=(THD(I) )+(WTM-THD(I) )*((1.0+C3)*CFS+DELCF)/
* ((1.0+C3)*CFM)
GOTO 7
7 IF(WTS.GT.WTM) WTS=WTM
ETARM(I)=KQ0/KQM
C
C SAVE AREAS
C
ACTM(I)=CTM
ACFM(I)=CFM
AWTM(I)=WTM
AWTS(I)=WTS
ACTS(I)=CTS
AVS(I)=VS1
AVM(I)=VM1
8 CONTINUE
C
C ITTC STANDARD PREDICTION
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7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C
CALL IP
C
C RETURN FOR NEW INPUT
C
DO 20 I=1,2
FILE1(I)=FILE(I)
MODLS1(I)=MODELS(I)

20 MODELP1(I)=MODELP(I)
SCALE1=SCALE
GOTO 1000
C
100 CONTINUE
DO 110 I=1,2
FILE(I)=FILE1(I)
MODELS(I)=MODLS1(I)
110 MODELP(I)=MODLP1(I)
SCALE=SCALE1
C
CALL ANLSYS
C
C RETURN FOR NEW INPUT
C
C
GOTO 1000
999 STOP
END
C
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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
C OUTPUT IS USED FOR PRINTING INPUT DATA AND RESULTS
C
C IOUT= 1 INPUT DATA IS PRINTED
C 2 RESULT PAGE 1
C 3 RESULT PAGE 2
C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
SUBROUTINE OUTPUT(IOUT)



COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2),MODELP(2),LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S
* SCALE,RNCHM,DISW,NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075,
* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCFC,DELWC,KSI,KPI,
* RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10);THM(10),
* QM(10),NM(10),ADVC(10),KT(10),KQ(10),THD(10),
* FD(10),IC,NOJ,NOSP,PI
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10),ETA0(10),ETAH(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* AWTS(10),ACFM(10),ACTM(10),AVS(10),AVM(10),
* ATS(10),AQS(10),APDS(10),APE(10),APDT(10),
* ANS(10),ANT(10),BPDT(10),BNT(10),KTSJ2(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
C
REAL LPP,LWL,KS1,KS,KP1,KP,NM1,NM,KT,KQ,KTM,KQ0,JTM,
KTSJ2,JTS,NS,KQTS,KTS,KQS
DIMENSION TEXT (16)
DATA TEXT /INPU,T DA,TA , ,
* OUTP,UT D,ATA ,1 ,
* OUTP,UT D,ATA..,2 ;
* `TRIA`,`L AN`,LYS`,S `/
600 FORMAT(1,19X,1978 ITTC PERFORMANCE PREDICTION,10X,
* ENCL:/
C?? * 20X,METHOD ,8X,
* REPORT:/20X,4A4/)
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1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



601 FORMAT(5X,IDENTIFICATION :,18X,SHIP://
* 5X,PROJECT :,2A4,
* 10X,LENGTH PP :,F8.2, (M)/
* 5X,SHIP MODEL :,2A4,
* 10X,LENGTH WL :,F8.2, (M)/
* 5X,PROPELLER MODEL :,2A4,
* 10X,DRAFT FWD :,F8.2, (M)/
* 5X,SCALE FACTOR :,F8.2,
* 10X,DRAFT AFT :,F8.2, (M)/
* 43X,BREADTH :,F8.2, (M)/
* 5X,PROPELLER:,
* 28X,WETTED SURFACE :,F8.0, (M**2)/
* 43X,DISPLACEMENT :,F8.0, (M**3))
602 FORMAT(5X,NUMBER OF PROPELLERS:,I8/
* 5X,NUMBER OF BLADES :,I8,
* 6X,FRICTION COEFFICIENT CF/
* 5X,DIAMETER :,F8.3, (M),
* 2X,CALCULATED ACCORDING TO ITTC-57/
* 5X,PITCH RATIO 0.75R :,F8.4,
* 6X,FORM FACTOR :,F6.3, (BASED ON ITTC-57)/)
603 FORMAT(5X,HULL ROUGHN.*10**6 :,F6.1, (M),
* 2x,BILGE KEEL AREA :,F6.1, (M**2),
* 5X,PROPELLER BLADE ROUGHN.*10**6:,F6.1, (M),
* 2X,PROJ.AREA ABOVE WL. :,F6.1, (M**2)/)
604 FORMAT(5X,CHORD LENGTH OF PROP.BLADE AT X=0.75:,
* F7.4, (M)/
* 5X,THICKNESS OF PROP.BLADE AT X=0.75:,
* F7.4 (M)/)
605 FORMAT(5X,DENSITY OF WATER (TANK ) :F7.1,
* (KG/M**3)/
* DENSITY OF WATER (SEA ) :F7.1,
* (KG/M**3)/
* 5X,TEMP. OF WATER (RESISTANCE TEST) :F7.2,
* (CENTIGRADES)/
* 5X,TEMP. OF WATER (SELF PROP. TEST) :F7.2,
* (CENTIGRADES)/
* 5X,TEMP. OF WATER (SEA ) :F7.2,
* (CENTIGRADES)//
* 5X,MODEL TEST RESULTS:,
* 30X,OPEN WATER CHARACT.;/
* 54X,RNC :F5.2,*10**5/)
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7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



606 FORMAT(5X,SHIP RESIS- FRICT. THRUST TORQUE RATE OF ,
* 2X,ADVANCE THRUST TORQUE/
* 20X,REVS. RATIO COEFF. COEFF./
* 5X,KNOTS N N N NM RPS ,
* 7X,J 10*KT 100*KQ/)
607 FORMAT(1X)
608 FORMAT(+,3X,F5.1,1X,F7.1,1X,F7.2,2X,2F7.1,F9.2)
609 FORMAT(+,49X,F10.3,F7.3,F8.3)
610 FORMAT(5X,SHIP MODEL://
* 8X,SPEED RES. COEFF. FRICT. COEFF. THRUST DED.,
* 2X,MEAN REL.ROT./
* 6X,VS VM TOTAL,32X, WAKE EFFIC./
* 5X,KNOTS M/S CTM*1000 CFM*1000,8X,TM,
* 7X,WTM ETARM/)
611 FORMAT(4X,F5.1,F7.3,F8.3,6X,F7.3,7X,F7.3,3X,F7.3,F8.3)
612 FORMAT(/5x,ITTC STANDARD PREDICTION CP=CN=1.0 ://
* 5X,SPEED EFF. POWER DELIV. POWER RSATE OF REVS,
* 2X, THRUST TORQUE/
* 6X,VS,7X,PE,10X,PD,12X,N,10X,T,8X,Q/
* 5X,KNOTS,5X,KW,10X,KW,11X,RPS,9X,KN,
* 6X,KNM/)
613 FORMAT(4X,F5.1,F10.0,3X,F9.0,4X,F9.3,3X,F9.0,F8.0)
614 (FORMAT(/5X,SPEED TOT. EFF. PROP.EFF. HULL EFF. SHIP WAKE,
* 3X,OPEN WATER CHAR. FULL SCALE:/
* 5X,KNOTS ETAD ETA0 ETAH,/X,WTS,
* 9X,J 10*KT 100*KQ/)
615 FORMAT(+,3X,F5.1,F8.3,3(3X,F7.3))
616 FORMAT(+,50X,3F7.3)
617 FORMAT(/5X,SHIP DELIVERED POWER RATE OF REVS./
* 5X, SPEED --------------------------- ---------------------/
* 5X,KNOTS KW HP RPS RPM/)
618 FORMAT(4X,F5.1,2X,2F8.0,3X,F7.3,F8.2)
619 FORMAT(/5X,SHIP TRIALS PREDICTION CP=,F7.3, CN=,F7.3)
620 FORMAT(/5X,SHIP TRIALS PREDICTION DELCFC*1000=,
* F6.3, DELCW=,F6.3)
ITEX=ICUT*4-4
WRITE(6,600) (TEXT(ITEX+1),I=1,4)
WRITE(6,601) FILE,LPP,MODELS,LWL,MODELP,TF,SCALE,TA,B,S,DISW
WRITE(6,602) NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,C3
C
GOTO(10,20,30,40) , IOUT
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7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C
C INPUT DATA IS LISTED
C
10 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,603) KS1,SBK,KP1,AT
WRITE(6,604) CH075,TM075
WRITE(6,605) RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,RNCHM
WRITE(6,606)
NMAX=MAX0(NOJ,NOSP)
DO 1 I=1,NMAX
WRITE(6,607)
IF(I. LE. NOSP) WRITE(6,608) VS(I);RTM(I);FD(I),THM(I),
QM(I),NM(I)
IF(I. LE.NOJ) WRITE(6,609) ADVC(I),KT(I),KQ(I)
1 CONTINUE
RETURN

C
C RESULTS PAGE 1
C
20 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,610)
DO 21 I=1,NOSP
CFM=ACFM(I)*1000.0
CTM=ACTM(I)*1000.0
WRITE(6,611) VS(I),AVM(I),CTM,CFM,THD(I),AWTM(I),ETARM(I)
21 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,612)
DO 22 i=1,NOSP
WRITE(6,613) VS(I),APE(I),APDS(I),ANS(I),ATS(I),AQS(I)
22 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,614)
DO 23 i=1,NMAX
WRITE(6,607)
IF(I.LE.NOSP) WRITE(6,615) VS(I),ETAD(I),ETA0(I),ETAH(I);
AWTS(I)
XKTS=KTS(I)*10.0
XKQS=KQS(I)*100.0
IF(I.LE.NOSP) WRITE(6,616) ADVC(I),XKTS,XKQS
23 CONTINUE
RETURN
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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C
C RESULTS PAGE 3
C
30 CONTINUE
DCFC=DELCFC*1000.0
IF(IC.EQ.1) WRITE(6,620) DCFC,DELWC
IF(IC.NE.1) WRITE (6,619) CP,CN
WRITE(6,617)
DO 31 I=1,NOSP
WRITE(6,618) VS(I),APDT(I),BPDT(I),ANT(I),BNT(I)
31 CONTINUE
....40 RETURN
END

C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
C IRAT= 0 INTERPOLATION WITH A 2:ND DEGREE POLYNOMIAL
C = 1 INTERPOLATION WITH A RATIONAL FUNCTION OF 2:ND DEGREE
C X = ARGUMENT ARRAY
C Y = VALUE ARRAY
C N = NUMBER OF ARGUMENTS
C EX = ARGUMENT
C IFEL = ERROR RETURN CODE
C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
REAL FUNCTION APOL(IRAT,X,Y,N,EX,IFEL)
DIMENSION X(1),Y(1)
C
C CHECK NUMBER OF POINTS > 2
C
IFEL=0
IF(X(1).GT.X(N)) GOTO 2
IF(X(1).GT.EX.OR.X(N).LT.EX) GOTO 7
DO 1 I=1,N
L=1
IF(EX-X(I)) 4,4,1
1 CONTINUE
GOTO 4
2 CONTINUE
IF(X(1).LT.EX.OR.X(N).GT.EX) GOTO 7
DO 3 I=1,N
L=I
IF(EX-X(I)) 3,4,4
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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



3 CONTINUE
4 CONTINUE
M=2
IF(L.EQ.1) M=1
IF(L.EQ.3) M=3
LM=L-M
X1=X(LM+1)
X2=X(LM+2)
X3=X(LM+3)
Y1=Y(LM+1)
Y2=Y(LM+2)
Y3=Y(LM+3)
C
C INTERPOL. 2:ND DEGREE POLYNOMIAL
C
X21=X2-X1
X31=X3-X1
X32=X3-X2
IF(IRAT.EQ.1) GOTO 6
C1=Y1
C2=(Y2-C1)/X21
C3=(Y3-C1-C2*X31)/(X31*X32)
APOL=C1+(EX-X1)*(C2+C3*(EX-X2))
RETURN
6 CONTINUE
C
C INTERPOL. RAT. FUNCTION
C
Y21=Y2*X2*X2-Y1*X1*X1
Y32=Y3*X3*X3-Y2*X2*X2
A0=(Y32-X32*Y21/X21)/(X32*X31)
B0=(Y21/X21-A0*(X1+X2)
C0=((Y1-A0)*X1-B0)*X1
APOL=(C0/EX+B0)/EX+A0
RETURN
7 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,8)
8 FORMAT(/5X,INCREASE THE J-RANGE)
STOP
END

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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 26 of 31

Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C
C ********************************************************************
C
C ITTC PREDICTIONS
C
C ********************************************************************
C
SUBROUTINE IP

COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2),MODELP(2),LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,
* SCALE,RNCHM,DISW,NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075,
* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCFC,DELWC,KSI,KPI,
* RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10),THM(10),
* QM(10),NM(10),ADVC(10),KT(10),KQ(10),THD(10),
* FD(10),IC,NOJ,NOSP,PI
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10),ETA0(10),ETAR(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* AWTS(10),ACFM(10),ACTM(10),AVS(10),AVM(10),
* ATS(10),AQS(10),APDS(10),APE(10),APDT(10),
* ANS(10),ANT(10),BPDT(10),BNT(10),KTSJ2(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
C
REAL LPP,LWL,KS1,KS,KPI,KP,NM1,NM,KT,KQ,KTM,KQD,JTM,
* KTSJ2,JTS,NS,KQTS,KTJT2,KQOS,KQS,KTS
DO 3 I=1,NOSP
VS1=AVS(I)
CTS=ACTS(I)
WTS=AWTS(I)
C
C CALCULATE THE FULL SCALE LOAD ADVANCE COEFF: AND
C TORQUE COEFF.
C
FNOP=NOPROP
KTJT2=S*CTS*0.5/((DP*(1.0-WTS))**2*(1.0-THD(I))) /FNOP
JTS=APOL(1,KTSJ2,ADVC,NOJ,KT,KTJT2,IX)
KQOS=APOL(0,ADVC,KQS,NOJ,JTS,IX)
C
C THE RATE OF REV. AND THE DELIVERED POWER
C
NS=(1.0-WTS)*VS1/(JTS*DP)
APDS(I)=2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*NS**3*KQOS/ETARM(I)*0.001
ANS(I)=NS
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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 27 of 31

Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C
C THE THRUST AND TORQUE OF THE PROPELLER
C
ATS(I)=KTJT2*JTS**2*RHOS*DP**4*NS*NS*0.001
AQS(I)=KQOS*RHOS*DP**5*NS*NS/ETARM(I)*0.001
C
C THE EFFECTIVE POWER, TOTAL AND HULL EFFICIENCY
C
APE(I)=CTS*0.5*RHOS*VS1**3*S*0.001
ETAD(I)=APE(I)/APDS(I)
ETAH(I)=(1.0-THD(I))/(1.0-WTS)
IF(IC.EQ.1) GOTO 1
C
IC1=IC-1
IF(IC1)10,11,12
C
C TRIAL PREDICTION WITH CP-CN CORRECTIONS (ITTC1978 ORIGINAL)
C
10 ANT(I)=CN*NS
BNT(I)=ANT(I)*60.0
APDT(I)=CP*APDS(I)
BPDT(I)=1.36*APDT(I)
GOTO 100
C
C TRIAL PREDICTION WITH CP-CN CORRECTIONS
C CN BASED ON POWER IDENTITY
C
12 APDT(I)=CP*APDS(I)
BPDT(I)=1.36*APDT(I)
KQJ3T=1000.0*APDT(I)/(2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**2) /FNOP
KQJ3T=KQJ3T/(VS1**3*(1.0-WTS)**3)
KQ0J3=KQJ3T*ETARM(I)
JTS=APOL(1,KQSJ3,ADVC,NOJ,KQ0J3,IX)
NS=(1.0-WTS)*VS1/(JTS*DP)
ANT(I)=CN*NS
BNT(I)=ANT(I)*60.0
GOTO 100
11 CONTINUE
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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
Page 28 of 31

Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C
C TRIAL PREDICTION WITH DELCF-DELWC CORRECTIONS
C
KTJT2=S*(CTS+DELCFC)/(2.0*(1.0-THD(I))*(DP*
* (1.0-(WTS-DELWC)))**2)
JTS=APOL(1,KTSJ2,ADVC,NOJ,KTJT2,IX)
KQOS=APOL(0,ADVC,KQS,NOJ,JTS,IX)
ANT(I)=(1.0-WTS+DELWC)*VS1/(JTS*DP)
BNT(I)=ANT(I)*60.0
APDT(I)=2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*ANT(I)**3*KQOS/ETARM(I)*0.001
BPDT(I)=1.36*APDT(I)
2 CONTINUE
ETAD(I)=KTJT2*JTS**3/(2.0*PI*KQOS)
3 CONTINUE
C
C WRITE OUTPUT
C
CALL OUTPUT(2)
CALL OUTPUT(3)
RETURN



SUBROUTINE ANLSYS
C
C***********************************************************************************************************
****
C * *
C * ANALYSIS ACCORD1NG TO 1978 ITTC PREDICTION METHOD *
C * *
C***********************************************************************************************************
****
C
C
DIMENSION VST(10),XNT(10),XPD(10),
* THDT(10),WTMT(10),WTST(10),ETART(10),CRWT(10),
* YNT(10),YPD(10),CPT(10),CNT(10),CNPT(10),ZNT(10)
* DCFT(10),WTSS(10),DWT(10),DCFM(10),DWM(I0),
* KQJ3(10)
C
COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2),MODELP(2),LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,
* SCALE,RNCHM,DISW,NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075,
* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCFC,DELWC,KS1,KP1,
* RHOM, RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10),THM(10),
* QM(10),NM(10),ADVC(10),KT(10),KQ(10),THD(10),
* RA(10),IC,NOJ,NOSP,PI
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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00



C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10), ETA0(10),ETAH(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* AWTS(10),ACFM(10),ACTM(10),AVS(10),AVM(10),
* ATS(10),AQS(10),APDS(10),APE(10),APDT(10),
* ANS(10),ANT(10),BPDT(10),BNT(10),KTSJ2(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)

C
REAL LPP,LWL,KS1,KS,KP1,KP,NM1,NM,KT,KQ,KTM,KQ0,JTM,
* KTSJ2,JTS,NS,KQTS,KTJT2,KQOS,KTS,KQS,KQM,
* KQJ3,KQJ3T
C
C
DO 5 I = 1,NOJ
5 KQJ3(I) = KQS(I) /ADVC(I)**3
C
NOST=10

READ(5,510) (VST(I), I=1,NOST)
READ(5,510) (XNT(I), I=1,NOST)
READ(5,510) (XPD(I), .I=1,NOST)

510 FORMAT (10F8.0)
C
C COUNT NO. OF TRIAL RUNS
NOST = 0
DO 8 I = 1, 10
IF (VST(I).GT.0. ) NOST=NOST+1
8 CONTINUE
IF(XNT(1).GT.20.) GOTO 20
DO 10 I=1, NOST
XNT(I) = XNT(I)*60.0
10 XPD(I) = XPD(I)*1.36
20 CONTINUE
DO 50 I=1, NOST
VST1=VST(I)*1852.0/3600.0
CTST = APOL(0,AVS, ACTS, NOSP,VST1, IX)
THDT(I)= APOL(0,AVS, THD, NOSP,VST1, IX)
WTMT(I)= APOL(0,AVS, AWTM, NOSP,VST1, IX)
WTST(I)= APOL(0,AVS, AWTS, NOSP,VST1, IX)
ETART(I)= APOL(0,AVS, ETARM,NOSP,VST1, IX)
CF =APOL(0,AVS, ACFM, NOSP,VST1, IX)
CT =APOL(0,AVS, ACTM, NOSP,VST1, X)
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Procedures
7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00




CRWT(I)= CT - (1.0+C3)*CF
FNOP =NOPROP
KTJT2 =S*(CTST/FNOP )*0.5 / ((DP*(1.0-WTST(I)))**2*(1.0-THDT(I)))
JTS =APOL(1, KTSJ2, ADVC, NOJ, KTJT2, IX)
KQOS=APOL (0, ADVC, KQS, NOJ, JTS, IX)
NS=(1.0-WTST(I))*VST1/(JTS*DP)
PDS = 2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*NS**3*KQ0S/ETART(I)*0.001*FNOP
YNT(I)= NS*60.0
YPD(I) = PDS*1.36
CPT(I)= XPD(I)/YPD(I)
CNT(l)=XNT(I)/YNT(I)
PDT1 = XPD(I) /1.36
XNT1 = XNT(I) / 60.0
FKQ = PDT1*START(I)*1000.0 / (2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*XNT1**3) / FNOP
FJT = APOL(0,KQS,ADVC,NOJ,FKQ,IX)
FKT = APOL(0,ADVC, KTS,NOJ,FJT,IX)
KQJ3T=FKQ * (DP*XNT1)**3 / ((1-WTST(I))*VST1)**3
FJQ= APOL( 1,KQJ3,ADVC,NOJ,KQJ3T,IX)
ZNT(I)=(1.0 -WTST(I)) * VST1 / (FJQ*DP) * 60.0
CNPT(I)=XNT(I) / ZNT(I)
THS= FKT * RHOS * DP**4*XNT1**2
CTS=THS*(1.0 - THDT(I)) / (0.5*RHOS*VST1**2*S) * FNOP
DCFT(I)=(CTS - CTST)*1000.0
WTSS(I)= 1.0 - FJT*DP*XNT1/VST1
DWT(I) = WTST(I) - WTSS(I)
DWM(I) = WTMT(I) - WTSS(I)

C
C CALCULATION OF FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE ~COEFF. OF SHIP
C
T = TEMS
FNU = ((0.659E-3*(T-l.0)-0.05076)*(T-1)+1.7688)*1.0E-6
RNLS= ALOG10(LWL*VST1/FNU)
CFS = 0.075 / (RNLS-2.0)**2
C
DCFM(I) = CTS - (l.0+C3)*CFS - ( CRWT(I)+0.001*AT / S )*S / (S+SBK)
DCFM(I) = DCFM(I) * 1000.0
CRWT(I) = CRWT(I) * 1000.0
50 CONTINUE
C
CALL OUTPUT(4)
WRITE(6,600)
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7.5 02
03 01.4
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Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction
Method
Effective Date
1999
Revision
00




600 FORMAT(' ',19X,'TRIAL ANALYSIS ACCORDING TO ITTC 1978 METHOD',///)
WRITE(6,610) ( VST(I), I=1, NOST)
610 FORMAT(5X.. ' SHIP SPEED - TRTAL',7(F10.2, 2X) /)
WRITE(6,620) ( XNT(I), I=1, NOST)
620 FORMAT(5X, PROP, RPM TRTAL ',7(F10.2, 2X) /)
WRITE(6,630) ( XPD(I), I=1, NOST)
630 FORMAT(4X, 'DELIV.POWER-TRIAL ',7(F11.0,1X) //)
WRITE(6,640) ( YNT(I), I=1, NOST)
640 FORMAT(/5X, PROP. RPM -CN=1 ',7(F10.2,2X) /)
WRITE~(6,650) ( ~YPD(I), I=1,NOST)
650 FORMAT(4X, ' DELIV. POWER -CP =1',7(F11.0,1X) /)
WRITE(6,660) ( ZNT(I), I=1, NOST)
660 FORMAT(5X, PROP. RPM -CNP=1 ',7(F10.2,2X), //)
WRITE(6,670) ( CPT(I), I=1, NOST)
670 FORMAT(/5X, CP ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,680) (CNT(I), I=1, NOST)
680 FORMAT(5X, CN ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,690) (CNPT(I), I=1,NOST)
690 FORMAT(5X, CNP ',7(F10.3,2X) //)
WRITE(6,700) (DCFT(I), I=1,NOST)
700 FORMAT(/5X, DCFC*1000 -CP=CN=1,7(F10.3,2x) /)
WRITE(6,710) ( DWT(I), I=1, NOST)
710 FORMAT(5X, ' DWC CP=CN=1,7(F10.3,2X) //)
WRITE(6,715) ( DCFM(I), I=1, NOST)
715 FORMAT(/5X, 'DCF *1000 ITTC-57,7(F10.3,2x) /)
WRITE(6,717) ( DWM(I), I=1,NOST)
717 FORMAT(5X, DW = WM-WTRIAL ',7(F10.3,2X) //)
WRITE(6,720) ( CRWT(I) ,I=1, NOST)
720 FORMAT(/5X, CR*1000 ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE (6,730) ( THDT(I), I=1, NOST)
730 FORMAT(5X, THDM ',7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,740) ( WTMT(I), I=1, NOST)
740 FORMAT(5X, WTM ',7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,750) ( WTST(I), I=1, NOST)
750 FORMAT(5X, WTS CP=CN=1 ,7(F10.3,2x) /)
WRITE(6,760) ( WTSS(I), I=1, NOST)
760 FORMAT(5X, WTS TRIAL ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,770) ( ETART(I), I=1, NOST)
770 FORMAT(5X, ETARM ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
RETURN
END



120 AP

ENDICE A. PREVIS

AO BASEADA NOS ENSAIOS DE PROPULS

AO
Ap

endice B
Procedimentos Recomendados pela
ITTC para a Preparacao e
Realizacao das Provas de Velocidade
e Potencia
121
122 AP

ENDICE B. PROVAS DE VELOCIDADE E POT

ENCIA
ITTC Recommended
7.5-04
-01-01.1
Procedures and Guidelines
Page 1 of 10

Full Scale Measurements
Speed and Power Trials
Preparation and Conduct of
Speed/Power Trials
Effective Date
2005
Revision
03


Updated / Edited by Approved
Specialist Committee on Powering Perform-
ance of 24
th
ITTC

24
th
ITTC 2005

Date 2005 Date 2005

Table of Contents

1. PURPOSE ..............................................2
2. DEFINITIONS.......................................2
3. RESPONSIBILITIES............................3
3.1 Shipbuilders Responsibilities............3
3.2 The Trial Team..................................4
4. PROCEDURES......................................4
4.1 Trial Preparation...............................4
4.1.1 Shipbuilders Support Requirement:4
4.1.2 Space Requirements ........................4
4.2 Ship Inspection...................................5
4.2.1 Preparation for the trials ..................5
4.2.2 Ship Inspection................................5
4.2.3 Reporting of Results and
Distribution of Information .............5
4.3 Hull- and Propulsor Survey.............. 5
4.4 Instrumentation Installation and
Calibration ......................................... 5
4.4.1 Instrumentation Installation............. 5
4.4.2 Instrumentation Calibration Check . 6
4.5 Trial Conditions................................. 6
4.5.1 Wind: ............................................... 8
4.5.2 Sea State: ......................................... 8
4.5.3 Current:............................................ 8
4.6 Trial Conduct: ................................... 8
5. REFERENCES.................................... 10



ITTC Recommended
7.5-04
-01-01.1
Procedures and Guidelines
Page 2 of 10

Full Scale Measurements
Speed and Power Trials
Preparation and Conduct of
Speed/Power Trials
Effective Date
2005
Revision
03



Preparation and Conduct of Speed/Power Trials

1. PURPOSE
The general purpose of this procedure is to
define basic requirements for the preparation
and conduct of speed trials.
The primary purpose of speed trials is to
determine ship performance in terms of speed,
power and propeller revolutions under pre-
scribed ship conditions, and thereby verify the
satisfactory attainment of the contractually
stipulated ship speed.
The applicability of this procedure is lim-
ited to commercial ships of the displacement
type.
The procedure is
to provide guidelines to document the
trial preparation prior to the conduct of
a full scale Speed/Power trial,
to define the responsibility sharing
among the parties who take part in the
sea trial for the smooth preparation and
execution of the speed trial
to establish a guideline for conducting
inspections for the purpose of installing
instrumentation prior to the conduct of
a full scale Speed/Power trial,
to establish a baseline of the ship hull
and propulsor condition prior to the
conduct of a full-scale Speed/Power
trial;(hull and propulsor surveys are
recommended to allow an evaluation of
the trial results for scientific purposes),
to install and calibrate trial instrumenta-
tion for full scale Speed/Power trials,
to define acceptable limits for trial con-
ditions needed to validate hydrody-
namic design and/or satisfy contractual
requirements,
for acceptable conduct of each speed trial.
2. DEFINITIONS

Ship Speed is that realized under the con-
tractually stipulated conditions. Ideal condi-
tions to which the speed would be corrected
would be
no wind (or maximum wind speed ac-
cording to Beaufort 2)
no waves (or waves with maximum
wave heights and wave periods accord-
ing to Beaufort 1)
no current
deep water
smooth hull and propeller surfaces
Docking Report: Report that documents
the condition of the ship hull and propul-
sors (available from the most recent dry -
docking).
Trial Agenda: Document outlining the
scope of a particular Speed/Power trial.
This document contains the procedures on
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Procedures and Guidelines
Page 3 of 10

Full Scale Measurements
Speed and Power Trials
Preparation and Conduct of
Speed/Power Trials
Effective Date
2005
Revision
03



how to conduct the trial and table(s) por-
traying the runs to be conducted.
Trial Log: For each run, the log contains
the run number, type of maneuver, ap-
proach speed by log, approach shaft speed,
times when the maneuvers start and stop,
and any comments about the run.
Propeller Pitch: the design pitch also for
controllable pitch propellers.
Running Pitch: the operating pitch of a
CPP
Brake Power: Power delivered by the out-
put coupling of the propulsion machinery
before passing through any speed reducing
and transmission devices and with all con-
tinuously operating engine auxiliaries in
use.
Shaft Power: Net power supplied by the
propulsion machinery to the propulsion
shafting after passing through all speed-
reducing and other transmission devices
and after power for all attached auxiliaries
has been taken off.
3. RESPONSIBILITIES
3.1 Shipbuilders Responsibilities

The Shipbuilder has the responsibility for
planning, conducting and evaluating the tri-
als.
Speed Power - Trials may be conducted
by institutions acknowledged as competent
to perform those trials, as agreed between
the Shipbuilder and the Ship owner
The Shipbuilder has to provide all permits
and certificates needed to go to sea.
The Shipbuilder is responsible to ensure
that all qualified personnel, needed for op-
erating the ship and all engines, systems
and equipment during the trials have been
ordered.
The Shipbuilder is responsible to ensure
that all regulatory bodies, Classification
Society, Ship Owner, ship agents, suppliers,
subcontractors, harbor facilities, delivering
departments of provisions, fuel, water, tow-
ing, etc., needed for conducting the sea tri-
als, have been informed and are available
and on board, if required.
It is the Shipbuilders responsibility that all
safety measures have been checked and all
fixed, portable and individual material (for
crew, trial personnel and guests) is on
board and operative.
It is the Shipbuilders responsibility that
dock trials of all systems have been exe-
cuted as well as all alarms, warning and
safety systems.
It is the Shipbuilders responsibility that an
inclining test has been performed and/or at
least a preliminary stability booklet has
been approved, covering the sea trial condi-
tion, in accordance with the 1974 SOLAS
Convention.
The Shipbuilder is responsible for the over-
all trial coordination between the ship's
crew, trial personnel, and the owner repre-
sentative. A pre-trial meeting between the
trial team, owner and the ships crew will
be held to discuss the various trial events
and to resolve any outstanding issues.
ITTC Recommended
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Procedures and Guidelines
Page 4 of 10

Full Scale Measurements
Speed and Power Trials
Preparation and Conduct of
Speed/Power Trials
Effective Date
2005
Revision
03



The Shipbuilder has, if necessary, to ar-
range for divers to inspect the ships hull
and propellers.
The Trial Leader is the duly authorized
(shipbuilders representative) person re-
sponsible for the execution of all phases of
the Speed/Power trials including the pre-
trial preparation.
3.2 The Trial Team
The trial team is responsible for correct
measurements and analysis of the measured
data according to the state of the art.
The trial team is responsible for the follow-
ing:
a. Conduct ship inspection, if possible or
necessary.
b. Provide, install and operate all required
trial instrumentation and temporary ca-
bling.
c. If previously arranged, provide the ship
master and owners representative with
a preliminary data package before de-
barking. The contents of the data pack-
age will be determined in consultation
with the owners representative at the
initial pre-trial briefing.
d. Provide a final report after completion
of the trials in accordance with any
agreement between the shipbuilder and
the ship owner.
4. PROCEDURES
4.1 Trial Preparation
4.1.1 Shipbuilders Support Requirement:

Prior to the trials the required instrumenta-
tion has to be installed. The assistance of the
ships or shipbuilders crew will be required
when making electrical connections to the
ship's systems and circuits such as heading,
wind speed, wind direction, and rudder angle
synchronous repeaters. The following support
is requested from the Shipbuilder to properly
prepare for the trials:
a. Provide access to the ship for trial in-
strumentation.
b. Assistance is required for the following
electrical connections:
Gyrocompass
Wind meter
Rudder angle indicator
Log Speed
Propeller Pitch
c. Vary the output level of each of the
above measurement sources to ensure
the proper operation and alignment of
the test instrumentation
4.1.2 Space Requirements
Spaces and an electric supply adequate for
the trial equipment will be required for the trial
instrumentation and computers.
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Procedures and Guidelines
Page 5 of 10

Full Scale Measurements
Speed and Power Trials
Preparation and Conduct of
Speed/Power Trials
Effective Date
2005
Revision
03



4.2 Ship Inspection
There are three stages of a ship inspection:
in-house preparation, the actual inspection, and
the reporting of results and distribution of in-
formation to the various parties involved in the
trial.
4.2.1 Preparation for the trials
Review shafting dimensions, propulsion
plant specifications, etc.
Review trials agenda, if available.

4.2.2 Ship Inspection
Inspect hull- and propeller surface con-
dition, if possible.
Inspect ships instrumentation for ac-
cessibility.
Determine routes for cable runs/data
transfer conduits between trial room
and bridge or control area.
Contact the Engineer on duty to discuss
trial instrumentation requirements. In-
spect machinery spaces as applicable.

4.2.3 Reporting of Results and Distribution
of Information
Document all pertinent information related
to the ship inspection
a) Last date of cleaning.
b) Means of cleaning.
c) Propeller roughness measurement, if
available, which should include aver-
age, standard deviation, distribution
along the blades, and existing physical
damage.
d) For a clean hull; documentation indi-
cating manufacturer and kind of paint
used, paint layer thickness and, if avail-
able, roughness measurements (average,
standard deviation, and distribution
along the hull) should be provided. The
majority of this information may be
contained in the docking report.
e) For a dirty hull, documentation indi-
cating visual observations of any foul-
ing and date of last dry-docking should
be provided.
4.3 Hull- and Propulsor Survey
A roughness survey is recommended to
document the conditions of the ship hull, ap-
pendages, and propulsor(s) prior to the start of
the full-scale speed/ power trial. Cleaning may
be required if fouling is found to be such that it
would bias the trial data.
Ideally, roughness surveys should be con-
ducted prior to the trials. The average hull
roughness should not exceed 250 m ( =
1x10
-6
m) (6.35 mils) and the average propul-
sor roughness level should not be greater than
150 m (3.81 mils).
4.4 Instrumentation Installation and Cali-
bration
4.4.1 Instrumentation Installation
The installation of instrumentation should
be scheduled at a time of minimal conflict with
ship operations.
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Procedures and Guidelines
Page 6 of 10

Full Scale Measurements
Speed and Power Trials
Preparation and Conduct of
Speed/Power Trials
Effective Date
2005
Revision
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The bias limits of the instrumentation used
for the measurements should be known and as-
sessed.
The instrumentation used for the on-board-
measurements must be calibrated before appli-
cation on board. If this is not possible, for some
reason, the consequences of this should be
highlighted in the final trial report. Electrical
calibration is recommended for the torque
measurement device and, in case of use during
the sea trials, for the thrust measurement device.
Further a calibration should be done for the
pick ups and the respective amplifiers used for
the measurement of the rate of revolutions. A
calibration of a (differential) GPS-System is
not possible without excessive measures, but at
least the function of the device should be
checked before use on board.
If portable radar tracking or (differential)
GPS is utilized, a Receiver/Transmitter (R/T)
unit or GPS antenna is to be installed. In case
the soft ware program used for the evaluation
of the data received does not allow for varying
positions on the uppermost deck of the ship the
antenna should be placed in a location along
the ships centerline as close to the ships CG
as possible. This location will ideally be lo-
cated on a mast or site that is clear of obstruc-
tions, such as the ships superstructure.
4.4.2 Instrumentation Calibration Check
All shipboard signals to be recorded during
the trials must be adjusted to zero or should
have their zero value checked (e.g. for a (D)
GPS-device) after the instrumentation installa-
tion is completed and prior to the trials. The
zero values of the torsiometers, the thrust
measurement devices and the devices for the
measurement of the rates of revolutions must
be checked before the trial runs start and after
they have been finished.
As part of the pre-trial calibration, the tor-
sion meters zero torque readings must be de-
termined since there is a residual torque in the
shaft, which is resting on the line shaft bearings.
This might be done in different ways; one pos-
sible way is to use the jacking motors. The
shaft is jacked both ahead and astern and the
average of the readings noted. The zeroes are
set at the midpoint of the torque required to
jack each shaft ahead and the torque required to
jack each shaft astern. An allowance is nor-
mally made for frictional losses in the stern
tube bearings.
As part of the pre-trial calibration for a ship
equipped with controllable pitch propellers,
maximum ahead pitch, the design pitch and the
maximum astern pitch should be determined
and then the ship indicators should be adjusted
to reflect the measurement.
4.5 Trial Conditions
Speed/Power trials require accurate position
data. The use of (D) GPS provides great lati-
tude in choosing a trial site. Regardless of the
instrumentation utilized for obtaining posi-
tional data, the operational area should be free
from substantial small boat traffic.
The tracking range should be agreed be-
tween the Trial Director and the ships master.
Draft, trim and displacement of the ship on
trials should be obtained by averaging the ship
draft mark readings. The ship should be
brought into a condition that is as close as pos-
sible to the contract condition and/or the condi-
ITTC Recommended
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-01-01.1
Procedures and Guidelines
Page 7 of 10

Full Scale Measurements
Speed and Power Trials
Preparation and Conduct of
Speed/Power Trials
Effective Date
2005
Revision
03



tion on which model tests have been carried out.
This will allow for the correction of the dis-
placement and trim with respect to the trials
that were conducted and will be applicable to
the suggestions outlined in the ITTC Procedure
for the Analysis of Speed/Power Trial Data.
Draft, trim and displacement should be ob-
tained at the beginning and at the end of the
trial. This may be accomplished using a load-
ing computer or by taking a second draft read-
ing. The accuracy of the draft readings and the
method used to establish draft and displace-
ment underway will be compared in port by di-
rect draft readings both port and starboard in
conjunction with a liquid load calculation.
Displacement should be derived from the
hydrostatic curves by utilizing the draft data
and the density of the water.
Environmental factors may significantly in-
fluence the data obtained during sea trials; con-
sequently, these factors should be monitored
and documented to the greatest extent possible:
High wind and sea states can force the
use of excessive rudder to maintain
heading, and thus cause excessive fluc-
tuations in shaft torque, shaft speed and
ship speed.
Sea states of 3 or less and a true wind
speed below Beaufort 6 (20 Kn) are the
desired conditions for sea trials. When
working under the time constraints of a
contract, corrections to the trials data
can be made in accordance with the rec-
ommendations provided in the ITTC
Procedure for the Analysis of
Speed/Power Trial Data for sea states
less than or equal to 5. For sea states
greater than 5, corrections to the trials
data can be applied but are not consid-
ered reliable from a scientific stand-
point.
The local seawater temperature and spe-
cific gravity at the trial site are recorded
to enable the calculation of ship's dis-
placement.
An acceptable minimum water depth
for the trials where the data do not need
to be corrected for shallow water can be
calculated using:
h > 6.0(A
m
)
0.5
and h > 0.5 V
2
(1)
with
A
m
= midship section area, [m
2
]
V= ship speed, [m/s]
The larger of the 2 values obtained
from the two equations should be used.
Current speed and direction should be
determined in the test area by prognos-
tic analysis. When current speed and di-
rection is unknown, the ships global
drift (also including wind effect) in
some cases might be determined by a
360 turning test conducted at low
ahead speed to magnify any environ-
mental effect.
The runs should be conducted into and
against the waves; i.e., head and follow-
ing seas, respectively. To ensure that
tests are performed in comparable con-
ditions, the data between reciprocal
runs should be reviewed for consistency
and/or anomalies. Individual speed runs
conducted in the same conditions
should be averaged with their reciprocal
runs to take into account global drift.
ITTC Recommended
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-01-01.1
Procedures and Guidelines
Page 8 of 10

Full Scale Measurements
Speed and Power Trials
Preparation and Conduct of
Speed/Power Trials
Effective Date
2005
Revision
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In accordance with ISO 15016 the follow-
ing, general recommendations can be given:
4.5.1 Wind:
Wind speed and direction shall be measured
as relative wind; continuous recording of rela-
tive wind during each run is recommended.
Care has to be taken whether the data derived
from the wind indicator are reliable; checks,
such as parallel measurements with a portable
instrument, comparison of the data received
from the wind indicator with wind speeds and
directions received from local weather stations
sufficiently close to the actual position of the
ship or, if possible, calibration of the wind in-
dicator (taking into consideration the effects of
boundary layers of the superstructure on the
measured values) in a wind tunnel are recom-
mended.
It is suggested that wind force during the
trial runs under no conditions should be higher
than
Beaufort 6 for ships with lengths equal
or exceeding 100m and
Beaufort 5 for ships shorter than 100m.

4.5.2 Sea State:
If possible, instruments such as buoys or in-
struments onboard ships (e.g. seaway analysis
radar) should be used to determine the wave
height, wave period and direction of seas and
swell. Considering usual practice the wave
heights may be determined from observations
by multiple, experienced observers, including
the nautical staff on board.
During the trial runs the total wave height
(double amplitude), which allows for the wave
heights of seas and swell (see ISO 15016),
should not exceed
3m for ships of 100m length and more
and
1,5m for ships with lengths smaller than
100m
4.5.3 Current:
Current speed and direction shall be ob-
tained either as part of the evaluation of run
and counter-run of each double run, by direct
measurement with a current gauge buoy or by
use of nautical charts of the respective trial area.
It is recommended to compare measured data
with those included on the nautical charts.
4.6 Trial Conduct:
All speed trials shall be carried out using
double runs, i.e. each run is followed by a re-
turn run in the opposite direction, performed
with the same engine settings.
The number of such double runs should not
be less than three. This three runs should be at
different engine settings.
The time necessary for a speed run depends
on the ships speed, size and power. Steady
state conditions should be achieved before the
speed runs start. It is recommended that the
time of one run should be as long as possible
but should at least be 10 min.
The ideal path of a ship in a typical
speed/power maneuver is shown in Figure 1:
ITTC Recommended
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Procedures and Guidelines
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Speed and Power Trials
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Speed/Power Trials
Effective Date
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Revision
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Steady Approach
Min 10 min
Steady Approach

Min. 10 min

Figure 1

Prior to the trial, the data specified below
shall be recorded, based on measurements
where relevant:
Date
Trial area
Weather conditions
Air temperature
Mean water depth in the trial area
Water temperature and density
Draughts
Corresponding displacement
Propeller pitch in the case of a CPP
It is recommended to retain a record of the
following factors, which should prove useful
for verifying the condition of the ship at the
time of the speed trial:
Time elapsed since last hull and propel-
ler cleaning
Surface condition of hull and propeller.
The following data should be monitored
and recorded on each run:
Clock time at commencement
Time elapsed over the measured dis-
tance
Ship heading
Ships speed over ground
Propeller rate of revolutions
Propeller shaft torque and/or brake
power
Water depth
Relative wind velocity and direction
Air temperature
Observed wave height (or: wave height
corresponding to observed and/or
agreed wind conditions)
Rudder angle
Ship position and track
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Effective Date
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Data such as ships speed, rate of revolu-
tions of the propeller, torque, rudder angle and
drift angle to be used for the analyses shall be
the average values derived on the measured
distance.


5. REFERENCES
(1) ISO 15016, Ships and marine technology
Guidelines for the assessment of speed and
power performance by analysis of speed
trial data
(2) ITTC Procedure for the Analysis of
Speed/Power Trial Data
(3) ISO 19019


Ap

endice C
Condicoes de Realizacao das Provas
de Velocidade e Potencia
Recomendadas pela ITTC
133
134 AP

ENDICE C. CONDI C

OES DAS PROVAS DE VELOCIDADE E POT

ENCIA
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Updated by Approved
Specialist Committee of 23
rd
ITTC on
Speed and Powering

23
rd
ITTC 2002
Date Date 2002

CONTENTS

1. PURPOSE
2. SCOPE
3. RESPONSIBILITIES
4. DEFINITIONS
5. PROCEDURE
6. REFERENCES
7. RECORDS
8. ATTACHMENTS
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Trial Conditions
1. PURPOSE
The purpose of this procedure is to estab-
lish guidelines for the definition of acceptable
limits for trial conditions needed to validate
hydrodynamic design and/or satisfy contractual
requirements.
2. SCOPE
This procedure applies to the documenta-
tion of trial conditions (environmental and
ship) in which the full-scale Speed/Power trial
are performed.
3. RESPONSIBILITIES
The Trial Director is the duly authorized
shipbuilders representative responsible for
the execution of all phases of the
Speed/Power trials. When unforeseen prob-
lems, such as weather or technical difficul-
ties require that the trial schedule or trial
logistics be modified, the Trial Director
shall make the final decision, subject to the
concurrence of the ships master and the
owners representative.
The shipbuilder is responsible for the over-
all trial coordination between the ship's
crew, trial personnel, and the owner repre-
sentative. A pre-trial meeting between the
trial team, owner and the ships crew will
be held to discuss the various trial events
and to resolve any outstanding issues.
The trial team is responsible for the follow-
ing:
a. Operate and maintain all required trial
instrumentation and temporary cabling.
b. Collect and record seawater tempera-
ture and specific gravity during trial,
daily.
4. DEFINITIONS
None
5. PROCEDURE
1. Speed/Power trials require accurate posi-
tion data and therefore will ideally be con-
ducted at an instrumented tracking range
located in a sheltered body of water. Lack-
ing availability of an instrumented tracking
range, the use of DGPS provides great lati-
tude in choosing a trial site. Regardless of
the instrumentation utilized for obtaining
positional data, the operational area should
be free from substantial small boat traffic.
2. If an instrumented tracking range is util-
ized, the ships master will receive a formal
briefing on tracking range procedures by
the Trial Director prior to the conduct of
the trials. During the briefing, specific trial
runs will be reviewed. The trial team will
provide an on-shore observer to monitor
data collection by the tracking range facil-
ity. If DGPS is utilized, the Trial Director
will brief the ships master on specific trial
runs and procedures.
3. Ship characteristics and environmental fac-
tors are carefully monitored and docu-
mented throughout the trials (see Table 1).
Accurate quantification of these conditions
is necessary because a ship's speed and
powering characteristics are extremely sen-
sitive to conditions such as ship and propel-
ler condition, ship displacement, shallow
water effects, sea state and wind velocity.
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4. Speed/Power Trials are normally scheduled
within 30 days of undocking to minimize
the adverse effects of hull and propulsor
fouling and provide a more "standard" con-
dition for testing. In situations where the
ship has become fouled after undocking, a
hull cleaning, propeller polishing and hull
and propeller roughness survey should be
performed within 30 days of the
Speed/Power trial date. Guidance may be
found in Hull and Propulsor Survey Proce-
dure 7.5-04-01-01.3. At a minimum, the
ships latest docking report and diver in-
spection should be provided to fulfill this
requirement. Guidance may be found in
Speed/Power Trial Ship Inspection Proce-
dure 7.5-04-01-01.2.
5. Draft, trim and displacement of the trials
must be obtained by averaging the ship
draft mark readings. The ship should be
brought into a condition that is as close as
possible to the contract condition and/or the
condition by which model tests have been
carried out. This will allow for the correc-
tion of the displacement and trim with re-
spect to the trials that were conducted and
will be applicable to the suggestions out-
lined in the 23rd ITTC Speed and Powering
Trials Specialist Committee final report.
a. Draft, trim and displacement must be
obtained at the beginning and at the end
of the trial. This may be accomplished
using a loading computer or by taking a
second draft reading. The accuracy of
the ship's draft marks and the method
used to calculate draft and displacement
underway will be compared in port by
direct draft readings both port and star-
board in conjunction with a liquid load
calculation. The trial team will verify
and document the results prior to the
Speed/Power trials.
b. Displacement must be derived from the
hydrostatic curves by utilizing the draft
data and the density of the water. When
dealing with Froude numbers higher
than 0.5 (e.g. a Fast Ferry with 100 m
length and speed over 30 kn) intermedi-
ate ship loading conditions must be
documented. This is better accom-
plished through tank soundings.
6. Environmental factors can significantly in-
fluence the data obtained during sea trials.
Consequently, these factors must be moni-
tored and documented to the greatest extent
possible.
a. High wind and sea states can force the
use of excessive rudder to maintain
heading, and thus cause excessive fluc-
tuations in shaft torque, shaft speed and
ship speed.
b. Sea states of 3 or less and a true wind
speed below Beaufort 6 (20 kn) are the
desired conditions for sea trials. When
working under the time constraints of a
contract, corrections to the trials data
can be made in accordance with the rec-
ommendations provided in the 23rd
ITTC Speed and Powering Trials Spe-
cialist Committee final report for sea
states less than or equal to 5. For sea
states greater than 5, corrections to the
trials data can be applied but are not
considered reliable from a scientific
standpoint.
c. The local seawater temperature and spe-
cific gravity at the trial site are recorded
to enable the calculation of ship's dis-
placement.
d. Air temperature and atmospheric pres-
sure should be measured at the trial lo-
cation using a calibrated thermometer
and barometer.
e. An acceptable minimum water depth for the
trials where the data do not need to be cor-
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rected for shallow water can be calculated
using:

h > 6.0(A
m
)
0.5
and h > 0.5 V
2
(1)

Use the larger of the 2 values obtained from
the two equations.

Other accepted formulae are:

1. SNAME 1973/21st ITTC Powering
Performance Committee

d 10TV/(L)
0.5
(2)

d = water depth, ft
T =trial draft, ft
V = speed, kn
L = length between perpendicu-
lars, ft

2. SNAME 1989 from Det Norske
Veritas
Nautical Safety- Additional Classes
NAUT-A, NAUT-B AND NAUT-
C, July 1986

h > 5.0(A
m
)
0.5
and h > 0.4 V
2
(3)

Use the larger of the 2 values ob-
tained from the two equations.

h = water depth, m
A
m
= midship section area, m
2
V = ship speed, m/s

or

h > 5 (T) (4)

T = Mean draft, m

3. 22nd ITTC Trials & Monitoring
Specialist Committee/12th ITTC
based on ship section and Froude
Number.

h > 3.0(BT)
0.5
and h > 2.75 V
2
/g
(5)
Use the larger of the 2 values ob-
tained from the two equations.

h = depth in appropriate length
units
B = beam in appropriate length
units
T = draft in appropriate length
units
V = speed in system of units con-
sistent with the above dimension
g = acceleration due to gravity in
units consistent with the above di-
mension

4. ISO/FDIS 15016:(E) based on Lack-
enbys Formula

V
V
= 0.1242
A
m
h
2
0.05




+1 tanh(
gh
V
2
)




0.5

for h (A
m
/0.05)
0.5
(6)
V
V
0.02

h = water depth, m
A
m
= midship section area under
water, m
2

V = ship speed, m/s
V = speed loss due to shallow wa-
ter effect, m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity,
m/s
2



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f. Current speed and direction should be
determined in the test area by prognos-
tic analysis. When current speed is sus-
pected to be varying and direction is
unknown, the ships global drift (also
including wind effect) should be deter-
mined by a 360 turning test conducted
at low ahead speed to magnify any en-
vironmental effect. Test runs should be
conducted against and with global drift.
It should be noted that this method of
determining the direction of the trial
runs is extremely important in the case
of small ships whose performance is
strongly effected by environmental con-
ditions. For large ships, such as ULCCs,
performance is not impacted as greatly
by environmental conditions. If time is
a critical factor, then the runs can be
conducted into and against the waves;
i.e., head and following seas, re-
spectively. To ensure that tests are per-
formed in comparable conditions, the
data between reciprocal runs should be
reviewed for consistency and/or anoma-
lies. Individual speed runs conducted in
the same conditions should be averaged
with their reciprocal runs to take into
account global drift.
6. REFERENCES
1. SNAME 1973/21st ITTC Powering Per-
formance Committee Final Report
2. 22nd ITTC Trials & Monitoring Specialist
Committee Final Report
3. Ships and marine technology Guidelines
for the assessment of speed and power per-
formance analysis of speed trial data, Final
Draft International Standard ISO/FDIS
15016: (E), ISO/TC 8/SC 9/WG 2 of 2001
4. 23rd ITTC Speed and Powering Trials Spe-
cialist Committee Final Report
5. Speed/Power Trial Ship Inspection Proce-
dure 7.5-04-01-01.2
6. Hull and Propulsor Survey Procedure 7.5-
04-01-01.3
7. RECORDS
1. Ship conditions displacement, draft, pro-
pulsor and hull roughness
2. Environmental conditions water depth,
water temperature, wind direction and
speed, sea state, specific gravity, air tem-
perature, atmospheric pressure, current
speed and direction
8. ATTACHMENTS
1. Table 1. Documented Ship and Trial Con-
ditions Reported


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Table 1. Documented Ship and Trial Conditions Reported
Description
Ship Hull
Draft
Trim
Displacement and Load
Hull Condition
Roughness of shell and bottom paint
Height of welding beads
Waviness of hull
Size, number and position of zinc anodes
Size, number and position of openings of sea water inlets and outlets
Paint system
Hull Appendages and Rudder
Geometry, deviations, roughness
Type
Rate of movement
Propeller(s)
Geometry, deviations, roughness
Pitch
Direction of rotation
Number of blades
Propeller Shaft(s)
Geometry
Material
Trial Site
Water depth
Water temperature
Air temperature
Sea State
Specific gravity of water
Environmental Conditions
Wind
Waves
Current
Atmospheric pressure
Ap

endice D
Utilizacao dos Diagramas na
Seleccao de Motores Propulsores
141
142 AP

ENDICE D. SELEC C

AO DE MOTORES PROPULSORES
Contents:
Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion
Page
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Scope of this Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1
Ship Definitions and Hull Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Ship types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A ships load lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Indication of a ships size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Description of hull forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Ships resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 2
Propeller Propulsion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Propeller types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Flow conditions around the propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Propeller dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Operating conditions of a propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Chapter 3
Engine Layout and Load Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Power functions and logarithmic scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Propulsion and engine running points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Engine layout diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Load diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Use of layout and load diagrams examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Influence on engine running of different types
of ship resistance plant with FPpropeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Influence of ship resistance
on combinator curves plant with CPpropeller . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Closing Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Introduction
For the purpose of this paper, the term
ship is used to denote a vehicle em
ployed to transport goods and persons
from one point to another over water.
Ship propulsion normally occurs with
the help of a propeller, which is the
term most widely used in English, al
though the word screw is sometimes
seen, inter alia in combinations such as
a twinscrew propulsion plant.
Today, the primary source of propeller
power is the diesel engine, and the power
requirement and rate of revolution very
much depend on the ships hull form
and the propeller design. Therefore, in
order to arrive at a solution that is as
optimal as possible, some general
knowledge is essential as to the princi
pal ship and diesel engine parameters
that influence the propulsion system.
This paper will, in particular, attempt to
explain some of the most elementary
terms used regarding ship types,
ships dimensions and hull forms and
clarify some of the parameters pertain
ing to hull resistance, propeller condi
tions and the diesel engines load
diagram.
On the other hand, it is considered be
yond the scope of this publication to
give an explanation of how propulsion
calculations as such are carried out, as
the calculation procedure is extremely
complex. The reader is referred to the
specialised literature on this subject, for
example as stated in References.
Scope of this Paper
This paper is divided into three chapters
which, in principle, may be considered as
three separate papers but which also,
with advantage, may be read in close
connection to each other. Therefore,
some important information mentioned in
one chapter may well appear in another
chapter, too.
Chapter 1, describes the most elemen
tary terms used to define ship sizes
and hull forms such as, for example,
the ships displacement, deadweight,
design draught, length between per
pendiculars, block coefficient, etc.
Other ship terms described include the
effective towing resistance, consisting
of frictional, residual and air resistance,
and the influence of these resistances
in service.
Chapter 2, deals with ship propulsion
and the flow conditions around the pro
peller(s). In this connection, the wake
fraction coefficient and thrust deduc
tion coefficient, etc. are mentioned.
The total power needed for the propel
ler is found based on the above effec
tive towing resistance and various
propeller and hull dependent efficien
cies which are also described. A sum
mary of the propulsion theory is shown
in Fig. 6.
The operating conditions of a propeller
according to the propeller law valid for
a propeller with fixed pitch are described
for free sailing in calm weather, and
followed up by the relative heavy/light
running conditions which apply when
the ship is sailing and subject to different
types of extra resistance, like fouling,
heavy sea against, etc.
Chapter 3, elucidates the importance
of choosing the correct specified MCR
and optimising point of the main engine,
and thereby the engines load diagram
in consideration to the propellers design
point. The construction of the relevant
load diagram lines is described in detail
by means of several examples. Fig. 24
shows, for a ship with fixed pitch pro
peller, by means of a load diagram, the
important influence of different types of
ship resistance on the engines contin
uous service rating.
3
Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion
Ship Definitions and Hull
Resistance
Ship types
Depending on the nature of their cargo,
and sometimes also the way the cargo
is loaded/unloaded, ships can be divided
into different categories, classes, and
types, some of which are mentioned in
Table 1.
The three largest categories of ships
are container ships, bulk carriers (for
bulk goods such as grain, coal, ores,
etc.) and tankers, which again can be
divided into more precisely defined
classes and types. Thus, tankers can
be divided into oil tankers, gas tankers
and chemical tankers, but there are
also combinations, e.g. oil/chemical
tankers.
Table 1 provides only a rough outline.
In reality there are many other combi
nations, such as Multipurpose bulk
container carriers, to mention just one
example.
A ships load lines
Painted halfway along the ships side
is the Plimsoll Mark, see Fig. 1. The
lines and letters of the Plimsoll Mark,
which conform to the freeboard rules
laid down by the IMO (International
Maritime Organisation) and local au
thorities, indicate the depth to which
the vessel may be safely loaded (the
depth varies according to the season
and the salinity of the water).
There are, e.g. load lines for sailing in
freshwater and seawater, respectively,
with further divisions for tropical condi
tions and summer and winter sailing.
According to the international freeboard
rules, the summer freeboard draught
for seawater is equal to the Scantling
draught, which is the term applied to
the ships draught when dimensioning
the hull.
The winter freeboard draught is less
than that valid for summer because of
the risk of bad weather whereas, on the
other hand, the freeboard draught for
tropical seas is somewhat higher than
the summer freeboard draught.
4
Category Class Type
Tanker
Oil tanker
Gas tanker
Chemical tanker
OBO
Crude (oil) Carrier
Very Large Crude Carrier
Ultra Large Crude Carrier
Product Tanker
Liquefied Natural Gas carrier
Liquefied Petroleum Gas carrier
Oil/Bulk/Ore carrier
CC
VLCC
ULCC
LNG
LPG
OBO
Bulk carrier Bulk carrier
Container ship Container ship
Container carrier
Roll OnRoll Off RoRo
General cargo ship
General cargo
Coaster
Reefer Reefer Refrigerated cargo vessel
Passenger ship
Ferry
Cruise vessel
Table 1: Examples of ship types
T Tropical
S Summer
W Winter
WNA Winter - the North Atlantic
D L
D: Freeboard draught
Seawater Freshwater
Danish load mark
TF
F
D
Freeboard deck
Fig. 1: Load lines freeboard draught
Indication of a ships size
Displacement and deadweight
When a ship in loaded condition floats at
an arbitrary water line, its displacement is
equal to the relevant mass of water dis
placed by the ship. Displacement is thus
equal to the total weight, all told, of the
relevant loaded ship, normally in seawa
ter with a mass density of 1.025 t/m
3
.
Displacement comprises the ships
light weight and its deadweight, where
the deadweight is equal to the ships
loaded capacity, including bunkers and
other supplies necessary for the ships
propulsion. The deadweight at any time
thus represents the difference between
the actual displacement and the ships
light weight, all given in tons:
deadweight = displacement light weight.
Incidentally, the word ton does not
always express the same amount of
weight. Besides the metric ton (1,000
kg), there is the English ton (1,016 kg),
which is also called the long ton. A
short ton is approx. 907 kg.
The light weight of a ship is not normally
used to indicate the size of a ship,
whereas the deadweight tonnage
(dwt), based on the ships loading ca
pacity, including fuel and lube oils etc.
for operation of the ship, measured in
tons at scantling draught, often is.
Sometimes, the deadweight tonnage
may also refer to the design draught of
the ship but, if so, this will be mentioned.
Table 2 indicates the ruleofthumb rela
tionship between the ships displacement,
deadweight tonnage (summer freeboard/
scantling draught) and light weight.
A ships displacement can also be ex
pressed as the volume of displaced
water , i.e. in m
3
.
Gross register tons
Without going into detail, it should be
mentioned that there are also such
measurements as Gross Register Tons
(GRT), and Net Register Tons (NRT)
where 1 register ton = 100 English cubic
feet, or 2.83 m
3
.
These measurements express the size
of the internal volume of the ship in ac
cordance with the given rules for such
measurements, and are extensively
used for calculating harbour and canal
dues/charges.
Description of hull forms
It is evident that the part of the ship
which is of significance for its propulsion
is the part of the ships hull which is
under the water line. The dimensions
below describing the hull form refer
to the design draught, which is less
than, or equal to, the scantling
draught. The choice of the design
draught depends on the degree of
load, i.e. whether, in service, the ship
will be lightly or heavily loaded. Gen
erally, the most frequently occurring
draught between the fullyloaded and
the ballast draught is used.
Ships lengths L
OA
, L
WL
, and L
PP
The overall length of the ship L
OA
is
normally of no consequence when
calculating the hulls water resistance.
The factors used are the length of the
waterline L
WL
and the socalled length
between perpendiculars L
PP
. The di
mensions referred to are shown in
Fig. 2.
5
Ship type
dwt/light
weight ratio
Displ./dwt
ratio
Tanker and
Bulk carrier
6 1.17
Container ship
2.53.0 1.331.4
Table 2: Examples of relationship between dis
placement, deadweight tonnage and light weight
L
L
L
PP
WL
OA
A
M
DA
B
WL
DF
D
Length between perpendiculars: L
Length on waterline: L
Length o : L
Breadth on waterline: B
Draught: D = 1/2 (D +D )
Midship section area: A
PP
WL
OA
WL
m
F A
verall
Fig. 2: Hull dimensions
The length between perpendiculars is
the length between the foremost per
pendicular, i.e. usually a vertical line
through the stems intersection with
the waterline, and the aftmost perpen
dicular which, normally, coincides with
the rudder axis. Generally, this length is
slightly less than the waterline length,
and is often expressed as:
L
PP
= 0.97 L
WL
Draught D
The ships draught D (often T is used in
literature) is defined as the vertical dis
tance from the waterline to that point of
the hull which is deepest in the water,
see Figs. 2 and 3. The foremost draught
D
F
and aftmost draught D
A
are normally
the same when the ship is in the loaded
condition.
Breadth on waterline B
WL
Another important factor is the hulls
largest breadth on the waterline B
WL
,
see Figs. 2 and 3.
Block coefficient C
B
Various form coefficients are used to
express the shape of the hull. The most
important of these coefficients is the
block coefficient C
B
, which is defined
as the ratio between the displacement
volume and the volume of a box with
dimensions L
WL
B
WL
D, see Fig. 3, i.e.:
C
L B D
B
WL WL
=


In the case cited above, the block co
efficient refers to the length on water
line L
WL
. However, shipbuilders often use
block coefficient C
B, PP
based on the
length between perpendiculars, L
PP
, in
which case the block coefficient will, as a
rule, be slightly larger because, as previ
ously mentioned, L
PP
is normally slightly
less than L
WL.
C
L B D
B PP
PP WL
,
=


A small block coefficient means less re
sistance and, consequently, the possibil
ity of attaining higher speeds.
Table 3 shows some examples of block
coefficient sizes, and the pertaining
service speeds, on different types of
ships. It shows that large block coeffi
cients correspond to low speeds and
vice versa.
Ship type
Block
coefficient
C
B
Approxi
mate ship
speed V
in knots
Lighter
0.90 5 10
Bulk carrier
0.80 0.85 12 17
Tanker
0.80 0.85 12 16
General cargo
0.55 0.75 13 22
Container ship
0.50 0.70 14 26
Ferry boat
0.50 0.70 15 26
Table 3: Examples of block coefficients
Water plane area coefficient C
WL
The water plane area coefficient C
WL
expresses the ratio between the ves
sels waterline area A
WL
and the product
of the length L
WL
and the breadth B
WL
of
the ship on the waterline, see Fig. 3, i.e.:
C
A
L B
WL
WL
WL WL
=

Generally, the waterplane area coeffi

cient is some 0.10 higher than the block
coefficient, i.e.:
C
WL
C
B
+ 0.10.
This difference will be slightly larger on
fast vessels with small block coefficients
where the stern is also partly immersed
in the water and thus becomes part of
the waterplane area.
Midship section coefficient C
M
A further description of the hull form is
provided by the midship section coeffi
cient C
M
, which expresses the ratio be
tween the immersed midship section
area A
M
(midway between the foremost
and the aftmost perpendiculars) and the
product of the ships breadth B
WL
and
draught D, see Fig. 3, i.e.:
C
A
B D
M
M
WL
=

6
LW
L
A
WL
B
W
L
D A
M Waterline plane
LPP
,
Midship section coefficient
Volume of displacement
Waterline area
Block coefficient L based
Waterplane area coefficient
WL
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient
:
:
: =
: =
: =
: =
A
C
C
C
C
B
WL
M
P
L B
WL
x x D
WL
B x D
WL
A x L
M
WL
L B
WL WL
x
A
WL
A
M
WL
Fig. 3: Hull coefficients of a ship
For bulkers and tankers, this coefficient
is in the order of 0.980.99, and for
container ships in the order of 0.970.98.
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient C
P
The longitudinal prismatic coefficient
C
P
expresses the ratio between dis
placement volume and the product
of the midship frame section area A
M
and the length of the waterline L
WL
,
see also Fig. 3, i.e.:
C
A L C B D L
C
C
p
M WL M WL WL
B
M
=

=


=
As can be seen, C
P
is not an independ
ent form coefficient, but is entirely de
pendent on the block coefficient C
B
and the midship section coefficient C
M
.
Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy LCB
The Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy
(LCB) expresses the position of the
centre of buoyancy and is defined as
the distance between the centre of
buoyancy and the midpoint between
the ships foremost and aftmost perpen
diculars. The distance is normally stated
as a percentage of the length between
the perpendiculars, and is positive if
the centre of buoyancy is located to
the fore of the midpoint between the
perpendiculars, and negative if located
to the aft of the midpoint. For a ship
designed for high speeds, e.g. container
ships, the LCB will, normally, be nega
tive, whereas for slowspeed ships,
such as tankers and bulk carriers, it will
normally be positive. The LCB is gener
ally between 3% and +3%.
Fineness ratio C
LD
The length/displacement ratio or fine
ness ratio, C
LD
, is defined as the ratio
between the ships waterline length L
WL
,
and the length of a cube with a volume
equal to the displacement volume, i.e.:
C
L
LD
WL
=

3
Ships resistance
To move a ship, it is first necessary to
overcome resistance, i.e. the force work
ing against its propulsion. The calculation
of this resistance R plays a significant role
in the selection of the correct propeller and
in the subsequent choice of main engine.
General
A ships resistance is particularly influ
enced by its speed, displacement, and
hull form. The total resistance R
T
, con
sists of many sourceresistances R
which can be divided into three main
groups, viz.:
1) Frictional resistance
2) Residual resistance
3) Air resistance
The influence of frictional and residual
resistances depends on how much of
the hull is below the waterline, while the
influence of air resistance depends on
how much of the ship is above the wa
terline. In view of this, air resistance will
have a certain effect on container ships
which carry a large number of contain
ers on the deck.
Water with a speed of V and a density
of r has a dynamic pressure of:
r V
2
(Bernoullis law)
Thus, if water is being completely
stopped by a body, the water will react
on the surface of the body with the dy
namic pressure, resulting in a dynamic
force on the body.
This relationship is used as a basis
when calculating or measuring the
sourceresistances R of a ships hull,
by means of dimensionless resistance
coefficients C. Thus, C is related to the
reference force K, defined as the force
which the dynamic pressure of water
with the ships speed V exerts on a
surface which is equal to the hulls wet
ted area A
S
. The rudders surface is
also included in the wetted area. The
general data for resistance calculations
is thus:
Reference force: K = r V
2
A
S
and source resistances: R = C K
On the basis of many experimental
tank tests, and with the help of pertain
ing dimensionless hull parameters,
some of which have already been dis
cussed, methods have been estab
lished for calculating all the necessary
resistance coefficients C and, thus, the
pertaining sourceresistances R. In
practice, the calculation of a particular
ships resistance can be verified by
testing a model of the relevant ship in
a towing tank.
Frictional resistance R
F
The frictional resistance R
F
of the hull
depends on the size of the hulls wet
ted area A
S
, and on the specific fric
tional resistance coefficient C
F
. The
friction increases with fouling of the
hull, i.e. by the growth of, i.a. algae,
sea grass and barnacles.
An attempt to avoid fouling is made by
the use of antifouling hull paints to
prevent the hull from becoming
longhaired, i.e. these paints reduce
the possibility of the hull becoming
fouled by living organisms. The paints
containing TBT (tributyl tin) as their
principal biocide, which is very toxic,
have dominated the market for decades,
but the IMO ban of TBT for new appli
cations from 1 January, 2003, and a
full ban from 1 January, 2008, may in
volve the use of new (and maybe not
as effective) alternatives, probably cop
perbased antifouling paints.
When the ship is propelled through the
water, the frictional resistance increases
at a rate that is virtually equal to the
square of the vessels speed.
Frictional resistance represents a con
siderable part of the ships resistance,
often some 7090% of the ships total
resistance for lowspeed ships (bulk
carriers and tankers), and sometimes
less than 40% for highspeed ships
(cruise liners and passenger ships) [1]. The
frictional resistance is found as follows:
R
F
= C
F
K
Residual resistance R
R
Residual resistance R
R
comprises wave
resistance and eddy resistance. Wave
resistance refers to the energy loss
caused by waves created by the vessel
during its propulsion through the water,
while eddy resistance refers to the loss
caused by flow separation which cre
ates eddies, particularly at the aft end
of the ship.
7
Wave resistance at low speeds is pro
portional to the square of the speed,
but increases much faster at higher
speeds. In principle, this means that a
speed barrier is imposed, so that a fur
ther increase of the ships propulsion
power will not result in a higher speed
as all the power will be converted into
wave energy. The residual resistance
normally represents 825% of the total
resistance for lowspeed ships, and up
to 4060% for highspeed ships [1].
Incidentally, shallow waters can also
have great influence on the residual
resistance, as the displaced water un
der the ship will have greater difficulty
in moving aftwards.
The procedure for calculating the spe
cific residual resistance coefficient C
R
is
described in specialised literature [2]
and the residual resistance is found as
follows:
R
R
= C
R
K
Air resistance R
A
In calmweather, air resistance is, in prin
ciple, proportional to the square of the
ships speed, and proportional to the
crosssectional area of the ship above the
waterline. Air resistance normally repre
sents about 2% of the total resistance.
For container ships in head wind, the
air resistance can be as much as 10%.
The air resistance can, similar to the
foregoing resistances, be expressed as
R
A
= C
A
K, but is sometimes based
on 90% of the dynamic pressure of air
with a speed of V, i.e.:
R
A
= 0.90 r
air
V
2
A
air
where r
air
is the density of the air, and
A
air
is the crosssectional area of the
vessel above the water [1].
Towing resistance R
T
and effective (towing) power P
E
The ships total towing resistance R
T
is
thus found as:
R
T
= R
F
+ R
R
+ R
A
The corresponding effective (towing)
power, P
E
, necessary to move the ship
through the water, i.e. to tow the ship
at the speed V, is then:
P
E
= V R
T
The power delivered to the propeller,
P
D
, in order to move the ship at speed
V is, however, somewhat larger. This is
due, in particular, to the flow conditions
around the propeller and the propeller
efficiency itself, the influences of which
are discussed in the next chapter
which deals with Propeller Propulsion.
Total ship resistance in general
When dividing the residual resistance
into wave and eddy resistance, as earlier
described, the distribution of the total ship
towing resistance R
T
could also, as a
guideline, be stated as shown in Fig. 4.
The right column is valid for lowspeed
ships like bulk carriers and tankers, and
the left column is valid for very highspeed
ships like cruise liners and ferries. Con
tainer ships may be placed in between
the two columns.
The main reason for the difference
between the two columns is, as earlier
mentioned, the wave resistance. Thus,
in general all the resistances are pro
portional to the square of the speed,
but for higher speeds the wave resis
tance increases much faster, involving
a higher part of the total resistance.
This tendency is also shown in Fig. 5
for a 600 teu container ship, originally
designed for the ship speed of 15 knots.
Without any change to the hull design,
8
R
F
V
R
A
V
R
W
R
E
Ship speed V
% of R
T
Type of resistance
R
A
R
W
R
E
R
F
= Friction
= Wave
= Eddy
= Air
High
speed
ship
Low
speed
ship
45 90
40 5
5 3
10 2
Fig. 4: Total ship towing resistance R
T
= R
F
+ R
W
+ R
E
+ R
A
the ship speed for a sister ship was re
quested to be increased to about 17.6
knots. However, this would lead to a
relatively high wave resistance, requir
ing a doubling of the necessary propul
sion power.
A further increase of the propulsion
power may only result in a minor ship
speed increase, as most of the extra
power will be converted into wave en
ergy, i.e. a ship speed barrier valid for
the given hull design is imposed by
what we could call a wave wall, see
Fig. 5. A modification of the hull lines,
suiting the higher ship speed, is neces
sary.
Increase of ship resistance in service,
Ref. [3], page 244
During the operation of the ship, the
paint film on the hull will break down.
Erosion will start, and marine plants
and barnacles, etc. will grow on the
surface of the hull. Bad weather, per
haps in connection with an inappropri
ate distribution of the cargo, can be a
reason for buckled bottom plates. The
hull has been fouled and will no longer
have a technically smooth surface,
which means that the frictional resist
ance will be greater. It must also be
considered that the propeller surface
can become rough and fouled. The to
tal resistance, caused by fouling, may
increase by 2550% throughout the
lifetime of a ship.
Experience [4] shows that hull fouling
with barnacles and tube worms may
cause an increase in drag (ship resis
tance) of up to 40%, with a drastical
reduction of the ship speed as the con
sequence.
Furthermore, in general [4] for every 25
m (25/1000 mm) increase of the aver
age hull roughness, the result will be a
power increase of 23%, or a ship
speed reduction of about 1%.
Resistance will also increase because
of sea, wind and current, as shown in
Table 4 for different main routes of
ships. The resistance when navigating
in headon sea could, in general, in
crease by as much as 50100% of the
total ship resistance in calm weather.
Estimates of average increase in
resistance for ships navigating the
main routes:
North Atlantic route,
navigation westward
2535%
North Atlantic route,
navigation eastward
2025%
EuropeAustralia
2025%
EuropeEast Asia
2025%
The Pacific routes
2030%
Table 4: Main routes of ships
On the North Atlantic routes, the first
percentage corresponds to summer
navigation and the second percentage
to winter navigation.
However, analysis of trading conditions
for a typical 140,000 dwt bulk carrier
shows that on some routes, especially
JapanCanada when loaded, the in
creased resistance (sea margin) can
reach extreme values up to 220%, with
an average of about 100%.
Unfortunately, no data have been pub
lished on increased resistance as a fun
ction of type and size of vessel. The
larger the ship, the less the relative in
crease of resistance due to the sea.
On the other hand, the frictional resis
tance of the large, fullbodied ships will
very easily be changed in the course of
time because of fouling.
In practice, the increase of resistance
caused by heavy weather depends on
the current, the wind, as well as the
wave size, where the latter factor may
have great influence. Thus, if the wave
size is relatively high, the ship speed
will be somewhat reduced even when
sailing in fair seas.
In principle, the increased resistance
caused by heavy weather could be
related to:
a) wind and current against, and
b) heavy waves,
but in practice it will be difficult to dis
tinguish between these factors.
9
Power and speed relationship for a 600 TEU container ship
20 knots
6,000
Normal service point
Ship speed
Propulsion power
10 15
4,000
2,000
0
8,000
"Wave wall"
New service point
kW
Fig. 5: The wave wall ship speed barrier
Chapter 2
Propeller Propulsion
The traditional agent employed to
move a ship is a propeller, sometimes
two and, in very rare cases, more than
two. The necessary propeller thrust T
required to move the ship at speed V
is normally greater than the pertaining
towing resistance R
T
, and the flowrelated
reasons are, amongst other reasons,
explained in this chapter. See also Fig. 6,
where all relevant velocity, force, power
and efficiency parameters are shown.
Propeller types
Propellers may be divided into the follow
ing two main groups, see also Fig. 7:
Fixed pitch propeller (FPpropeller)
Controllable pitch propeller
(CPpropeller)
Propellers of the FPtype are cast in
one block and normally made of a copper
alloy. The position of the blades, and
thereby the propeller pitch, is once and
for all fixed, with a given pitch that can
not be changed in operation. This
means that when operating in, for ex
ample, heavy weather conditions, the
propeller performance curves, i.e. the
combination of power and speed
(r/min) points, will change according to
the physical laws, and the actual pro
peller curve cannot be changed by the
crew. Most ships which do not need a
particularly good manoeuvrability are
equipped with an FPpropeller.
Propellers of the CPtype have a rela
tively larger hub compared with the
FPpropellers because the hub has to
have space for a hydraulically activated
mechanism for control of the pitch (an
gle) of the blades. The CPpropeller is
relatively expensive, maybe up to 34
times as expensive as a corresponding
FPpropeller. Furthermore, because of
the relatively larger hub, the propeller
efficiency is slightly lower.
CPpropellers are mostly used for
RoRo ships, shuttle tankers and simi
lar ships that require a high degree of
10
Efficiencies
1 t
1 w
Relative rotative efficiency :
Propeller efficiency open water :
Propeller efficiency behind hull : =
Propulsive efficiency : =
Shaft efficiency :
Total efficiency :
_
_
x
x
Velocities
Ships speed : V
Arriving water velocity to propeller : V
Effective wake velocity : V = V
_
V
A
W A
Forces
Towing resistance : R
Thrust force : T
Thrust deduction fraction : F = T
_
R
T
_
R
T
T
T
T
Power
Effective (Towing) power : P = R V
by the propeller to water : P = P /
Power delivered to propeller : P = P /
Brake power of main engine : P = P /
E T
T E
D T
B D
x
Thrust deduction coefficient : t =
Hull efficiency : =
Thrust power delivered
H
H
B
D
S
T B
S
B
0 R
T
x x x x x x x = = = =
P P P P
B T D B
P P P P
E E T D
H
S H 0 R S H
V
A
V
V
W
P
D
P
E
P
T
P
B
V
T
R
T
F
Wake fraction coefficient : w =
R
0
B
(Speed of advance of propeller)
V
_
V
V
A
Fig. 6: The propulsion of a ship theory
Controllable pitch propeller (CPPropeller) Fixed pitch propeller (FPPropeller)
Monobloc with fixed
propeller blades
(copper alloy)
Hub with a mechanism
for control of the pitch
of the blades
(hydraulically activated)
Fig. 7: Propeller types
manoeuvrability. For ordinary ships like
container ships, bulk carriers and crude
oil tankers sailing for a long time in nor
mal sea service at a given ship speed,
it will, in general, be a waste of money
to install an expensive CPpropeller in
stead of an FPpropeller. Furthermore, a
CPpropeller is more complicated, invol
ving a higher risk of problems in service.
Flowconditions around the propeller
Wake fraction coefficient w
When the ship is moving, the friction of
the hull will create a socalled friction
belt or boundary layer of water around
the hull. In this friction belt the velocity
of the water on the surface of the hull is
equal to that of the ship, but is reduced
with its distance from the surface of the
hull. At a certain distance from the hull
and, per definition, equal to the outer
surface of the friction belt, the water
velocity is equal to zero.
The thickness of the friction belt increases
with its distance from the fore end of
the hull. The friction belt is therefore
thickest at the aft end of the hull and
this thickness is nearly proportional to
the length of the ship, Ref. [5]. This
means that there will be a certain wake
velocity caused by the friction along the
sides of the hull. Additionally, the ships
displacement of water will also cause
wake waves both fore and aft. All this
involves that the propeller behind the
hull will be working in a wake field.
Therefore, and mainly originating from
the friction wake, the water at the pro
peller will have an effective wake veloc
ity V
w
which has the same direction as
the ships speed V, see Fig. 6. This
means that the velocity of arriving water
V
A
at the propeller, (equal to the speed
of advance of the propeller) given as
the average velocity over the propellers
disk area is V
w
lower than the ships
speed V.
The effective wake velocity at the pro
peller is therefore equal to V
w
= V V
A
and may be expressed in dimensionless
form by means of the wake fraction
coefficient w. The normally used wake
fraction coefficient w given by Taylor is
defined as:
w
V
V
V V
V
you get
V
V
w
W A
A
= =

= ( ) 1
The value of the wake fraction coefficient
depends largely on the shape of the
hull, but also on the propellers location
and size, and has great influence on
the propellers efficiency.
The propeller diameter or, even better,
the ratio between the propeller diameter
d and the ships length L
WL
has some
influence on the wake fraction coeffi
cient, as d/L
WL
gives a rough indication
of the degree to which the propeller
works in the hulls wake field. Thus, the
larger the ratio d/L
WL
, the lower w will
be. The wake fraction coefficient w in
creases when the hull is fouled.
For ships with one propeller, the wake
fraction coefficient w is normally in the
region of 0.20 to 0.45, corresponding
to a flow velocity to the propeller V
A
of
0.80 to 0.55 of the ships speed V. The
larger the block coefficient, the larger is
the wake fraction coefficient. On ships
with two propellers and a conventional
aftbody form of the hull, the propellers
will normally be positioned outside the
friction belt, for which reason the wake
fraction coefficient w will, in this case,
be a great deal lower. However, for a
twinskeg ship with two propellers, the
coefficient w will be almost unchanged
(or maybe slightly lower) compared
with the singlepropeller case.
Incidentally, a large wake fraction co
efficient increases the risk of propeller
cavitation, as the distribution of the
water velocity around the propeller is
generally very inhomogeneous under
such conditions.
A more homogeneous wake field for
the propeller, also involving a higher
speed of advance V
A
of the propeller,
may sometimes be needed and can be
obtained in several ways, e.g. by hav
ing the propellers arranged in nozzles,
below shields, etc. Obviously, the best
method is to ensure, already at the de
sign stage, that the aft end of the hull is
shaped in such a way that the opti
mum wake field is obtained.
Thrust deduction coefficient t
The rotation of the propeller causes the
water in front of it to be sucked back
towards the propeller. This results in an
extra resistance on the hull normally
called augment of resistance or, if re
lated to the total required thrust force T
on the propeller, thrust deduction frac
tion F, see Fig. 6. This means that the
thrust force T on the propeller has to
overcome both the ships resistance R
T
and this loss of thrust F.
The thrust deduction fraction F may be
expressed in dimensionless form by
means of the thrust deduction coeffi
cient t, which is defined as:
t
F
T
T R
T
you get
R
T
t
T
T
= =

= ( ) 1
The thrust deduction coefficient t can
be calculated by using calculation
models set up on the basis of research
carried out on different models.
In general, the size of the thrust deduc
tion coefficient t increases when the
wake fraction coefficient w increases.
The shape of the hull may have a sig
nificant influence, e.g. a bulbous stem
can, under certain circumstances (low
ship speeds), reduce t.
The size of the thrust deduction coeffi
cient t for a ship with one propeller is,
normally, in the range of 0.12 to 0.30,
as a ship with a large block coefficient
has a large thrust deduction coefficient.
For ships with two propellers and a
conventional aftbody form of the hull,
the thrust deduction coefficient t will be
much less as the propellers sucking
occurs further away from the hull.
However, for a twinskeg ship with two
propellers, the coefficient t will be almost
unchanged (or maybe slightly lower)
compared with the singlepropeller case.
Efficiencies
Hull efficiency h
H
The hull efficiency h
H
is defined as the
ratio between the effective (towing)
power P
E
= R
T
V, and the thrust power
11
which the propeller delivers to the water
P
T
= T V
A
, i.e.:
h
H
= =

= =

P
P
R V
T V
R T
V V
t
w
E
T
T
A
T
A
/
/
1
1
For a ship with one propeller, the hull
efficiency
H
is usually in the range of
1.1 to 1.4, with the high value for ships
with high block coefficients. For ships
with two propellers and a conventional
aftbody form of the hull, the hull effi
ciency
H
is approx. 0.95 to 1.05, again
with the high value for a high block co
efficient. However, for a twinskeg ship
with two propellers, the hull coefficient

H
will be almost unchanged compared
with the singlepropeller case.
Open water propeller efficiency
O
Propeller efficiency
O
is related to
working in open water, i.e. the propel
ler works in a homogeneous wake field
with no hull in front of it.
The propeller efficiency depends, es
pecially, on the speed of advance V
A
,
thrust force T, rate of revolution n, di
ameter d and, moreover, i.a. on the de
sign of the propeller, i.e. the number of
blades, disk area ratio, and pitch/diam
eter ratio which will be discussed
later in this chapter. The propeller effi
ciency
O
can vary between approx.
0.35 and 0.75, with the high value be
ing valid for propellers with a high
speed of advance V
A
, Ref. [3].
Fig. 8 shows the obtainable propeller
efficiency
O
shown as a function of the
speed of advance V
A
, which is given in
dimensionless form as:
J
V
n d
A
=

where J is the advance number of the

propeller.
Relative rotative efficiency
R
The actual velocity of the water flowing
to the propeller behind the hull is nei
ther constant nor at right angles to the
propellers disk area, but has a kind of
rotational flow. Therefore, compared
with when the propeller is working in
open water, the propellers efficiency is
affected by the
R
factor called the
propellers relative rotative efficiency.
On ships with a single propeller the
rotative efficiency
R
is, normally, around
1.0 to 1.07, in other words, the rotation
of the water has a beneficial effect. The
rotative efficiency
R
on a ship with a
conventional hull shape and with two
propellers will normally be less, approx.
0.98, whereas for a twinskeg ship with
two propellers, the rotative efficiency
R
will be almost unchanged.
In combination with w and t,
R
is prob
ably often being used to adjust the re
sults of model tank tests to the theory.
Propeller efficiency
B
working behind
the ship
The ratio between the thrust power P
T
,
which the propeller delivers to the wa
ter, and the power P
D
, which is deliv
ered to the propeller, i.e. the propeller
efficiency
B
for a propeller working
behind the ship, is defined as:
h h h
B
T
D
o R
P
P
= =
Propulsive efficiency
D
The propulsive efficiency
D
, which
must not be confused with the open
water propeller efficiency
O
, is equal to
the ratio between the effective (towing)
power P
E
and the necessary power
delivered to the propeller P
D
, i.e.:
h
D
E
D
E
T
T
D
P
P
P
P
P
P
= =
=
H

B
=
H

O

R
12
0.3
0.2
0.4
0
0.6
0.1
0.6
0.5
V
n x d
A
Advance number J =
0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0 0.1
o
0.7
Propeller
efficiency
Reefers
Container ships
Small tankers
20,000 DWT
Large tankers
>150,000 DWT
n ( revs./s )
1.66
2.00
0.7
Fig. 8: Obtainable propeller efficiency open water, Ref. [3], page 213
As can be seen, the propulsive efficiency

D
is equal to the product of the hull
efficiency
H
, the open water propeller
efficiency
O
, and the relative rotative
efficiency
R
, although the latter has
less significance.
In this connection, one can be led to
believe that a hull form giving a high
wake fraction coefficient w, and hence
a high hull efficiency
H
, will also provide
the best propulsive efficiency
D
.
However, as the open water propeller
efficiency
O
is also greatly dependent
on the speed of advance V
A
, cf. Fig. 8,
that is decreasing with increased w,
the propulsive efficiency
D
will not,
generally, improve with increasing w,
quite often the opposite effect is obtained.
Generally, the best propulsive efficiency
is achieved when the propeller works in
a homogeneous wake field.
Shaft efficiency
S
The shaft efficiency
S
depends, i.a. on
the alignment and lubrication of the
shaft bearings, and on the reduction
gear, if installed.
Shaft efficiency is equal to the ratio be
tween the power P
D
delivered to the
propeller and the brake power P
B
deliv
ered by the main engine, i.e.
h =
S
D
B
P
P
The shaft efficiency is normally around
0.985, but can vary between 0.96 and
0.995.
Total efficiency
T
The total efficiency
T
, which is equal to
the ratio between the effective (towing)
power P
E
, and the necessary brake
power P
B
delivered by the main engine,
can be expressed thus:
h
T
P
P
P
P
P
P
E
B
E
D
D
B
= =
=
D

S
=
H

O

R

S
Propeller dimensions
Propeller diameter d
With a view to obtaining the highest
possible propulsive efficiency
D
, the
largest possible propeller diameter d
will, normally, be preferred. There are,
however, special conditions to be con
sidered. For one thing, the aftbody form
of the hull can vary greatly depending on
type of ship and ship design, for another,
the necessary clearance between the
tip of the propeller and the hull will de
pend on the type of propeller.
For bulkers and tankers, which are often
sailing in ballast condition, there are
frequent demands that the propeller
shall be fully immersed also in this con
dition, giving some limitation to the pro
peller size. This propeller size limitation
is not particularly valid for container
ships as they rarely sail in ballast condi
tion. All the above factors mean that an
exact propeller diameter/design draught
ratio d/D cannot be given here but, as
a ruleofthumb, the below mentioned
approximations of the diameter/design
draught ratio d/D can be presented,
and a large diameter d will, normally,
result in a low rate of revolution n.
Bulk carrier and tanker:
d/D < approximately 0.65
Container ship:
d/D < approximately 0.74
For strength and production reasons,
the propeller diameter will generally not
exceed 10.0 metres and a power out
put of about 90,000 kW. The largest
diameter propeller manufactured so far
is of 11.0 metres and has four propeller
blades.
Number of propeller blades
Propellers can be manufactured with 2,
3, 4, 5 or 6 blades. The fewer the num
ber of blades, the higher the propeller
efficiency will be. However, for reasons
of strength, propellers which are to be
subjected to heavy loads cannot be
manufactured with only two or three
blades.
Twobladed propellers are used on
small ships, and 4, 5 and 6bladed
propellers are used on large ships.
Ships using the MAN B&W twostroke
engines are normally largetype vessels
which use 4bladed propellers. Ships
with a relatively large power requirement
and heavily loaded propellers, e.g. con
tainer ships, may need 5 or 6bladed
propellers. For vibrational reasons, pro
pellers with certain numbers of blades
may be avoided in individual cases in
order not to give rise to the excitation
of natural frequencies in the ships hull
or superstructure, Ref. [5].
Disk area coefficient
The disk area coefficient referred to in
older literature as expanded blade area
ratio defines the developed surface
area of the propeller in relation to its
disk area. A factor of 0.55 is considered
as being good. The disk area coefficient
of traditional 4bladed propellers is of
little significance, as a higher value will
only lead to extra resistance on the
propeller itself and, thus, have little ef
fect on the final result.
For ships with particularly heavyloaded
propellers, often 5 and 6bladed pro
pellers, the coefficient may have a
higher value. On warships it can be as
high as 1.2.
Pitch diameter ratio p/d
The pitch diameter ratio p/d, expresses
the ratio between the propellers pitch
p and its diameter d, see Fig. 10. The
pitch p is the distance the propeller
screws itself forward through the wa
ter per revolution, providing that there
is no slip see also the next section
and Fig. 10. As the pitch can vary
along the blades radius, the ratio is
normally related to the pitch at 0.7 r,
where r = d/2 is the propellers radius.
To achieve the best propulsive efficiency
for a given propeller diameter, an optimum
pitch/diameter ratio is to be found,
which again corresponds to a particu
lar design rate of revolution. If, for
instance, a lower design rate of revolution
is desired, the pitch/diameter ratio has
to be increased, and vice versa, at the
cost of efficiency. On the other hand, if
a lower design rate of revolution is de
sired, and the ships draught permits,
the choice of a larger propeller diame
13
ter may permit such a lower design rate
of revolution and even, at the same time,
increase the propulsive efficiency.
Propeller coefficients J, K
T
and K
Q
Propeller theory is based on models,
but to facilitate the general use of this
theory, certain dimensionless propeller
coefficients have been introduced in re
lation to the diameter d, the rate of rev
olution n, and the waters mass density
r. The three most important of these
coefficients are mentioned below.
The advance number of the propeller J
is, as earlier mentioned, a dimensionless
expression of the propellers speed of
advance V
A
.
J
V
n d
A
=

The thrust force T, is expressed

dimensionless, with the help of the
thrust coefficient K
T
, as
K
T
n d
T
=
r
2 4
and the propeller torque
Q
P
n
D
=
2p
is expressed dimensionless with the
help of the torque coefficient K
Q
, as
K
Q
n d
Q
=
r
2 5
The propeller efficiency h
O
can be cal
culated with the help of the abovemen
tioned coefficients, because, as previously
mentioned, the propeller efficiency h
O
is
defined as:
h
p p
O
= =


=
P
P
T V
Q n
K
K
J
T
D
A T
Q
2 2
With the help of special and very com
plicated propeller diagrams, which
contain, i.a. J, K
T
and K
Q
curves, it is
possible to find/calculate the propellers
dimensions, efficiency, thrust, power, etc.
Manufacturing accuracy of the propeller
Before the manufacturing of the propeller,
the desired accuracy class standard of
the propeller must be chosen by the
customer. Such a standard is, for ex
ample, ISO 484/1 1981 (CE), which
has four different Accuracy classes,
see Table 5.
Each of the classes, among other de
tails, specifies the maximum allowable
tolerance on the mean design pitch of
the manufactured propeller, and
thereby the tolerance on the correspond
ing propeller speed (rate of revolution).
The price of the propeller, of course,
depends on the selected accuracy
class, with the lowest price for class III.
However, it is not recommended to
use class III, as this class has a too
high tolerance. This again means that
the mean pitch tolerance should nor
mally be less than +/ 1.0 %.
The manufacturing accuracy tolerance
corresponds to a propeller speed toler
ance of max. +/ 1.0 %. When also in
corporating the influence of the tolerance
on the wake field of the hull, the total
propeller tolerance on the rate of revo
lution can be up to +/ 2.0 %. This tol
erance has also to be borne in mind
when considering the operating condi
tions of the propeller in heavy weather.
Influence of propeller diameter and
pitch/diameter ratio on propulsive
efficiency
D
.
As already mentioned, the highest pos
sible propulsive efficiency required to
provide a given ship speed is obtained
with the largest possible propeller dia
meter d, in combination with the corre
sponding, optimum pitch/diameter ra
tio p/d.
14
ISO 484/1 1981 (CE)
Class
Manufacturing
accuracy
Mean pitch
for propel
ler
S
I
II
III
Very high accuracy
High accuracy
Medium accuracy
Wide tolerances
+/ 0.5 %
+/ 0.75 %
+/ 1.00 %
+/ 3.00 %
Table 5: Manufacturing accuracy classes
of a propeller
110 120 100 r/min 130
Shaft power
80 90
8,800
70
8,700
8,900
9,100
8,600
8,500
9,400
0.95
9,200
9,300
9,000
d = Propeller diameter
p/d = Pitch/diameter ratio
Power and speed curve
for various propeller
diameters d with
optimum p/d
Propeller speed
Power and speed curve
for the given propeller
diameter d = 7.2 m with
different p/d
80,000 dwt crude oil tanker
Design draught = 12.2 m
Ship speed = 14.5 kn
9,500
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.71
1.00
0.60
0.75
d
0.65
0.55
6.8 m
p/d
0.67
7.2 m
6.6 m
7.4 m
7.0 m
0.70
p/d
0.68
0.69
0.50
p/d
p/d
d
kW
Fig. 9: Propeller design influence of diameter and pitch
As an example for an 80,000 dwt crude
oil tanker, with a service ship speed of
14.5 knots and a maximum possible
propeller diameter of 7.2 m, this influence
is shown in Fig. 9.
According to the blue curve, the maxi
mum possible propeller diameter of 7.2
m may have the optimum pitch/diame
ter ratio of 0.70, and the lowest possi
ble shaft power of 8,820 kW at 100
r/min. If the pitch for this diameter is
changed, the propulsive efficiency will
be reduced, i.e. the necessary shaft
power will increase, see the red curve.
The blue curve shows that if a bigger
propeller diameter of 7.4 m is possible,
the necessary shaft power will be re
duced to 8,690 kW at 94 r/min, i.e. the
bigger the propeller, the lower the opti
mum propeller speed.
The red curve also shows that propul
sionwise it will always be an advan
tage to choose the largest possible
propeller diameter, even though the
optimum pitch/diameter ratio would
involve a too low propeller speed (in rela
tion to the required main engine speed).
Thus, when using a somewhat lower
pitch/diameter ratio, compared with the
optimum ratio, the propeller/ engine
speed may be increased and will only
cause a minor extra power increase.
Operating conditions of a propeller
Slip ratio S
If the propeller had no slip, i.e. if the
water which the propeller screws
itself through did not yield (i.e. if the
water did not accelerate aft), the pro
peller would move forward at a speed
of V = p n, where n is the propellers
rate of revolution, see Fig. 10.
The similar situation is shown in Fig. 11
for a cork screw, and because the cork
is a solid material, the slip is zero and,
therefore, the cork screw always moves
forward at a speed of V = p n. How
ever, as the water is a fluid and does
yield (i.e. accelerate aft), the propellers
apparent speed forward decreases
with its slip and becomes equal to the
ships speed V, and its apparent slip
can thus be expressed as p n V.
The apparent slip ratio S
A
, which is
dimensionless, is defined as:
S
p n V
p n
V
p n
A
=

1
The apparent slip ratio S
A
, which is cal
culated by the crew, provides useful
knowledge as it gives an impression of
the loads applied to the propeller under
different operating conditions. The ap
parent slip ratio increases when the
15
Velocity of corkscrew: V = p x n
Pitch p
Wine bottle
Corkscrew
Cork
V
n
Fig. 11: Movement of a corkscrew, without slip
S x p x n V or V
A
Pitch p
n
0.7 x r
r
d
p x n
Slip
The apparent slip ratio : S = = 1
A
_
The real slip ratio : S = = 1
R
_
p x n
_
V V
p x n p x n
A A
p x n
_
V V
p x n p x n
Fig. 10: Movement of a ships propeller, with pitch p and slip ratio S
vessel sails against the wind or waves,
in shallow waters, when the hull is
fouled, and when the ship accelerates.
Under increased resistance, this in
volves that the propeller speed (rate of
revolution) has to be increased in order
to maintain the required ship speed.
The real slip ratio will be greater than
the apparent slip ratio because the real
speed of advance V
A
of the propeller is,
as previously mentioned, less than the
ships speed V.
The real slip ratio S
R
, which gives a truer
picture of the propellers function, is:
S
V
p n
V w
p n
R
A
=

1 1
1 ( )
At quay trials where the ships speed is
V = 0, both slip ratios are 1.0. Incidentally,
slip ratios are often given in percentages.
Propeller law in general
As discussed in Chapter 1, the resis
tance R for lower ship speeds is pro
portional to the square of the ships
speed V, i.e.:
R = c V
2
where c is a constant. The necessary
power requirement P is thus propor
tional to the speed V to the power of
three, thus:
P = R V = c V
3
For a ship equipped with a fixed pitch
propeller, i.e. a propeller with unchange
able pitch, the ship speed V will be pro
portional to the rate of revolution n, thus:
P = c n
3
which precisely expresses the propeller
law, which states that the necessary
power delivered to the propeller is pro
portional to the rate of revolution to the
power of three.
Actual measurements show that the
power and engine speed relationship
for a given weather condition is fairly
reasonable, whereas the power and
ship speed relationship is often seen
with a higher power than three. A rea
sonable relationship to be used for esti
mations in the normal ship speed range
could be as follows:
For large highspeed ships like con
tainer vessels: P = c V
4.5
For mediumsized, mediumspeed
ships like feeder container ships,
reefers, RoRo ships, etc.: P = c V
4.0
For lowspeed ships like tankers and
bulk carriers, and small feeder con
tainer ships, etc.: P = c V
3.5
Propeller lawfor heavy running propeller
The propeller law, of course, can only
be applied to identical ship running
conditions. When, for example, the
ships hull after some time in service
has become fouled and thus become
more rough, the wake field will be different
fromthat of the smooth ship (clean hull)
valid at trial trip conditions.
A ship with a fouled hull will, conse
quently, be subject to extra resistance
which will give rise to a heavy propeller
condition, i.e. at the same propeller
power, the rate of revolution will be lower.
The propeller law now applies to an
other and heavier propeller curve
than that applying to the clean hull,
propeller curve, Ref. [3], page 243.
The same relative considerations apply
when the ship is sailing in a heavy sea
against the current, a strong wind, and
heavy waves, where also the heavy
waves in tail wind may give rise to a
heavier propeller running than when
running in calm weather. On the other
hand, if the ship is sailing in ballast
condition, i.e. with a lower displace
ment, the propeller law now applies to
a lighter propeller curve, i.e. at the
same propeller power, the propeller
rate of revolution will be higher.
As mentioned previously, for ships with
a fixed pitch propeller, the propeller law
is extensively used at part load running.
It is therefore also used in MAN B&W
Diesels engine layout and load diagrams
to specify the engines operational
curves for light running conditions (i.e.
clean hull and calm weather) and heavy
running conditions (i.e. for fouled hull
and heavy weather). These diagrams us
ing logarithmic scales and straight lines
are described in detail in Chapter 3.
Propeller performance in general at
increased ship resistance
The difference between the abovemen
tioned light and heavy running propeller
curves may be explained by an exam
ple, see Fig. 12, for a ship using, as ref
erence, 15 knots and 100%propulsion
power when running with a clean hull in
calmweather conditions. With 15%more
power, the corresponding ship speed
may increase from 15.0 to 15.6 knots.
As described in Chapter 3, and com
pared with the calmweather conditions,
it is normal to incorporate an extra
power margin, the socalled sea mar
gin, which is often chosen to be 15%.
This power margin corresponds to ex
tra resistance on the ship caused by
the weather conditions. However, for
very rough weather conditions the influ
ence may be much greater, as de
scribed in Chapter 1.
In Fig. 12a, the propulsion power is
shown as a function of the ship speed.
When the resistance increases to a
level which requires 15% extra power
to maintain a ship speed of 15 knots,
the operating point A will move towards
point B.
In Fig. 12b the propulsion power is
now shown as a function of the propeller
speed. As a first guess it will often be as
sumed that point A will move towards B
because an unchanged propeller speed
implies that, with unchanged pitch, the
propeller will move through the water
at an unchanged speed.
If the propeller was a corkscrew moving
through cork, this assumption would
be correct. However, water is not solid
as cork but will yield, and the propeller
will have a slip that will increase with in
creased thrust caused by increased
hull resistance. Therefore, point A will
move towards B which, in fact, is very
close to the propeller curve through A.
Point B will now be positioned on a
propeller curve which is slightly heavy
running compared with the clean hull
and calm weather propeller curve.
16
Sometimes, for instance when the hull
is fouled and the ship is sailing in heavy
seas in a head wind, the increase in
resistance may be much greater, cor
responding to an extra power demand
of the magnitude of 100%or even higher.
An example is shown in Fig. 12c.
In this example, where 100% power
will give a ship speed of 15.0 knots,
point A, a ship speed of, for instance,
12.3 knots at clean hull and in calm
weather conditions, point C, will require
about 50% propulsion power but, at
the abovementioned heavy running
conditions, it might only be possible to
obtain the 12.3 knots by 100%propulsion
power, i.e. for 100%power going from
point A to D. Running point D may now
be placed relatively far to the left of point
A, i.e. very heavy running. Such a situ
ation must be considered when laying
out the main engine in relation to the
layout of the propeller, as described in
Chapter 3.
A scewed propeller (with bent blade
tips) is more sensitive to heavy running
than a normal propeller, because the
propeller is able to absorb a higher
torque in heavy running conditions. For
a ducted propeller, the opposite effect
is obtained.
Heavy waves and sea and wind against
When sailing in heavy sea against, with
heavy wave resistance, the propeller
can be up to 78% heavier running
than in calm weather, i.e. at the same
propeller power, the rate of revolution
may be 78% lower. An example valid
for a smaller container ship is shown in
Fig. 13. The service data is measured
17
(Logarithmic scales)
Power
Propeller speed
15.0 knots
100% power
Propeller curve
for clean hull and
calm weather
Propeller
curve for
fouled hull
and heavy
seas
LR
Slip
HR
HR = Heavy running
LR = Light running
D A
C
12.3 knots
100% power
12.3 knots
50% power
10.0 knots
50% power
D
Fig. 12c: Propeller speed performance at
large extra ship resistance
(Logarithmic scales)
Power
Propeller speed
15.6 knots
115% power
15.0 knots
100% power
15%
Sea
margin
Slip
Propeller curve for clean
hull and calm weather
15.0 knots
115% power
B
A
B
Fig. 12b: Propeller speed performance at
15% sea margin
BHP
21,000
18,000
15,000
12,000
9,000
6,000
76 80 92 84 96 88 100
S
h
ip

s
p
e
e
d
k
n
o
t
s
Shaft power
Clean hull and draught D
D = 6.50 m
D = 5.25 m
D = 7.75 m
Source: Lloyd's Register
MEAN
F
A
Average weather 3%
Extremely good weather 0%
Extremely bad weather 6%
Propeller speed
A
p
p
a
r
e
n
t

s
lip
10%
6%
Heavy
running
2%
2%
13
16
19
22
C
B
A
C
B
A
r/min
Fig. 13: Service data over a period of a year returned from a single screw container ship
(Logarithmic scales)
15.6 knots
115% power
15.0 knots
100% power
15%
Sea
margin
Power
Ship speed
Propeller curve for clean
hull and calm weather
15.0 knots
115% power
B
A
Fig. 12a: Ship speed performance at 15%
sea margin
over a period of one year and only
includes the influence of weather con
ditions! The measuring points have
been reduced to three average weather
conditions and show, for extremely bad
weather conditions, an average heavy
running of 6%, and therefore, in prac
tice, the heavy running has proved to
be even greater.
In order to avoid slamming of the ship,
and thereby damage to the stem and
racing of the propeller, the ship speed
will normally be reduced by the navigat
ing officer on watch.
Another measured example is shown
in Fig. 14, and is valid for a reefer ship
during its sea trial. Even though the
wind velocity is relatively low, only 2.5
m/s, and the wave height is 4 m, the
measurements indicate approx. 1.5%
heavy running when sailing in head
wind out, compared with when sailing
in tail wind on return.
Ship acceleration
When the ship accelerates, the propel
ler will be subjected to an even larger
load than during free sailing. The power
required for the propeller, therefore, will
be relatively higher than for free sailing,
and the engines operating point will be
heavy running, as it takes some time
before the propeller speed has reached
its new and higher level. An example
with two different accelerations, for an
engine without electronic governor and
scavenge air pressure limiter, is shown
in Fig. 15. The load diagram and scav
enge air pressure limiter are is described
in Chapter 3.
Shallow waters
When sailing in shallow waters, the re
sidual resistance of the ship may be in
creased and, in the same way as when
the ship accelerates, the propeller will
be subjected to a larger load than dur
ing free sailing, and the propeller will be
heavy running.
Influence of displacement
When the ship is sailing in the loaded
condition, the ships displacement vol
ume may, for example, be 10% higher
or lower than for the displacement valid
for the average loaded condition. This,
of course, has an influence on the ships
resistance, and the required propeller
power, but only a minor influence on
the propeller curve.
On the other hand, when the ship is
sailing in the ballast condition, the dis
placement volume, compared to the
loaded condition, can be much lower,
and the corresponding propeller curve
may apply to, for example, a 2%lighter
propeller curve, i.e. for the same power
to the propeller, the rate of revolution
will be 2% higher.
Parameters causing heavy running
propeller
Together with the previously described
operating parameters which cause a
heavy running propeller, the parame
ters summarised below may give an in
dication of the risk/sensitivity of getting
a heavy running propeller when sailing
in heavy weather and rough seas:
1 Relatively small ships (<70,000 dwt)
such as reefers and small container
ships are sensitive whereas large ships,
such as large tankers and container
ships, are less sensitive because the
waves are relatively small compared
to the ship size.
2 Small ships (Lpp < 135 m 20,000 dwt)
have low directional stability and,
therefore, require frequent rudder
corrections, which increase the ship
resistance (a selfcontrolled rudder
will reduce such resistance).
3 Highspeed ships
are more sensitive than lowspeed
ships because the waves will act on
the fastgoing ship with a relatively
18
P
r
o
p
e
l
l
e
r

c
u
r
v
e
SMCR: 13,000 kW x 105 r/min
Wind velocity : 2.5 m/s
Wave height : 4 m
Propeller/engine speed
100
90
105
85
100
95
80
101 99 103 105 % SMCR 102 97 98 96 104
Heavy
running
E
n
g
i
n
e

"
p
r
o
p
e
l
l
e
r

c
u
r
v
e
"
P
r
o
p
e
l
l
e
r

c
u
r
v
e
Propeller design
light running
* 20.5
21.5
*
20.5
*
* 20.8
*21.2
*22.0
21.1 *
7
5
1
3
4
Shaft power
% SMCR
22.3 *
21.8
*
SMCR
*
21.1
Head wind
Tail wind
(Logarithmic scales)
Fig. 14: Measured relationship between power, propeller and ship speed during seatrial of
a reefer ship
larger force than on the slowgoing
ship.
4 Ships with a flat stem
may be slowed down faster by waves
than a ship with a sharp stem.
Thus an axeshaped upper bow may
better cut the waves and thereby
reduce the heavy running tendency.
5 Fouling of the hull and propeller
will increase both hull resistance and
propeller torque. Polishing the pro
peller (especially the tips) as often as
possible (also when in water) has a
positive effect. The use of effective
antifouling paints will prevent fouling
caused by living organisms.
6 Ship acceleration
will increase the propeller torque,
and thus give a temporarily heavy
running propeller.
7 Sailing in shallow waters
increases the hull resistance and re
duces the ships directional stability.
8 Ships with scewed propeller
are able to absorb a higher torque
under heavy running conditions.
Manoeuvring speed
Below a certain ship speed, called the
manoeuvring speed, the manoeuvra
bility of the rudder is insufficient be
cause of a too low velocity of the water
arriving at the rudder. It is rather difficult
to give an exact figure for an adequate
manoeuvring speed of the ship as the
velocity of the water arriving at the rud
der depends on the propellers slip
stream.
Often a manoeuvring speed of the
magnitude of 3.54.5 knots is men
tioned. According to the propeller law,
a correspondingly low propulsion
power will be needed but, of course,
this will be higher for running in heavy
weather with increased resistance on
the ship.
Direction of propeller rotation (side thrust)
When a ship is sailing, the propeller
blades bite more in their lowermost po
sition than in their uppermost position.
The resulting sidethrust effect is larger
the more shallow the water is as, for
example, during harbour manoeuvres.
Therefore, a clockwise (looking from aft
to fore) rotating propeller will tend to
push the ships stern in the starboard
direction, i.e. pushing the ships stem
to port, during normal ahead running.
This has to be counteracted by the
rudder.
When reversing the propeller to astern
running as, for example, when berthing
alongside the quay, the sidethrust ef
fect is also reversed and becomes fur
ther pronounced as the ships speed
decreases. Awareness of this behav
iour is very important in critical situa
tions and during harbour manoeuvres.
According to Ref. [5], page 153, the
real reason for the appearance of the
side thrust during reversing of the pro
peller is that the upper part of the pro
pellers slip stream, which is rotative,
strikes the aftbody of the ship.
Thus, also the pilot has to know pre
cisely how the ship reacts in a given
situation. It is therefore an unwritten
law that on a ship fitted with a fixed
pitch propeller, the propeller is always
designed for clockwise rotation when
sailing ahead. A direct coupled main
engine, of course, will have the same
rotation.
In order to obtain the same sidethrust
effect, when reversing to astern, on
ships fitted with a controllable pitch
propeller, CPpropellers are designed
for anticlockwise rotation when sailing
ahead.
19
80 100 105 85
50
75 65 90 95 60
60
70
80
90
mep
110%
Engine speed, % A
40
A=M
100
Engine shaft power, % A
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
O
A 100% reference point
M Specified engine MCR
O Optimising point
110
(Logarithmic scales)
70
Fig. 15: Load diagram acceleration
Engine Layout and
Load Diagrams
Power functions and logarithmic
scales
As is wellknown, the effective brake
power P
B
of a diesel engine is propor
tional to the mean effective pressure
(mep) p
e
and engine speed (rate of rev
olution) n. When using c as a constant,
P
B
may then be expressed as follows:
P
B
= c p
e
n
or, in other words, for constant mep
the power is proportional to the speed:
P
B
= c n
1
(for constant mep)
As already mentioned when running
with a fixed pitch propeller the power
may, according to the propeller law, be
expressed as:
P
B
= c n
3
(propeller law)
Thus, for the above examples, the brake
power P
B
may be expressed as a func
tion of the speed n to the power of i, i.e.
P
B
= c n
i
Fig. 16 shows the relationship between
the linear functions, y = ax + b, see (A),
using linear scales and the power func
tions P
B
= c n
i
, see (B), using logarith
mic scales.
The power functions will be linear when
using logarithmic scales, as:
log (P
B
) = i log (n) + log (c)
which is equivalent to: y = ax + b
Thus, propeller curves will be parallel to
lines having the inclination i = 3, and
lines with constant mep will be parallel
to lines with the inclination i = 1.
Therefore, in the layout and load diagrams
for diesel engines, as described in the
following, logarithmic scales are used,
making simple diagrams with straight
lines.
Propulsion and engine running
points
Propeller design point PD
Normally, estimations of the necessary
propeller power and speed are based
on theoretical calculations for loaded
ship, and often experimental tank tests,
both assuming optimum operating
conditions, i.e. a clean hull and good
weather. The combination of speed
and power obtained may be called the
ships propeller design point PD placed
on the light running propeller curve 6,
see Fig. 17. On the other hand, some
shipyards and/or propeller manufactur
ers sometimes use a propeller design
point PD that incorporates all or part of
the socalled sea margin described be
low.
Fouled hull
When the ship has been sailing for
some time, the hull and propeller be
come fouled and the hulls resistance
will increase. Consequently, the ship
speed will be reduced unless the engine
delivers more power to the propeller, i.e.
the propeller will be further loaded and
will become heavy running HR.
Furthermore, newer highefficiency ship
types have a relatively high ship speed,
and a very smooth hull and propeller
surface (at sea trial) when the ship is
delivered. This means that the inevitable
buildup of the surface roughness on
the hull and propeller during sea service
after seatrial may result in a relatively
heavier running propeller, compared
with older ships born with a more rough
hull surface.
Heavy weather and sea margin used
for layout of engine
If, at the same time, the weather is
bad, with head winds, the ships resis
tance may increase much more, and
lead to even heavier running.
When determining the necessary en
gine power, it is normal practice to add
an extra power margin, the socalled
sea margin, which is traditionally about
15% of the propeller design PD power.
However, for large container ships,
2030% may sometimes be used.
When determining the necessary en
gine speed, for layout of the engine, it
is recommended compared with the
clean hull and calm weather propeller
curve 6 to choose the heavier propel
ler curve 2, see Fig. 17, corresponding
to curve 6 having a 37% higher rate of
revolution than curve 2, and in general
with 5% as a good choice.
Note that the chosen sea power mar
gin does not equalise the chosen
heavy engine propeller curve.
20
A. Straight lines in linear scales
a
2
X
1 2 0
1
0
b
y = ax + b
B. Power function curves
in logarithmic scales
P
P
B
B
= engine brake power
c = constant
n = engine speed
log( ) = i x log(n) + log(c)
y = ax + b
P =c x n
i
i = 1
i = 2
i = 3
y = log (P )
B
i = 0
x = log (n)
y = log (P ) = log (c x n )
B
i
y
B
Fig. 16: Relationship between linear functions
using linear scales and power functions
using logarithmic scales
Continuous service propulsion point SP
The resulting speed and power combi
nation when including heavy propeller
running and sea margin is called the
continuous service rating for propulsion
SP for fouled hull and heavy weather.
The heavy propeller curve, curve 2, for
fouled hull and heavy weather will nor
mally be used as the basis for the en
gine operating curve in service, and the
propeller curve for clean hull and calm
weather, curve 6, is said to represent a
light running LR propeller.
Continuous service rating S
The continuous service rating is the
power at which the engine, including
the sea margin, is assumed to operate,
and point S is identical to the service
propulsion point SP unless a main en
gine driven shaft generator is installed.
Light running factor f
LR
The heavy propeller curve for a fouled
hull and heavy weather, and if no shaft
generator is installed may, as mentioned
above, be used as the design basis for
the engine operating curve in service,
curve 2, whereas the light propeller
curve for clean hull and calm weather,
curve 6, may be valid for running con
ditions with new ships, and equal to
the layout/design curve of the propel
ler. Therefore, the light propeller curve
for clean hull and calm weather is said
to represent a light running LR pro
peller and will be related to the heavy
propeller curve for fouled hull and
heavy weather condition by means of a
light running factor f
LR
, which, for the
same power to the propeller, is defined
as the percentage increase of the rate
of revolution n, compared to the rate of
revolution for heavy running, i.e.
f
n n
n
LR
light heavy
heavy
=

100%
Engine margin
Besides the sea margin, a socalled
engine margin of some 1015% is
frequently added as an operational
margin for the engine. The correspond
ing point is called the specified MCR
for propulsion MP, see Fig. 17, and
refers to the fact that the power for
point SP is 1015% lower than for
point MP, i.e. equal to 9085% of MP.
Specified MCR M
The engines specified MCR point M is
the maximum rating required by the
yard or owner for continuous operation
of the engine. Point M is identical to the
specified propulsion MCR point MP un
less a main engine driven shaft genera
tor is installed. In such a case, the extra
power demand of the shaft generator
must also be considered.
Note:
Light/heavy running, fouling and sea
margin are overlapping terms.
Light/heavy running of the propeller re
fers to hull and propeller deterioration,
and bad weather, and sea margin, i.e.
extra power to the propeller, refers to
the influence of the wind and the sea.
Based on feedback from service, it
seems reasonable to design the pro
peller for 37% light running. The de
gree of light running must be decided
upon, based on experience from the
actual trade and hull design, but 5%
is often a good choice.
21
Fig. 17: Ship propulsion running points and engine layout
LR(5%)
Engine speed
Power
MP
Sea margin
(15% of PD)
2 6
SP
HR
PD
PD
Engine margin
(10% of MP)
2 Heavy propeller curve fouled hull and heavy weather
6 Light propeller curve clean hull and calm weather
MP: Specified propulsion point
SP: Service propulsion point
PD: Propeller design point
Alternative propeller design point
LR: Light running factor
HR: Heavy running
_
_
Pd:
Engine layout diagram
An engines layout diagram is limited by
two constant mean effective pressure
(mep) lines L
1
L
3
and L
2
L
4
, and by two
constant engine speed lines L
1
L
2
and
L
3
L
4
, see Fig. 17. The L
1
point refers to
the engines nominal maximum contin
uous rating. Within the layout area
there is full freedom to select the en
gines specified MCR point M and rele
vant optimising point O, see below,
which is optimum for the ship and the
operating profile. Please note that the
lowest specific fuel oil consumption for
a given optimising point O will be ob
tained at 70% and 80% of point Os
power, for electronically (ME) and me
chanically (MC) controlled engines,
respectively.
Based on the propulsion and engine
running points, as previously found, the
layout diagram of a relevant main en
gine may be drawnin. The specified
MCR point M must be inside the limita
tion lines of the layout diagram; if it is
not, the propeller speed will have to be
changed or another main engine type
must be chosen. Yet, in special cases,
point M may be located to the right of
line L
1
L
2
, see Optimising/Matching
Point below.
Optimising point O
The Optimising (MC)/Matching (ME)
point O or, better, the layout point of
the engine is the rating at which the
engine (timing and) compression ratio
are adjusted, with consideration to the
scavenge air pressure of the turbocharger.
As mentioned below, under Load dia
gram, the optimising point O (later on
in this paper also used in general
where matching point for ME engines
was the correct one) is placed on line 1
(layout curve of engine) of the load dia
gram, and the optimised power can be
from 85 to 100% of point Ms power.
Overload running will still be possible
(110% of Ms power), as long as consid
eration to the scavenge air pressure has
been taken.
The optimising point O is to be placed
inside the layout diagram. In fact, the
specified MCR point M can be placed
outside the layout diagram, but only by
exceeding line L
1
L
2
, and, of course,
only provided that the optimising point
O is located inside the layout diagram.
It should be noted that MC/MCC en
gines without VIT (variable injection tim
ing) fuel pumps cannot be optimised at
partload. Therefore, these engines are
always optimised in point A, i.e. having
point Ms power.
Load diagram
Definitions
The load diagram (Fig. 18) defines the
power and speed limits for continuous
as well as overload operation of an in
stalled engine which has an optimising
point O and a specified MCR point M
that conforms to the ships specification.
Point A is a 100% speed and power
reference point of the load diagram,
and is defined as the point on the pro
22
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O) layout curve for engine
Line 2: Heavy propeller curve fouled hull and heavy seas
Line 3: Speed limit
Line 4: Torque/speed limit
Line 5: Mean effective pressure limit
Line 6: Light propeller curve clean hull and calm weather layout curve for propeller
Line 7: Power limit for continuous running
Line 8: Overload limit
Line 9: Sea trial speed limit
Line 10: Constant mean effective pressure (mep) lines
_
_
_ _
80 100 105 85
50
70 75 65 90 95 60
60
70
80
90
mep
110%
Engine speed, % A
40
2
4
A=M
9
7
8
5
100
Engine shaft power, % A
6
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
1
10
3
O
A 100% reference point
M Specified engine MCR
O Optimising point
110
Fig. 18: Engine load diagram
peller curve (line 1) the layout curve of
the engine through the optimising point
O, having the specified MCR power.
Normally, point M is equal to point A,
but in special cases, for example if a
shaft generator is installed, point M
may be placed to the right of point A
on line 7. The service points of the in
stalled engine incorporate the engine
power required for ship propulsion and
for the shaft generator, if installed.
During shoptest running, the engine will
always operate along curve 1, with
point A as 100% MCR. If CPpropeller
and constant speed operation is re
quired, the delivery test may be fin
ished with a constant speed test.
Limits to continuous operation
The continuous service range is limited
by the four lines 4, 5, 7 and 3 (9), see
Fig. 18:
Line 3 and line 9
Line 3 represents the maximumaccept
able speed for continuous operation, i.e.
105% of A, however, maximum 105%
of L
1
. During sea trial conditions the
maximum speed may be extended to
107% of A, see line 9.
The above limits may, in general, be
extended to 105% and, during sea trial
conditions, to 107% of the nominal L
1
speed of the engine, provided the tor
sional vibration conditions permit.
The overspeed setpoint is 109% of
the speed in A, however, it may be
moved to 109% of the nominal speed
in L
1
, provided that torsional vibration
conditions permit.
Running at low load above 100% of
the nominal L
1
speed of the engine is,
however, to be avoided for extended
periods.
Line 4:
Represents the limit at which an ample
air supply is available for combustion and
imposes a limitation on the maximum
combination of torque and speed.
Line 5:
Represents the maximum mean effec
tive pressure level (mep) which can be
accepted for continuous operation.
Line 7:
Represents the maximum power for
continuous operation.
Line 10:
Represents the mean effective pressure
(mep) lines. Line 5 is equal to the 100%
mepline. The meplines are also an
expression of the corresponding fuel
index of the engine.
Limits for overload operation
The overload service range is limited as
follows, see Fig. 18:
Line 8:
Represents the overload operation limi
tations.
The area between lines 4, 5, 7 and the
dashed line 8 in Fig. 18 is available for
overload running for limited periods
only (1 hour per 12 hours).
23
Point A of load diagram
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O)
Line 7: Constant power line through specified MCR (M)
Point A: Intersection between lines 1 and 7
Engine speed
Power
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram
A=M=MP
Propulsion and
engine service curve
for heavy running
7
S=SP
O
2
1
6
Fig. 19a: Example 1 with FPP engine layout without SG(normal case)
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram
Engine speed
A=M
Propulsion and engine service
curve for heavy running
3.3% A
5
6 2
4
Power
1
S
7
O
5
6
3
4 1
7
2
5% A
5% L
1
Fig. 19b: Example 1 with FPP load diagramwithout SG(normal case)
Electronic governor with load limitation
In order to safeguard the diesel engine
against thermal and mechanical overload,
the approved electronic governors include
the following two limiter functions:
Torque limiter
The purpose of the torque limiter is
to ensure that the limitation lines of
the load diagramare always observed.
The torque limiter algorithmcompares
the calculated fuel pump index (fuel
amount) and the actually measured
engine speed with a reference limiter
curve giving the maximum allowable
fuel pump index at a given engine
speed. If the calculated fuel pump
index is above this curve, the result
ing fuel pump index will be reduced
correspondingly.
The reference limiter curve is to be
adjusted so that it corresponds to the
limitation lines of the load diagram.
Scavenge air pressure limiter
The purpose of the scavenge air
pressure limiter is to ensure that the
engine is not being overfuelled during
acceleration, as for example during
manoeuvring.
The scavenge air pressure limiter
algorithm compares the calculated
fuel pump index and measured
scavenge air pressure with a refer
ence limiter curve giving the maxi
mum allowable fuel pump index at a
given scavenge air pressure. If the
calculated fuel pump index is above
this curve, the resulting fuel pump
index will be reduced correspondingly.
The reference limiter curve is to be
adjusted to ensure that sufficient air
will always be available for a good
combustion process.
Recommendation
Continuous operation without a time
limitation is allowed only within the area
limited by lines 4, 5, 7 and 3 of the
load diagram. For fixed pitch propeller
operation in calm weather with loaded
ship and clean hull, the propeller/engine
may run along or close to the propeller
design curve 6.
After some time in operation, the ships
hull and propeller will become fouled,
resulting in heavier running of the pro
peller, i.e. the propeller curve will move
to the left fromline 6 towards line 2, and
extra power will be required for propulsion
in order to maintain the ship speed.
At calm weather conditions the extent
of heavy running of the propeller will
indicate the need for cleaning the hull
and, possibly, polishing the propeller.
The area between lines 4 and 1 is avail
able for operation in shallow water,
heavy weather and during acceleration,
i.e. for nonsteady operation without
any actual time limitation.
24
Point A of load diagram
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O)
Line 7: Constant power line through specified MCR (M)
Point A: Intersection between lines 1 and 7
Engine speed
M=MP
Propulsion and
engine service curve
for heavy running
7
S=SP
6 2 1
O
Power
A
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram
Fig. 20a: Example 2 with FPP engine layout without SG(special case)
M
Propulsion and engine service
curve for heavy running
3.3% A
5
6 2
4
1
S
7
5
6
3
4 1
7
2
5% A
5% L
1
A
O
Engine speed
Power
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram
Fig. 20b: Example 2 with FPP load diagramwithout SG(special case)
The recommended use of a relatively
high light running factor for design of
the propeller will involve that a relatively
higher propeller speed will be used for
layout design of the propeller. This, in
turn, may involve a minor reduction of
the propeller efficiency, and may possi
bly cause the propeller manufacturer to
abstain from using a large light running
margin. However, this reduction of the
propeller efficiency caused by the large
light running factor is actually relatively
insignificant compared with the improved
engine performance obtained when
sailing in heavy weather and/or with
fouled hull and propeller.
Use of layout and load
diagrams examples
In the following, four different examples
based on fixed pitch propeller (FPP)
and one example based on controllable
pitch propeller (CPP) are given in order
to illustrate the flexibility of the layout
and load diagrams.
In this respect the choice of the optimi
sing point O has a significant influence.
Examples with fixed pitch propeller
Example 1:
Normal running conditions, without
shaft generator
Normally, the optimising point O, and
thereby the engine layout curve 1, will
be selected on the engine service
curve 2 (for heavy running), as shown
in Fig. 19a.
Point A is then found at the intersection
between propeller curve 1 (2) and the
constant power curve through M, line
7. In this case, point A will be equal to
point M.
Once point A has been found in the
layout diagram, the load diagram can
be drawn, as shown in Fig. 19b, and
hence the actual load limitation lines
of the diesel engine may be found.
Example 2:
Special running conditions, without
shaft generator
When the ship accelerates, the propel
ler will be subjected to an even larger
load than during free sailing. The same
applies when the ship is subjected to
an extra resistance as, for example,
when sailing against heavy wind and
sea with large wave resistance.
In both cases, the engines operating
point will be to the left of the normal
operating curve, as the propeller will
run heavily.
In order to avoid exceeding the
lefthand limitation line 4 of the load
diagram, it may, in certain cases, be
necessary to limit the acceleration
and/or the propulsion power.
If the expected trade pattern of the
ship is to be in an area with frequently
appearing heavy wind and sea and
25
S
h
a
f
t

g
e
n
e
r
a
t
o
r
Propulsion curve
for heavy running
O
7
1 2
Engine service curve
for heavy running
MP
SG
6
S
SG
SP
Engine speed
Power
A=M
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram
Point A of load diagram
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O)
Line 7: Constant power line through specified MCR (M)
Point A: Intersection between lines 1 and 7
Fig. 21a: Example 3 with FPP engine layout with SG(normal case)
S
h
a
f
t

g
e
n
e
r
a
t
o
r
Propulsion curve
for heavy running
3.3% A
S
5
6 2
4
1
7
O
5
6
3
4 1
7
2
5% A
5% L
1
A=M
Engine service curve
for heavy running
MP
SP
Engine speed
Power
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram
Fig. 21b: Example 3 with FPP load diagramwith SG(normal case)
large wave resistance, it can, therefore,
be an advantage to design/move the
load diagram more towards the left.
The latter can be done by moving the
engines optimising point O and thus
the propeller curve 1 through the opti
mising point towards the left. How
ever, this will be at the expense of a
slightly increased specific fuel oil con
sumption.
An example is shown in Figs. 20a and
20b. As will be seen in Fig. 20b, and
compared with the normal case shown
in Example 1 (Fig. 19b), the lefthand
limitation line 4 is moved to the left, giv
ing a wider margin between lines 2 and
4, i.e. a larger light running factor has
been used in this example.
Example 3:
Normal case, with shaft generator
In this example a shaft generator (SG)
is installed, and therefore the service
power of the engine also has to incor
porate the extra shaft power required
for the shaft generators electrical
power production.
In Fig. 21a, the engine service curve
shown for heavy running incorporates
this extra power.
The optimising point O, and thereby the
engine layout curve 1, will normally be
chosen on the propeller curve (~ en
gine service curve) through point M.
Point A is then found in the same way
as in example 1, and the load diagram
can be drawn as shown in Fig. 21b.
Example 4:
Special case, with shaft generator
Also in this special case, a shaft gener
ator is installed but, unlike in Example
3, now the specified MCR for propul
sion MP is placed at the top of the lay
out diagram, see Fig. 22a. This involves
that the intended specified MCR of the
engine (Point M) will be placed outside
the top of the layout diagram.
One solution could be to choose a
diesel engine with an extra cylinder,
but another and cheaper solution is to
reduce the electrical power production
of the shaft generator when running in
the upper propulsion power range.
If choosing the latter solution, the re
quired specified MCR power of the en
gine can be reduced from point M to
point Mas shown in Fig. 22a. Therefore,
when running in the upper propulsion
power range, a diesel generator has to
take over all or part of the electrical
power production.
However, such a situation will seldom
occur, as ships rather infrequently op
erate in the upper propulsion power
range. In the example, the optimising
point O has been chosen equal to
point S, and line 1 may be found.
Point A, having the highest possible
power, is then found at the intersection
of line L
1
L
3
with line 1, see Fig. 22a,
and the corresponding load diagram is
26
S
h
a
f
t

g
e
n
e
r
a
t
o
r
Propulsion curve for heavy running
SG
O=S
6 1
7
2
M
Engine service curve
for heavy running
MP
SP
A
M
Engine speed
Power
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram
Point A and M of load diagram
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O)
M: Located on constant power line 7 through point A
and at MPs speed
Point A: Intersection between line 1 and line L L
Point
1 3
Fig. 22a: Example 4 with FPP engine layout with SG(special case)
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram
S
h
a
f
t

g
e
n
e
r
a
t
o
r
Propulsion curve
for heavy running
3.3% A
SG
5
6 2
4
1
7
O=S
6
3
1
7
2
5% A
5% L
1
M
Engine service curve
for heavy running
MP
SP
A
M
5
4
Engine speed
Power
Fig. 22b: Example 4 with FPP load diagramwith SG(special case)
drawn in Fig. 22b. Point M is found on
line 7 at MPs speed.
Example with controllable pitch propeller
Example 5:
With or without shaft generator
Layout diagram without shaft generator
If a controllable pitch propeller (CPP)
is applied, the combinator curve (of
the propeller with optimum propeller
efficiency) will normally be selected for
loaded ship including sea margin.
For a given propeller speed, the com
binator curve may have a given propeller
pitch, and this means that, like for a fixed
pitch propeller, the propeller may be
heavy running in heavy weather.
Therefore, it is recommended to use a
light running combinator curve (the dotted
curve), as shown in Fig. 23, to obtain an
increased operating margin for the diesel
engine in heavy weather to the load limits
indicated by curves 4 and 5.
Layout diagram with shaft generator
The hatched area in Fig. 23 shows the
recommended speed range between
100% and 96.7% of the specified MCR
speed for an engine with shaft generator
running at constant speed.
The service point S can be located at
any point within the hatched area.
The procedure shown in Examples 3
and 4 for engines with FPP can also be
applied for engines with CPP running
on a combinator curve.
The optimising point Ofor engines with
VIT can be chosen on the propeller curve
1 through point A = Mwith an optimised
power from85 to 100%of the specified
MCR as mentioned before in the section
dealing with optimising point O.
Load diagram
Therefore, when the engines specified
MCR point Mhas been chosen including
engine margin, sea margin and the
power for a shaft generator, if installed,
point M can be used as point A of the
load diagram, which can then be drawn.
The position of the combinator curve
ensures the maximum load range
within the permitted speed range for
engine operation, and it still leaves a
reasonable margin to the load limits
indicated by curves 4 and 5.
Influence on engine running of
different types of ship resistance
plant with FPpropeller
In order to give a brief summary regard
ing the influence on the fixed pitch
propeller running and main engine opera
tion of different types of ship resistance,
an arbitrary example has been chosen,
see the load diagram in Fig. 24.
The influence of the different types of
resistance is illustrated by means of
corresponding service points for propul
sion having the same propulsion power,
using as basis the propeller design
point PD, plus 15% extra power.
Propeller design point PD
The propeller will, as previously described,
normally be designed according to a
specified ship speed V valid for loaded
ship with clean hull and calm weather
conditions. The corresponding engine
speed and power combination is
shown as point PD on propeller curve
6 in the load diagram, Fig. 24.
Increased ship speed, point S0
If the engine power is increased by, for
example, 15%, and the loaded ship is
still operating with a clean hull and in
calm weather, point S0, the ship speed
27
Min
speed
A=M
S
3.3%A
5
4
1
7
5%A
5%L
Recommended range
for shaft generator
operation with
constant speed
3
1
5
1
O
7
Combinator curve
for loaded ship
and incl. sea margin
Max
speed
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram
Engine speed
Power
4
Fig. 23: Example 5 with CPP with or without shaft generator
V and engine speed n will increase in
accordance with the propeller law (more
or less valid for the normal speed range):
V V V
n n n
S
S
0
3 5
0
3 0
115 1041
115 1048
= =
= =
. .
. .
.
.
Point S0 will be placed on the same
propeller curve as point PD.
Sea running with clean hull and 15%
sea margin, point S
2
Conversely, if still operating with loaded
ship and clean hull, but now with extra
resistance from heavy seas, an extra
power of, for example, 15% is needed
in order to maintain the ship speed V
(15% sea margin).
As the ship speed V
S2
= V, and if the
propeller had no slip, it would be expected
that the engine (propeller) speed would
also be constant. However, as the water
does yield, i.e. the propeller has a slip,
the engine speed will increase and the
running point S2 will be placed on a
propeller curve 6.2 very close to S0, on
propeller curve 6. Propeller curve 6.2
will possibly represent an approximate
0.5% heavier running propeller than
curve 6.
Depending on the ship type and size,
the heavy running factor of 0.5% may
be slightly higher or lower.
For a resistance corresponding to
about 30% extra power (30% sea mar
gin), the corresponding relative heavy
running factor will be about 1%.
Sea running with fouled hull, and
heavy weather, point SP
When, after some time in service, the
ships hull has been fouled, and thus
becomes more rough, the wake field
will be different from that of a smooth
ship (clean hull).
A ship with a fouled hull will, conse
quently, be subject to an extra resis
tance which, due to the changed
wake field, will give rise to a heavier
running propeller than experienced
during bad weather conditions alone.
When also incorporating some aver
age influence of heavy weather, the
propeller curve for loaded ship will
move to the left, see propeller curve
2 in the load diagram in Fig. 24. This
propeller curve, denoted fouled hull
and heavy weather for a loaded ship,
is about 5% heavy running compared
to the clean hull and calm weather
propeller curve 6.
In order to maintain an ample air
supply for the diesel engines com
bustion, which imposes a limitation
on the maximum combination of
torque and speed, see curve 4 of the
load diagram, it is normal practice to
match the diesel engine and turbo
28
8
5
9 3
2
1
7
4
90
85
95
75
70
85
105
100
110
6.3
80
90 95 100 105
S3
80 110
SP
100% ref. point (A)
Specified MCR (M)
6
6.2 6.1
S2
S1
S0
PD
Engine speed, % of A
A=M
Engine shaft power % of A
PD: Propeller design point, clean hull and calm weather
Continuous service rating for propulsion with
a power equal to 90% specified MCR, based on:
S0: Clean hull and calm weather, loaded ship
S1: Clean hull and calm weather, ballast (trial)
S2: Clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship
SP: Fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship
S3: Very heavy sea and wave resistance
Line 1: Propeller curve through point A=M, layout curve for engine
Line 2: Heavy propeller curve, fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship
Line 6: Light propeller curve, clean hull and calm weather,
loaded ship, layout curve for propeller
Line 6.1: Propeller curve, clean hull and calm weather, ballast (trial)
Line 6.2: Propeller curve, clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship
Line 6.3: Propeller curve, very heavy sea and wave resistance
Fig. 24: Influence of different types of ship resistance on the continuous service rating
charger etc. according to a propeller
curve 1 of the load diagram, equal to
the heavy propeller curve 2.
Instead of point S2, therefore, point SP
will normally be used for the engine lay
out by referring this service propulsion
rating to, for example, 90%of the engines
specified MCR, which corresponds to
choosing a 10% engine margin.
In other words, in the example the pro
pellers design curve is about 5% light
running compared with the propeller
curve used for layout of the main engine.
Running in very heavy seas with
heavy waves, point S3
When sailing in very heavy sea against,
with heavy waves, the propeller can be
78% heavier running (and even more)
than in calm weather, i.e. at the same
propeller power, the rate of revolution
may be 78% lower.
For a propeller power equal to 90% of
specified MCR, point S3 in the load
diagram in Fig. 24 shows an example
of such a running condition.
In some cases in practice with strong
wind against, the heavy running has
proved to be even greater and even to
be found to the left of the limitation line
4 of the load diagram.
In such situations, to avoid slamming of
the ship and thus damage to the stem
and racing of the propeller, the ship
speed will normally be reduced by the
navigating officers on watch.
Ship acceleration and operation in
shallow waters
When the ship accelerates and the
propeller is being subjected to a larger
load than during free sailing, the effect
on the propeller may be similar to that
illustrated by means of point S3 in the
load diagram, Fig. 24. In some cases in
practice, the influence of acceleration
on the heavy running has proved to be
even greater. The same conditions are
valid for running in shallow waters.
Sea running at trial conditions, point S1
Normally, the clean hull propeller curve
6 will be referred to as the trial trip pro
peller curve. However, as the ship is
seldom loaded during sea trials and
more often is sailing in ballast, the ac
tual propeller curve 6.1 will be more
light running than curve 6.
For a power to the propeller equal to
90% specified MCR, point S1 on the
load diagram, in Fig. 24, indicates an
example of such a running condition. In
order to be able to demonstrate opera
tion at 100% power, if required, during
sea trial conditions, it may in some
cases be necessary to exceed the pro
peller speed restriction, line 3, which
during trial conditions may be allowed
to be extended to 107%, i.e. to line 9
of the load diagram.
Influence of ship resistance on
combinator curves plant with
CPpropeller
This case is rather similar with the FP
propeller case described above, and
therefore only briefly described here.
The CPpropeller will normally operate
on a given combinator curve, i.e. for a
given propeller speed the propeller
pitch is given (not valid for constant
propeller speed). This means that
heavy running operation on a given
propeller speed will result in a higher
power operation, as shown in the ex
ample in Fig. 25.
29
S=PD Propeller design point incl. sea margins, and continuous service rating of engine
Line 1 Propeller curve for layout of engine
Line 1 Combinator curve for propeller design, clean hull and 15%sea margin, loaded ship
Line 6.1 Light combinator curve, fouled hull and calm weather, loaded ship
Line 2 Heavy combinator curve, fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship
Line 2.1 Very heavy combinator curve, very heavy sea and wave resistance
Fig. 25: Influence of ship resistance on combinator curves for CPpropeller
Engine speed, % of A
Engine shaft power % of A
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
8 4 1 6 3
7
5
6.1
2.1
2
A=M
S=PD
100% ref. point (A)
Specified MCR (M)
Closing Remarks
In practice, the ships resistance will
frequently be checked against the results
obtained by testing a model of the ship
in a towing tank. The experimental tank
test measurements are also used for
optimising the propeller and hull design.
When the ships necessary power re
quirement, including margins, and the
propellers speed (rate of revolution)
have been determined, the correct
main engine can then be selected, e.g.
with the help of MAN B&W Diesels
computerbased engine selection
programme.
In this connection the interaction between
ship and main engine is extremely im
portant, and the placing of the engines
load diagram, i.e. the choice of engine
layout in relation to the engines (ships)
operational curve, must be made care
fully in order to achieve the optimum
propulsion plant. In order to avoid over
loading of the main engine for excessive
running conditions, the installation of an
electronic governor with load control may
be useful.
If a main engine driven shaft generator
producing electricity for the ship is in
stalled, the interaction between ship and
main engine will be even more complex.
However, thanks to the flexibility of the
layout and load diagrams for the MAN
B&Wengines, a suitable solution will
nearly always be readily at hand.
References
[1] Technical discussion with
Keld Kofoed Nielsen,
Burmeister & Wain Shipyard,
Copenhagen
[2] Ship Resistance
H.E. Guldhammer and
Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1974
[3] Resistance and Propulsion of Ships,
Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1983
[4] Paint supplier International
Coatings Ltd., 2003
[5] Fartygspropellrar och Fartygs Framdrift,
Jan Tornblad, KaMeWa Publication,
1985
Furthermore, we recommend:
[6] Prediction of Power of Ships
Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1977 and 1986
[7] Propulsion of SingleScrew Ships
Sv. Aa. Harvald & J.M. Hee, 1981
1
1
174 AP

ENDICE D. SELEC C

AO DE MOTORES PROPULSORES
Ap

endice E
Derating para Reduzir Consumo de
Combustvel
175
176 AP

ENDICE E. DERATING
1 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
Rudolf Wettstein
1
& David Brown
2
Wrtsil Switzerland Ltd, Winterthur
Summary
Tis paper sets out ways to achieve worthwhile reductions in the fuel consumption of Wrtsil low-speed engines
when designing newbuildings. Te key approach is to use the exibility oered by the full power/speed layout eld to
select a better layout point at a derated power with a lower BSFC and also possibly a higher propeller eciency.
Derating: a solution for
high fuel savings and lower emissions
Introduction
Fuel eciency and environmental friendliness are
high on the list of requirements for ship propulsion
engines from todays shipping- and shipbuilding
industries. Tus Wrtsil is committed to creating
better technology in these areas that will benet both
the customers and the environment.
Yet it is often forgotten by many ship designers
and those specifying low-speed main engines that
advantage can be taken of the power/speed layout
eld of Wrtsil low-speed engines to select an engine
rating point with a still lower fuel consumption.
Te concept of the power/speed layout eld for
low-speed marine diesel engines originated in the
1970s. Te layout options were step-by-step widened
until, in 1984, our low-speed engines began to be
oered with a broad power/speed layout eld. An
engines contracted maximum continuous rating
(CMCR) can be selected at any point in the power/
speed eld dened by the four corner points: R1,
R2, R3 and R4 (Fig. 1). Te rating point R1 is the
maximum continuous rating (MCR) of the engine.
Most recently, the layout elds for certain
engines, the RT-ex82C, RTA82C, RT-ex82T and
RTA82T, are extended to increased speeds for the
R1+ and R2+ points (Fig. 2). Te extended elds
oer widened exibility to select the most ecient
propeller speed for lowest daily fuel consumption,
and the most economic propulsion equipment,
Fig. 1: Typical layout eld for RTA and RT-ex engines. Te
contracted maximum continuous rating (CMCR) can be
selected at any point, such as Rx, within the layout eld. Te
BSFC is the reduction in full-load BSFC for any rating
point Rx relative to that at the R1 rating.
[08#044]
Engine power, %R1
Engine speed, %R1
100
90
100
80
70
60
90 80 70
R1
R2
R3
R4
C
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

t
o
r
q
u
e

l
i
n
e
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
BSFC
g/kWh
Rx
Higher propulsive
efficiency
Lower
specific
fuel
consumption
namely the propeller, shafting, etc.
One basic principle of the engine layout eld is
that the same maximum cylinder pressure (Pmax)
is employed at all CMCR points within the layout
eld. Tus the reduced brake mean eective pressure
(BMEP) obtained at the reduced power outputs in
the eld results in an increased ratio of Pmax/BMEP
and thus lower brake specic fuel consumption
(BSFC).
Te other principle behind the layout eld is
1
Rudolf Wettstein is Director, Marketing &
Application Development, Ship Power, Wrtsil
Switzerland Ltd.
2
David Brown is Manager, Marketing Support,
Wrtsil Switzerland Ltd.
2 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
that the lower CMCR speeds allow exibility in
selection of the optimum propeller with consequent
benets in propulsion eciency and thus lower fuel
consumption in terms of tonnes per day.
One feature to be borne in mind when selecting
the rating point for the derated engine is the rating
Engine power, %R1
Engine speed, %R1
R1+
R2+
R3
R4
100
100
90
80
90 80
R1
R2
Engine power, %R1
Engine speed, %R1
100
90
100
80
70
60
90 80 70
R1
R2
R3
R4
Rx2
Rx1
Rating line
slope =
line (Fig. 3). Tis is the line through a CMCR rating
point such that any point on the line represents
a new power/speed combination that will give
the same ship speed in knots. Te points on the
rating line all require the same propeller type but
with dierent adaptations to suit the power/speed
combination. In general, lower speeds of rotation
require larger propeller diameters and thereby
increase the total propulsive eciency. Usually the
selected propeller speed depends on the maximum
permissible propeller diameter. Te maximum
diameter is often determined by operational
requirements, such as design draught and ballast
draught limitations, as well as class recommendations
concerning propellerhull clearance (pressure
impulse induced by the propeller on the hull).
Te slope of the rating line () depends broadly
upon the ship type. It can range from 0.15 for
tankers, bulk carriers and general cargo ships up to
about 10,000 tdw to 0.22 for container ships larger
than 3000 TEU and 0.25 for tankers and bulk
carriers larger than 30,000 tdw.
Changing engine selection strategies
When the broad layout eld was introduced in
RTA engines in 1984 it was widely welcomed by
shipowners and shipbuilders. Afterwards RTA
engines were frequently selected at ratings in the
lower part of the layout eld to gain the benets of
Fig. 2: For the RT-ex82C, RTA82C, RT-ex82T and
RTA82T engines the layout elds are extended to the ratings
R1+ and R2+ at the same powers as R1 and R2 respectively
but with increased shaft speed.
[08#049]
Fig. 3: For a given ship, a rating line (slope ) can be applied
to the layout eld so that all rating points on that line would
give the same ship speed with a suitably optimized propeller.
Rating points at lower speeds on the rating line require
a larger propeller diameter and give a greater propulsive
eciency.
Fig. 4: Since the 1980s engine ratings have been selected over
a steadily smaller area of the layout eld.
[08#051]
Engine power, %R1
Engine speed, %R1
100
90
100
80
70
60
90 80 70
R1
R2
R3
R4
Area of recent
CMCR selection
Area of CMCR
selection in
the 1980s
3 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
100
200
300
400
500
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Bunker price, US$/tonne
380cSt HFO
Fig. 5: Bunker prices have considerably increased in recent times. Te chart shows the average price of 380 cSt heavy fuel oil (HFO)
from various ports around the world from 2004 to 2008. Te green bars indicate the mean price for each year.
[08#045]
lower fuel consumption.
However, under the pressure of rst costs and
softening bunker prices the strategy was changed and
the selected power/speed combination has, during
the past 15 years or so, been selected to be closer to
the R1 rating (Fig. 4).
Yet, more recently, bunker prices have steadily
climbed, rising by some 85 per cent in the course of
2007 from US$ 270 to US$ 500 per tonne (Fig. 5).
Te result is that bunkers are now the dominant part
of ship operating costs.
Such drastic increases in bunker prices give a
strong impetus to reduce fuel costs. Tey can also
justify additional investment cost such as selecting
an engine with an extra cylinder. Te consequent
fuel saving may make for an acceptable payback time
on the additional investment cost. It would justify
any eorts to increase the overall eciency of the
complete propulsion system.
Further impetus to implementing such changes
in engine selection strategy will come from a future
need to cut CO
2
emissions. If a carbon trading
scheme is imposed on shipping it would give further
economic advantage to reducing fuel consumption
and further help to pay for any necessary extra
investment costs.
In addition it is important to bear in mind that
the fuel savings measures discussed here will also
result in lower NO
X
emissions in absolute terms.
Derating engines for greater fuel savings
In the following pages are some case studies for ship
installations for which an engine is selected with an
extra cylinder without increasing the engines power.
Tese cases demonstrate that such engine derating
can be an advantageous solution with remarkable
saving potential. Depending on bunker costs, such a
strategy can have a very attractive pay-back time.
Te four case studies are for a Suezmax tanker,
a Capesize bulk carrier, a Panamax container ship
and a Post-Panamax container ship. Tey include
estimations of the respective pay-back times for the
additional engine costs.
4 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
In this case, a typical Suezmax tanker might be
specied with a six-cylinder Wrtsil RT-ex68-D
main engine. However, if a seven-cylinder engine is
employed instead, the daily fuel consumption can be
reduced by some 3.4 per cent.
In the engine/propeller layout for this ship as
shown in gure 6, the CMCR points for the two
alternative engines are on the same rating line
( = 0.3) through a common design point for the
same ship service speed (knots).
Te calculation of annual fuel costs given in table
2 is based on 6000 hours running with heavy fuel oil
costing US$ 500 per tonne.
Te resulting payback time for the extra cost
associated with the additional engine cylinder is
estimated to be between 3.5 and six years depending
on the bunker price of US$ 600400 per tonne
respectively (Fig. 7). Te calculations of the payback
are based on an interest rate of eight per cent.
A similar case may be made for a Capesize bulk
carrier as it would be similar in size and speed to a
Suezmax tanker and would thus require a similar
engine.
Table 1: Typical ship parameters for a Suezmax tanker
Length overall: about 274 m
Beam: 4650 m
Design draught: 16 m
Scantling draught: 17 m
Sea margin: 15 %
Engine service load: 90 %
Table 2: Main engine options
Alternative engines: 6RT-ex68-D 7RT-ex68-D
Cylinder bore, mm: 680 680
Piston stroke, mm: 2720 2720
Stroke/bore ratio: 4:1 4:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 18,780/95 21,910/95
CMCR, kW / rpm: 18,780/95 18,460/89.7
BMEP at CMCR, bar: 20.0 17.9
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW/rpm: 16,902/91.7 16,614/86.6
BSFC at CMCR, g/kWh:
100% load: 169.0 164.8
90% load: 165.6 162.6
Daily fuel consumption, tonnes/day:
ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 67.2 64.8
LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 70.8 68.4
As percentage, %: 100 96.6 3.4%
Annual fuel costs, US$: 8,853,000 8,544,000
Fuel saving, US$: 0 309,000
Engine length, mm: 8690 9870
Engine mass, tonnes: 472 533
Case 1: Suezmax tanker & Capesize bulk carrier
5 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
Engine speed, rpm
80 75 85 90 95 100
22,000
20,000
18,000
16,000
Engine power, kW
6RT-flex68-D
7RT-flex68-D
= 0.3
Constant ship speed
CSR
16,614 kW
86.6 rpm
CSR
16,902 kW
91.7 rpm
CMCR
18,460 kW
89.7 rpm
Design point
CMCR = R1
18,780 kW, 95 rpm
Case 1: Suezmax tanker & Capesize bulk carrier
Fig. 6: Engine/propeller layouts for
a typical Suezmax tanker with a
derated seven-cylinder RT-ex68-D
engine compared with a six-cylinder
engine at the full MCR power and
speed.
[08#052]
Fig. 7: Variation of payback times
from fuel savings according to
bunker costs for the derated engine
with an extra cylinder for a typical
Suezmax tanker.
[08#144]
3.0
2.0
1.0
0
Millions US$
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Years
Bunker price, HFO:
$600/tonne
$500/tonne
$400/tonne
Investment approx. ($)
6 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
In this case, a typical Panamax container ship with
a container capacity of up to 5000 TEU might be
specied with an eight-cylinder Wrtsil RT-ex82C
main engine. However, if a nine-cylinder engine is
employed instead, the daily fuel consumption can be
reduced by some two per cent.
In the engine/propeller layout for this ship as
shown in gure 8, the CMCR points for the two
alternative engines are on the same rating line
( = 0.2) through a common design point for the
same ship service speed (knots).
Case 2: Panamax container ship
Te calculation of annual fuel costs given in table
4 is based on 6000 hours running with heavy fuel oil
costing US$ 500 per tonne.
Te resulting payback time for the extra cost
associated with the additional engine cylinder
is estimated to be between four and seven years
depending on the bunker price of US$ 600400 per
tonne respectively (Fig. 9). Te calculations of the
payback are based on an interest rate of eight per
cent.
Table 3: Typical ship parameters for a Panamax
container ship
Length overall: about 295 m
Beam: 32.2 m
Design draught: 12 m
Scantling draught: 13.5 m
Sea margin: 15 %
Engine service load: 90 %
Table 4: Main engine options
Alternative engines: 8RT-ex82C 9RT-ex82C
Cylinder bore, mm: 820 820
Piston stroke, mm: 2646 2646
Stroke/bore ratio: 3.2:1 3.2:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 36,160/102 40,680/102
CMCR, kW / rpm: 36,160/102 35,480/97.5
BMEP at CMCR, bar: 19.0 17.5
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW / rpm: 32,544/98.5 32,250/94.3
BSFC at CMCR, g/kWh:
100% load: 169.0 166.6
90% load: 166.5 164.6
Daily fuel consumption, tonnes/day:
ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 130.0 127.4
LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 137.1 134.3
As percentage, %: 100 98 2.0%
Annual fuel costs, US$: 17,138,000 16,790,000
Fuel saving, US$: 0 348,000
Engine length, mm: 14,055 16,500
Engine mass, tonnes: 1020 1140
7 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
Case 2: Panamax container ship
Fig. 8: Engine/propeller layouts for a
typical Panamax container ship with
a derated nine-cylinder RT-ex82C
engine compared with an eight-
cylinder engine at the full MCR
power and speed.
[08#062]
Fig. 9: Variation of payback times
from fuel savings according to
bunker costs for the derated engine
with an extra cylinder for a typical
Panamax container ship.
[08#145]
Engine power, kW
8RT-flex82C
9RT-flex82C
= 0.2
Constant ship speed
42,000
40,000
38,000
36,000
34,000
32,000
85 90 95 100 105
Engine speed, rpm
CMCR
35,850 kW
97.5 rpm
Design point
CMCR = R1+
36,160 kW, 102 rpm
CSR
32,544 kW
98.5 rpm
CSR
32,250 kW
94.3 rpm
3.0
2.0
1.0
0
Millions US$
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Years
Bunker price, HFO:
$600/tonne
$500/tonne
$400/tonne
Investment approx. ($)
4.0
8 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
In this case, a typical Post-Panamax container
ship with a container capacity of around 7000
TEU might be specied with an eleven-cylinder
Wrtsil RT-ex96C main engine. However, if a
12-cylinder engine is employed instead, the daily fuel
consumption can be reduced by some 2.4 per cent.
In the engine/propeller layout for this ship as
shown in gure 10, the CMCR points for the two
alternative engines are on the same rating line
( = 0.2) through a common design point for the
same ship service speed (knots).
Case 3: Post-Panamax container ship
Te calculation of annual fuel costs given in table
6 is based on 6000 hours running with heavy fuel oil
costing US$ 500 per tonne.
Te resulting payback time for the extra cost
associated with the additional engine cylinder is
estimated to be between two-and-a-half and four
years depending on the bunker price of US$ 600
400 per tonne respectively (Fig. 11). Te calculations
of the payback are based on an interest rate of eight
per cent.
Table 5: Typical ship parameters for a Post-Panamax
container ship
Length overall: about 325 m
Beam: 42.8 m
Design draught: 13 m
Scantling draught: 14.5 m
Sea margin: 15 %
Engine service load: 90 %
Table 6: Main engine options
Alternative engines: 11RT-ex96C 12RT-ex96C
Cylinder bore, mm: 960 960
Piston stroke, mm: 2500 2500
Stroke/bore ratio: 2.6:1 2.6:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 66,330/102 72,360/102
CMCR, kW / rpm: 66,330/102 65,919/98.9
BMEP at CMCR, bar: 19.6 18.4
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW / rpm: 59,697/98.5 59,327/95.5
BSFC at CMCR, g/kWh:
100% load: 171.0 168.0
90% load: 166.8 163.8
Daily fuel consumption, tonnes/day:
ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 239 233.2
LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 252 245.9
As percentage, %: 100 97.6 2.4%
Annual fuel costs, US$: 31,500,000 30,738,000
Fuel saving, US$: 0 762,000
Engine length, mm: 21,550 23,230
Engine mass, tonnes: 1910 2050
9 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
Case 3: Post-Panamax container ship
Fig. 10: Engine/propeller layouts for
a typical Post-Panamax container
ship with a derated 12-cylinder RT-
ex96C engine compared with an
11-cylinder engine at the full MCR
power and speed.
[08#127]
Fig. 11: Variation of payback times
from fuel savings according to
bunker costs for the derated engine
with an extra cylinder for the typical
Post-Panamax container ship.
[08#146]
Engine speed, rpm
90 95 100 105
72,000
70,000
66,000
62,000
Engine power, kW
11RT-flex96C
12RT-flex96C
= 0.2
Constant ship speed
CSR
59,697 kW
98.5 rpm
CMCR
65,919 kW
98.9 rpm
Design point
CMCR = R1
66,330 kW, 102 rpm
68,000
64,000
60,000
58,000
CSR
59,327 kW
95.5 rpm
8.0
4.0
2.0
0
Millions US$
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Years
Bunker price, HFO:
$600/tonne
$500/tonne
$400/tonne
Investment approx. ($)
6.0
10 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
Case 4: Derating without adding an
engine cylinder
It is also feasible to apply a derated engine to obtain
fuel savings in such a way that an additional engine
cylinder is not required.
An example of this can be seen with the Wrtsil
RT-ex50 engine. In October 2007, the D version
of this engine was announced, in which the engine
power was increased by 5.1 per cent and the BSFC
at full-load was reduced by 2 g/kWh compared with
the B version.
Tus if a -D engine is derated to the same
cylinder power output as the original version of the
RT-ex50, then the BSFC at full load is reduced
by 4.5 g/kWh, or 2.7 per cent (see Table 7). For a
typical bulk carrier with a six-cylinder RT-ex50
engine this can translate into annual savings of
US$ 124,000 when operating for 6000 running
hours a year with heavy fuel oil costing US$ 500
per tonne. Even greater savings are possible if the
engine is derated to a lower running speed (rpm)
at the derated power to gain the benets of a better
propulsion eciency.
Tere are already a number of standard ship
designs delivered and on order with RT-ex50-B or
even the original RT-ex50 engine. So it would be
perfectly feasible to install a derated RT-ex50-D
in further newbuildings to the same ship designs
and obtain the benet of the substantial savings in
operating costs. Te overall dimensions of the D
version are identical to those of the B and original
versions of the RT-ex50. Tere would, however, be
a modest increase in cost of the D version for the
higher-eciency turbochargers used, but the extra
cost would soon be repaid by the fuel cost savings.
Derating with exibility to full rating
Although derating oers attractive economics, it
can be frustrating to buy more engine than seems
necessary. Yet there is an interesting option to retain
an ability to utilise the full available installed engine
power, even up to the full R1 rating for future use to
obtain higher ship service speeds.
Te concept would be to set up the engine for
the derated output at the chosen reduced service
speed. Ten for a later date, the engine could be
re-adapted to the higher output. However, this needs
corresponding provisions in the selection and design
of the propeller, shafting and ancillary equipment to
meet the requirements of the envisaged higher power.
Furthermore the engine would need to be tested
and approved by the Classication Society for both
ratings with all the necessary emissions certication.
RT-ex technology as an important
contribution to fuel saving
Wrtsil RT-ex technology plays an important role
in fuel saving. Wrtsil RT-ex low-speed engines
incorporate the latest electronically-controlled
common-rail technology for fuel injection and valve
actuation. Te result is great exibility in engine
setting, bringing benets in lower fuel consumption,
lower minimum running speeds, smokeless operation
Table 7: Options for the Wrtsil RT-ex50 engine type
Alternative engines: 6RT-ex50 6RT-ex50-D
Cylinder bore, mm: 500 500
Piston stroke, mm: 2050 2050
S/B ratio: 4.1:1 4.1:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 9720/124 10,470/124
CMCR, kW / rpm: 9720/124 9720/124
BMEP at CMCR, bar: 19.5 19.5
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW / rpm: 8748/119.7 8748/119.7
BSFC at CMCR, g/kWh:
100% load: 171 165.7
90% load: 167.6 163.0
Daily fuel consumption, tonnes/day:
ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 35.2 34.2
LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 37.1 36.2
As percentage, %: 100 97.3 2.7%
Annual fuel costs, US$: 4,637,000 4,513,000
Fuel saving, US$: 0 124,000
11 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
at all running speeds, and better control of other
exhaust emissions.
Not only do RT-ex engines have a lower part-
load fuel consumption than RTA engines but they
can be adapted through Delta Tuning so that their
part-load fuel consumtion is even lower. [1]
Owing to the interaction between fuel economy
and NO
X
emissions, there is always the possibility
that fuel saving measures will have an impact on
NO
X
emissions. As with all new marine engines
nowadays, Wrtsil RTA and RT-ex engines are all
fully compliant with the NO
X
emission regulation of
Annexe VI of the MARPOL 1973/78 convention.
Moreover, the engines in the Wrtsil portfolio will
be adapted to meet the coming IMO NO
X
reduction
level Tier II.
Conclusion
Te paper shows that there are techniques to achieve
worthwhile reductions in the fuel consumption
of Wrtsil low-speed engines when designing
newbuildings. Te key approach is to use the
exibility oered by the full power/speed layout eld
to select a better layout point with a lower BSFC and
also possibly a higher propeller eciency.
It must also not be forgotten that any fuel savings
achieved at the ship design stage will have benets in
also reducing exhaust emissions.
If you have a project for which you wish to
explore the fuel-saving possibilities through derating
as set out in this paper, then please contact your
nearest Wrtsil oce. Our experts will be delighted
to calculate various alternatives for your evaluation.
References
1. German Weisser, Fuel saving with RT-ex,
Wrtsil Switzerland Ltd, July 2004.
Published June 2008 by:
Wrtsil Switzerland Ltd
PO Box 414
CH-8401 Winterthur
Tel: +41 52 262 49 22
Fax: +41 52 262 07 18
www.wartsila.com