THE HARMONISATION OF PRIVATE LAW IN THE EUROPEAN UNION

Introduction The process of Harmonisation Principles of European Contract Law and other Harmonisation Perspectives The Institutional and Procedural Law of the European Union as Instruments of Harmonisation The Principle of Abstraction in the Germanic Legal System vs. the Consensus Principle in the Romanic and Anglo-Saxon System Development, Principles and Perspectives of EU Consumer Law European Company Law

I.

Introduction The process of Harmonisation

In relation to the European Union, harmonisation of law (or "harmonisation") is the process of creating common standards across the internal market.

Harmonisation aims to: create consistency of laws, regulations, standards and practices, so that the same rules will apply to businesses that operate in more than one member State, and so that the businesses of one State do not obtain an economic advantage over those in another as a result of different rules. reduced compliance and regulatory burdens for businesses operating nationally or trans-nationally. A objective of the European Union to achieve uniformity in laws of member states is to facilitate free trade and protect citizens. Harmonisation is a process of ascertaining the admitted limits of international unification but does not necessarily amount to a vision of total uniformity.

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Characteristics of harmonisation Harmonisation is usually not comprehensive but is relatively partial. That is, harmonisation of law doesn.t seek to create a sole authority of law on a particular subject. This is because measures to harmonise law cannot go further than that which is necessary.

Harmonisation is unsystematic. The directives of the European Union do not focus on or contain comprehensive regulation of the entire law. The directives regulate some very specific issues and they regulate them only for particular situations or circumstances and only for particular types of parties. This is most prevalent in European Union contract law.

Harmonisation generally takes place on two levels of governance, the overarching body and each of the members individually. Taking the European Union, the two levels are the European level and national level. Although both European and national legislators share the legislative responsibilities, neither of these bodies has final responsibility for the whole. Also, there is no superior political authority which has the final say on who is responsible for what, i.e. no overarching authority over the European and national legislators. The European Court of Justice may however determine the extent of harmonization when determining cases.

Harmonisation is dynamic and this is its most appealing feature.[according to whom?] The instruments of harmonization aim at change, in particular improving and establishing consistent conditions for the operation of legal principles.

Harmonisation versus unification Unlike unification which contemplates the substitution of two or more legal systems with one single system, harmonisation of law arises exclusively in comparative law literature, and especially in conjunction with interjurisdictional, private transactions. Harmonisation seeks to effect an approximation or co-ordination of different legal provision or systems by eliminating major differences and creating minimum requirements or standards.

Unification focuses upon substituting or combining two or more legal systems and replacing them with a single system. Harmonisation on the other hand seeks to co-ordinate different legal systems by eliminating major differences and creating minimum requirements or standards.

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Harmonisation can be seen as a step towards unification and, in a way, harmonization aims or strives towards unification.

Efforts to achieve harmonisation The best example of harmonisation in modern history is the formation of the European Union. That said, harmonization is not a new concept. However, the problem is that no harmonisation project has ever reached completion. That is due to the nature of harmonisation, it is designed to incorporate different legal systems under a basic framework. This is the appeal of harmonisation, it takes into account the local factors yet applies general principles to make a consistent framework of law. It generally incorporates local factors under a relatively unified framework. An example of harmonisation can be drawn from the European Union and the use of Directives. Directives require transposition into the domestic legal system of the Member State in order to become effective. If a Member State fails to transpose the Directive in a timely manner or fails to do it at all, the Directive will take direct effect, that is, individuals are able to derive rights from that Directive directly despite not being transposed into domestic law. A Directive could be transposed through enactment under legislation from the national parliament or through agreement by reference. The Directives are flexible to the extent that the national authorities of the Member States have the choice of the form and method of the implementation of the Directive. This takes into account the fact that Member States have differing legal systems. Hence this allows the establishment of a harmonised framework of laws whilst preserving the established national laws of each member. This is the major appeal of harmonisation over unification. Harmonisation can be achieved in two ways, actively or passively. The most common is the active pursuit of harmonisation usually through the enactment of legislation which incorporates the harmonised principles into the local law (implementarea legislaiei europene prin ncorporarea principiilor armonizante n legislaia naional). Passive harmonisation may occur through non-legislative agreements or a convergence of case law. So far, passive harmonisation is the least successful since the non-legislative agreements tend to be voluntary. The convergence of case law is more promising since: All that matters is that the courts of different European States achieve similar results in the same cases, regardless of which norms, doctrines or procedures they apply in order to reach this end.

Harmonisation and convergence of law Harmonisation is synonymous with convergence of the law however harmonisation is usually associated via active pursuit through enacting legislation whereas

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convergence is generally associated with a passive approach such as a natural convergence of law through custom and frequent use of harmonised principles.

The most prominent example of harmonisation in international law is UNCITRAL (United Nations Commission on International Trade Law).

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II.

Principles of European Contract Law and other Harmonisation Perspectives 1. Principiile Unidroit

Principiile UNIDROIT aplicabile contractelor comerciale internationale au fost elaborate de Institutul International pentru Unificarea Dreptului Privat. Primele studii necesare pentru uniformizarea legislativa a vanzarii comerciale internationale au fost realizate in anul 1929 de catre Institutul International pentru Unificarea Dreptului Privat (UNIDROIT). Principiile Unidroit stabilesc regulile generale aplicabile contractelor comerciale internationale si se aplica atunci cand partile au convenit guvernarea contractului de aceste principii. Principiile pot fi aplicate atunci cand partile au convenit ca intelegerea dintre ele sub forma contractului, sa fie guvernata de principii generale de drept, de lex mercatoria sau alte asemenea principii. Acestea pot fi aplicate cand partile nu au ales nici o lege care sa le guverneze contractul. Principiile pot fi folosite pentru a interpreta sau completa instrumentele legale uniforme internationale. Ele pot fi folosite pentru a interpreta sau completa legea interna. Mai mult, principiile pot servi drept model pentru legiuitorii nationali si internationali. Ideea de a elabora principii internationale aplicabile contractelor internationale, fara a impune, in mod obligatoriu, acceptarea si aplicarea acestora, s-a concretizat prin redactarea Principiilor UNIDROIT de catre Institutul International pentru Unificarea Dreptului Privat, in anul 1994. Ideea de a evita o stricta localizare a contractelor comerciale internationale in cadrul unui singur sistem de drept national si de a le supune in schimb unor principii si reguli cu caracter supranational sau anational sau unui drept transnational, a fost mai mult criticata decat acceptata. Una dintre cele mai frecvente obiectii ridicate in acest caz a fost faptul ca lipsa unei definiri mai precise a naturii si continutului acestor principii/reguli in cazul aplicarii lor ar duce la o inevitabila si nedorita imprevizibilitate chiar la un arbitrariu in solutionarea fiecarui caz. Insa, odata cu publicarea Principiilor UNIDROIT aplicabile contractelor comerciale internationale, acest argument isi pierde din forta, deoarece aceste principii au fost create cu intentia de a stabili un corpus echilibrat de reguli special elaborate pentru a fi utilizate in intreaga lume a participantilor la comert care, fara a fi dependente de traditiile legale si de conditiile economice sau politice ale tarilor in care ele se vor aplica. Astfel se creeaza posibilitatea de a reduce considerabil, chiar de a elimina dificultatile survenite in incercarile de a nationaliza regimul legal al tranzactiilor intre state. Originalitatea Principiilor UNIDROIT, precum si avantajele pe care le ofera

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privind continutul si aplicarea efectiva in comparatie cu instrumentele traditionale de drept uniform sunt recunoscute pe scara larga. Un an decisiv in domeniul dreptului contractelor a fost anul 1994, cand s-au publicat principiile UNIDROIT pentru contractele comerciale internationale de catre Consiliul Director al Institutului pentru Unificarea Dreptului Privat (UNIDROIT) si totodata s-a elaborat si prima parte a principiilor Dreptului European Contractual (finalizate si publicate in 1998) de catre Comisia pentru Dreptul European Contractual. Principiile UNIDROIT au avut un mare succes. La nici doi ani de la publicarea lor au fost vandute mai mult de 3000 de exemplare in intreaga lume si marea majoritate a dispozitiilor principiilor au patruns in cercuri dintre cele mai diverse firme internationale de drept, curti de arbitraj, camere de comert, asociatii de avocati. Principiile UNIDROIT au fost publicate in cinci variante oficiale engleza, franceza, germana, italiana, spaniola si ca semn al succesului reputat ele au fost traduse si in araba, bulgara, chineza, maghiara, japoneza, sarba, slovaca si rusa. Cel mai important, poate, pentru a sublinia victoria principiilor, este ca dupa un an de la publicare, deja s-au intocmit rapoarte asupra deciziilor instantelor judecatoresti sau asupra sentintelor arbitrale cu referire la aceste principii. In 1994 Principiile prezentau doar un pur interes teoretic, dar in timp si-au dovedit eficienta, si actualmente, si datorita cercetarilor intreprinse de CENTRAL (Center For Transnational Law) in legatura cu utilizarea dreptului transnational in practica si arbitrajul privind contractele comerciale internationale. Principiile UNIDROIT, la prima lor editie, se compun dintr-un Preambul si 199 articole ce alcatuiesc 7 capitole: Capitolul 1 Dispozitii generale, Capitolul 2 Formare, Capitolul 3 Validitate, Capitolul 4 Interpretare, Capitolul 5 Continut, Capitolul 6 Aplicare, Capitolul 7 Non-aplicare. Dintre prevederile principiilor mentionam principiul libertatii contractelor (art. 1.1), formarea contractului (art. 2.1.), formulate foarte precis si in termeni generali, modul de plata (art. 6.19) sau dreptul la reparare (art. 7.1.4), care sunt tratate mult mai detaliat. Fiecare articol este completat cu comentarii, cu situatii reale si diverse moduri in care aceste articole se pot aplica in practica. La editia din 2004, reflectand importanta sporita pe care transmiterea drepturilor si obligatiilor o prezinta in comertul international, a fost introdus un capitol special (capitolul 9) intitulat Cesiunea de creanta, transmiterea obligatiilor, cesiunea contractelor cu sectiuni corespunzatoare institutiilor reglementate. De asemenea, s a introdus capitolul 8Compensarea cu sectiuni referitoare la: conditii referitoare la compensare, efectul compensarii reciproce, executarea obligatiei primei parti, compensare in valuta si capitolul 10Termene de prescriptie. Principiile UNIDROIT, in mod deliberat, au evitat utilizarea unei terminologii particulare vreunui sistem de drept national. Caracterul international al principiilor este subliniat, de asemenea, de abtinerea sistematica de a face referiri la legi nationale pentru a explica originea sau ratiunea unei solutii.

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In luna mai 2009 a avut loc cea de-a patra sesiune a Grupului de lucru insarcinat cu pregatirea celei de-a treia editii a Principiilor UNIDROIT aplicabile contractelor comerciale internationale. Membrii Grupului au discutat de o maniera aprofundata proiectele de revizuire a unor capitole printre care cele privind obligatiile plurale sau transferul obligatiilor. Aplicarea Principiilor UNIDROIT Principiile UNIDROIT pot fi folosite pentru solutionarea litigiilor internationale in diferite moduri. Se disting doua situatii fundamentale: 1. Cand partile prevad in mod expres aplicarea principiilor ca lex contractus, facanduse distinctia daca acest litigiu se solutioneaza de catre o instanta de drept comun sau de un tribunal arbitral. 2. Cand partile nu fac o referire expresa la aplicarea principiilor si discutia se poarta asupra aplicarii principiilor ca izvor de lex mercatoria, de principii generale ale dreptului, ca mijloc de interpretare sau completare a dreptului uniform international sau ca mijloc de interpretare si completare a dreptului comun. Concluzii Principiile UNIDROIT aplicabile contractelor internationale reprezinta o importanta opera in uniformizarea dreptului comerrtului international. Ori de cate ori legea ce guverneaza contractul este neclara sau prezinta lacune, mai ales in cazul tranzactiilor interstatale, instantele si tribunalele arbitrale le pot utiliza. Acestea pot fi aplicate si cand partile nu au ales nici o lege care sa guverneze contractul dintre ele, pentru a interpreta sau completa instrumentele legale uniforme internationale sau pentru a interpreta sau completa legea interna. Principiile pot servi de asemenea drept model pentru legiuitorii nationali si internationali.
http://fs.legaladviser.ro/39c59d043639d2be22e56d19243e511f.pdf

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2. Principles of European Contract Law (PECL)

"Comisia Dreptului European al Contractelor" (care a fost finantata in mare parte de catre Comisia Europeana, coordonata de Ole Lando si Hugh Beale) a publicat "Principiile Dreptului European al Contractelor Partile I, II si III". Aceste principii comune pentru statele membre ale Comunitatii Europene (in prezent Uniunii Europene) trateaza probleme legate de incheierea, nulitatea, interpretarea si continutul contractelor, executarea, incalcarea contractului si remedii. Cartea contine propuneri legislative si include comentarii si analize comparative pentru textele propuse.

The Principles of European Contract Law is a set of model rules drawn up by leading contract law academics in Europe. It attempts to elucidate basic rules of contract law and more generally the law of obligations which most legal systems of the member states of the European Union hold in common. The Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) are based on the concept of a uniform European contract law system, and were created by the Commission on European Contract Law (Lando Commission). The PECL take into account the requirements of the European domestic trade. Definition In the broader sense the PECL are a "set of general rules which are designed to provide maximum flexibility and thus accommodate future development in legal thinking in the field of contract law." The impetus for the work on the PECL were resolutions of the European Parliament of 1989 and 1994 which expressed the desire to establish a common European civil law. As an initial foundation, a common contract law was to be first created. Pursuing this goal, the Commission on European Contract Law (an organization independent from any national obligations) started work in 1982 under the chairmanship of Ole Lando, a lawyer and professor from Denmark. The Commission consisted of 22 members from all member states of the European Union and was partly financed by the EU. In the year 1995 the first part of the PECL was published; since 1999 the second part has been available and the third part was completed in 2002. Today, the work of the Commission on European Contract Law is continued by the Study Group on a European Civil Code. The Group is managed by Christian von Bar, a German law professor. The Group was founded in 2005. The PECL were inspired by the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) from 1980; however, they are a so-called Soft Law, such as the American Restatement of the Law of Contract, which is supposed to restate the Common Law of the United States. Therefore, the PECL do not represent a legally enforceable regulation: "The term 'soft law' is a blanket term for all

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sorts of rules, which are not enforced on behalf of the state, but are seen, for example, as goals to be achieved." Thus, the PECL are very similar to the Principles of International Commercial Contracts of UNIDROIT - International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (Unidroit Principles) which were already published in 1994. As is the case with the PECL, the Unidroit-Principles are a private codification prepared by top -class jurists without any national or supranational order or authorization. Their main goal of both the PECL and the Unidroit Principles was the compilation of uniform legal principles for reference, and, if necessary, the development of national legal systems. In the compilation of the PECL, the Law of the EU member states, and thus common and civil law, as well as Non-European Law were taken into consideration. In the PECL regulations are available which in this form have not been included so far in any legal system. The authors of the PECL also pursued the long term goal of influencing the development of laws in Europe. Meaning of the Principles of European Contract Law The PECL as "Common Core of the European Systems" In the formulation of the PECL the Lando Commission also used various European legal systems. In comparing these legal systems, there are often considerable differences with regard to certain regulations. In order to make available to the concerned parties a fair legal construct for their business dealings that do not prefer a party from a particular jurisdiction, the differing national law in question was, more or less, merged to form a common core. This approach is intended to eliminate insecurity in international transactions. Each party can be assured not to have disadvantages due to unfavorable aspects of particular national law after the parties have agreed to the application of the Principles: "...the only way to a really unified market was and is that of having a common set of rules in order to overcome the traditional barriers of each national legal order having a distinct and disparate regulation on the subject." The disadvantageous effects of differing national laws on the behavior of the market participants will thus be avoided, Trade will be promoted, as will a legally uniform European market. In this manner, the PECL succeed in bridging the gap between the civil law of the European continent and the common law of the Anglo-American system by offering regulations which were created in order to reconcile the divergent views of two systems. At the same time, the PECL provide assistance to judges in national courts and arbitrators in arbitration proceedings deciding cross-border issues. Should there not result any satisfactory solution from the national laws, "the Court [...] may adopt the solution provided by the Principles knowing that it represents the common core of the European systems."

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Written in a language known to all parties and using a uniform terminology, the PECL also serve as a "... basis for any future European Code of Contracts", consistent with the above-mentioned EU resolutions, which may eventually replace separate national laws. The PECL as part of a European Lex Mercatoria Often, parties to international sales contracts do not agree on a national law governing their contractual agreement. Instead, they sometimes agree on the validity of internationally approved legal principles, the so-called "general principles of law." These law principles, the Lex mercatoria, on which a court can then make its decision in order to settle the disputes of the parties, are composed of the "laws of several systems, the work of the legal writers and the published arbitral awards," and thus the entirety of the international legal practices in a special field of law. Thus, the PECL are, like the Unidroit Principles or the CISG, also part of the Lex Mercatoria. Whether Lex Mercatoria is subject to choice of law by the parties, is, however, actively disputed in international private law. This is also true for its legal nature per se. The PECL do not play a significant role in drafting of international sales contracts, or as a law governing such contracts. The possibility of including the PECL in such contracts either expressly or by reference to "general trade principles" or similar is indeed expressly mentioned in the PECL. In practice, however, the PECL are rarely agreed upon as applicable law. Within the trade between the member states of the European Union, the PECL nevertheless have a certain influence, since they were precisely created for such trade. The PECL enable the court, should it make use of them, to find a balanced decision. Further, it is possible that national legislative bodies will consult the PECL in connection with possible reforms in order to obtain a view of the current European consensus on contract law, without having to analyze the law of the individual states in detail. Influence on development of law and national legal systems The PECL were created, as was the case with the CISG and the Unidroit Principles, with the intention to be an example for existing and future national legal systems. Regulations under these soft laws were integrated in the new laws of various Central European and East European states. For example, parts of regulations of the PECL became part of the German Civil Code (BGB) in the course of the reform of the law of obligations in 2002. Influence on a European Civil Code There is an ongoing legal dispute as to whether an independent European civil code beyond the existing substantial EU regulatory framework is needed. If it is determined that a European Civil Code is needed, the PECL provides important steps toward the establishment of such a Code. The Study Group on a European Civil Code (SGECC), based on the PECL and, respectively, the Lando-Commission, presented in 2009 a Draft Common Frame of
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Reference (DCFR) in cooperation with other institutions. It is a draft for the codification of the whole European contract law and related fields of law. Within its efforts regarding a coherent European legal frame work, the European Committee published a Green Paper for a European contract law in July 2010 where it puts seven options for the further handling with the prepared Draft Common Frame of Reference up for discussion. These options range from the fully non-binding presentation of the results as a "Toolbox" and a "facultative European contract law instrument" up to an EURegulation for the introduction of a binding European Civil Code. Although the European Commission affirms that the options would be put up for an open-ended discussion, it is already preparing concrete regulations for an optional instrument by an Expert Group and a "Stakeholder Sounding Board." Actually, the solution of a facultative European contract law seems to be favored (socalled 28th regulation beside the 27 contract law systems of the member states) for which the users and companies within the European Union could use at their will (Opt-In rule). This facultative regulation would be offered as alternative to the existing individual-state contract law systems of the member states in all official languages. It could optionally be used for transnational contracts only or also for domestic contractual relationships. However, the concept of the prepared Draft Common Frame of Reference has met with strong criticism in the European member states. There are fears that a reliable application of law is not possible without a thorough revision of the draft. Further developments remain to be seen.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_European_Contract_Law

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3. Cadrul Comun de referin

Grupul de Studiu al unui Cod Civil European si Grupul de Cercetare al Dreptului Privat Existent in CE au publicat un Proiect al Cadru Comun de Referinta (DCFR) Principii, Definitii si Reguli Model de Drept Privat European, Von Bar, C., Clive, E. and Schulte Nolke, H. (eds.), Munich, Sellier, 2009.

Cadrului comun de referin (CFR) a fost elaborat de comisia condus de dl. profesor von Bar. Influena politic a Germaniei n Europa a fcut ca n 1998 lucrrile s fie ncredinate unei comisii lrgite conduse de dl. profesor Schulte-Nlke; n cadrul acesteia, de cea mai mare notorietate se bucur subcomisia care se ocup de obligaii i contracte, condus de dl. Christian von Bar. CFR este rezulatul unei munci susinute depuse timp de zece ani i care a intenionat s continue linia deschis de PECL. Principala diferen const n maniera n care s a lucrat: comisia Lando a dat la iveal o lucrare de inut rezultat n urma unor dezbateri tiinific dezinteresate, n timp ce comisia von Bar a lucrat n mare parte n virtutea presiunii politice unilaterale exercitat de dominaia european anglo saxon.

Cadrul comun de referin (C.C.R.) a fost conceput ca un instrument sau set de instruciuni pentru crearea legislaiei viitoare a contractelor.

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4. Regulamentul Bruxelles I
Domeniul de aplicabilitate al Regulamentului Bruxelles Regulamentul nr. 44, cunoscut si sub denumirea de Regulamentul I Bruxelles cuprinde reguli privind competenta de solutionare a litigiilor nascute dintr-un raport de drept international privat in materie civila si comerciala, indiferent de natura instantei , precum si norme privind recunoasterea si executarea hotararilor judecatoresti pronuntate in statele membre ale Uniunii Europene. Astfel, acesta contine raspunsul la doua probleme deosebit de importante in cazul ivirii unui diferend intre persoane apartinand a doua state membre diferite si anume: stabilirea instantei compente sa solutioneze cauza si recunoasterea si executarea titlului executoriu obtinut impotriva partii adverse. Regulamentul se aplica n materie civila si comerciala indiferent de natura instantei. Exceptii de la aplicabilitatea Regulamentului Inainte de toate, Regulamentul Bruxelles se aplica numai hotararilor judecatoresti pronuntate in statele membre ale Uniunii Europene. Prin hotararea pronuntata intr-un stat membru se intelege orice act de jurisdictie pronuntat de o instanta dintr-un stat membru, indiferent de denumirea acestui act, inclusiv un decret, ordin, decizie sau mandat de executare, precum si actul prin care se stabilesc cheltuielile de judecata. A doua limitare a aplicabilitatii Regulamentului este data de materiile carora se aplica - numai civila si comerciala.

De asemenea, Regulamentul Bruxelles precizeaza in mod expres ca acesta nu se aplica n materie fiscala, vamala sau administrativa precum si in cazul: (i) statutului sau capacitatii juridice a persoanelor fizice, drepturilor de proprietate derivate dintr-o relatie matrimoniala, testamentelor si succesiunilor; (ii) falimentului, procedurilor de lichidare a societatilor comerciale insolvabile sau a altor persoane juridice, in domeniul tranzactiilor judiciare, concordatelor sau actiunilor analoge; (ii) asigurarilor sociale; (iii) arbitrajului.

Reguli de procedura privind instanta competenta sa judece diferendul aparut intre persoane fizice sau juridice membre ale Uniunii. Ca regula generala, persoanele care au domiciliul pe teritoriul unui stat membru sunt actionate in justitie, indiferent de cetatenia lor, in instantele din statul membru in cauza. Persoanele care nu sunt cetateni ai statului membru in care au domiciliul sunt supuse normelor de competenta aplicabile cetatenilor statului in cauza.

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In cazul in care paratul nu este domiciliat pe teritoriul unui stat membru, competenta instantelor din fiecare stat membru este determinata de legea din statul membru in cauza. Sunt prevazute insa si norme care reglementeaza o competenta exclusiva indiferent de domiciliul paratului precum si cazurile de prorogare de competenta.

1. Competenta exclusiva este reglementata in urmatoarele cazuri : (i) in actiunile in materie de drepturi reale asupra proprietatilor imobiliare sau de inchiriere a unor proprietati imobiliare, instantele din statul membru pe teritoriul caruia este situat imobilul. Cu toate acestea, in cadrul actiunilor care au ca obiect inchirierea unor proprietati imobiliare in vederea utilizarii personale temporare pe o perioada de cel mult sase luni consecutive, instantele din statul membru pe teritoriul caruia paratul este domiciliat au, de asemenea, competenta, cu conditia ca chiriasul sa fie o persoana fizica si ca proprietarul si chiriasul sa aiba domiciliul pe teritoriul aceluiasi stat membru; (ii) in actiunile care au ca obiect valabilitatea constituirii, nulitatea sau dizolvarea societatilor sau a altor persoane juridice sau a asociatiilor de persoane fizice sau juridice, ori valabilitatea deciziilor organelor acestora, instantele din statul membru pe teritoriul caruia societatea, persoana juridica sau asociatia isi are sediul. Pentru determinarea sediului, instanta aplica normele sale de drept international privat; (iii) in actiunile care au ca obiect valabilitatea inscrisurilor in registre publice, instantele din statul membru pe teritoriul caruia se pastreaza registrul; (iv) in actiunile referitoare la inregistrarea sau valabilitatea brevetelor, marcilor, desenelor si modelelor, precum si a altor drepturi analoge care necesita depunerea sau inregistrarea, instantele din statul membru pe teritoriul caruia depunerea sau inregistrarea a fost solicitata, a avut loc sau, in temeiul unui instrument comunitar sau a unei conventii internationale, se considera ca a avut loc. Fara a aduce atingere competentei pe care Oficiul European pentru Brevete o are in conformitate cu Conventia privind acordarea brevetelor europene, semnata la Munchen la 5 octombrie 1973, instantele din fiecare stat membru au competenta exclusiva, indiferent de domiciliu, in actiunile privind inregistrarea sau valabilitatea unui brevet european acordat statului in cauza; (v) in actiunile privind executarea hotararilor, instantele din statul membru pe teritoriul caruia a fost sau urmeaza sa fie executata hotararea. 2. Prorogarea de competenta. Daca partile, dintre care una sau mai multe isi au domiciliul pe teritoriul unui stat membru, au convenit ca o instanta sau instantele dintr-un stat membru urmeaza sa aiba competenta in solutionarea oricarui litigiu ce a survenit sau poate surveni in legatura cu un raport juridic determinat, instanta sau instantele respective au competenta. Aceasta competenta este exclusiva, in cazul in care partile nu au convenit in alt fel. Un astfel de acord de atribuire a competentei se incheie:

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(a) in scris, sau verbal cu confirmare scrisa; sau (b) intr-o forma conforma cu practica stabilita intre parti; sau (c) in comertul international, intr-o forma conforma cu uzanta cu care partile sunt sau ar trebui sa fie la curent si care, in cadrul acestui tip de comert, este cunoscuta pe larg si respectata cu regularitate de catre partile la contractele de tipul pe care il implica domeniul comercial respectiv.

Daca insa un astfel de acord a fost incheiat intre parti, dintre care nici una nu isi are domiciliul intr-un stat membru, instantele din alte state membre nu au competenta in privinta litigiilor lor daca instanta sau instantele desemnate nu si-au declinat competenta.

Recunosterea hotararilor judecatoresti in statele membre UE Regulamentul defineste notiunea de hotarare drept acea decizie pronuntata de o instanta dintr-un stat membru, indiferent de denumirea hotararii, inclusiv un decret, ordin, decizie sau mandat de executare, precum si stabilirea cheltuielilor de judecata. O hotarare pronuntata intr-un stat membru este recunoscuta in celelalte state membre fara sa fie necesara recurgerea la vreo procedura speciala. In caz de litigiu, orice parte interesata care invoca recunoasterea unei hotarari ca titlu principal poate, sa ceara o decizie in sensul recunoasterii hotararii. Daca rezultatul actiunii intr-o instanta dintr-un stat membru depinde de determinarea unei chestiuni incidentale de recunoastere, instanta in cauza are competenta in chestiunea respectiva.

Refuzul recunoasterii O hotarare nu va fi recunoscuta daca : (i) recunoasterea este vadit contrara ordinii publice a statului membru in care se solicita recunoasterea; (ii) in cazul in care a fost pronuntata prin neprezentare, daca paratului nu i-a fost inmanat actul de introducere a actiunii in instanta sau un alt act echivalent in timp util si intr-o maniera care sa-i permita acestuia sa-si pregateasca apararea, daca paratul nu a omis sa exercite actiunea de contestare a hotararii atunci cand a avut posibilitatea sa o faca; (iii) daca aceasta este ireconciliabila cu o hotarare pronuntata intr-un litigiu intre aceleasi parti in statul membru in care se solicita recunoasterea; (iv) daca aceasta este ireconciliabila cu o hotarare pronuntata anterior intr-un alt stat membru sau intr-un tert stat in cazul in care actiunile privesc aceeasi cauza si sunt introduse intre aceleasi parti, cu conditia ca hotararea anterioara sa intruneasca

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conditiile necesare pentru a fi recunoscuta in statul membru caruia i se solicita recunoasterea.

Executarea hotararilor judecatoresti pronuntate in statele membre UE O hotarare pronuntata intr-un stat membru si care este executorie in statul in cauza este executata intr-un alt stat membru atunci cand, la cererea uneia dintre partile interesate, a fost declarata drept executorie in statul respectiv. Totusi, in Regatul Unit o astfel de hotarare este executata in Anglia si Tara Galilor, in Scotia sau Irlanda de Nord atunci cand, la cererea uneia dintre partile interesate, a fost inregistrata in vederea executarii intr-una dintre aceste parti ale Regatului Unit. Cererea se depune la instanta sau la autoritatea competenta din fiecare stat membru, expres prevazuta in Anexa II la Regulament . Cu titlu exemplificativ enumeram (n Belgia, 'tribunal de premire instance' , in Germania, presedintele unei camere a 'Landgericht', in Spania, 'Juzgado de Primera Instancia', in Franta, presedintele 'Tribunal de grande instance', in Irlanda, 'High Court', in Italia, 'Corte d'appello'. Competenta locala este determinata de locul de domiciliu al partii impotriva careia se solicita executarea, sau de locul de executare. Procedura de inaintare a cererii este determinata de legea statului membru in care se urmareste executarea. Reclamantul trebuie sa-si aleaga o adresa in vederea notificarii aflata in raza de competenta a instantei careia i s-a adresat. Partea care cere recunoasterea sau solicita titlul executoriu trebuie sa prezinte o copie a hotararii care sa intruneasca conditiile necesare in vederea stabilirii autenticitatii acesteia. Instanta sau autoritatea competenta din statul membru in care s-a pronuntat hotararea elibereaza, la cererea oricareia dintre partile interesate, un certificat in care este consemnat instanta care a pronuntat hotararea, partile in cauza precum si mentiunea ca hotararea este executorie in statul membru de origine.

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5. Regulamentele Roma I i Roma II

Legea aplicabil obligaiilor contractuale Regulamentul Roma I

Acest Regulament nlocuiete Convenia de la Roma, prin care s-au stabilit reguli uniforme pentru determinarea legii aplicabile obligaiilor contractuale n Uniunea European (UE).

ACT Regulamentul (CE) nr. 593/2008 al Parlamentului European i al Consiliului din 17 iunie 2008 privind legea aplicabil obligaiilor contractuale (Roma I).

SINTEZ Acest regulament vizeaz obligaiile contractuale n materie civil i comercial n cazul unui conflict de legi. Regulamentul nu se aplic n materie fiscal, vamal sau administrativ i nici n ceea ce privete probele i aspectele de procedur.

De asemenea, sunt excluse din domeniul de aplicare al regulamentului obligaiile cu privire la urmtoarele: starea sau capacitatea persoanelor fizice; relaiile de familie; aspectele patrimoniale ale regimurilor matrimoniale; instrumentele negociabile precum cambii, cecuri i bilete la ordin; arbitrajul i alegerea instanei competente; dreptul societilor comerciale i al altor organisme, constituite sau nu ca persoane juridice; angajarea fa de teri a rspunderii unei persoane sau a unei companii; trusturi; nelegeri care au avut loc nainte de semnarea unui contract; contracte de asigurare, altele dect cele definite n articolul 2 din Directiva 2002/83/CE privind asigurarea de via. Orice lege indicat n acest regulament trebuie aplicat, chiar dac aceasta nu este legea unui stat membru.

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Libertatea de alegere Prile contractante trebuie s aleag o lege de reglementare. Aceasta poate fi aplicat numai unei pri a contractului sau ntregului contract. Cu condiia acordului tuturor prilor, legea aplicabil se poate schimba n orice moment. Dac legea aleas este a altei ri dect ara care are legtura cea mai strns cu contractul, trebuie respectate prevederile legii din urm. n cazul n care contractul este legat de unul sau mai multe state membre, legea aplicabil aleas, alta dect cea a unui stat membru, trebuie s nu contrazic prevederile de drept comunitar.

Legea aplicabil n absena unei alegeri n cazul n care prile nu au ales legea aplicabil pentru contractele de vnzare de bunuri, prestare de servicii, franciz sau distribuie, legea aplicabil se va determina n funcie de ara unde i are sediul principalul actor care execut contractul. Pentru contractele privind proprietile imobiliare, se aplic legea rii n care se afl proprietile respective, cu excepia cazurilor de locaiune temporar i privat (maximum ase luni consecutive). n asemenea cazuri, legea aplicabil este legea rii n care i are reedina proprietarul. n cazul vnzrii de bunuri la licitaie, se va aplica legea rii n care are loc licitaia. n ceea ce privete anumite instrumente financiare reglementate de o singur lege, legea respectiv va fi cea aplicabil.

Dac unui contract nu i se aplic niciuna dintre normele de mai sus sau i se aplic mai multe dintre ele, legea aplicabil se va determina n funcie de ara n care i ar e reedina actorul principal care execut contractul. Dac ns contractul este legat mai strns de o alt ar dect cea prevzut de aceste norme, se va aplica legea rii respective. La fel se procedeaz i n cazul n care nu se poate determina legea aplicabil.

Norme aplicabile anumitor contracte Pentru urmtoarele tipuri de contracte, regulamentul stabilete opiuni pentru selectarea legii aplicabile i determin legea care trebuie aplicat n absena alegerii: contracte de transport de mrfuri n absena alegerii, legea aplicabil va fi cea a rii n care i are reedina transportatorul, cu condiia ca aceasta s fie i locul de ncrcare sau de livrare sau reedina expeditorului. n caz contrar, se va aplica legea rii n care se va efectua livrarea; contracte de transport de pasageri legea aplicabil poate fi aleas ntre ara n care i are reedina pasagerul sau transportatorul, ara n care se afl sediul administraiei centrale a transportatorului i ara de plecare sau de sosire. n lipsa alegerii, se va aplica legea rii n care i are reedina

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pasagerul, cu condiia ca aceasta s fie i locul de plecare sau de destinaie. Totui, n cazul n care contractul are o legtur mai strns cu o alt ar, se va aplica legea rii respective; contracte ncheiate ntre consumatori i profesioniti legea aplicabil este ara n care i are reedina consumatorul, cu condiia ca aceasta s fie i ara n care profesionistul i desfoar activitile sau ara spre care sunt orientate activitile sale. De asemenea, n baza libertii alegerii, prile pot aplica o alt lege, cu condiia ca aceasta s i ofere consumatorului acelai nivel de protecie ca i n ara n care acesta i are reedina; contracte de asigurare n lipsa alegerii, legea aplicabil va fi cea a rii n care i are reedina asigurtorul. Totui, n cazul n care contractul are o legtur mai strns cu o alt ar, se va aplica legea rii respective; contracte individuale de munc legea aplicabil se poate determina pe baza principiului libertii alegerii, cu condiia ca nivelul de protecie acordat angajatului s rmn acelai ca n cazul legii aplicabile n lipsa alegerii. n acest din urm caz, legea care reglementeaz contractul va fi legea rii n care sau din care angajatul i ndeplinete sarcinile. Dac aceasta nu poate fi determinat, legea aplicabil va fi cea a rii n care este situat unitatea angajatoare. Totui, n cazul n care contractul are o legtur mai strns cu o alt ar, se va aplica legea rii respective. Domeniul legii aplicabile Legea determinat de acest regulament ca fiind aplicabil unui contract va reglementa interpretarea, execuia, penalizrile n caz de neexecutare a obligaiilor, evaluarea prejudiciului, suspendarea obligaiilor, instruciunile de aciuni i penalizrile pentru contracte nevalide. Dreptul comunitar care reglementeaz conflictul de legi n ceea ce privete obligaiile contractuale din anumite materii prevaleaz asupra acestui regulament, cu excepia cazului contractelor de asigurare.

Pn la 17 iunie 2013, Comisia va prezenta Parlamentului, Consiliului i Comitetului Economic i Social European un raport privind aplicarea prezentului regulament.

Regulamentul se aplic contractelor ncheiate ncepnd cu data de 17 decembrie 2009.

Context Planul de aciune de la Viena (DA) (DE) (EL) (EN) (ES) (FR) (IT) (NL) (PT) (FI) (SV) din 1998 a recunoscut importana normelor armonizate privind conflictul de legi n implementarea principiului recunoaterii reciproce pentru deciziile n materie civil i comercial. Programul comun al Comisiei i al Consiliului din 2000 prevede msuri

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pentru aceast armonizare. Programul de la Haga din 2004 a reiterat importana elaborrii de norme privind conflictul de legi n ceea ce privete obligaiile contractuale, planul de aciune al programului prevznd adoptarea propunerii Roma I. Acest regulament ulterior nlocuiete Convenia de la Roma din 1980 privind legea aplicabil obligaiilor contractuale, transformnd-o ntr-un instrument comunitar i moderniznd-o.

Legea aplicabil obligaiilor necontractuale regulamentul Roma II

Acest regulament stabilete legea aplicabil obligaiilor necontractuale n cazul unui conflict de legi, ns fr a armoniza dreptul material al sta telor membre. Acesta se aplic ncepnd din 2009 n toate statele membre ale Uniunii Europene (UE) cu excepia Danemarcei, n materie civil i comercial, anumite domenii fiind excluse din domeniul de aplicare, cum sunt relaiile de rudenie sau rspunderea statului.

ACT

Regulamentul (CE) nr. 864/2007 al Parlamentului European i al Consiliului din 11 iulie 2007 privind legea aplicabil obligaiilor necontractuale (Roma II).

SINTEZ n situaii care implic un conflict de legi, acest regulament stabilete legea aplicabil obligaiilor necontractuale n materie civil i comercial. Acestea din urm includ, ntre altele, rspunderea pentru produse defectuoase, gestiunea de afaceri sau culpa in contrahendo (obligaii necontractuale care decurg din nelegerile la care se ajunge nainte de semnarea unui contract). Aplicabil ncepnd cu data de 11 ianuarie 2009 n toate statele membre cu excepia Danemarcei, regulamentul nu urmrete armonizarea dreptului material al statelor n materie de obligaii necont ractuale, ci armonizarea normelor care reglementeaz conflictul de legi. Aadar, aceste norme vor desemna aceeai lege naional aplicabil unei obligaii necontractuale, indiferent de statul membru n care a fost introdus aciunea. Ca regul general, legea aplicabil este: legea rii n care se produce prejudiciul; sau, dac nu este cazul, legea rii n care persoana responsabil i persoana care a suferit prejudiciul au reedina obinuit n momentul producerii prejudiciului; sau, dac nu este cazul

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 legea rii cu care cazul are legturi n mod vdit mai strnse dect cu celelalte ri menionate anterior. n final, regulamentul autorizeaz prile s aleag, de comun acord, legea aplicabil obligaiei lor.

Totui, regulamentul prevede norme specifice pentru anumite domenii, cum sunt responsabilitatea pentru produse defectuoase sau drepturile de proprietate intelectual. n plus, regulamentul nu se aplic n materie fiscal, vamal i administrativ i nici rspunderii statului sau, n special, relaiilor de rudenie sau matrimoniale.

Stabilirea legii aplicabile: armonizarea normelor care reglementeaz conflictul de legi n UE Regulamentul Roma II se aplic de ctre instanele statelor membre ncepnd cu data de 11 ianuarie 2009 (data aplicrii). Acesta se aplic faptelor cauzatoare de prejudicii care au avut loc anterior acestei date, i anume tuturor faptelor cauzatoare de prejudicii care au avut loc dup 20 august 2007 (data intrrii n vigoare). Legea aplicabil obligaiilor necontractuale stabilit conform dispoziiilor acestui regulament reglementeaz n special: condiiile i ntinderea rspunderii, inclusiv identificarea persoanelor care pot rspunde pentru faptele lor; motivele de exonerare de rspundere, de limitare i de partajare a rspunde rii; existena, natura i evaluarea prejudiciului invocat sau a despgubirilor solicitate; msurile asigurtorii pe care le poate adopta o instan pentru a preveni sau nceta prejudiciul sau pentru a asigura acordarea de despgubiri (conform dreptului procedural naional); posibilitatea sau imposibilitatea transmiterii despgubiri, inclusiv prin succesiune; dreptului de a pretinde

persoanele care au dreptul la despgubiri pentru prejudicii suferite personal; rspunderea pentru fapta altuia; modalitatea de stingere a obligaiilor i normele care reglementeaz prescripia i decderea bazate pe expirarea unui termen. Ca regul general (articolul 4), legea aplicabil obligaiilor necontractuale care decurg dintr-o fapt ilicit este legea rii n care s-a produs prejudiciul, indiferent de ara sau rile n care s-ar putea manifesta efectele indirecte ale respectivului fapt. Cu toate acestea, n cazul n care persoana a crei rspundere este invocat i

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persoana care a suferit prejudiciul au reedina obinuit n aceeai ar n momentul producerii prejudiciului, se aplic legea respectivei ri. n cazul n care exist n mod vdit o legtur mai strns cu o alt ar, se aplic legea acestei din urm ri. Ca exemplu, o astfel de legtur se poate traduce prin relaii preexistente ntre pri, ca de pild un contract. Acest regulament are un caracter universal, adic legea specificat se aplic, chiar dac este vorba despre o lege a unei ri tere.

Cu toate acestea, regulamentul prevede libertatea de a alege a prilor, care pot stabili legea aplicabil unei obligaii necontractuale: fie printr -un acord ncheiat ulterior producerii faptului cauzator de prejudicii, fie - ntre comerciani - printr-un acord liber negociat anterior producerii faptului cauzato r de prejudicii. Fr a aduce atingere drepturilor terilor, alegerea trebuie s fie expres sau s rezulte n mod clar din situaie. Este important s se rein c aceast libertate de a alege este exclus pentru anumite domenii, cum ar fi nclcarea drepturilor de proprietate intelectual (a se vedea mai jos). n plus, n cazul n care s-a ales legea unei alte ri dect cea n care se afl toate elementele relevante pentru situaia respectiv, nu este permis derogarea prin acord de la dispoziiile imperative. n mod similar, n cazul n care acestea aleg s aplice legea unei ri tere, prile nu pot deroga prin acordul lor de la aplicarea dispoziiilor comunitare, n cazul n care toate elementele relevante pentru situaie se gsesc ntr-unul sau mai multe state membre ale Uniunii Europene.

n cazul mbogirilor fr just cauz, inclusiv al plii nedatorate, este aplicabil legea care reglementeaz o relaie existent ntre pri, de exemplu, un contract sau un fapt ilicit care are o legtur strns cu mbogirea fr just cauz. Dac nu exist relaii ntre pri, dar acestea din urm au reedina obinuit n acelai stat n momentul producerii faptului cauzator al mbogirii fr cauz, se aplic legea respectivei ri. Dac nu este cazul, legea aplicabil este cea a rii n care s-a produs mbogirea fr just cauz. n cazul n care mbogirea fr just cauz are n mod vdit legturi mai strnse cu o alt ar, se aplic legea acestei din urm ri. Acelai lucru este valabil pentru gestiunea afacerilor (legea care reglementeaz o relaie existent ntre pri sau, dac nu este cazul, legea rii n care prile au reedina obinuit sau, dac nu este cazul, legea rii n care s -a efectuat gestiunea afacerilor sau, n fine, legea rii cu care exist n mod vdit legturi mai strnse). n ceea ce privete culpa in contrahendo (obligaii necontractuale care decurg din nelegerile la care se ajunge nainte de semnarea unui contract), se aplic legea aplicabil contractului (indiferent dac contractul s-a semnat sau nu). n sensul acestui regulament, conceptul culpa in contrahendo este autonom i nu ar trebui interpretat n mod necesar n sensul legislaiei naionale. Dac legea nu poate fi stabilit, se aplic legea rii n care s-a produs prejudiciul sau, dac nu este cazul, legea rii n care prile au reedina obinuit (n aceeai ar) sau cea a rii cu care exist legturi n mod vdit mai strnse.

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Pentru anumite domenii specifice, regulamentul prevede aplicarea legii urmtoare: Rspunderea pentru produse defectuoase Legea rii n care persoana care a suferit prejudiciul a avut reedina obinuit n momentul producerii prejudiciului, dac produsul a fost comercializat n ara respectiv. Dac nu este cazul, legea rii n care s-a achiziionat produsul. Dac nu este cazul, legea rii n care a fost cauzat prejudiciul, dac produsul a fost comercializat n ara respectiv. Cu toate acestea, legea aplicabil este legea rii n care are reedina obinuit persoana a crei rspundere este invocat, dac aceast persoan nu putea s prevad comercializarea produsului respectiv ntr-una dintre rile menionate anterior. Dac fapta ilicit are n mod vdit o legtur mai strns cu o alt ar, ca de pild un contract existent ntre pri, se aplic legea celeilalte ri. Concurena neloial i actele care ngrdesc libera concuren. n cazul obligaiilor necontractuale care decurg dintr-un act de concuren neloial legea aplicabil este legea rii n care sunt sau pot fi afectate relaiile concureniale sau interesele colective ale consumatorilor. n schimb, dac un astfel de act afecteaz interesele unui anumit concurent, se aplic regula prevzut la articolul 4. Legea aplicabil obligaiilor necontractuale care decurg din restrngerea concurenei este legea rii n care piaa este sau poate fi afectat. n cazul n care piaa este afectat (sau poate fi afectat) n mai multe ri, reclamantul care introduce aciunea n faa instanei de la domiciliul prtului poate alege legea acestei ri, cu condiia ca piaa din respectiva ar s fie afectat. n cazul n care reclamantul cheam n justiie n faa acelei instane mai muli pri, acesta i poate ntemeia cererea numai pe legea respectivei instane dac restrngerea concurenei afecteaz piaa statului membru al instanei respective. Nu se poate deroga de la legea aplicabil privind obligaiile necontractuale care decurg din concurena neloial sau din acte care ngrdesc libera concuren printr -un acord ncheiat n temeiul articolului 14 din acest regulament. Acest articol prevede libertatea de a alege a prilor pentru a stabili legea aplicabil unei obligaii necontractuale printr-un acord comun. Daune aduse mediului. Se aplic norma general menionat anterior, cu excepia cazurilor n care persoana care pretinde despgubiri pentru aceste prejudicii dorete s-i ntemeieze aciunea pe legea rii n care a avut loc faptul cauzator de prejudiciu. nclcarea drepturilor de proprietate intelectual. Legea aplicabil obligaiilor necontractuale care decurg din nclcarea drepturilor de proprietate intelectual este cea a rii pentru care se solicit protecia. Nu se poate deroga de la aceast dispoziie printr-un acord (articolul 14). Responsabilitatea pentru greve sau aciuni sindicale. Legea aplicabil obligaiilor necontractuale ce decurg din rspunderea unui lucrtor, a unui
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angajator, sau a unui sindicat, pentru prejudicii cauzate de greve sau de aciuni sindicale, n curs de desfurare sau terminate, este legea rii n care va fi sau a fost ntreprins aciunea respectiv. Excluderea anumitor aspecte din domeniul de aplicare Acest regulament nu se aplic n materie fiscal, vamal sau administrativ i nici n ceea ce privete rspunderea statului. De asemenea, su nt excluse din domeniul de aplicare al regulamentului obligaiile necontractuale care decurg: din relaiile de rudenie sau din relaii similare, inclusiv obligaii de ntreinere; din regimurile matrimoniale sau din regimurile patrimoniale ale relaiilor c are au efecte comparabile cu cstoria i cu succesiunile; din cambii, cecuri i bilete la ordin, precum i alte instrumente negociabile; din dreptul societilor comerciale, al asociaiilor i al persoanelor juridice cu privire la aspecte precum constituirea i personalitatea juridic, rspunderea asociailor etc.; din relaiile dintre fondatorii, membrii consiliului de administraie i beneficiarii unui trust creat n mod voluntar; din producerea daunelor nucleare; din atingeri aduse vieii private i drepturilor referitoare la personalitate, inclusiv calomnia. Relaia cu conveniile internaionale existente Acest regulament nu aduce atingere aplicrii conveniilor internaionale care reglementeaz obligaiile necontractuale la care unul sau mai multe stat e membre sunt pri. Conform articolului 29 din regulament, statele membre trebuie s informeze Comisia cu privire la aceste convenii cel trziu pn la 11 iulie 2008. Dup aceast dat, statele membre sunt obligate s notifice Comisiei orice denunri ale unor astfel de convenii. Acesta este motivul pentru care articolul menionat anterior este deja aplicabil ncepnd cu data de 11 iulie 2008, n timp ce regulamentul se aplic ncepnd cu 2009.

Cu toate acestea, ntre statele membre, regulamentul prevaleaz fa de conveniile ncheiate exclusiv ntre acestea n msura n care aceste convenii privesc domeniile prevzute n acest regulament.

Analiza aplicrii acestui regulament Pn cel trziu la 31 decembrie 2008, Comisia European a prezentat o analiz privind legea aplicabil obligaiilor necontractuale care decurg din nclcri ale vieii

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private i ale drepturilor referitoare la personalitate, innd seama de dispoziiile privind libertatea presei i libertatea de exprimare n mass-media.

Pn cel trziu la 20 august 2011, Comisia European a prezentat un raport privind aplicarea acestui regulament. Dac a fost cazul, aceasta a propus modificri.

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6. European civil code

The European civil code (ECC) is a proposed harmonisation of private law across the European Union. The ultimate aim of a European civil code is, like a national civil code, to deal comprehensively with the core areas of private law. Private law typically covered in a civil code includes the family law, the law of inheritance, property law and the Law of Obligations. The law of obligations includes the law of contracts, delicts (or torts) and restitution. It was from work on European contract law that the push for a comprehensive European civil code arose. The development of a European civil code has primarily focused on creating a unified law of contracts. Thus European civil code is often used in specific reference to the harmonisation of contract law throughout the EU. History The idea of a unified European civil code can be traced to the idea of a unified Europe and the creation of the European Union. The European Parliament requested the creation of a European civil code in 1989,[1] 1994 and 2000. A pragmatic approach has seen the proponents of a European civil code develop uniform laws in discrete areas before working towards a comprehensive European civil code. Development of a European code for contract law began in 1982 with the formation of the Commission on European Contract Law. This became known as the Lando Commission after its chairman Ole Lando. At the same time UNIDROIT began similar studies leading to their 1994 publication Principles for International Commercial Contracts. The Lando Commission focused on creating their Principles of European Contract Law (PECL). The first part of the PECL was published in 1995, followed by Part II in 1999 and the final Part III in 2003. These Principles of European Contract Law may eventually form one part of the European civil code. In 1997 the Dutch Government, as then Chair of the European Union, held a conference titled 'Towards a European Civil Code'. The conference considered the feasibility of such a code and led to the creation of a book titled Towards a European Civil Code. The third edition published in 2004 and although the pri mary focus is European contract law, it considers other areas of private law that may form part of a European civil code as well. In the years following this conference we have seen the development of many academic groups focusing on different areas of private law. These include: The Acquis Group created to focus on existing European Community private law. Commission on European Family Law based at the University of Utrecht. European Group on Tort Law in association with the European Centre of Tort and Insurance Law in Vienna

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 Study Group on a European Civil Code formed in 1997 and chaired by Professor Template: Christian von Bar at the University of Osnabrck The Common Core of European Private Law project conducted by Mauro Bussani and Ugo Mattei at the University of Trento The Joint Network on European Private Law has also been created and includes several of the above groups. On 11 July 2001 the European Commission issued a Communication in relation to possible developments in European contract law. Following the review of submissions on the Communication, the Commission released an Action Plan for a more coherent European contract law in 2003. The Action Plan began the process of creating what is known as the Common Frame of Reference (CFR). This was followed in 2004 by the publication of European Contract Law and revision of the acquis: the way forward. The CFR is intended to provide a structure and guideline for the development of harmonised European private law but has a specific focus on contract law. It is hoped that this will lead to the creation of a unified European contract law by as early as 2010. Content of a European Code A comprehensive European civil code would cover the major areas of private law in much the same way as domestic civil codes. The major areas that have been suggested are contract law, torts, property, restitution and also company law. Although family law and inheritance law are normally covered by domestic civil codes there is doubt over whether it is possible to include them in a broad European code. Family and Inheritance law is often closely tied to a nations culture. For this reason it may not be possible or suitable to create a uniform code to cover the entire European Union. As previously stated, contract law is perhaps the most suited for harmonisation, followed by other areas of the law of obligations and the law of property. The creation of individual codes for discrete areas of private law is considered the most feasible and realistic goal. For this reason efforts have concentrated on creating a unified European contract law before attempting a more comprehensive European civil code. An example of a modern comprehensive code is the Dutch Burgerlijk Wetboek which came into force in 1992. The Burgerlijk Wetboek covers civil, commercial law, consumer law and labour law and was almost 40 years in the making. This gives an indication of how long it may take to create a complete unified European civil code. Arguments for and against a European civil code Many arguments have been raised both supporting and rejecting the idea of a European civil code. Included in this are claims that the creation of a civil code binding across the European Union will be impossible to achieve. As a much broader project, the creation of a European civil code is more easily dismissed than attempts at unifying discrete areas such as contract law. For
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Arguments supporting a unified European civil code relate to the emergence of the European Union and an increasingly globalised economy. The European Union represents a unification of Europe and a reduction in the significance of national borders. The creation of a European civil code can be seen as a further step in this process of unification. Differences in national laws may create problems of efficacy in the ever more globalised economy. A uniform civil code will help overcome these problems and reduce barriers to increased trade within the European Union. The increasing use of standard form contracts is also said to indicate a desire for a European civil code or at least a harmonisation of European contract law. There is, as yet, no empirical evidence that the lack of a uniform civil code across the European Union represents a barrier to trade. Within the United States there is no uniform civil law across the fifty states, and this has never been thought to represent an economic barrier to the proper functioning of the American economy. Against The feasibility of a European civil code has been questioned on both political and legal grounds. Cultural differences and the lack of a common European legal culture are often cited. The connection between law, language, culture and national history forms one small aspect of the arguments against replacing national civil codes with a European code. Arguments based upon cultural differences are, however, difficult to establish. More substantive difficulties, which for some are reasons why it is neither feasible nor desirable to create a European civil code, include: The process by which Community instruments are now produced leads almost inevitably to second-rate law (lege de mna a doua). For example, within private international law, which is harmonised within the European Union, the Rome II Regulation is an unhappy political compromise between Parliament, Council and Commission. Once a Civil Code is in place any errors it contains will take years, if not decades, to correct as agreement from all participating parties will be required. Any Civil Code will be a piecemeal replacement of part of each member state's legal system. Laws within nations form a system: one part is shaped by and dependent upon another. Replacing part of each system's law, without altering the rest, will introduce incoherence. If the European Court of Justice is given jurisdiction over the interpretation of any code, even more disputes will be subject to the gross delays to which appeals to that court are already subject. The draft principles in existence are not, substantively, satisfactory. For example, the draft Principles of Liability for Non-Contractual Damage define "causation" in a way that is transparently circular: "A person causes legally

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relevant damage to another if the damage is to be regarded as a consequence of that persons conduct or the source of danger for which that person is responsible." It is impossible within a few brief code provisions to capture the many technical and minor points which are thrown up in private law disputes. Within member states these have long been settled, although not uniformly. A new Code will lead to immense litigation and disruption as these points are re-litigated anew. There is also the issue regarding the differences between common law and civil law and which principles to adopt, an issue which can be underrated. The two systems vary greatly at times and any successful civil code would have to take this into consideration due to the UK's status as compared to the rest of the EU. This makes introducing "harmonised" or "standardised" principles difficult in both theory and practice where some jurisdictions do not recognise certain practices (i.e. the right to specific performance, the inclusion of prior negotiations in contract interpretation etc.) or approach concepts in different ways (i.e. "good faith", "equity"). It is not easy to reconcile such differences. Whether the European Union has the legal power to create a European civil code has also been an issue. Article 95 of the EC Treaty is considered the means through which a code would be created. However, many people believe that the EU lacks the constitutional competence to enact a comprehensive code. Others argue that this does not defeat the idea of a European civil code and is merely a political issue. If a general consensus were to be reached in favour of a European civil code, it might be politically possible to expand the constitutional competence of the European Union or create an international treaty giving effect to the code. European contract law

As previously stated, the discussion of a European civil code has had a primary focus on the development of a unified European contract code. Proponents of a European code of contract law have largely been divided into two groups. One group favours the use of the acquis communautaire (the body of European Union law) as the basis of a unified European contract law. The other has preferred a foundation in the field of comparative law and analysis of the domestic contract law of member states of the EU. The latter view was the initially dominant opinion in the field but more recently the Acquis position has come to the fore. Both options were provided for in the Commission of European Communities 2001 Communication on European contract law. Although there were many submissions supporting both fields of thought, most favoured a review of the Acquis as a basis for developing European contract law. The subsequent Action Plan and its follow up Way Forward paper have progressed the development of a European code of

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contract law as well as a more comprehensive European civil code. The intended outcome of this new stage is the publication of the Common Frame of Reference. The CFR is hoped by some to form the central part of a future unified European contract law, although this is not its purpose. It is expected to be published in 2009/10.

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7. Propunere de Regulament al Parlamentului European i al Consiliului privind Legislaia european comun n materie de vnzare
Propunerea, elaborat de ctre Comisia European, are ca scop crearea unui sistem comun, dar opional, de drept al contractelor, care s fie identic pentru toate cele 27 de state membre ale Uniunii Europene, astfel nct comercianii s nu se mai confrunte cu dificultile generate de aplicarea mai multor legislaii naionale n materie contractual, iar consumatorii s se bucure de acelai nivel ridicat de protecie n toate statele membre.

Aceast legislaie ar urma s se aplice contractelor transfrontaliere privind vzarea de bunuri, precum i contractelor cu coninut digital, precum muzic, filme, programe informatice sau aplicaii pentru telefoane inteligente, i numai n cazul n care ambele pri, comerciantul i consumatorul, i exprim n mod voluntar i expres acordul.

Parcurs: iulie 2010: Comisia European adopt Cartea verde privind opiunile de politic n perspectiva unui drept european al contractelor pentru consumatori i ntreprinderi; iulie 2010 ianuarie 2011: consultri publice asupra Crii verzi; mai 2011: un grup de experi instituit de ctre Comisie prezint un studiu de fezabilitate referitor la o viitoare iniiativ privind dreptul european al contractelor; iunie 2011: Parlamentul European adopt o rezoluie care favorizeaz elaborarea unei legislaii europene comune n materie de dreptul contractelor - Rezoluia Parlamentului European din 8 iunie 2011 referitoare la o piunile de politic n perspectiva unui drept contractual european pentru consumatori i ntreprinderi; octombrie 2011: Comisia European transmite Parlamentului i Consiliului Uniunii Europene Propunerea de Regulament privind o legislaie european comun n materie de vnzri; 11 octombrie 2011: Propunerea de regulament este transmis Comisiei pentru afaceri juridice (JURI) (pentru raport), Comisiei pentru afaceri economice i monetare (ECON) i Comisiei pentru pia intern i protecia consumatorilor (IMCO) (pentru avize) din Parlamentul European; 11 octombrie 2012: avizul Comisiei ECON; 18 februarie 2013: proiect de raport al Comisiei JURI; 22 februarie 2013: proiect de aviz al Comisiei IMCO.

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Este de remarcat ca forma propusa a Regulamentului privind o legislatie europeana comuna in materie de vanzare nu mai prevede ca atare raspunderea partii pentru incalcarea bunei-credinte in negocieri, ci include o lista a actiunilor ce trebuie luate in cadrul etapei negocierilor (informatii precontractuale ce trebuie puse la dispozitia celeilalte parti) precum si o lista a clauzelor considerate abuzive si care sunt interzise. Totodata, acest Regulament propune si o definitie pentru "buna credinta si corectitudine" ca fiind un standard de conduita caracterizata prin onestitate, deschidere si luarea in calcul a intereselor celeilalte parti la tranzactia sau raportul juridic in cauza.

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0635:FIN:ro:PDF

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List of Internet References for further Information:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonisation_of_law

http://www.cisg.law.pace.edu/cisg/text/peclintro.html

http://www.unidroit.org/dynasite.cfm?dsmid=103284

http://www.juridice.ro/93345/principiile-unidroit-aplicabile-contractelor-comerciale-internationale-inperspectiva-celei-de-a-treia-editii.html http://fs.legaladviser.ro/39c59d043639d2be22e56d19243e511f.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_European_Contract_Law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_civil_code

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2011:0635:FIN:ro:PDF

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/ro/editorial/abc.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraktionsprinzip

http://www.ferner-legal.com/2011/11/about-the-german-abstraction-principleabstraktionsprinzip/german-lawyer/criminal-defense/

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraktionsprinzip

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