S h c qua cc nh l v bi ton

Trn Nam Dng Trng H KHTN Tp HCM

Qu h tinh bt qu h a Th gii sai mt bi ton ng, cn hn gii ng mt bi ton sai. Vi s xut hin ca Internet v s bng n cc cuc thi ton trn ton th gii, ngy nay hc sinh khng cn thiu nhng bi ton gii m tri li, hc sinh s c qu nhiu cc ton cc loi. Nhng cng chnh v c qu nhiu nh vy nn hc sinh thng khng kin nhn v hng th t mnh gii cc bi ton, m ng tc thng gp nht l tham kho li gii. iu ny gip hc sinh bit rt nhiu bi ton. V iu ny khng phi l khng c ch cho hc sinh, c bit l khi trng t. Tuy nhin, qua kinh nghim ging dy cc i tuyn nhng nm qua, chng ti nhn thy rng cc hc thng qua vic gii tht nhiu cc bi ton khng phi l cch tt nht. Bi n gin l s lng cc bi ton (mi v c) l rt ln, c th ni l v hn, m thi gian v tr nh ca chng ta l hu hn. V vy hc nhng kin thc c bn, nhng phng php c bn, nhng k thut t duy c bn mi l iu quan trng nht. C c nhng phn c bn ny, ta c th p dng v rn k nng gii ton thng qua mt s bi ton tiu biu. V cch tt nht hc c cc phng php c bn, nhng k thut t duy l thng qua chng minh ca cc nh l c bn. Hc chng minh nh l, ta va nm c cc nh ngha, khi nim, tnh cht c bn, va hc c nhng k thut chng minh xut sc nht c c kt v tinh chnh qua hng th k . Vi cch nhn nhn nh vy, chng ti th nghim ging dy cc chuyn S hc, T hp, i s . . . qua cc nh l v bi ton v thu c nhng kt qu kh kh quan. Hc sinh nm vng kin thc nn tng, c kh nng t duy x l vn , c cch tip cn bi ton mi mt cch bi bn. Chuyn S hc qua cc nh l v bi ton c c kt t nhng bi ging ca chng ti cho cc i tuyn ca cc trng v cc tnh v mt s ti liu tham kho nm cui bi vit. C 103 nh l v bi ton c chn lc cho chuyn ny, tp trung trong 11 ch nh (mi ch 7 bi) v 2 b bi tp tng hp (mi b 13 bi). Cc nh l v bi ton u khng c li gii v chng minh chi tit, v vy khi s dng phi c s chun b trc kh k lng. Tuy nhin, cch trnh by ca ti liu mang tnh dn dt nn cc gio vin v hc sinh c th t khai ph ( chnh l iu m chng ti mong i nht, v n cng s em li hiu qu cao nht cho ngi c). Mt s nh l v bi ton kh c km theo cc hng dn. 30

Cui cng, cng cn phi ni thm rng ngoi tr mt s ch u tin, chuyn ny l mt chuyn tng i kh, ty theo i tng hc sinh m cc thy c gio c th iu chnh, gia gim cho thch hp.

1. S nguyn t v hp s
Bi ton 1. Chng minh rng mt s nguyn N > 1 bt k c t nht mt c nguyn t. Bi ton 2 ( nh l c bn ca s hc). Chng minh rng mi s nguyn N > 1 u biu din c di dng N = p1 1 .p2 2 . . . pt t trong p1 , p2 , . . . , pt l cc s nguyn t phn bit, 1 , 2 , . . . , t l cc s nguyn dng. Hn na, biu din ny l duy nht nu khng tnh n vic thay i th t cc tha s. Bi ton 3 (Euclid). Chng minh tp hp s nguyn t l v hn. Bi ton 4. Chng minh rng trong cc s n + 1, n + 2, n + 3, . . . , n!1 c t nht mt s nguyn t. Bi ton 5. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng n, tn ti n s nguyn dng lin tip u l hp s. Bi ton 6. Chng minh rng tn ti v s s nguyn t dng 4k + 3. Bi ton 7. Chng minh rng tng 1+ 1 1 + + 2 n

khng nguyn vi mi n > 1. Hng dn. Xt k sao cho 2k n < 2k + 1.

2. Php chia c d, thut ton Euclid

Bi ton 8. Cho a, b l cc s nguyn, b > 1. Chng minh rng tn ti duy nht cp s nguyn (q, r) tha mn ng thi cc iu kin i) a = bq + r; ii) 0 r < b. c s chung ln nht ca hai s nguyn a, b l s nguyn m sao cho i) m|a, m|b; ii) Nu m0 |a, m0 |b th m0 m. c s chung ln nht ca hai s a v b c k hiu l (a, b). Nu (a, b) = 1 ta ni a v b nguyn t cng nhau.

31

Bi ton 9. Chng minh rng nu d|a, d|b th d|(a, b). Tc l mi c s chung ca a v b u l c ca (a, b). Bi ton 10. Chng minh rng nu a = bq + r th (a, b) = (b, r). = (a b, b). c bit, ta c (a, b)

Bi ton 11 ( nh l Bezout). Chng minh rng (a, b) = 1 khi v ch khi tn ti cc s nguyn x, y sao cho ax + by = 1. Bi ton 12. Cho a, b l cc s nguyn dng nguyn t cng nhau, b > 1. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn N, tn ti duy nht cp s nguyn x, y tha mn iu kin N = ax + by v 0 x < b. Bi ton 13 ( nh l Sylvester). Cho a, b l cc s nguyn dng nguyn t cng nhau. Chng minh rng N0 = abab l s nguyn ln nht khng biu din c di dng ax + by vi x, y l cc s nguyn khng m. Hn na, vi mi p, q nguyn vi p + q = N0 , c ng mt trong hai s p, q biu din c di dng ax + by vi x, y l cc s nguyn khng m (m ta s gi tt l biu din c). Bi ton 14 (IMO 1983). Cho a, b, c l cc s nguyn dng i mt nguyn t cng nhau. Chng minh rng 2abcabbcca l s nguyn ln nht khng biu din c di dng abx + bcy + caz vi x, y, z l cc s nguyn khng m.

3.

nh l Wilson, Fermat, Euler

Cho a, b, m l cc s nguyn, m > 1. Ta vit a b(mod m) v c a ng d b m- u-l m khi (v ch khi) ab chia ht cho m. Ta ni {a1 , a2 , . . . , at } l mt h thng d y m- u-l m nu vi mi s nguyn x, tn ti duy nht ch s i 2 {1, 2, . . . , t} sao cho x ai (mod m). Ch l nu {a1 , a2 , . . . , at } l mt h thng d y m- u-l m khi v ch khi t = m v ai 6= aj (mod m) vi mi i 6= j (6= y hiu l khng ng d). Bi ton 15. Cho p l s nguyn t, p > 3. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng x, 1 < x < p 1, tn ti duy nht s nguyn dng y < p sao cho xy 1(mod p), hn na y 6= x. Bi ton 16 ( nh l Wilson). Chng minh rng p l s nguyn t khi v ch khi (p 1)! + 1 chia ht cho p. Bi ton 17 ( nh l Fermat). a) (Chng minh quy np) Chng minh rng nu p l s nguyn t v a l s nguyn th ta c ap a chia ht cho p. b) (Chng minh ng d) Cho p l s nguyn t, (a, p) = 1. Chng minh rng vi mi x thuc E = {1, 2, . . . , p 1} tn ti duy nht y thuc E sao cho ax y (mod p). T suy ra ap 1 1(mod p). c) (Chng minh t hp). ng trn c chia thnh p cung bng nhau. C bao nhiu cch t p cung bng a mu. Hai cch t c coi l ging nhau nu c th thu c 32

t nhau qua mt php quay. Vi s nguyn m > 1, ta gi (m) l s cc s nguyn dng nh hn m v nguyn t cng nhau vi m. Ta ni {a1 , a2 , . . . , as } l mt h thng d thu gn m- u-l m nu vi mi s nguyn x nguyn t cng nhau vi m, tn ti duy nht ch s i 2 {1, 2, . . . , s} sao cho x ai(mod m). Ch l nu {a1 , a2 , . . . , as } l mt h thng d thu gn m- u-l m khi v ch khi s = '(m), (ai, m) = 1 vi mi i = 1, 2, . . . , s v ai 6= aj (mod m) vi mi i 6= j (6= u tin y hiu l khng ng d). Bi ton 18. a) Chng minh nu {a1 , a2 , . . . , as } l mt h thng d thu gn m- u-l m v (a, m) = 1 th {aa1 , aa2 , . . . , aas } l mt h thng d thu gn m- u-l m. b) ( nh l Euler). Chng minh rng nu (a, m) = 1 th a' (m) 1(mod m). Bi ton 19. a) Chng minh rng nu p l s nguyn t dng 4k + 1 th tn ti s nguyn dng N sao cho N 2 + 1 chia ht cho p. b) Chng minh rng s N 2 + 1 khng c c nguyn t dng 4k + 3. Bi ton 20. Chng minh cc phng trnh sau khng c nghim nguyn dng a) 4xy xy = z 2 (Euler) b) x2 y 3 = 7 (Lebesgue) Bi ton 21 ( nh l Fermat-Euler v tng hai bnh phng). Chng minh rng nu p l s nguyn t dng 4k+1 th tn ti cc s nguyn a, b sao cho p = a2 + b2 . Hng dn. S dng s N cu a) bi 5. Xt cc s c dng a + Nb vi p 0 a, b [ p] . Hy chng minh rng tn ti (a0 , b0 ) 6= (a, b) sao cho a0 + N b0 a + N b(mod p).

4.

nh l Trung hoa v s d

Bi ton 22. a) Hy tm s nguyn dng N nh nht sao cho N chia 2 d 1, chia 3 d 2, chia 4 d 3, chia 5 d 4, chia 6 d 5, chia 7 d 6, chia 8 d 7, chia 9 d 8. b)* Hy tm s nguyn dng N nh nht sao cho N chia 3 d 1, chia 5 d 2, chia 7 d 3, chia 9 d 4, chia 11 d 5. Bi ton 23. Cho m1 , m2 , . . . , mn l cc s nguyn dng i mt nguyn t cng nhau. t M1 = m2 . . . mn . Chng minh rng x 1 = M1
(m 1 )

33

8 x 1 (mod m1 ) > > > < x 0 (mod m ) 2 l nghim ca h phng trnh ng d > ... > > : x 0 (mod mn )

Bi ton 24 ( nh l Trung hoa v s d). Cho m1 , m2 , . . . , mn l cc s nguyn dng i mt nguyn t cng nhau, a1 , a2 , . . . , an l cc s nguyn bt k. Chng minh rng h ph 8 ng trnh ng d sau lun c nghim x a1 (mod m1 ) > > > < x a (mod m ) 2 2 > ... > > : x an (mod mn ) Hn na, hai nghim bt k ca h khc nhau mt bi s ca M = m1m2. . . mn. Bi ton 25. Tm s d trong php chia 192012 cho 70. Bi ton 26. Xt a thc P(x) = (2x + 1)(3x + 1). Chng minh rng mi n nguyn dng, tn ti x nguyn P(x) chia ht cho n. Bi ton 27. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng N tn ti N s nguyn dng lin tip m mi s u chia ht cho bnh phng ca mt s nguyn t. Bi ton 28. Cho p l s nguyn t. Chng minh rng tn ti mt bi s ca p sao cho 10 ch s tn cng ca n i mt khc nhau.

5. Cc hm s h c
Mt hm xc nh trn tp hp cc s nguyn dng c gi l mt hm s hc. Hm s hc f c gi l nhn tnh nu vi mi cp s nguyn m, n nguyn t cng nhau th f (mn) = f (m)f (n). Ngi ta quan tm n tnh nhn tnh, v nu f nhn tnh th tnh f (n) vi mi n, ta ch cn bit cch tnh f (p ) vi p l s nguyn t. Nu n l s nguyn dng bt k, ta gi (n) l s cc c nguyn dng ca n, (n) l tng cc c nguyn dng ca n v '(n) l s cc s nguyn dng < n v nguyn t cng nhau vi n. Bi ton 29. Nu f l mt hm nhn tnh th hm xc nh bi cng thc X F ( n) = f (d)
d |n

cng l hm nhn tnh. Bi ton 30. a) Chng minh rng cc hm (n) v (n) l cc hm nhn tnh. b)* Chng minh rng hm '(n) l hm nhn tnh. 34

c) Chng minh rng ( p ) = + 1 , . S nguyn dng n c gi l s hon ho nu tng cc c dng ca n gp hai ln s : (n) = 2n. Bi ton 31 ( nh l Euclid - Euler). Chng minh rng s chn n l s hon ho khi v ch khi n = 2m 1(2m 1), trong m l s nguyn dng sao cho 2m1 l s nguyn t. Bi ton 32. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng n ta c a) n n h i X X n (k ) = k k=1 k=1 ; b)
n X k=1 n hni X k k k=1

( p ) = 1 + p + + p =

p+1 1 , p 1

( p ) = p

(k ) =

Hm Mobius (n) l hm s c xc nh nh sau: Nu n chia ht cho bnh phng mt s nguyn t th (n) = 0. Nu n = p1 .p2 . . . pk th (n) = ( 1)k . Ta cng quy c mt cch t nhin rng (1) = 1. Bi ton 33. a) Chng minh rng hm (n) l hm nhn tnh. b) Chng minh rng vi mi n > 1 ta c X (d) = 0.
d |n

Bi ton 34 (Cng thc nghch o Mobius). Xt hm s hc f v xt X F ( n) = f (d)

d |n

. Ta c cng thc f ( n) =

X
d |n

( d ) F

n d

Bi ton 35. a) Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng n ta c bt ng thc p ( n) 2 n . b) Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng k sao cho tn ti s nguyn dng n tha mn iu kin ( n2 ) = k. ( n) 35

6. Bc theo m- u-l
Cho m l s nguyn dng > 1, a l s nguyn sao cho (a, m) = 1. Theo nh l Euler th a' (m) 1(mod m). Nh vy tp hp cc s nguyn dng k sao cho ak 1(mod m) l khc rng. Gi h l s nguyn dng nh nht tha mn iu kin ah 1(mod m). Ta gi h l bc ca a m- u-l m v k hiu l h = ordm (a). Bi ton 36. Cho (a, n) = 1 v h l s nguyn dng nh nht sao cho ah 1(mod n). Khi vi mi s nguyn dng m sao cho am 1(mod n) ta c m chia ht cho h. Bi ton 37. Chng minh rng mi c s nguyn t ca s F n = 22 + 1 c s d bng 1 khi chia cho 2n + 1. Bi ton 38. Chng minh rng khng tn ti s l n > 1 sao cho 3n + 1 chia ht cho n. Hng dn. Chng minh bng phn chng. Xt p l c s nguyn t nh nht ca n. Bi ton 39. Cho p l s nguyn t l v q v ra l cc s nguyn t sao cho p chia ht qr + 1. Chng minh rng hoc 2r | p 1 hoc p|q 2 1. Bi ton 40. [AIME 2001] C bao nhiu bi s nguyn dng ca s 1001 c th vit di dng 10j 10i, trong i v j l cc s nguyn v 0 i < j 99. Bi ton 41 (VMO 2001). Cho s nguyn dng n v cho hai s nguyn nguyn t cng nhau a, b ln hn 1. Gi s p, q l hai c l ln hn 1 ca a6 + b 6 . Hy tm s d trong php chia cho 6.(12)n . Bi ton 42. Cho n > 1, a > 0 l cc s nguyn v p l s nguyn t sao cho ap 1(mod pn ). Chng minh rng a 1(mod pn 1 ).
n n n n

p6 + q 6

7. Cng thc Legendre v ly tha ca p trong n!

Vi mi s thc x, ta gi [x] l s nguyn ln nht khng vt qu x ( c l phn nguyn x). Hm phn nguyn c nhng ng dng quan trng trong s hc. Mt trong nhng tnh cht c bn thng dung, l: Cho k l mt s nguyn bt k, khi trong n s nguyn dng u tin, c ng [n/k ] s chia ht cho k. Bi ton 43 (Cng thc Legendre). Cho n l s nguyn dng > 1 v p l s nguyn t. Khi s m ca p trong phn tch tiu chun ca n! ra tha s nguyn t c tnh theo cng thc n n n p (n!) = + 2 + 3 + ... p p p 36

Bi ton 44. Chng minh cc tnh cht sau ca hm phn nguyn a) [x + y ] [x] + [y ] vi mi x, y thuc R. b) [x] + [x + 1/2] = [2x], c) [ x] + [x + 1/3] + [x + 2/3] = [3x], x [x] d) m = mn vi mi x thc v m, n nguyn dng. n

Bi ton 45. Chng minh rng tch ca n s nguyn lin tip lun chia ht cho n! Bi ton 46 (APMO 2001). Tm s nguyn N ln nht sao cho s cc s thuc tp hp 1, 2,. . . , N v chia ht cho 3 bng s cc s thuc tp v chia ht cho 5 hoc 7. Bi ton 47. Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng n sao cho (n-1)! khng chia ht cho n2 . Bi ton 48. Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn dng n 2)(2n4) . . . (2n 2n 1) chia ht cho n!. 3, tch (2n 1)(2n

k Bi ton 49. Chng minh rng Cn l s l vi mi k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n khi v ch khi n c dng 2m 1.

8. nh l Lagrange, Lucas

nh l Wolstenhome,

nh l

Bi ton 50. Cho p l s nguyn t l t f (x) = (x + 1) . . . (x + p 1). a) Chng minh rng pf (x) = (x + 1)f (x + 1)xf (x). b) Gi s f (x) = xp 1 + a1 xp 2 + + ap 2 x + ap 1 . T ng thc trn, hy suy ra rng i X j +1 pai = Cp j aj
j =0

( y a0 = 1) c) ( nh l Lagrange) Chng minh rng ai chia ht cho p vi mi i = 1, 2, . . . , p

2.

Bi ton 51 ( nh l Wolstenhome). a) Nu p > 3 l s nguyn t, th mu s ca phn s 1 1 1 + + + 2 p 1 chia ht cho p2 . b) Chng minh rng nu p > 3 l s nguyn t, th
p 1 3 C2 p 1 1 (mod p )

Bi ton 52 ( nh l Lucas). Cho p l s nguyn t a) Chng minh rng nu m l s nguyn khng m th ta c (1 + x)p 1 + xp 37
m m

(mod p)

b) Cho 0 < m n l cc s nguyn dng. Gi s m, n c biu din trong h m c s p l m = mk mk 1 . . . m1 m0 = mk pk + mk 1 pk 1 + + m1 p + m0 n = nk nk 1 . . . n1 n0 = nk pk + nk 1 pk 1 + + n1 p + n0 . Chng minh rng
m mk mk 1 m0 Cn Cn .Cn . . . Cn 0 k k 1

(mod n)

Hng dn. S dng ng thc (1 + x) =

n n X m m Cn x

m=0

k Y i=0

(1 + xp )

ni

(mod p)

V ch v tnh duy nht ca khai trin p-phn. Bi ton 53. Chng minh s tng ng ca cc mnh sau 1) p 1 4 C2 p 1 1 (mod p ) 2) 1 1 1 + + + 0 (mod p3 ) 1 2 p 1 1 1 1 + 2 + + 0 (mod p2 ) 2 1 2 (p 1)2

3)

Bi ton 54. a) Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn t p v s nguyn dng n, k ta c

pn Cpk n. . Ck .p2

b) Chng minh rng vi mi s nguyn t p

pn Cpk n. . Ck .p3

5 v s nguyn dng n, k ta c

Bi ton 55. Chng minh rng vi n > 1

2 C2 n+1
n

2 C2 n

n 1

chia ht cho 22n+2 . Bi ton 56 (Vietnam TST 2010). Gi Sn l tng bnh phng cc h s sau khai trin ca (1+x)n. Chng minh rng 1 + S2n khng chia ht cho 3.

38

9. Phng trnh Pell

Bi ton 57. a) Chng minh hng ng thc (a2 + db2 )(x2 + dy 2 ) = (ax + dby )2 + d(ay bx)2 = (ax dby )2 + d(ay + bx)2 . b) Chng minh hng nu phng trnh x2 dy 2 = 1 c t nht mt nghim nguyn dng th n c v s nghim nguyn dng. Bi ton 58 ( nh l v cu trc nghim ca phng trnh Pell loi 1). Cho d l s nguyn dng khng chnh phng. Xt phng trnh x2 dy 2 = 1 (1). Gi s (a, b) 0 0 0 l nghim nguyn dng nh nht ca (1) ((x, y ) < (x , y ) , x < x hoc x = x0 , y < y 0 , ta gi nghim ny l nghim c s). Xt hai dy s {xn }, {yn } xc nh bi x1 = a, y1 = b, xn+1 = axn + dbyn , yn+1 = bxn + ayn . a) Chng minh rng vi mi n nguyn dng th (xn , yn ) l nghim ca (1). b) Chng minh rng nu (x, y) l nghim nguyn dng ca (1) v x > a th 0 x = axdby, y 0 = bxay cng l nghim nguyn dng ca (1). c) Chng minh rng nu (x, y) l nghim ca (1) th tn ti n sao cho x = xn , y = yn . Cho d l s nguyn dng khng chnh phng. Xt phng trnh dng Pell x2 dy 2 = k vi k l s nguyn khc 0. t S = {(x, y ) 2 N |x2 dy 2 = k } (2) v gi (a, b) l nghim c s ca phng 2 2 trnh Pell tng ng x dy = 1. Nghi( m (x0 , y0 ) thuc S c gi l nghim c s ca (2) nu khng tn ti (x0 , y 0 ) 2 x = ax0 + Dby 0 S sao cho y = ay 0 + bx0 Gi S0 l tp hp tt c cc nghim c s. Bi ton 59 ( nh l v cu trc nghim ca phng trnh dng Pell). a) Tp hp cc nghim c s l hu hn v c th tm c bng phng php vt cn. b) Nu S 6= ; v (x, y) l mt nghim ca (2) th tn ti (x0 , y0 ) thuc S0 v n thuc N sao cho p p n p x + dy = (a + db) (x0 + dy0 ) Bi ton 60 (Vit Nam 1999). Cho hai dy s (xn ), (yn ) xc nh nh sau x1 = 1, x2 = 4, xn+2 = 3xn+1 xn vi mi n 1, y1 = 1, y2 = 2, yn+2 = 3yn+1 yn vi mi n 1. Chng minh rng cc s nguyn dng a, b tha mn phng trnh a2 khi v ch khi tn ti s nguyn dng k sao cho a = xk , b = yk .

5 b2 =

Bi ton 61 (Vit Nam TST 2002). Tm tt c cc a thc p(x) vi h s nguyn sao cho a thc q (x) = (x2 + 6x + 10)(p(x))2 1 l bnh phng ca mt a thc vi h s nguyn. Bi ton 62 (PTNK 2003). Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng k sao cho phng trnh x2 (k 2 4)y 2 = 24 c nghim nguyn dng. 39

Bi ton 63. a) ( nh l v cu trc nghim ca phng trnh dng Ax2 By 2 = 1). Cho phng trnh Ax2 By 2 = 1 () vi A v AB khng chnh phng. Gi (a, b) l nghim nh nht ca phng trnh Pell kt hp x2 ABy 2 = 1. Gi s phng trnh (*) c nghim v (x0 ; y0 ) l nghim nh nht ca n th (x0 ; y0 ) l nghim duy nht ca h phng trnh a = Ax2 + By 2 , b = 2xy. b) (p dng, Vietnam TST 2009). Cho a, b l cc s nguyn dng khng chnh phng sao cho a.b cng khng chnh phng. Chng minh rng t nht mt trong hai phng trnh ax2 by 2 = 1 v ax2 by 2 = 1 khng c nghim nguyn dng.

10. Phng trnh Markov v phng php b c nhy Vi-t.

Bi ton 64. Cho k l s nguyn dng. Xt phng trnh nghim nguyn dng x2 + y 2 + z 2 = kxyz. (1)

a) Chng minh rng nu (x, y, z) l nghim nguyn dng ca (1), th (x, y, kxy z) cng l nghim nguyn dng ca (1). b) Chng minh rng nu (x0 , y0 , z0 ) l nghim ca (1) sao cho x0 y0 z0 v x0 + y0 + z0 nh nht th ta c z0 /x0 y0 k/2. c) Chng minh rng phng trnh (1) c nghim nguyn dng khi v ch khi k = 1 hoc k = 3. Bi ton 65. Xt phng trnh
2 2 x2 1 + x2 + + xn = kx1 x2 . . . xn .

(2)

Ta s ni nghim (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ca (2) l nghim c s nu x1 x2 xn v 2 x2 x2 1 + + xn 1 n , 2xn kx1 . . . xn 1 . a) Chng minh rng nu (2) c nghim th (2) c nghim c s. b) Chng minh rng nu n > 2, v (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) l nghim c s ca (2) th x1 . . . xn 2 2(n 1)/k. c) Chng minh rng nu x1 x2 xn l cc s nguyn dng bt k tho 2 2 2 2 mn iu kin 1 < x2 n x1 + + xn 1 , th t s R = (x1 + + xn )/x1 x2 . . . xn khng vt qu (n + 3)/2. d) ( nh l v phng trnh Markov). Nu phng trnh (2) c nghim v n 6= k, th n 2k 3 khi n 5 v n > 4k 6 khi n = 3, n = 4. Bi ton 66 (Vit Nam 2002). Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng n sao cho phng trnh p x + y + z + t = n xyzt c nghim nguyn dng. Bi ton 67. a) Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng k sao cho phng trnh x2 + y 2 +1 = kxy c nghim nguyn dng. 40

b) Tm tt c cc nghim nguyn dng ca phng trnh x2 + y 2 + 1 = 3xy. Hng dn. Xt dy s (xn ) c xc nh nh sau: x1 = x2 = 1, xn+1 = 3xn xn 1 vi mi n 2. Hy chng minh rng nu x, y l cc s nguyn dng vi x y sao cho x2 + y 2 + 1 = 3xy th tn ti s t nhin n sao cho x = xn , y = xn+1 . Bi ton 68 (CRUX, Problem 1420). Nu a, b, c l cc s nguyn dng sao cho 0 < a2 + b2 abc c. Chng minh rng a2 + b2 abc l s chnh phng. Bi ton 69 (IMO 88). Nu a, b, q = (a2 + b2 )/(ab + 1) l cc s nguyn dng th q l s chnh phng. Bi ton 70 (Vit Nam 2012). Xt cc s t nhin l a, b m a l c s ca b2 + 2 v b l c s ca a2 + 2. Chng minh rng a v b l cc s hng ca dy s t nhin (vn ) xc nh bi v1 = v2 = 1 v vn = 4vn 1 vn 2 vi mi n 2.

11. S chnh phng mod p

Gi s p l mt s nguyn t l. Khi s nguyn a c gi l s chnh phng modulo p nu (a, m) = 1 v ng d x2 a(mod p) c nghim. Bi ton 71. Chng minh cc mnh sau a) Gi s p l mt s nguyn t l, a l s nguyn khng chia ht cho p. Khi ng d x2 a(mod p) hoc khng c nghim, hoc c ng hai nghim khng ng d modulo p. b) Nu p l mt s nguyn t l th trong cc s 1, 2, . . . , p 1 c ng p 2 1 s chnh phng modulo p. Gi sp l mt s nguyn t l, a l s nguyn khng chia ht cho p. K hiu a a Legendre p c nh ngha nh sau: p = 1 nu a l s chnh phng modulo p v a = 1 trong trng hp ngc li. p

Bi ton 72. Gi s p l mt s nguyn t l, a, b l cc s nguyn khng chia ht cho p. Chng minh cc tnh cht sau a) (Tiu chun Euler). p 1 a = ( 1) 2 . p b) Nu a 6= b th c) a b = . p p a b ab = . p p p a2 p 41 = 1.

d)

Bi ton 73 (B Gauss). Gi s p l mt s nguyn t l, a l s nguyn khng chia ht cho p. Nu trong cc thng d dng b nht ca cc s nguyn a, 2a, . . . , (p 1)a/2 c s thng d ln hn p/2 th a = ( 1)s . p Hng dn. Trong cc thng d dng b nht ni trn, gi s u1 , u2 , . . . , us l cc thng d ln hn p/2, v1 , v2 , . . . , vt l cc thng d b hn p/2. Hy chng t rng {p u1 , p u2 , . . . , p us , v1 , v2 , . . . , vt } = {1, 2, . . . , (p 1)/2}. Bi ton 74. Gi s p l s nguyn t l, a l s l khng chia ht cho p. Chng minh rng a = ( 1)T (a,p) p , trong T (a, p) =
2 X ja p 1

j =1

Bi ton 75 (Lut thun nghch bnh phng). Gi s p v q l nhng s nguyn t l khc nhau. Khi ta c p 1 q 1 p q = ( 1) 2 . 2 q p Bi ton 76. Chng minh rng 2 chnh phng modulo p khi v ch khi p 1(mod 8). Bi ton 77 (Euler). Chng minh rng phng trnh 4xyz xy t2 = 0 khng c nghim nguyn dng.

12. Bi tp tng hp 1
Bi ton 78 ( i hc Vinh 2009). Gi s m; n l hai s nguyn dng tho mn n/d l s l vi d = (m; n): Xc nh (am + 1, an 1) vi a l s nguyn dng ln hn 1. Bi ton 79 ( i hc s phm HN 2009). Cho cc s nguyn dng a; b; c; d tha mn ac + bd chia ht cho a2 + b2 . Chng minh rng (c2 + d2 , a2 + b2 ) > 1. Bi ton 80. Gi S(n) l tng cc ch s ca s nguyn dng n. Chng minh rng ta c cng thc h n i h n i h n i S ( n) = n 9 + + + ... 10 100 1000

Bi ton 81 (PTNK 2008). Vi mi s nguyn dng n, gi S(n) l tng cc ch s ca n. a) Chng minh rng cc s n = 999 v n = 2999 khng th biu din c di dng a + b vi S(a) = S(b). b) Chng minh rng mi s n, 999 < n < 2999 u biu din c di dng a + b vi S(a) = S(b). 42

Bi ton 82 (PTNK 2009). a) Chng minh tn ti s n chn, n > 2008 sao cho 2009.n 49 l s chnh phng. b) Chng minh khng tn ti s nguyn m sao cho 2009.m 147 l s chnh phng. Bi ton 83. Tm tt c cc a thc f(x) vi h s nguyn sao cho vi mi n nguyn dng ta c f(n) l c ca 2n 1. Hng dn. Nu f khng phi l a thc hng th tn ti s nguyn dng n sao cho |f(n)| > 1. Nu p l c nguyn t ca f(n) th p | f(n+p). Bi ton 84. Cho a, b l cc s nguyn dng sao cho a+1 b+1 + b a l s nguyn. Chng minh rng (a, b) p a + b.

Bi ton 85. Chng minh rng nu a, b, c l cc s nguyn v a b c + + =3 b c a th abc l lp phng ca mt s nguyn. Hng dn. Hy chng minh vi mi p nguyn t th vp(abc) chia ht cho 3. Bi ton 86. Cc s nguyn dng a, b, c, d tho mn iu kin a2 + b2 + ab = c2 + d2 + cd. Chng minh rng s a + b + c + d l hp s. Bi ton 87 (Hng Yn 2012). Cho p l s nguyn t, a l s t nhin; p l c ng ca s nguyn dng a nu p chia ht a v p + 1 khng chia ht a, khi ta vit p ||a. Gi a, n l cc s nguyn dng, p l s nguyn t l. Gi s p ||a 1 v p ||n, trong 1; 0. Chng minh rng p ||an 1. Ch : Kt qu bi ton ny tng ng vi dng 1 ca B nng (Lifting The Exponent Lemma - LTE) sau y: Gi vp (n) l s m ca p trong khai trin ra tha s nguyn t ca n. Cho p l s nguyn t l, x, y l cc s nguyn sao cho x, y khng chia ht cho p nhng x y chia ht cho p, n l s nguyn dng. Khi vp (xn y n ) = v p (xy ) + vp (n). Phng php chng minh l s dng quy np ton hc theo vp(n). Ta c dng 2 ca LTE l: Cho p l s nguyn t l, x, y l cc s nguyn sao cho x, y khng chia ht cho p nhng x + y chia ht cho p, n l s nguyn dng l. Khi vp ( xn + y n ) = v p ( x + y ) + vp ( n) . Bi ton 88. Cho p > 3 l s nguyn t. Gi s a, b l cc s nguyn sao cho p | a + b v p2 |a3 + b3 . Hy chng minh rng hoc p2 |a + b, hoc p3 |a3 + b3 . Bi ton 89 (Ninh Bnh 2009). Cho hai s nguyn dng p; q ln hn 1; nguyn t cng nhau. Chng minh rng tn ti s nguyn k sao cho (pq 1)nk + 1 l hp s vi mi s nguyn dng n. Hng dn. S dng nh l Trung hoa v s d. 43

Bi ton 90 ( i hc KHTN 2009). Tm tt c cc b bn s t nhin a, b,c, d i mt phn bit tha mn a2 b 2 = b 2 c 2 = c 2 d 2 . Hng dn. Dng phng php xung thang chng minh khng tn ti mt b s nh vy. Tham kho li gii chi tit [3].

13. Bi tp tng hp 2
Bi ton 91 (Vit Nam 2003, bng B). Hi c tn ti hay khng cc s nguyn x, y, u, v, t tha mn iu kin sau x2 + y 2 = (x + 1)2 + u2 = (x + 2)2 + v 2 = (x + 3)2 + t2 . Bi ton 92 ( nh l Beatty). Chng minh rng nu , 1 1 + =1 th cc dy s ([n]) = ([], [2], [3], . . . ) ([n ]) = ([ ], [2 ], [3 ], . . . ) lp thnh mt phn hoch ca tp hp cc s t nhin. Ni cch khc mi mt s nguyn dng xut hin trong hp ca hai dy s trn ng mt ln v hai dy s khng c s hng chung. Bi ton 93. Cho n 2 l s nguyn dng. Chng minh rng
n 2 X n k=2 n2 2 X n = k k=n+1

l cc s v t dng sao cho

trong [ x ] k hiu s nguyn ln nht khng vt qu x. Bi ton 94 (Rio Plate 2002). Tm tt c cc cp s nguyn dng (a, b) sao cho a2 b + b ab2 + 9 l mt s nguyn. Bi ton 95 (IMO 2003). Tm tt c cc cp s nguyn dng (a, b) sao cho s a2 2ab2 b3 + 1 l s nguyn. Bi ton 96 (IMO 2007). Cho a, b l cc s nguyn dng sao cho 4ab 1 chia ht (4a2 1)2 . Chng minh rng a = b. 44

Bi ton 97. Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng n sao cho tn ti s nguyn m sao cho 2n 1 l c ca m2 + 9. Bi ton 98. Tm tt c cc s nguyn dng n sao cho tn ti cc s nguyn l 2 2 4 x1 , x2 , . . . , xn tha mn iu kin x2 1 + x2 + + xn = n . Hng dn. Trc ht hy tm iu kin cn bng cch xt theo m- un 8. Sau tm iu kin bng cch xy dng nghim. Bi ton 99. Bit rng tng cc ch s ca s nguyn dng N bng 100, cn tng cc ch s ca 5N bng 50. Chng minh rng N chn. Hng dn. t M = 5N th S(M) = 50 v S(2M) = S(10N) = S(N) = 100. Suy ra php cng M + M = 2M l php cng khng nh. Bi ton 100 (VMO 2004). Vi mi s nguyn dng n, k hiu S(n) l tng tt c cc ch s trong biu din thp phn ca n. Xt cc s nguyn dng m l bi ca 2003. Hy tm gi tr nh nht ca S(m). Hng dn. Hy chng minh rng khng tn ti n sao cho 10n + 1 chia ht cho 2003 v tn ti n sao cho 10n + 2 chia ht cho 2003. C th s dng bc ca 10 theo modulo 2003. Bi ton 101. Cho p l s nguyn t v a, b, c l cc s nguyn bt k. Chng minh rng tn ti cc s nguyn x, y, z khng ng thi chia ht cho p sao cho ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 chia ht cho p. Hng dn. Hy chng minh cho trng hp a = b = c = 1. Mt hng tip cn khc l chng minh phn chng v s dng tnh cht nu ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 khng chia ht cho p th (ax2 + by 2 + cz 2 )p 1 1(mod p). Bi ton 102. Gi pn l s nguyn t th n. t
n X 1 Sn = pk k=1

. Chng minh rng lim Sn = 1. Hng dn. Hy ch rng (1 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + + . . . )(1 + + + . . . ) . . . (1 + + 2 + ...) > 1 + + + + . 2 4 3 9 pn pn 2 3 pn

Bi ton 103. Vi s nguyn dng n > 1, gn A(n) l mnh : T 2n 1 s nguyn bt k, lun chn c n s c tng chia ht cho n. a) Chng minh A(3) ng; b) Chng minh A(5) ng; c) Chng minh rng nu A(m) ng v A(n) ng th A(mn) cng ng. d)* Chng minh rng nu p l s nguyn t th A(p) ng. Hng dn. Chng minh phn chng v rng nu (a1 + a2 + + ap ) khng chia ht cho p th (a1 + a2 + + ap )p 1 1(mod p) e) ( nh l Erdos-Ginzburg-Ziv). Chng minh A(n) ng vi mi n > 1. 45

Ti liu tham kho

[1]. on Qunh, Trn Nam Dng, H Huy Khoi, ng Hng Thng, Nguyn Trng Tun, Ti liu chuyn ton Gii tch 12, NXB GD Vit Nam, 2012. [2]. Nguyn Vn Mu, Trn Nam Dng, ng Hng Thng, ng Huy Run, Mt s vn s hc chn lc, NXB GD, 2008. [3]. Trn Nam Dng (ch bin), Li gii v bnh lun thi cc trng v cc tnh nm hc 2009-2010, Ebook, 2010. [4]. T sch Ton hc v Tui tr, Cc bi thi Olympic Ton Trung hc ph thng Vit Nam (1990-2006), NXB GD 2007. [5]. Victor Shoup, A Computational Introduction to Number Theory and Algebra, Ebook. [6]. D.O. Shklyarsky, N.N. Chentsov, I.M.Iaglom, Selected Problems and Theorems in Elementary Mathematics, Mir Publishers Moscow 1979. [7] Amir Hossein Parvardi, Lifting The Exponent Lemma, ArtofProblemSolving.com

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