WFI Technical Training Series:

CDMA Concepts and Applications in Wireless PCS Networks

Developed By: Kamran Etemad

Course Outline
l l

Introduction Part 1: CDMA Concepts

Spreading/Despreading in Time and Frequency Domains Concept of Multiple Access Using Codes Spreading Codes (Walsh and Pseudo-Noise Codes) Rake Receivers and Soft Handoff CDMA Cell and System Capacity

Part 2: Applications: IS95 and 3G-CDMA

Physical and Logical Channel Structure in IS95 Forward and Reverse Link Waveforms Call Processing and Power Control Issues

Review of a Basic Communication System

Information Source Source Source Encoder Encoder Channel Channel Encoder Encoder Digital Digital Modulator Modulator Information Destination Source Source Decoder Decoder Channel Channel Decoder Decoder Digital Digital Demodulator Demodulator

Analog Waveform Channel

Source Coding
l

l l

The function of source coding is data compression. Removing redundancies of the signals, in its original form, and representing it with minimum number of bits. Signal compression may be lossy or lossless. Question:
How do we compress analog signals such as voice and music? Which Applications require lossless compression?

Channel Coding
l

Channel Coding: adds redundant bits to information bit such that Protects Information Bits against Channel Noise and Interference by increasing the distance between valid codes.

Channel Bits Information Bits

Compressed Information

Add Redundancy to Protect Info. bits.

Coding Gain
BER
Without Coding

(Eb/Io)min
With Coding
l

Capacity

Coding Gain

Using more powerful channel coding and modulation schemes increase the tolerance against noise and interference. This means for a given Bit Error Rate (BER) coding reduces the required (Eb/N0).

(Eb/Io)

Interleaving
l

Conventional FEC schemes work best when the errors are randomly distributed in time as opposed to being clustered in bursts. In mobile radio channels, however, errors tend to occur in bursts due to fading effects. The function of interleaver is randomization of errors in time. The bits' order of transmission is altered, so that upon undoing this altering at the receiver, the errors appear to have random rather than correlated locations Interleaver CEGAFBD ABCDEFG Errors ABCDEFG
De-Interleaver

Errors CEGAFBD

Examples of Digital Modulations

QPSK
Q
X X

Q I
I
X X X X

1
X X

ASK 2
Q

FSK

A Digital Modulator maps a block of L bits to one of 2L Waveforms suitable for transmission over a physical channel. Examples: ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying) FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) PSK (Phase Shift Keying) QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) is a hybrid modulation

16QAM
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
8

Review of Functionalities
Information Destination Source Decoder Secure, Reliable, Digital Memoryless Channel Insecure, Unreliable Digital Memoryless Channel Insecure, Unreliable Digital Fading Channel Insecure Analog Fading Channel

Channel Decoder Decryption Deinterleaver Demodulator

Spread Spectrum Idea

l

l l

Based on Shannons Capacity equation: C=W x log(1+S/R) A spread spectrum communication is designed so that the system can operate at much lower signal to noise ratio using a much larger bandwidth. Starting from a typically narrowband information Signal The energy of the signal is spread over a much larger bandwidth using: Direct Sequence Spreading:
Modulating each information bit by a high rate sequence Direct Sequence Spreading

Frequency Hopping:
Randomly hopping the sub-carrier frequency within a wide spectrum.
10

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

TRANSMITTER RECEIVER

Source Encoder Channel Encoder PN Source Modulator

Identical & Synchronized Pseudo-Noise High Rate Signals PN Source

Source Decoder Channel Decoder

Demodulator

Wideband Wireless Channel

11

DS-Spread Spectrum Features

l l l l l l

Interference Rejection Anti-jamming Communication Frequency Diversity Against Multipath Fading Low Probability of Intercepts Secrecy and Security Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Capability Provides high capacity and spectral efficiency in a cellular network environment. Provides no advantage over a pure additive Gaussian Noise Channel.

Applications Military Based Applications l Second Generation Cellular and PCS Systems (IS95) l Wireless Local loop Systems l Third Generation/IMT2000 Systems (CDMA2000, WCDMA,..) l Mobile-Satellite Systems (Global-Star) l .
l
13

Cellular Network Architecture

Base Station Subsystem Network Switching Subsystem Public Networks

BTS BTS MS BTS

BSC

OMC

PSTN ISDN AUC Data Networks

MSC
BTS BTS BTS BSC HLR VLR

MS

Course Outline
l l

Introduction Part 1: CDMA Concepts

Spreading/Despreading in Time and Frequency Domains Concept of Multiple Access Using Codes Spreading Codes (Walsh and Pseudo-Noise Codes) Rake Receivers and Soft Handoff CDMA Cell and System Capacity

Part 2: Applications: IS95 and 3G-CDMA

Physical and Logical Channel Structure in IS95 Forward and Reverse Link Waveforms Call Processing and Power Control Issues

15

Binary and Bipolar Sequences

l

Example of a binary sequence

1,1,0,0,1,1,0,0

Each binary sequence can be represented in a bipolar form by mapping the 1s to +1s and 0s to -1s. Example
1,1,0,0,1,1,0,0 +1,+1,-1,-1,+1,+1,-1,-1

For convenience, in our correlation analysis we use bipolar representation of binary sequences

16

Correlation Between Two Sequences

[ 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 ]

Cross-correlation C1

. dt
C2
[1 1 -1 1 1 -1 ] [ 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 ]

C1 & C2 are Orthogonal <C1,C2>=0 Autocorrelation

C1

. dt
C1 is Normalized <C1,C1>=1

C1
[ 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 ]

Spreading Waveforms
Information Bits
Spread Spectrum Signal

Spreading is achieved when multiplying the signal by the spreading sequence.

+1 Information Bits -1 Spreading Sequence
[ -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1-1 1]

Spreading Sequence

After Spreading

Effects of Spreading in Spectrum

2

Spreading Increases the rate of alternations and therefore Bandwidth.

Information Signal Before Spreading Information Signal After Spreading

Same Power i.e. Same Area

R W

Frequency

Processing Gain
l

Therefore, Spreading involves dividing each bit time into L equal chip times and modulating the bit interval by a sequence p(n) of length L. As a result of this multiplication/modulation the bandwidth of the transmitted signal increases by about a factor of L, thus the term spread spectrum. The ratio of bandwidth after spreading (W) to information bit rate (R) is called processing gain (GP), Thus : GP = W/R=L. Despreading is accomplished by correlating the received waveform with the the same sequence p(n). R W f
20

Despreading: Time/Frequency Views

[ 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 ]

The original low rate Information bit

C1

Using the Matching Code

[ 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 ]

. dt
freq.

C1

freq.
[ 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 ]

Using the Wrong Code

[1 1 -1 1 1 -1 ]

Another high rate signal C1

. dt
freq.

C2

freq.

21

SS Interference on NB Systems
Narrowband Signal

S.S. Interference
l

Within the bandwidth of a narrowband system the SS signal looks like a white Gaussian noise.

Effect of Despreading NB Interference

Narrowband Interference

Before Despreading
Desired SS signal

Desired Signal

After Despreading
Narrowband Interference

Despreading (review)
l

As a result of correlating with a user specific code at the receiver:

The signal from the intended user gets despread. The additive white gaussian noise remains the same. The narrowband interference gets spread and appears as AWGN. Also all unintended S.S. signals, that have been spread using different codes, remain spread and therefore appear as AWGN.

This is the basis for a multi-user secure communication system based on spread spectrum idea.

Course Outline
l l

Introduction Part 1: CDMA Concepts

Spreading/Despreading in Time and Frequency Domains Concept of Multiple Access Using Codes Spreading Codes (Walsh and Pseudo-Noise Codes) Rake Receivers and Soft Handoff CDMA Cell and System Capacity Physical and Logical Channel Structure in IS95 Forward and Reverse Link Waveforms Call Processing and Power Control Issues Link Budget for CDMA Systems CDMA and 3rd Generation Wireless PCS Systems
25

Part 2: Applications: IS95 and 3G-CDMA

Basic CDMA Concepts

f
User1: C1

t f

Time Code time

User2: C2

t f t f t
l

User3: C3

Spread Spectrum Channel

Frequency

User4: C4

CDMA: assigns one distinct spreading code to each user As long as the codes are orthogonal or almost orthogonal all users can send and receive their signal through the same wide band channel. Other users signals appear like noise.

CDMA and Universal Channel Reuse

l

A CDMA system allows multiple access using a single CDMA channel. The same channel can be used in adjacent F1 cells. Thus CDMA allows a universal reuse F1 F1 pattern, or reuse of one. F1 The universal reuse implies: F1 F1
A significant improvement of spectral efficiency because of increased spectrum available per cell. A tremendous amount of Co-Channel Interference. Because of spread spectrum nature of signals all co-channel interference appear like noise to intended user. Since different base stations or users, use different codes with almost zero correlation, the receivers can reject co-channel interference as part of despreading. F1

27

Example: Multiple Access in IS95

l

In IS95, Physical Channels are formed based on a combination of Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
Almost Orthogonal Code Sequences

PNn PNn-1 PN3 PN2 PN1

Frequency

F1

F2

F3

F4

FDMA

Example: IS95 CDMA Channels

l

Each CDMA Frequency Assignment (FA) consists of a pair of 1.23MHz channels for downlink and uplink. Within each CDMA RF channel, or FA, signals to and from various users are distinguished using different codes. The spreading codes used in forward and reverse link are different.

Cn Cn-1 C3 C2 C1 C 1 C 2 C 3

C n C n-1

Uplink

Downlink

Forward and Reverse Link CDMA

l

In the forward link there are two levels of spreading:

Each base station uses a different code, so that the interference from adjacent cells can be rejected at the mobiles receiver.. Within each cell, the base station uses a set of orthogonal codes for channelization, to separate different users information signals.
Different users signal are first spread by a distinct code, Then all spread spectrum signals for all users are added and the composite signal is spread by the BS stations specific code.

In the reverse link each user uses a different spreading code.

30

A Two Receiver Scenario

l l

A CDMA base station (BS) intends to send a 1 to user 1. The BS spread the information bit by code C1.
User 1 uses C1 for despreading The other user, User 2, uses a different code C2, which is orthogonal to C1.

C 1 = [ + 1, + 1, 1, 1] User 1

C2 = [ +1,1,+1,1]
User 2
Note That C1 and C2 are Orthogonal.

< C1, C2 >= 1 / 4 {[+1,+1,1,1],[ +1,1,+1,1]} = 1 / 4 {1 1 + 1 1} = 0

31

Correlating With the Same Code

Channel Noise C 1 = [ + 1, + 1, 1, 1]

~ C1 = C1+ n = [n1 + 1, n2 +1, n3 1, n4 1]

C 1 = [ + 1, + 1, 1, 1]
After correlating with the same code RX= <C1, C1+N> = <C1,C1> + <C1,N> = 1 +
32

Correlating With a Different Code

Channel Noise

C 1 = [ + 1, + 1, 1, 1]

~ C1 = C1+ n = [n1 + 1, n2 +1, n3 1, n4 1]

C2 = [ +1,1,+1,1]
After correlating with a different code RX= <C2, C1+N> = <C2,C1> + <C2,N> = 0 +

33

A More Realistic Downlink Scenario

TX: At the Base Station A

T1 = a 1 . C 1 ,

... T = T1 + T2 + ...+ T N TX = T D A

T2 = a 2 . C 2 TN = a N . C N

Same Cell Channelization Codes

Spreading with BSs Code

RX: At the Mobile Station 1

R X = L TX = L (T D A ) R = (1 / L *) R X T D A Despreading with
BSs Code

) T r1 r1 r1

Match Filtering

= < ( T D A ), D A > = T = < T , C 1 > = < a 1 . C 1 + a 2 . C 2 + ... + a N . C N , C 1 > = < a 1 . C 1 , C 1 > + < a 2 . C 2 + ... + a N . C N , C 1 > = a 1 + ( 21 + ... + N 1 ) = a 1 + 34
2nd level despreading

Course Outline
l l

Introduction Part 1: CDMA Concepts

Spreading/Despreading in Time and Frequency Domains Concept of Multiple Access Using Codes Spreading Codes (Walsh and Pseudo-Noise Codes) Rake Receivers and Soft Handoff CDMA Cell and System Capacity

Part 2: Applications: IS95 and 3G-CDMA

Physical and Logical Channel Structure in IS95 Forward and Reverse Link Waveforms Call Processing and Power Control Issues

35

Spreading Codes
l

To maintain all signal power, after spreading and despreading, the spreading sequences
Have to be Mutually Orthogonal to each other or Have noise like characteristics with very small cross correlation.

Example of such codes are Walsh codes & Pseudo-Noise (PN) codes. Walsh Codes are perfectly orthogonal to each other. They can be obtained from different rows of Haddamard matrices. The PN codes
have Noise-like characteristics, e.g. Sharp Autocorrelation Are easily implementable using shift registers Are Periodic, Long and Difficult to reconstruct from a short segment

36

Orthogonal Sequences: Walsh Codes

H1 = [ 0] Hadamard Matrices 0 0 H2 = 0 1 H2 H 4= H2 . . . . . H 2n 1 H n= 2 H 2n 1 H n 1 2 H
2n 1

0 H2 0 = H2 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
l

C0 C1 C2 C3

Rows Rows are are Orthogonal Orthogonal to to each each other. other. <Ci,Cj>=0 <Ci,Cj>=0

In IS95 Walsh Codes corresponding to rows of H64 are used There are only N orthogonal sequences of length N.

Walsh Codes are Mutually Orthogonal:

0 0 0 H4 0 = H4 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

C2

H4 H 8= H4

C5

1 Convert to < C 2, C 5 >= < ( 1, 1,+ 1, +1, 1, 1,+ 1,+ 1), Bipolar 8 ( 1,+ 1, 1, +1,+ 1, 1, +1, 1) > 1 = ( +1 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 + 1 1) = 0 38 8

Pseudo-Noise Codes
l

The PN codes are pseudo-random sequences

They are deterministic codes which mimic randomness properties

Randomness or Noise-like characteristics include

Sharp Autocorrelation 1s and 0s appear randomly and independently in a sequence The number of 1s and 0 are (almost) the same in any long segment of the sequence. Difficult to reconstruct from a short segment

Additional desirable properties for PN codes are

Easy to Implement Periodic & Long

Examples are :
m-Sequences, Gold and Kasami codes

Pseudo-Noise Codes
l l

PN codes have very sharp autocorrelation, It implies that the time-shifted code versions of the same PN sequence have very small correlation with each other. For a long periodic PN sequence of length N this correlation is very small, i.e close to 1/N, so that different time-shifted version or offsets of the same pseudo-random sequence are almost orthogonal to each other.
RS (t,t+)

Period of the Code

0 -1/N
1 PN Chip
40

Generating PN Sequences
l

l l

Maximal Length Shift Register Sequences, also called m-sequences, are generated by an m stage shift register with appropriate linear feedback connections defined by prime polynomials with modulo 2 arithmetic. The specific feedback configurations, used, ensure than the sequence has its maximum period, i.e. 2m-1. By loading different initial value into the shift register, one can generate different offsets of the same sequence.

Initial Value
Output 1 2 3 4 . . . . . m-1 m

Feedback

Example: Spreading Codes in IS95

l

Walsh Codes
64 Orthogonal Codes (W0-W63) Each of Length 64 Chips

Short Codes
A PseudoNoise M-Sequence Generated by a Maximal Length Shift Register of Length 215 and period 215 -1 Chips

Long Codes
A PseudoNoise M-Sequence Generated by a Maximal Length Shift Register of Length 242 and period 242 -1 Chips

Spreading Sequences in IS95

l

Orthogonal Walsh Codes:

Walsh codes of length 64 are used in IS95 forward link There are 64 Walsh codes used to isolate forward link channels within one cell. Examples: 64bits l W0: 0000.......................000 l W32: 0000....0001111....111
32bits 32bits

43

PN Offset of Short Codes

Same Sequence Different Offsets

(215-1) Chips

BS1 BS2

.010...1110.......10010010011 .10.......10010010011 010...11

PN Offset (i x 64chips)
l l l l

The Short Code is an m-sequence of period 215-1 chips!! Different BSs use different offsets of the short code. Each station (or sector) uses only one PN offset. There are 512 possible offsets, of 64 chips apart, to be assigned to base stations.

Usage of Codes
l l l

Short codes are used for spreading as BSs ID in the forward link. Long Codes are used for scrambling and spreading as MSs ID in the reverse link Walsh codes are used for forward link channelization.
Station A Station B

Sb.W23 L3

Sa.W12

Sa.W23

L1

L2

Short Codes: Sa and Sb Long Codes:L1 ,L2 and L3 Walsh Codes: W1-W63

45

Need for Synchronization

l

Spread Spectrum Signals are typically high rate signals with very sharp autocorrelations Correlation based receivers rely heavily on almost perfect synchronization. Therefore, maintaining the synchronization has a direct effect on identifying the desired from undesired signals. Synch. Out of Synch. TX

TX

RX

TX

RX

RX

Course and Fine Synchronization

l

Coarse Synchronization is performed for Code Acquisition.

Time

Time l

Fine Synchronization is performed during code tracking.

Chip Time

Code Acquisition Methods

l

Code Acquisition Circuits can be implemented using a parallel bank of correlators or a sliding correlator with a feedback
Parallel Bank of Correlator
Correlator with p (t-Tc )

Sliding Correlator

u1

+ -

Correlator with p (t-nTc )

Input SS Signal

Correlator with p (t-2Tc )

u2

PN Generator

Adjust n

. . .

Correlator with p (t-(2Nc-1) Tc)

v 2Nc-1

Code Tracking Methods

l

After Code Phase Acquisition we need to adapt to time variations and maintain locking condition. Code tracking circuits operate using some sort of a feedback loop. For example
Delay Locked Loop Tau Dither Loop

x
P(t+) to Data Demodulator
bandpass filter envelope detector

P(t+Tc/2+) PN generator
clock VCO

loop filter +
envelope detector

P(t-Tc/2+)

bandpass filter

Delay Locked Loop

Course Outline
l l

Introduction Part 1: CDMA Concepts

Spreading/Despreading in Time and Frequency Domains Concept of Multiple Access Using Codes Spreading Codes (Walsh and Pseudo-Noise Codes) Rake Receivers and Soft Handoff CDMA Cell and System Capacity Physical and Logical Channel Structure in IS95 Forward and Reverse Link Waveforms Call Processing and Power Control Issues Link Budget for CDMA Systems CDMA and 3rd Generation Wireless PCS Systems
50

Part 2: Applications: IS95 and 3G-CDMA

Multipath Effects on NB signals

l

l l

Because of multipath effects, for each transmitted symbol, the receiver, receives a combination of the main symbol and and its echoes. In a Narrowband System (e.g. most TDMA based systems) the symbol is relatively wide in time so the main symbol and its echoes overlap in time. This overlap, called InterSymbol Interference (ISI), is not desired and causes erroneous detection. Therefore most NB systems use adaptive equalizers to cancel ISI. An equalizer in a NB system tries to estimate multipath components and cancel them.

Transmitted Symbols

Received Symbols
51

Multipath Effects on WB signals

l

Because of multipath effects, for each transmitted symbol, the receiver, receives a combination of the main symbol and and its echoes. In a wideband system (e.g. most CDMA based systems) the symbols are relatively narrow in time so a symbol and its echoes do not overlap in time and therefore they are resolvable. Most WB systems use a Rake Receiver to estimate and combine the signal coming from multipath.

Transmitted Symbols

Received Symbols Multipaths are Resolvable

52

Rake Receiver and Multipath

BS1
MultiPath Components

T Input Data Delay Line & Correlators

T+ t1

T+ t2

r ( t )(. ) dt

r ( t )(. ) dt

r ( t )(. ) dt

Adaptive Combiner

Rake Receiver utilizes the spatial diversity.

Soft Hand-off
l

The mobile station continuously scans for pilot signals transmitted by different stations/sectors and establishes, both uplink and down link, communication with up to 3 stations whose pilot power exceeds a certain threshold. This results in a make before break procedure for Hand-off, where during the transition from one cell to another the call is served by multiple cells. These simultaneous links to multiple base stations is a form of spatial diversity which provides a more robust and smooth Hand-off and improves capacity and coverage performance of the system.

Station A

Station A & B

Station B

Soft Handoff
Station A Ec/Io Soft Handoff Region Stations A & B Station B

TADD
Signal Margin

TDROP

Time Margin

Time/Space

Rake Rec. in Soft Handoff (Downlink)

BS1 BS2

T Input Data Delay Line & Correlators

T+ t1

T+ t2

r ( t )(. ) dt

r ( t )(. ) dt

r ( t )(. ) dt

Adaptive Combiner

Soft Handoff and Spatial Diversity

l l l

There is a diversity gain associated with soft handoff in both reverse and forward link. The major gain is in the reverse link due to combiners at each base station and the selective combining at the MSC. Rake receivers in both forward and reverse link contribute to this spatial diversity gain.

Selection Combining

MSC

Selection Diversity in SHO (Uplink)

2 Finger

BS1

RAKE Rec. 1

Diversity Combiner
RAKE Rec. 2
2 Finger

MTSO Selection Diversity Combining

Vocoder

To PSTN

2 Finger

RAKE Rec. 1

Diversity Combiner
RAKE Rec. 2
2 Finger

BS2

SHO, Power Control and Interference

l

SHO reduces the average transmit power of mobiles in the handoff area
A mobile in soft handoff powers up only if all BSs involved in soft handoff ask for more power and it powers down as soon as one of BSs ask him to power down.

Therefore statistically mobiles transmitted power is reduced and so it contributes less to interference level in the system.
BS1 BS2

UP only if UP1 and UP2 Down if Down1 or Down2

59

Adv. and Disadv. of Soft Hand-off

l

+ Improvements in RF interface
Reduction in Interference Improvement in Coverage Increase in Capacity BS1

MSC
BS3

l l

+ Improvement in Voice Quality - Additional overhead to Allocate

Channel Element Power For users in soft Hand-off.

BS2

In LBA to account for the Soft Hand-off Diversity Gain, for %30-%50 of users in soft Hand-off region, 2-3 dB is considered. Effectively, this gain is due to a reduction in the fade margin for the combined signal.

Course Outline
l l

Introduction Part 1: CDMA Concepts

Spreading/Despreading in Time and Frequency Domains Concept of Multiple Access Using Codes Spreading Codes (Walsh and Pseudo-Noise Codes) Rake Receivers and Soft Handoff CDMA Cell and System Capacity Physical and Logical Channel Structure in IS95 Forward and Reverse Link Waveforms Call Processing and Power Control Issues Link Budget for CDMA Systems CDMA and 3rd Generation Wireless PCS Systems
61

Part 2: Applications: IS95 and 3G-CDMA

Reverse Link Interference

Same Cell Interference: sc

Other Cell Interference: oc

Forward Link Interference

Same Cell Interference: sc

Other Cell Interference: oc

Energy per Bit

S = Received Signal Power R= Bit Rate=#Bits/Second Eb= Energy per Bit = Signal Power/ (# Bits per Second)

Eb= S/R

Assuming Perfect Uplink Power Control

P1 R1 R2 R3 P2 P3
Assuming Perfect Power Control

P1 P1 > > P2 P2 > > P3 P3

Such That

R1=R2=R3=S R1=R2=R3=S

Interference Power Spectral Density

No= Noise Spectral Density Isc = Same Cell Interference Spectral Density It =Total Interference Spectral Density
Interference Spectrum Other Users Interference

It No
Isc = Total Interference/Bandwidth Thermal/ Background N0= Noise Power/BandWidth Noise Total Interference Power =I .W=(N It .W=(N0+ISC).W

ISC
Freq.

Total Interference (Single Cell)

S S S S P1 (N-1)S
Assuming Perfect Power Control

PN

PN-1

P2

Total Interference= Other (N-1) users Interference + Thermal Noise

It W= IscW+NoW = (N-1)S +NoW It = (N-1)S/W + N0

Eb/It
Eb S/R S/R W/R = = I t [( N 1) S ] / W + N 0 [( N 1) S ] / W N 1
Eb S/R = > ( Eb / I t ) min = ( Eb / N 0 ) min It I total / W W/R > ( E b / N 0 ) min N 1 W/R N< +1 ( Eb / N 0 ) min Capacity = N max W/R W/R = +1 ( Eb / N 0 ) min ( Eb / N 0 ) min
Ignoring the background noise

Common Terminology

Coding and Processing Gain

BER
Without Coding

Coding

J
(Eb/Io)min

With Coding

Capacity

Coding Gain

J
W/R

(Eb/Io)

Capacity

Using more powerful channel coding and modulation schemes increase the tolerance against noise and interference. This means for a given Bit Error Rate (BER) coding reduces the required (Eb/N0). Also note the direct and explicit effect of Processing Gain on the capacity.

Speech Activity
60% 40% Inactive Active (Silence) (Speech)

Human Speech signal has a duty cycle of about =40%

Effect of Speech Activity Factor

with probability 0.4 i=1 =1 with probability 0.4 i with probability 0.6 i=1 =1 with probability 0.6 i

RX=Neff. xS
i =1

N 1

S = ( N 1 ) S 0 . 4 ( N 1 ) S 142 4 3
N effective

N-1 mobiles, Only 0.4(N-1) active

Effect of Voice Activity on Capacity

l l

The effective capacity increases because of voice activity. The increase in capacity is achieved without additional overhead signaling and protocol considerations.

N eff . = N max

W/R ( Eb / N 0 ) min

Voice Activity Gain >1

W/R 1 Capacity = . ( Eb / N 0 ) min

Effect of Sectorization
l

For 120o sectored cites, compared to an Omni-Cite

Almost 1/3rd Interference received in the uplink Causes almost 1/3rd Interference in the uplink

Reduction in interference results in higher capacity in both links.

Sectorization Gain
l

l l

Interference reduction due to directional antenna patterns results in increase in capacity. For three sectors the sectorization gain is close to 3. There is no loss of trunking efficiency because all sectors of a cite use a common pool of channels.

I Sector 1 / 3 I Omni GS = 2.55 3 W/R Capacity = . GS ( Eb / N 0 ) min

Sectorization Gain

Reuse Efficiency Factor

Ioc: Other Cells Interference Isc: Same Cell Interference

=f

Total Interference= Isc + Ioc = (1+f ) Isc

Eb S/R S/R = = I t ( I sc + I oc ) / W + N 0 (1 + f ) I sc / W + N 0

Ignoring Ignoringthe the background backgroundnoise noise

Eb S/R W/R = I t (1 + f )[( N 1) S ] / W + N 0 (1 + f )( N 1)

Reuse Efficiency >1 Effect of Other Cells

Effect of f on Capacity
Eb W/R W/R It (1 + f )( N 1) (1 + f ) N
Reduction in Capacity due to other cell Interference

W/R 1 Capacity = . ( Eb / N 0 ) min (1 + f )

Loading Factor
l

The simple capacity equation which ignores the effect of noise, called the pole capacity, is theoretical limit to CDMA cell capacity. To achieve this limit mobile has to transmit at infinite power and the system becomes unstable. For stable operation of the system a loading factor of %50 to %80 is usually considered.

W/R 1 1 Capacity = . . GS . . L ( Eb / N 0 ) min (1 + f ) Loading

Pole Capacity Factor
77

Big Picture (Reverse Link Cell capacity)

Speech Acivity Gain

Processing Gain

W/R 1 1 Capacity = . . GS . . L ( Eb / N 0 ) min (1 + f )

Loading Factor Sectorization Gain

Minimum Technology Requirement

Frequency Reuse Efficiency

Exercise
l

l l l l l l l

Using this capacity equation and the following practical assumptions compute the cell capacity for CDMA system. Eb/No=7dB=5 Reuse Efficiency Factor f=0.55 Bandwidth W=1.23MHz Data Rate R=9.6kbps Voice activity v=0.4 Sectorization Gain Gs= 2.65 Loading L=60%

79

Some Implicit Effects on Capacity

l

Soft handoff improves Capacity

Because of spatial diversity gains, users in soft handoff region demand less power from BS and transmit less power therefore they contribute less to the interference. Reduced Interference means improvement in capacity.

Power Control errors reduces the capacity .

In all of calculations we assumed perfect power control. The effect of errors in power control is modeled as a factor which is a decreasing function of the error variance.

W /R 1 1 Capacity = . . G S . . L .LPC. GSHO ( E b / N 0 ) min (1 + f )

<1 >1

Soft Capacity
l

Desired Quality

More Users & less Quality

In a CDMA system the capacity is limited by a threshold on a continuous variable i.e. signal quality. It is always possible to allow one extra user by sacrificing some of this quality, for all users. In FDMA/TDMA systems we have hard capacity, because capacity is hard limited by the number of RF carriers and number of time slots.

Quality Index (Eb/No)

Nominal Capacity

# Active Users

How About Forward Link Capacity?

l

While the reverse link capacity is limited by aggregate interference effects the forward link is power limited. The forward link capacity is defined as the maximum number of users, for whom the base station can provide
distinct code channels enough power

l l

The code channel limitation practically never dominates. The power limitation depends on user locations
the worse case is when all users are far at the cell periphery, in which the base can support only few of them. The average case, where users are uniformly distributed, in which case the forward link capacity estimated using simulation and it is usually higher than reverse link.

Therefore the CDMA cell capacity is usually determined by the reverse link.

82

Course Outline
l l

Introduction Part 1: CDMA Concepts

Spreading/Despreading in Time and Frequency Domains Concept of Multiple Access Using Codes Spreading Codes (Walsh and Pseudo-Noise Codes) Rake Receivers and Soft Handoff CDMA Cell and System Capacity

Part 2: Applications: IS95 and 3G-CDMA

Physical and Logical Channel Structure in IS95 Forward and Reverse Link Waveforms Call Processing and Power Control Issues

83

Physical Channels
l

Each CDMA channel occupies 1.23MHz of spectrum which is equivalent of 41 AMPS channels. All CDMA channels within the Cellular band are organized based on AMPS channels.
3dB
fN+ 45MHz Downlink or Forward Channel Uplink or Reverse Channel

1.23MHz

... 41 x 30KHz AMPS Channels.

Channel Numbering for Cellular Band

Downlink
[825+0.03N] MHz [825+0.03(N-1023)] MHz [870+0.03N] MHz [870+0.03(N-1023)] MHz for N=1,2,..,799 for N=990,991,...,1023

Uplink

A Band

B Band

1023 1

991

333 334

666 667

716 717

799

PCS Blocks

Block Designator A (MTA) D (BTA) B (MTA) E (BTA) F (BTA) C (BTA)

Bandwidth Allocated (MHz) 30 (15/15) 10 (5/5) 30 (15/15) 10 (5/5) 10 (5/5) 30 (15/15)

Uplink 1850-1865 1865-1870 1870-1885 1885-1890 1890-1895 1895-1910

Downlink 1930-1945 1945-1950 1950-1965 1965-1970 1970-1975 1975-1990

CDMA PCS BLOCKS

1850 MHz

Uplink
A D B E F C 20MHz A D

Downlink
B E F C

80MHz

1199

1199

[1850+0.05N] MHz

N=0,1,..,1199

[1930+0.05N] MHz N=0,1,..,1199

PCS blocks (A, B and C) are 15MHz wide pairs, whereas blocks (D, E and F) are 5MHz wide pairs. PCS spectrum allows up to 1200 center frequencies (and therefore CDMA channel numbers) of 50KHz separation.

Preferred Channels for PCS

Block Designator A D B E F C
l

Preferred Set of CDMA Channel Numbers

25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200. 225, 250, 275 325, 350, 375 425, 450, 475, 500, 525, 550, 575, 600, 625, 650, 675 725, 750, 775 825, 850, 875 925, 950, 975, 1000, 1025, 1050, 1075, 1100, 1125, 1175

CDMA carriers are arranged in the middle of preselected channels to allow for sufficient guard bands, the set of these channels is called the Preferred set. To access the CDMA system in block A, the mobile station scans the Preferred set of black A until it finds a pilot channel. If no service is found it may search for Preferred set of another block say block B.

Control & Voice Channels

System Information & Paging Information

Access Request

Voice Information & Signaling Voice Information & Signaling

IS95 Logical Channels Pilot Channel l Synch Channel l Paging Channel l Traffic Channel
l User Traffic Data Blank & Burst Signaling Dim & Burst Signaling Power Control
l

Signaling & Control

Access Channel

Forward Link Channels

Pilot Synch Paging

Traffic Channels

Pilot Channel
l

l l

Pilot Channel is an unmodulated DSS signal continuously transmitted by each CDMA base station used to uniquely identify the base station. It transmits Walsh-0 (W0) sequence. It serves as a phase reference for timing, bit synchronization and coherent demodulation in the down link Also since Pilot is not subject to dynamic power control it provides a reference for comparing the signal strength of different base stations. Therefore pilot channel plays the major role in determining best server and servers in soft hand-off.

Synch Channel
l

Synch channel is demodulated by the mobile right tuning to strongest pilot. It carries some of system ID parameters
System Identification number Network Identification number

And some information about timing

Pilot sequence offset index PILOT_PN Long Code State System Time Offset of Local Time Leap Seconds

l l

Paging Channel Data Rate. The data rate of the Synch channel is 1.2kbps.

Paging Channel
l

Paging channel is continuously monitored by the mobile after reading the information on the Synch channel. Some of typical Paging Channel messages are:
System parameters Access parameters Page or Slotted Page Order Messages SSD update Data Burst Authentication CDMA Channel List Channel assignment

Forward Traffic Channel

l l

Traffic channel carry variable rate voice/data. In addition to user data/voice, the traffic channels is IS95 also carry some signaling information. These signaling subchannels are associated to and are time multiplexed with users data on the traffic channel. In the Forward Traffic channel the following messages are sent to the mobile
Order messages Data Burst Hand off Direction In-Traffic System parameters SSD Update Power Control Parameters Neighbor-list Update MS Registered Message

CDMA Forward Channel

1.23 MHz Bandwidth Transmitted by Base Station

Traffic Chan. 24 Traffic Chan. 25 Traffic Chan. 54 Traffic Chan. 55 Paging Chan. 1 Paging Chan. 2 Paging Chan. 3 Paging Chan. 4 Paging Chan. 5 Paging Chan. 6 Paging Chan. 7 Traffic Chan. N Traffic Chan. 1 Traffic Chan. 2 Traffic Chan. 3 Sync Chan.

W0 W32 W1 W 2 W3 W4 W 5 W6 W7

Pilot Chan.

W8 W 9 W10 .......... W31W33 .................. W62 W63

Total of 64 Walsh Codes

1 Pilot 1 Sync 7 Paging 55 Traffic

Traffic Data

Mobile Power Control Subchannel

Random Access Channel

l

Access Channel Signaling consists of messages related to

Access or Call Origination Respond to a Page Authentication Registration User Generated Data Bursts for the base station. Other order messages

It operates based on a variation of Slotted ALOHA Access Protocol

Channel
Mobiles: Origination Responds to Orders Periodic Reports

Uplink Traffic Channel Signaling

l

Some of the signaling information transmitted over uplink traffic channel are
Authentication Challenge Response Power Measurement Report Pilot Strength Measurement Hand-off Completion Dual Tone Multi-Frequency (DTMF) Signaling Order Messages
Long Code Transition Request and Response, SSD Update Confirmation/Rejection, Parameter Update Confirmation, Service Option Control, Base Station Challenge, Mobile Station Acknowledgment, Release (normal and with power-down indication), Local Control, Mobile Station Reject (with and without a reason).

CDMA Reverse Channel

1.23 MHz Bandwidth Received by Base Station

Traffic Chan. 2 Traffic Chan. m Access Chan. 1 Access Chan. 2 Access Chan. n Traffic Chan. 1

..................................

Addressed by Long PN Codes

Course Outline
l l

Introduction Part 1: CDMA Concepts

Spreading/Despreading in Time and Frequency Domains Concept of Multiple Access Using Codes Spreading Codes (Walsh and Pseudo-Noise Codes) Rake Receivers and Soft Handoff CDMA Cell and System Capacity

Part 2: Applications: IS95 and 3G-CDMA

Physical and Logical Channel Structure in IS95 Forward and Reverse Link Waveforms Call Processing and Power Control Issues

100

DownLink Processes
TX
Variable VariableRate Rate Source SourceEncoding Encoding Channel ChannelCoding Coding Bit BitInterleaving Interleaving Long LongCode CodeScrambling Scrambling Walsh Walshand andQuadrature Quadrature Spreading Spreading Quadrature QuadratureCarrier Carrier Modulation Modulation

RX
Variable VariableRate Rate Source SourceDecoding Decoding

Baseband Processing

Channel ChannelDecoding Decoding Bit BitDe-interleaving De-interleaving Long LongCode CodeDe-scrambling De-scrambling Walsh Walshand andQuadrature Quadrature De-spreading De-spreading

Wireless Channel

Quadrature QuadratureCarrier Carrier Demodulation Demodulation

Variable Rate Vocoder

OPERATION CHANNEL RATE

kbps 8

kbps 9.6 4.8 2.4 1.2

Variable Rate Vocoder

l

4 2 1

There are two rate sets corresponding to

8 kbps Speech coders (Rate Set I) 13 kbps Speech coders (Rate Set II)

At each rate set:

There are 4 possible rates used based on the speech activity. At lower rates, lower average power is transmitted

Code Excited Linear Predictive Coder

Speech Generation Model Excitation Pitch
Imitation of Vocal Cords High Rate Sampled Speech Speech Analysis LPC filter Coef.

LPC Filter

Speech Waveform

Imitation of Vocal Tract Low Rate Output Model parameters

M Pitch Parameters (Gain and Lag) U X Excitation Parameters (Index and Gain)

Channel Coder

Speech Coder Rates (Rate Set 1)

20 msec frame
Rate 1 LPC Filter Coef. Pitch Codebook Index
10bits
10b 10b

40 bits 10 bits 10 bits

10b 10b 10b 10b

Encoded Packet 10 bits

10b 10b

171 bits
Subframes

LPC Filter Coef. Pitch Rate 1/2 Codebook Index LPC Filter Coef. Pitch Rate 1/4 Codebook Index LPC Filter Coef. Rate 1/8 Pitch Codebook Index

20 bits 10bits 10bits 10bits 10 bits 10bits 10bits 10 bits 0 bits 6bits 10bits 10bits 10bits 10bits

80 bits 40 bits

16 bits

Channel Coding
Speech Coder Channel Encoder Interleaver

Mixed Mode Bits

CRC

Speech Blocks

Traffic Block Generator

Signaling

Traffic Blocks

+ Traffic
Frames 8 Tail Bits

Convolutional Encoder

Convolutional Coding

20ms
Variable Rate

Traffic Frames
l l l l

1/2 1/2Rate Rate Conv. Conv.Encoder Encoder& & Repeater Repeater

( (for forinput inputrates rates<<9.6 9.6kps kps) )

20ms
Fixed Rate 19.2 kbps

Coded Frames

Traffic data frames are coded using a 1/2 rate convolutional encoder. The convolutional encoder has a constraint length of 9 and uses an 8 bit shift register that for every input bit generates 2 output bits. For input rates smaller than 9.6kbps, output bits are repeated to provide a fixed number of output bits per frame. So for all input rates there are 384 bits per 20 msec frame which gives an output rate of 19.2kbps.

Forward Link Channel Coding

Pilot Channel Sync Channel Data 1.2kbps Convolutional Encoder & Repetition Code No Data

Block Interleaver

4.8 kbps

2.4kbps 4.8kbps 9.6kbps

Paging Channel Data

Convolutional Encoder & Repetition Code

Block Interleaver

19.2 kbps

Traffic Channel Data 1.2kbps

2.4kbps 4.8kbps 9.6kbps

Convolutional Encoder & Repetition Code

Block Interleaver

19.2 kbps

Long Code Scrambling

42 bit Long Code Mask

Long Code Generator

Interleaved Bits 19.2kbps Paging or Traffic

1/64 Long Code Generator Walsh Code Spreading

Scramblin g Encrypted Data 19.2 kbps

l l

Based on a user specific mask the long code generator, which uses 42 bit shift register, generates a PN sequence of length 242-1 chips of rate 1.2288Mbps. 1/64 long code generator selects the first chip of every 64 long code chips, and holds it for the duration of 64 chips. This provides a 19.2 kbps sequence. The 1/64 long code, used as a MS key, is combined with the input bit stream through XOR operation to encrypts the data. The same 1/64 long code is generated at the receiver to undo the scrambling process.

Power Control Bit Puncturing

1/64 Long Code Generator
Scrambled Traffic Frames

Power Control Bit position

Walsh Sequence Wi
1.2288Mbps

19.2kbps Bit Puncturer

Downlink Power Control Algorithm

Power Control Bit

l l

Bit Puncturer replaces 2 consecutive input bits by one power control bit every 1.25msec. The value of this bit is determined by power control algorithms and BS measurements from mobile. And the position of this bit is determined by long code.

Power Control Bits

MS Power

1dB 1.25msec
Power Control Group Period

0 0 0 1

1
time

Power Control Change in Bit Power level

0 1

+1dB -1dB

Walsh Spreading
W0
Pilot Channel 0kbps

+
W32

1.22MHz

Coded & Interleaved

Sync Channel Data 4.8kbps Paging Channel Data 19.2kbps Traffic Channel Data 19.2kbps

+
Wp

1.22MHz

Coded Interleaved and Scrambled Coded Interleaved and Scrambled

+
Wi

1.22MHz

1.22MHz

Forward Link Waveform

W0 Q-Channel Pilot PN Seq.

Pilot Channel No Data, All 0s

Sync Channel Data 4.8kbps

+
W32
1.22MHz

+ + + + + + + +
I-Channel Pilot PN Seq.

+
Wp 1.22MHz

Paging Channel Data 19.2kbps

Paging Channel Long Code Mask

+
Long Code Generator

+
Wi 1.22MHz

Traffic Channel Data 19.2kbps

User i Long Code Mask

+
Long Code Generator Symbol Scrambling

M U X

Power Control Bit

UpLink Processes
TX
Variable VariableRate Rate Source SourceEncoding Encoding Channel ChannelCoding Coding Bit BitInterleaving Interleaving Long LongCode CodeScrambling Scrambling Quadrature Quadrature Spreading Spreading Quadrature QuadratureCarrier Carrier Modulation Modulation

RX
Variable VariableRate Rate Source SourceDecoding Decoding

Baseband Processing

Channel ChannelDecoding Decoding Bit BitDe-interleaving De-interleaving Long LongCode CodeDe-scrambling De-scrambling Quadrature Quadrature De-spreading De-spreading

Wireless Channel

Quadrature QuadratureCarrier Carrier Demodulation Demodulation

Uplink Channel Coding

Same as downlink Different Conv. Encoder Uses a Different Interleaving Matrix than uplink

Speech Coder

Channel Encoder

Interleaver

Mixed Mode Bits

CRC

Speech Blocks

Traffic Block Generator

Signaling

Traffic Blocks

+ Traffic
Frames 8 Tail Bits

1/3 1/3Rate Rate Conv. Conv.Encoder Encoder& & Repeater Repeater

( (for forinput inputrates rates<<9.6 9.6kps kps) )

20ms
Fixed Rate 28.8kbps

Coded Frames

Walsh Modulation
Coded & Interleaved bits 28.8kbps

64ary Walsh Modulator

6 input bits 26=64 combinations Each selects one of 64 Walsh Waveforms of 64 bit length.

To Encryptor 307.2 kbps

l l l

Every block of 6 bits is mapped to one of 64 Walsh sequences of length 64. This orthogonal modulation improves the error performance of the system. Note that although Walsh Modulation increases the data rate, it and not the same as Walsh spreading.

Long Code Spreading/Encryption

Walsh Modulated 307.2kbps Bits

1.2288Mcps
To Quadrature Short Code Spreading and Modulation

Voice Privacy Mask Generator

Long Code Mask 42 bits

Long Code Generator

The data and signaling on the traffic channel are encrypted/spread with a long code based on user specific long code masks. The data on the access channel is not encrypted because the access channel long code mask is not private.

Reverse Link Waveform

l l l

l l l l

No pilot Noncoherent receivers 1/3 rate convolutional encoder. 64ary orthogonal Walsh code modulation (not spreading in down link) Uplink channels are identified by long PN codes. Interleaving matrix is different than down link. Modulation is Offset QPSK. Message encryption using Long Code Private Mask

IS95 Physical Layer (Rate Set I)

l l l l l l l l l l

Multi-access : Bandwidth Voice Circuits Modulation: Speech Coding Channel Coding Coding Rate Bit or Chip Traffic Rates Channel Rates

CDMA combined with FDMA 1.23MHz per carrier up to 55 per carrier Down link :QPSK, Uplink: OQPSK Variable Rate, QCELP CRC + Conv. Code + Interleaving Down link: 1/2, Uplink:1/3 Rate 1.2288Mcps 9.6, 4.8, 2.4, 1.2 kbps. Down link: 19.2, Uplink: 28.8

Rate Set II
Rate Speech Coder Traffic Block Channel Rate Rate Rate
1 1/2 1/4 1/8
l

13.35 6.25 2.75 1.05

14.4 7.2 3.6 1.8

19.2 9.6 4.8 2.4

Convulotional Coding Rates: Downlink: 3/4 Uplink: 1/2

l l

Rate Set II is an option that allocates more bits to voice coder and less to convolutional coder. In this set speech and traffic rates are higher but convolutional coding rates are also higher, which adds up to unchanged channel rates. For Rate set II
Paging and Access channels are unchanged. Frame duration, modulation and power control are unchanged.

Course Outline
l l

Introduction Part 1: CDMA Concepts

Spreading/Despreading in Time and Frequency Domains Concept of Multiple Access Using Codes Spreading Codes (Walsh and Pseudo-Noise Codes) Rake Receivers and Soft Handoff CDMA Cell and System Capacity

Part 2: Applications: IS95 and 3G-CDMA

Physical and Logical Channel Structure in IS95 Forward and Reverse Link Waveforms Call Processing and Power Control Issues

120

Call Processing Overview

l

We will discuss the following call processing issues

Mobile Initialization and Access Registration and Paging Call Set up and Release (Mobile originated or terminated) (Soft) Handoff related Signaling Power Control

Mobile Station States

Power Up Initialization Idle Mode System Access Conversation Mode (Traffic/Signaling)

Initialization State

System Determination

Analog

Analog or CDMA
CDMA

Analog Initialization

Identify and lock on to the strongest CDMA base station.

Pilot Channel Acquisition

Decodes Synch Channel Messages

Synch Channel Synchronizes it internal Acquisition

timing with the BS.

Synchronization

To Idle State

Idle State
Acquire Primary Paging Channel

Registration Update Overhead Information Authentication Idle Hand-off

Page or Call Origination

No Page Response

Call Origination Access State

System Access
l

l l

System Access Mode consists of active or reactive message transfers in uplink through access channel. These message transactions take place before conversation stage. During access mobile BS tells MS about its assigned traffic channel. It consists of the following substates:
MS origination attempt MS Page Response Order or message response Registration Access Update overhead/configuration information MS Data Burst message transmission

Mobile Registration Types

l

There are various occasion during which MS send a registration message to BS.
After power on Before power off Upon Registration Order Time based and periodically Distance based Zone based Implicitly during any access implicitly during conversation on the traffic channel

MS Control on the Traffic Channel

Page Response
MS Receives Release Order

MS verifies the FTC & Transmits on the RTC Traf. Ch. Initialization Waiting for BSs Order

MS Receives Release Order

MS Receives an Alert with Information Waiting for MSs Answer MS Answers the Call Conversation
MS Receives Release Order or initiates Disconnect

Call Release

Call flow for Mobile Termination

MSC receives Origination from PSTN FTC set up Page Message (PC) Page Response (AC) Null Data (FTC)

Traffic Channel Assignment (PC)

Traffic Channel Preamble (RTC) Acknowledgement (FTC) Null Data (RTC) Service Option Response (FTC) Alert with Information (FTC) Connect Order (FTC) Conversation, Speech Frames (TC)

RTC set up Rec. 2 consecutive valid frames

Starts Ringing
User Answers, Ring Stops

Hand-Offs in IS95
l l l l l

Hard Hand-off Soft Hand-off Softer Hand-off Soft Softer Hand-off Three Way Hand-off

{D2,C1} {D1,D3} {B1,D2,D3} {A2,B1,D3}

Soft Hand-off

Softer Hand-off 3-way Hand-off

D1 D2 D3

C1 C2 C3
Soft Softer Hand-off

A1 A2 A3

B1 B2 B3

Soft Softer Hand-off

Simultaneous Softer & Soft Hand-off

Signals from the two sectors are combined locally at the BTS. Only the combined frame is sent to MSC.

Channel ChannelElement Element

Channel ChannelElement Element

Frame selection is performed at MSC based on the signals received from the two sites.

MSC

Pilot Sets
l

MS evaluates each pilot strength based on its power relative to the total power received in the forward link.
EC I = 0 i Pi P j + N 0W
j

Based on their signal strength, the pilots identified by the MS are categorized in Four different sets:

Active Set

Candidate Set

Neighbor Set

Remaining Set

Mobile Station Power Classes

Mobile Station Class I II III IV V

EIRP at Maximum Output Minimum -2 dBW (630 mW) -7 dBW (200 mW) -12 dBW (63 mW) -17 dBW (20 mW) -22 dBW (6.3 mW) Maximum 3 dBW (2 W) 0 dBW (1 W) -3 dBW (0.5 W) -6 dBW (0.25 W) -9 dBW (0.13 W)

Near-Far Problem

S K.S

Equivalent to K users

It

Interference Spectrum

No

Io

Power Control
Excessive Interference

Just Enough Power

Poor Signal Quality

The fundamental purpose of power control is to

maintain a satisfactory voice quality subject to maximizing system capacity and minimizing power consumption.

Power Control is applied to:

Mobile Power on initial access Mobile Power while on the traffic channel Base Station Power

Forward Link: Power Allocation

Pilot Synch Paging

Traffic Channels

Within the traffic channel the power is dynamically allocated to different users according to to their path loss to maintain the same voice quality or FER for all users.

Forward Loop Power Control

User4 User3 User1 User2

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Traffic Channel Power Allocation

User1

User2

User3

User4

Forward Link Power Control Process

l

MS measures Frame Error Rate (FER), every N frames, on the forward link and reports the measurement to the BS. The Power Message Report (PMR) contains the number of frames in error and the total number of frames received during the report time period. The ratio between these two numbers is FER. Whenever PMR shows high FER base station powers up by U otherwise it powers down by D
N Frames

PMR shows High FER

Reverse Link Access Power Control

l l

During an access attempt mobiles power has to be controlled. Each access attempt consists of the entire process of sending one message and receiving or failing to receive its acknowledgment.
1st Attempt 2nd Attempt 3rd Attempt 15th Attempt

Random Time
Power Increment Probe 2 Initial Power Probe 1 Waiting for ACK Random Time

Time
Probe 16

Access Preamble 1-16 Frames

Message Capsule 3-10 Frames

One Access Channel Slot

Reverse Link Traffic Power Control

Open Loop: Power control based on mobile measurement of pilot signal strength P Closed Loop : Power control based on BS commands according to its uplink measurements. l

l l

Power control in the uplink is done both open loop and closed loop.. Open loop PC takes care of slow fading due to shadowing effects. Closed loop PC tries to compensate for multipath fading effects.

Open Loop Power Control

l

The mobile measures the pilot power level from its primary cell along with the total signal received.
EC = It i

Pi P j + N 0W

These two measurements, which are also used for Hand-off decisions, are the basis for open loop power control decisions. The mobile powers up if it receives low Ec/It and powers down otherwise. To avoid too many unnecessary changes in the power due to fast fading effects on the received signal, the open loop power control has a relatively large response time.

Closed (Outer) Loop Power Control

Eb/No Target or set-point Value
Inner Loop Process

Ceiling(10dB)

The set-point value is reduced by a small amount for every consecutive frame....

Until Frame Error Exceeds the threshold.

Floor (10dB) Time

Closed (Inner) Loop Power Control

dBm
set-point Value From Outer Loop Process

Eb

1.25 msec 1dB From Outer Loop 20 msec Frame No

l l l

BS sends power control bits to the MS to ask it power up or down as needed to reach the target Eb/No set point determined in the outer loop process. The power control bits are sent 16 times per 20msec frame. Each 0 (1) bit changes the power level by +1 ( -1) dB. When set-point is reached the power control bit alternates and therefore signal level changes +/-1 dB around the set-point.

Reverse Link Power Control ( Recap)

P= POpen + PClosed
Autonomous Slow Large-Scale changes with large time constant =30msec Directed Fast changes +/-1dB per 1.25 msec. Dynamic Range 48 dB over 3 frames.

The faster response time of the closed loop control enables it to overwrite the open loop commands when it is necessary. The two power control mechanisms are independent and together can provide at least 80dB of dynamic range.

Power Control Summary

l

Objective: Operate BS and MS at optimum power level to

Achieve the minimum FER (e.g. 0.01) to ensure voice quality. Reduce interference to its minimum and thereby maximize the operational capacity. Maximize the battery life of the mobile.

Process consists of
Mobile Access Power control Dynamic Allocation of Power among Traffic channels at the BS in Down Link. Reverse Link Power Control on the Mobile
The Autonomous Open Loop control at the MS based on its power measurement on the down link. The directed or closed loop control based on BSs Eb/No set points and its power control commands on the traffic channel.

Course Review
4 Introduction 4 Part 1: CDMA Concepts
4 Spreading/Despreading in Time and Frequency Domains 4 Concept of Multiple Access Using Codes 4 Spreading Codes (Walsh and Pseudo-Noise Codes) 4 Rake Receivers and Soft Handoff 4 CDMA Cell and System Capacity

4 Part 2: Applications: IS95 and 3G-CDMA

4 Physical and Logical Channel Structure in IS95 4 Forward and Reverse Link Waveforms 4 Call Processing and Power Control Issues

145

Hope that you enjoyed this course.

Thank You for Your Participation

146

Useful References
l

l l l

l l

Applications of CDMA in Wireless/Personal Communications, Vijay K. Garg, Kenneth Smolik and Joseph E. Wilkes, Prentice Hall 1997. CDMA, Andrew j. Viterbi, Addison-Wesley, 1995 Wireless Communications, Principles and Practice, Theodore Rappaport, Prentice Hall 1996. CDMA System Engineering Handbook, Jhong S. Lee and Leonard E. Miller, Artech House Publishers, 1998. Wideband CDMA for Third Generation Mobile Communications, Tero Ojanpera and Ramjee Prasad, Artech House Publishers, 1998. Magazines:
IEEE Communications Magazine (Recent Issues) IEEE Personal Communication Magazines

147