JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA Vol.61, April 2003, pp.

411-418

Soft-sediment Deformation as Possible Clue for Sedimentation Rate: A Case Study from Oligocene Andaman Flysch Group, Andaman Islands, India
PARTHA PRATIM CHAKRABORTY1 and BASAB MUKHOPADHYAY2
2 1 Department of Applied Geology, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad - 826 004 Geodata Division, Central Headquarters, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata - 700 016 Email: partha_geology@yahoo.com

Abstract: Two sections of Oligocene Andaman Flysch fan that belong to two different facies associations viz. inner fan and mid fan lobe are studied for their soft-sediment deformation (SSD) features. Seismic origin is proposed for these features in view of their lateral persistency and stratigraphic selectivity. Detailed field measurements of these turbidite sections at Corbyns Cove, South Andaman (259 m thick) and Kalipur, North Andaman (139.7 m thick) recorded 28 and 18 nos. of SSD layers respectively. These layers were compared with historical earthquake records of last 86 years (i.e 1914 to 2000) around the studied sections and quantitatively assessed for (i) long-term sedimentation rate and (ii) estimation of environment-specific sedimentation rate, if any. Active delta shedding from growing orogenic front of Himalayas is believed to be responsible for high sedimentation rate (21.7 m/1000yr at Cove and 5.8 m/1000yr at Kalipur) recorded from this fan system. The observed difference in sedimentation rate between the two studied sections is interpreted to be paleogeography driven. Keywords: Soft-sediment deformation, Rate of sedimentation, Palaeoseismology, Oligocene, Andaman Flysch Group, Andaman Islands.

INTRODUCTION

Amongst various forces, which trigger deformation in soft sediments, earthquake seiches are environmentindependent (Allen, 1986) and are believed to be most effective in low gradient deep marine settings. With appreciation of more clues that undoubtedly tell about seismic origin of soft sediment deformation (SSD), attempts were made to utilize these layers for estimation of intensity and interval of paleoseismic events (Sims, 1975; Adams, 1990). Qualitative estimates on frequency and epicentral distance are available for large paleoseismic events recorded in young lacustrine and open marine sediments either as SSD layers (Hampton and Dewey, 1983; Sarkar et al. 1995) or as mass failures (Sims, 1975; Doig, 1990). In contrast, quantitative applications are limited in literature ( cf. Inouchi et al. 1996). Besides earthquake magnitude, the independent factors that influence frequency of SSDs are: (i) nature (tendency to get liquified) of sediments, (ii) sedimentation rate and (iii) areal distance of the point of observation from the seismic source (Allen, 1986). Hence, facies type remaining same, knowledge of seismic magnitude and basin size (i.e area of influence) can

be useful guide for the estimation of rate of sedimentation, which may be otherwise unknown in the absence of reliable paleontologic or geochronologic control. In many of the tectonically active basins, these data can be of use for understanding the basin-fill history and basinal categorization in terms of plate settings. The present work takes into its purview the SSD layers present in two sections, which belong to different facies associations (viz. inner fan and mid fan lobe), of Andaman Flysch fan, Andaman Islands; assess their formative mechanisms and evaluate their potentiality as indicator for local rate of sedimentation. A comparative study between the two sections viz. Kalipur section of North Andaman and Corbyns Cove section of South Andaman, which belong to the same submarine fan system but differ in their palaeogeography, is attempted and possible causative mechanisms suggested.
Tectonic and Stratigraphic Setting

Andaman Islands represent subaerial part of outer arc upbuilded through accretion of underthrusted slices from downgoing Indian plate. On the west of this island chain,

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Indian plate is getting subducted below Eurasian plate along the Java trench. The fact that the present geotectonic setting of Andaman Islands was prevailing since the Cretaceous, except for westward rollback of the trench, was envisaged by several workers (Curray and Moore, 1974; Karig et al. 1980) is taken as the basic premise for the present study. Field data (Pal et al. 1999), geophysical and borehole data (Roy, 1983; Ray, 1992) support this premise. In recent times, Chakraborty and Pal (2001) provided detailed facies and paleoenvironmental analysis for Andaman Flysch fan and suggested longitudinal narrow forearc geometry of the basin. The Kalipur section with grain- and matrix-supported conglomerate, sandstone and shale, and dominant lenticular facies geometry represents channel-levee association on inner fan, while monotonous centimeter to meter thick rhythmic parallel-sided layers of siltstone/sandstone-shale of Corbyns Cove section with lateral bed persistence in outcrop scale (in tens of meters) represents depositional lobe on distal mid fan part. Besides lithology, these two sections also differ in their petrographic attributes, character of provenance and paleogeography. They explained the juxtaposition of these forearc sediments with an outer arc setting due to ongoing subduction process. Ray (1992), through seismic study, suggested that the basement configuration of the forearc was nothing but the subsided accretionary prism i.e, thrust packets with wedges of deformed sediments underthrusted from east.
Methodology

This study deals with two separate sets: (i) soft-sediment deformation; their character, recurrence and persistence recorded in the field through detailed litholog measurement and (ii) earthquake record collated from existing database of last 86 years around the studied sections. Thickness and character data are recorded for 250 and 182 turbidite beds in sections measured at Corbyns Cove section and Kalipur section respectively (Fig. 1). Total thickness of the measured section at Corbyns Cove is 259m (220m sandstone and 39m shale) and at Kalipur 139.7m (120m sandstone/conglomerate and 19.7m shale; see Chakraborty and Pal, 2001 for detailed lithologs of these sections). The numbers of SSD layers encountered at Cove and Kalipur sections are 28 and 18 respectively. Data of historical earthquakes around Andaman Islands are collected from two different sources and processed. Earthquake data between 1914 and 1996 are collected from ISC bulletin and from database maintained and updated by Geotata Centre, Central headquarters, GSI. For the period between1996 and 2000,data are collected from USGS site with an area search in and around Andaman

Fig.1a. Generalized geological map of Andaman Islands (after Pal et al. 2001) showing locations of studied sections. Inferred basinal boundaries are demarcated by box (marked A and B).

by latitude and longitude. In both the cases, magnitude of body wave (Mb values) has been taken because of its reliability in calculation and prediction.
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pounding (Owen, 1987) were eliminated as possible triggering forces for generation of these SSDs. On a deep marine setting, possible-forcing mechanism that can induce liquefaction in sediments includes rapid sedimentation (as expected in event deposition) and seismic jerk. For the sake of present study it was necessary to distinguish the SSDs originated through either of these processes. Preferential occurrence of convolutes and slump structures in plane laminated subdivision (Tb) of meter scale turbidite units, which mostly document top- truncated Bouma (1962) cycles, certainly discards the idea of rapid sedimentation as possible cause for generation of these SSDs. The criteria, which we relied most to establish the seismic origin of observed SSDs is their stratigraphic selectivity and substantial lateral persistence (cf. Sarkar et al. 1995). In the studied sections convolutions (Fig.2a), slump folds (Fig.2b), and sand nodules define these seismites, which have thickness in decimeter scale and are laterally traceable over the entire outcrop length (in tens of meters). Convolutes vary in their amplitude between different layers and are invariably with broad synclines and sharp-crested anticlines. In general, convolutes are bed-confined but sagging below the lower limit of the bed is not uncommon. Liquefaction is more intense in the anticlinal parts with occasional association of flames and deformed mud clasts. In contrast, slump folds are widely variable in geometry with highly divergent fold axes. This wide divergence rules out possible control of substrate slope in their generation (cf. Bose et al. 1997). For the origin of these slumps, undrained failure is suggested during which excess pore pressure could be sustained. Rarely, with continued deformation, nose of slump folds could have got detached and embedded as diversely oriented sand nodules within the slumped layers.
Earthquake Records of Cove and Kalipur and the b Value

Fig.1b. Regional tectonic elements around Andaman Islands (after Mukhopadhyay, 1988).

In a fault-bounded sedimentary basin, earthquake magnitude-frequency relation over a region is known to follow an exponential relation, which can be empirically expressed as: log10 N(M) = AbM (Lomintz, 1974),

Characteristics of SSD Layers

The studied sections exhibit a large variety of SSD features, which include slump folds, ball and pillow structures, convolutions, flames, contorted laminae and sand dykes. Considering the deep marine depositional setting (below storm wave base), for both the turbidite successions, rapid drawdown, over-steepening of slope and wave
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where N(M) is annual number of earthquakes of Richter magnitude greater than M, A is a measure of seismic activity that depends on size of the area, observation period length, largest seismic magnitude etc. and measured as logarithm of the annual total of all earthquakes M>0. Statistically, b value is the slope of the log N-M regression line and is a constant parameter that determines rate of fall in frequency of events with increasing magnitude. In natural situation A

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Fig.2. SSD layer in Andaman Flysch succession at Corbyns Cove. (a) convoluted layer (pen length 14 cm) and (b) slump folded layer (exposure length 1.2m)

and b values are found to range between 2 to 8 and 0.5 and 1.5 respectively. In Richter scale the maximum earthquake magnitudes (Mb) recorded in last 86 years around Corbyns Cove and Kalipur sections are 5.7 and 6.1 respectively. Plotting of magnitude of seismic shocks against logarithm (base 10) of their cumulative frequency in both the sections follows exponential relation (Fig.3) from which equations for respective regression lines were obtained for that part of curve, which shows linear trend. The values of A and b for Corbyns Cove section are 6.45 and 1.08 and for Kalipur section are 5.438 and 0.89 respectively. As expected, in both the sections, b value obtained is around 1. The lower b value at Kalipur section (less than 1) compared to that of Corbyns

Cove area is indicative of incidence of larger shocks at Kalipur area.

Estimation of Palaeoearthquake Recurrence Interval

A compilation of global earthquake magnitude data against their maximum epicentral distance of liquefaction provoked Youd (1977) to draw a cut off at magnitude five, below which significant liquefaction does not occur (Allen, 1986). Keeping this in view we have chosen a cut off magnitude 5.4 as recorded in historical earthquake database for our present study. Three earthquakes were recorded between 1914 and 2000, which have magnitude equal to or greater than 5.4, in the 100 km radius area around Corbyns Cove (total area
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Fig.3. Log cumulative frequency plot against earthquake magnitude at Corbyns Cove section (a) and Kalipur section (b).

under evaluation being p(100)2 = 31428 sq. km). Average recurrence interval for magnitude 5.4 is 28.66 years. On projection of values for b (=1.08027; Fig. 3) and n (=3) for Cove area on a regional scale and substituting these values in equation log10 n= log a bm (after Gutenberg and Richter, 1954), the estimated value of empirical constant a comes to 2044461.79. This value was further recalculated to get an area-specific seismic a value. The area-specific recalculated a value obtained was 2044461.79/(28.66x 31428) yr-1 km-2 = 2.26 yr-1 km-2. For calculation of basinal area, over which the liquefaction was effective, emphasis was put either on rock exposure or on borehole data. In case of Cove basin western limit was defined based on available rock exposure, whereas the eastern, northern and southern boundaries of the basin were defined by the absence of Andaman Flysch sediments below Archipelago Group of sediments. An area of approximately 1788 sq. km was calculated in Cove section where earthquake of magnitude 5.4 and above, is likely to cause liquefaction of surficial sediments. As this area of liquefaction constitutes only a part of the area for which earthquake data were collected around Corbyns Cove section, the earthquake recurrence interval needs recalculation. The recalculated recurrence interval (31428 x 28.66/ 1788 = 503.76 yrs.) shows wide departure from the calculated average recurrence interval (i.e 28.66 yrs.). Understandably, recurrence interval for earthquakes of magnitude 5.4 or higher increases when calculated for the whole basin area. Considering the same tectonic setting prevailed in this
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area since Cretaceous time (cf. Curray and Moore, 1974) this conservative estimate (i.e. 503.76 yrs.) for recurrence of earthquakes of magnitude 5.4 and above can be considered to be valid during Oligocene also in course of Andaman Flysch sedimentation. Presence of pyroclasts in sediments of Eocene Mithakhari Group, which immediately precede Andaman Flysch Group (Ray, 1982), provoked Bandopadhay and Ghosh (1982) to suggest active inner arc volcanism from Eocene onwards (i.e prior to and during Andaman Flysch sedimentation). This view is further strengthened by recent report of pyroclastic tuff layers in the Miocene Archipelago Group of sediments by Pal et al. (2002). Far away from the active thrust- front of trench on a forearc, where Andaman Flysch got deposited (Chakraborty and Pal., 2001), inner arc can be surmised as possible source of tremor.
Sedimentation Rate

The basic premise is that the ratio between sedimentation rate (R) and number of earthquake incidences at any station (N) will tell about expected stratigraphic frequency of seismite, which may vary spatially within a basin depending on the facies, even though seismic character remains uniform (Allen, 1986). The two studied sections differ in lithology, sedimentary structure and paleogeographic setting. Conceivably, sedimentation rate varied between these two sections. The section at Cove exposes 28 SSD layers over a measured stratigraphic thickness of 259 m. Considering the minimum recurrence interval of 503.76 yrs for earthquakes

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of magnitudes 5.4 or more, the time span of deposition represented by Cove section is 14.1 x 103 yrs. The estimate for the Kalipur section is similarly calculated as 28.6 x 103 years. For a turbidite succession, a unified depositional model is difficult to conceive as sand and shale represent two entirely different components of same depositional system. Turbiditic sand deposition is an event phenomenon related to the volume of material transported by the turbiditic current (Fisher, 1986; Rothman et al. 1994). In contrast, shale thickness depicts a long-term sedimentation that represents time interval between successive turbiditic events. This simple time-rock relation, however, gets complicated by the possibility of mud scouring by large turbiditic currents, amalgamation of sand beds and long term variation in the rate of delivery of mud down rivers (Drummond, 1999). For close approximation of sedimentation rate, depositional thicknesses of the studied sections were recalculated providing decompaction, separately for sandstone and shale. Considering the Tertiary age of the sections, the decompactions given to sandstone and shale are 15% and 38% respectively (North, 1985). The cumulative decompacted thickness for sandstone and shale in Cove section are 253 m and 54 m respectively. The overall low proportion of the conglomerates (<15%) in the Kalipur section allowed uniform decompaction in the entire arenaceous facies. The recalculated cumulative decompacted thicknesses for sandstone/conglomerate and shale in Kalipur section are 130 m and 28 m respectively. The long-term sedimentation rate estimated from compacted and decompacted sediment thicknesses for Cove and Kalipur area are 21.7 m/1000 year and 5.8 m/ 1000 year respectively. This estimation of long-term rate of sedimentation is certainly an oversimplification as it averages out slow sedimentation rate of shale and high and instantaneous sedimentation rate of sand. Estimation of instantaneous sedimentation rate of turbiditic sand demands approximation of time span represented by accumulated shale thickness in the studied sections. The present study did not permit such approximation principally because of (i) lack of clear-cut demarcation between pelagic shale and TE (shaly) subdivision of turbidite shale within individual shaly interval and (ii) lack of data in literature for pelagic sedimentation rate, which is specific for Oligocene time and forearc basinal setting.
DISCUSSION

Appreciation of allocyclic forcings, specific to tectonic

setting, is an essential requirement for any modeling on convergent margin filling. Tectonic setting of a basin exerts first-order control of the fan geometry and sediment budget of the basin (Shanmugam and Moiola, 1988). Understandably, style and frequency of seismic activity and faulting, both in original and transitional source areas, are of primary significance since these factors influence the frequency of sediment gravity flows that dominate sediment filling history in these structurally controlled basins (Stow et al. 1985). Hence, knowledge of tectonics and deposition rate can provide important clues on relative dominance of autocyclic and allocyclic controls on the growth pattern of fans. In passive margin settings, major river delta systems are capable of rapid supply of large volume of sediments to the shelf, which depending on sea level and shelf-width gets resedimented downslope at different rates (Stow et al. 1985). Convergent margin basins are different from passive margin basins in having narrow shelves, generally steeper slopes and in being mostly deep marine. Sedimentation in deep marine parts of forearc basins is strongly influenced by syndepositional tectonics, particularly induced by volcanism (Kuenzi et al. 1979). In addition, horizontal plate movements can cause large vertical displacements at active margins (Mac Donald, 1993), which may lead to abrupt change in bathymetry and sedimentation pattern. The sedimentation rates from both the studied sections estimated on the basis of their compacted and decompacted thicknesses, are significantly high if compared with sedimentation rate recorded in most of the modern deep sea fans. Accumulation rate of resedimented material in modern deep sea fans varies between 0.1 to 2 m/1000 year (Stow et al. 1985). However, in elongated fan system (e.g. Mississipi fan), despite its passive margin setting, Kohl et al. (1985) recorded nondecompacted rate of sedimentation as high as 13 m/1000 year, particularly during lowstand of sea level. Pilkey (1988) documented instantaneously deposited turbiditic event with sediment load as high as 100 km3. In tectonically active basins viz. forearc basins, this rate can rise manifold, and depending on basin stability, its shape and size and provenance pathways, fan systems in such basins can differ significantly (Dickinson and Seeley, 1979). The two studied sections differ appreciably in terms of sedimentation rate; Conbyns Cove area shows sedimentation rate almost three times to that in Kalipur area. This is related to the paleogeography of the two sections; Kalipur section is a part of inner fan association in a slope and the fan received sediment only from accretionary arc while Cove section, a depositional lobe on floor fan, received both intrabasinal and extrabasinal sediments. This difference
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is attested by both paleocurrent pattern and petrographic attributes of these two sections. The unusually high sedimentation rate of Andaman Flysch fan may be related to broad regional tectonic setting. Forearc basin, which registered Andaman Flysch sedimentation, came into existence only with the formation of a physical barrier on its seaward side through continuous underplating of Indian plate and upliftment of outer arc high (i.e. Andaman Islands). Major upbuilding and outbuilding of Andaman Islands as an outer arc high are believed to be synchronous (i.e. approximately early Oligocene; 35 m.y ago) with major upliftment phase of Himalaya range (Scater and Fisher, 1974). The high relief of the Himalayas, together with monsoon climate, resulted in very rapid physical denudation (France-Lanord and Derry, 1997). Large amount of detritus shed by this growing orogenic front resulted in active growth of large delta systems viz. GangesBrahmaputra delta and Irrawady delta. Contribution of turbiditic sand to Bengal and Nicobar fan from uprising Himalaya was proved convincingly by Ingersoll and Suczek (1979) from petrographic clues. Supply from Bengal delta was restricted only on the west of Java trench in the form of Bengal fan and Nicobar fan. Andaman forearc that lies on the east of Andaman Islands received delivery principally from Irrawady delta. Presence of quartz and lithic fragments of metamorphic affinity in substantial amount also confirm that the Andaman Flysch fan received sediment from the Northeastern frontiers of Burma. Nonavailability of any data on deep marine sedimentation rate of Irrawady delta, however, did not allow comparison in terms of cause-effect relation between delta supply and fan growth pattern.

CONCLUSIONS

Soft-sediment deformation features of seismic origin can be utilized for estimating long-term sedimentation rate on the premise that tectonic setting of the basin remained unchanged. Based on stratigraphic selectivity and lateral persistence, undoubted seismic origin is proposed for certain soft-sediment deformation layers, which belong to two turbidite successions of Oligocene Andaman Flysch fan. These turbidite successions, which differ between themselves in provenance and paleogeography, are compared with modern earthquake database (for last 86 years) collated around the study area for estimation of paleoearthquake recurrence interval. This allowed establishment of a time-rock relation, and in turn, estimation of long-term rate of sedimentation in this basin. Sedimentation rate is found to be high compared to most of the modern deep-sea fans. Large amount of detritus from growing orogenic front of Himalayas, together with intrabasinal supply, is envisaged for this high sedimentation rate. The paleogeographic contrast between the two sections is manifested by the difference between rates of sedimentation of the two sections studied.
Acknowledgements: The authors would like to acknowledge the help and co-operation extended by Tapan Pal, Tanay Dutta Gupta, Sujit Dasgupta, Aditaya Bhattacharya and Tapan Jana, GSI, Kolkata for providing earthquake database and for useful discussion on calculation of b values. Help rendered by Soumen Paul and Jayant Naik in computer drafting of figures is also duly acknowledged. We thank the D.G, GSI and Dy. D.G, GSI for permission to communicate the paper. PPC acknowledges the financial help provided by DST.

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(Received: 12 January 2001; Revised form accepted: 19 June 2002)

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