Religion of Chinese

'
HE HARTFORD-LAMSON LECTURES
N THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
THE RELIGION OF THE

CHINESE
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK
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BOSTON
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THE RELIGION
OF
THE CHINESE
BY
J. J.
M.
DEGROOT,
PH.D.
PROFESSOR OF ETHNOGRAPHY IN THE

UNIVERSITY OF LEYDEN, HOLLAND
$orfe

1910
All
rigbtt rtttrvtd
MfiY
f'O
/,'
-vy^y
COPYRIGHT,
1910
MACMILLAN COMPANY
Set up and electrotyped.
Published January, 1910
THK MASON-HENRY PEK88

SYRACUSE, NEW YORK
NOTE
THE
Hartford-Lamson Lectures on "The Re-
ligions of
the
World"
Theological Seminary
are
delivered at Hartford
in connection
with the
Lam-
son Fund, which was established by a group of

friends in honor of the late Charles
M. Lamson,
D.D., sometime President of the American Board

of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, to assist
in
preparing students for the foreign missionary
field.
The Lectures
to such students a
history, beliefs,
whom
by
are designed primarily to give
good knowledge of the
they expect to labor.
scholars of the
first
their respective fields,
lished
religious
and customs of the peoples among
form they
students generally.
will
rank,
it
is
As
they are delivered
who
are authorities in
expected that in pub-
prove to be of value to
For the use of students desiring
to
examine more
m detail
list is
the subject of these Lectures, the following

given of works by Dr. DeGroot, treating of
the Religion of the Chinese.
Les Fetes annuellement celebrees a Emoui (Amoy).

Etude concernant la Religion poptilaire des
Two Volumes 4, 832 pages. IllusChinois.
trated.
Published in the Annales du Musee
Guimet, 1886.
Le Code du Mahayana en
fc
Chine.
Son influence
sur la Vis Monacale et sur le monde la'igne.
Published by the Royal Academy of Sciences
at
Amsterdam, 1893.
Imp.
8, 276
pages.
Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China.

page in the History of Religions. Published
by the Royal Academy of Sciences at Amster-
dam
1903-1904.
Two Volumes
Imp.
8,
595
pages.
The
Religious System of China.
Its ancient
forms,
Manevolution, history, and present aspect.

ners, custom, and social institutions connected
therewith.
Part
Part
I.
Disposal of the Dead.
pages.
II.
Vol
I-III,
1468
On the Soul and Ancestral Worship.

Vol. IV. The Soul in Philosophy and
Folk-conception.
Vol. V. Demonology.
Sorcery.
Vol. VI. The War against Specters.
The Priesthood of Animism.
CONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
UNIVERSALISTIC ANIMISM.
THE STRUGGLE AGAINST
POLYDEMONISM
SPECTERS
33
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
62
CONFUCIANISM
89%
v
TAOISM
132
BUDDHISM
BUDDHISM
II
164
190
vii
INTRODUCTION
Is China's religion a world-religion,
and as such
worth studying?
place as a world-religion must, without hesi-
tation,
be assigned to
number of
of
its
its
on account of the vast
it
adherents.
influence far
It
has extended the circle
beyond the boundaries of the
empire proper, and has gained access, together

with Chinese culture generally, into Korea, Japan,
Manchuria, and Turkestan, as well as into IndoChina, though, of course, in modified forms.
Hence
a proper understanding of the religions of East
Asia
in general requires in the first place
an under-
standing of the religion of China.

China's religion proper, that
Buddhism, which
is
is
to say, apart
of foreign introduction,
spontaneous product,
from
is
spontaneously developed in
the course of time.

Its origin is lost in the
is
night of ages.
no reason to doubt, that
Chinese race ever had.
it is
the
first
But there
religion the
Theories advanced by some
INTRODUCTION
scientists that its origin
may be
looked for in Chal-
dean or Bactrian countries must as yet be rejected

as having no solid foundation.
It
has had
its
patri-
archs and apostles, whose writings, or the writings
about whom, hold a pre-eminent position; but
Buddha or
has had no founders comparable with
Mohammed.
China's
Since
It
has had a spontaneous birth on
soil.
its
birth,
it
has developed
itself
influence of the strongest conservatism.

val
it
forms were never, as far as
is
under the
Its
prime-
historically
known, swept away by any other religion, or by

tidal waves of religious movement and revolution.
Buddhism eradicated nothing; the

Crescent
is
religion of the
only at the beginning of
its
work; that
of the Cross has hardly passed the threshold of

China.
In order to understand
actual state,
its
have to distinguish sharply between

its
exotic or Buddhist element.
element which will occupy us
first
its
native,
we
and
is
the native
and
principally.
It
CHAPTER
THE
and
POLYDEMONISM
primeval form of the religion of the Chinese,

very core to this day,
its
then the same element which

the
the
root,
religions, the
central
Animism.
is
also
is
nerve,
of
It
is
found to be
many primeval
same even which eminent thinkers of
our time, as Herbert Spencer, have put in the fore-
ground of
human
their
systems as the beginning of
all
religion of whatever kind.
In China
it
is
based on an implicit belief in the
animation of the universe, and of every being or

thing which exists in
it.
The
oldest
and
holiest
books of the empire teach that the universe consists
of two souls
Yin, the
tivity,
Yang
and
life,
Yang
good
is
breaths,
called
Yang and
representing light, warmth, producalso the
good things emanate

with darkness,
or
cold,
heavens from which
all
these
and the Yin being associated

death,
and the
earth.
The
subdivided into an indefinite number of
souls or spirits, called shen, the Yin into par-
THE RELIGION OF THE CHINESE
tides or evil spirits, called kwei, specters
it is
these
shen and kwei which animate every being and

It
every thing.
terial,
His shen, also
man.
soul of
they also which constitute the
is
ethereal,
heaven
like
his
constitutes
emanates,
hwun, imma-
called
itself
intellect
from which
and the
it
finer
parts of his character, his virtues, while his kwei,
or poh,
is
thought to represent his
less
qualities, his passions, vices, they being
from material
refined
borrowed
Birth consists in an infusion
earth.
of these souls; death in their departure, the shen
returning to the
Yang
or heaven, the kwei to the
Yin or earth.
Thus man
is
an
intrinsic part of the universe,
a microcosmos, born from the macrocosmos spontaneously.
But why should man alone be endowed
by the universe with a dual soul?
Every animal,
we are wont
every plant, even every object which

to call a dead object, has received
the souls which constitute
confer blessing on
in fact,
or
being a part of the
of the universe,
spirit
man
is
from the universe
its life,
and which may
may harm
Yang
him.
shen
or the beatific half
generally considered to be a good
or god; a kwei, however, belonging to the
Yin or other
half,
is,
as a rule, a spirit of evil,
we
POLYDEMONISM
should say a devil, specter, demon.

in nature
good
or gods; no
There
no
is
but that which comes from the shen
evil
but that which the kwei cause or
inflict.
With
main base of
in all its parts
being
we may now
us,
that system
moreover, thoroughly Polytheistic
is,
and Polydemonistic.
rivers,
thunder,
rocks,
The universe
crowded with shen and kwei,
The gods
are such shen as
animate heaven, sun, moon, the

clouds,
say
the Chinese system of re-
a Universalistic Animism.
is
ligion
dogmata before
these
that the
fire,
stones,
the earth,
animals,
stars,
wind, rain,
seas,
mountains,
plants,
things
particular also the souls of deceased men.
And
in
as
demon world, nowhere under heaven is it so

populous as in China. Kwei swarm everywhere,
to the
in
numbers inestimable.
stantly
comes out
It is
an axiom which con-
in conversing with the people,
that they haunt every frequented
and
that
them.
no place
exists
and lonely
where man
is
spot,
safe from
Public roads are haunted by them every-
where, especially during the night, when the power

of the Yin part of the universe, to which specters
belong,
tales
is
strongest.
Numerous,
in fact, are the
of wretches who, having been accosted by
such natural foes of man, were found dead by the

roadside,
without the slightest
visible: their souls
being
out of them.
could
Many
their
find
miserably
or injury
victims of such
way home,
shortly
wound
had simply been snatched
after.
but
Others,
encounters
to
merely
hit
die
devilish
by
arrows, were visited with boils or tumors, which
or they died without even any such
carried
them
visible
marks of the
off,
with
whom
And how many way-
shots.
farers have fallen in with
whole gangs of demons,
they engaged in pitched battles ?
They
might stand their ground most heroically, and
ulti-
mately worst their assailants; yet, hardly at home,

they succumbed to disease and death.
Ghosts
of
improperly
buried
dwellings with injurious effect,
dead,
haunting
and not
laid until
re-buried decently, are the subject of

Especially singular, but very
common,
many
it
is,
tales.
to read
of hosts of specters setting whole towns and countries
in
people.
commotion, and utterly demoralizing the
Armies of
are heard
night,
spectral soldiers, foot
moving through
kidnaping
children,
the sky, especially at
smiting
disease and death, playing tricks of

obscenities,
compelling
men
and horse,
to
people
all
sorts,
with
even
defend themselves
POLYDEMONISM
with noise of gongs, drums and
with bows,
kettles,
swords and spears, and with flaming torches and

fires.
steal the pigtails
They
of inoffensive people,
cutting these off, actually in broad daylight, even
from very respectable gentlemen and high nobles,

preferably while enjoying some public theatrical
performance
barred
curely
vailing excitement.
Unless
it
the
characters,
the pre-
and the
arise,
in
placed
actual
be admitted by general consent

is
done exclusively by
populace
officials
and
emotion, imprison persons

falls,
is
occurs
idea
somehow from
Thus tumults
malignant specters, the

reassure
the
may be men, bad
safety of unoffending people
that the mischief
visiting
houses, in spite of se-
To some
doors.
that the miscreants
own
bent on deriving advantage
peril.
when
in a square or bazar, or
a shop, or even in their
still
invisible
interfere, and,
the
tempest
upon whom
to
of
suspicion
preferably sending out their policemen and
soldiers
among members
severely persecuted
of secret religious sects,
by the government as
heretics
because enemies of the old and orthodox social

order,
as
evil-intentioned
canker of humanity.
outlaws,
the
corroding
In most cases, their judicial
examinations corroborate their pre-conceived sus-
for they admirably understand the art of
picion,
by scourge and
extorting,
even from the
torture,
most obdurate temperaments, any confessions, but

especially such as they beforehand
have assumed
Flagellation, banishment to Turkestan,
to be true.
strangulation with a rope, and similar things, in-
from Chinese
separable
judicial
methods, crown
the work.
While
such
whirlwinds
of
excitement
public
the
most
ignorant, go wild with excitement and fear.
The
blow, the most
absurdest
They
to
are
stories
measures,
as
well
circulated
as
and universally
such emotional disturbances
Officials in
believed.
concert
intelligent,
and
throw
oil
into
the
fire.
issue proclamations, each directly calculated
increase
disturbance of the
the
They exhort people

doors,
and look
scribe medicines
or externally.
means of
to stay
after
their
and charms,
They
sacrifices,
at
public
mind.
home, close
children.
They
their
pre-
to be used internally
try to avert the specters
summoning them
to
by
go away;
even emperors from the height of their thrones

have posed with respect to specter-plagues and sent
officers
and ministers to the regions where they
prevailed in order to offer sacrifices to
them and,
POLYDEMONISM
in the sovereign's
august name,
seldom
narrow
within
confined
summon them
to
Such mental typhoons
cease their terrible work.

are
but
limits,
mostly spread over several provinces.
Where
in
belief
and spectrophoby so
specters
thoroughly dominate thought and

is
bound
to attain
its
demon
life,
in
Chinese eyes,
large
Litera-
highest development.
ture in China abounds with specter tales,
but
undeniable
number may be traced
to
lore
no
stories
truth.
very
books of the T'ang
dynasty, belonging to the seventh, eighth or ninth

century.
classes
Confucius divided the specters into three

those living in mountains and forests, in
the water, and in the ground.

the
most dangerous.
The
first
class is
And, among them, the most
notorious are specters with one eye on the top of

their heads, which, merely
drought,
and,
crops, dearth,
destruction
Such
as
famine,
of
their presence, cause
consequence,
all
thousands,
calamities have
chronic plagues.
times,
by
destruction
which mean
in
of
China
nay millions of
lives.
always harassed China
like
Books, dating from the earliest
mention their prevalence.
Religious
cere-
monies to avert them and bring down rains have

always formed an integral part of the
official
duties
IO
The
of princes, governors, and mandarins.
of one pah
as
classical
works,
trophe.
It
In
order
against
these
may come
defend
to
it,
devils
are
catch
it
even in
called,
suffices to call forth
arrival
such a catas-
with the quickness of wind.
and your country
yourself
and throw
it
into the dung-pit,
or into the privy, and the drought will vanish:

thus runs the sovereign recipe.
Water demons,
sorts.
unable
too, are
numerous, and of various
Most of them are

to
release
themselves
from
grave unless they draw another

Accidents which befall those
it.
drowned men,
souls of
their
watery
human being into

who cross a body
of water are ascribed to those demons, lying in
ambush
for victims.
They
are a constant lurking
danger to fishermen, boatmen, and washerwomen.
They blow
hats
the
into
linen
water,
from the
bleaching ropes; and while the owner exerts himself to recover his property, they treacherously
the thing just
equilibrium
beyond
and
tumbles
into
Should a corpse be found on the

legs
to
worked deep
believe that
it
into the
is
keep
his reach, until he loses his
watery
silt,
its
grave.
arms or
mud, every one
is
sure
victim of a water ghost,
drawn down by those limbs with
irresistible force.
POLYDEMONISM
Cramps paralyzing
swimmer, are likewise the
When
clutches of a water ghost.
and
found dead
later
in the
to explain that a
ready
him away from

drowned him.
the
ground.
man
is
missed,
water, every one
is
water ghost has decoyed
some
house by
his
we have
In the third place,

inhabit
II
They
the
dwell
trick,
and
demons which
in
also
objects
firmly attached to the soil; in houses and heavy

things.
sphere,
As
is
the
soil, if
fecundated by the
celestial
the productive part of the universe,
engenders
all
of such earth
sorts
spirits
of living things,
by digging
which
disturbance
in the
ground or
moving heavy objects, naturally, by the laws of

sympathy and universalism, disturbs the repose
and growth of the embryo
in the
womb
of
woman.
Their baneful influence even affects babies already

born, these as well as the vegetable
kingdom being
dependent for their growth on the life-producing

earth.
It is
those spirits which cause convulsions;
and everybody
into
their
feels sure that, should a child
clutches
turn black and blue.
it
would
They
certainly
fall
forthwith
are, of course, notori-
ous for causing the pains of pregnancy, and even

miscarriage.
12
The
many
man from
fear of such a result restrains a
imprudent acts, should his wife or concubine
be pregnant.
Especially perilous
a nail into the wall, as
it
specter which resides in
be born with a limb
one eye; or
the earth
and
child to
useless, or blind of
might paralyze the bowels of a child
it
The
then to drive
down
and cause the
it,
stiff
already born, and give

result.
might
it is
nail
dangers
constipation with fatal
it
which
threaten
future
In
mother increase as her pregnancy advances.

the end nothing
may
be displaced in the house;
even the shifting of light objects becomes a source

of danger.
had
rolled
up
their
Once
saw a boy with a
and was told by the father that
when pregnant with

made a cut in an old
But nothing
among
is
so
this
child,
coat of
his,
perilous
Amoy
his wife,
had thoughtlessly
while mending
as
the
it.
commotion
earth specters by repairs of houses,
or by the application of labor to the

at
who
bedmats after they had long
with rolled-up ears.
created
of fathers
being frightened by the birth of children
lain flat,
harelip,
known
Instances are
soil.
When
any one undertakes anything of the kind,
the neighbors take
where for
their
good care
women who
to seek lodgings else-
are expecting confine-
POLYDEMONISM
13
ment, not allowing them to return until the work

advanced, and the disturbed
fairly
spirits
is
have had
In default of
time to resettle in their old abodes.
a suitable place to shelter such a woman, public

opinion obliges the builder to delay
till
after her
confinement.
The
natural history of the
herewith exhausted.
been contributed to
animal kingdom.
it,
demon kingdom
is
not
very large contingent has
and ages, by the
in all times
Animals have,
in fact, the
same
natural constitution as men, being built up of the
same Yang and Yin substances of which the universe
itself
specters with
consists;
men
ment of animal
human
even
has
The
its
and while
prevails in
specters with
general
its
attributes,
forms, has been the
royal tiger
is
result.
its
and
China
tiger demons.
her most ferocious brute, the
people, often throwing villages into
commotion
and
panic,
and
compelling
country people to remove to safer spots.

lore
of
demonism, the invest-
human
were-wolves, but especially
terror of
identification
abounds with
as bloodthirsty
tales
of man-tigers
demons; with
tales of
Folk-
ravening
men
accused
of having raged as tigers, being delivered to the

magistrates, and
formally put to
death by their
14
wretches being chased by the people
orders; of
with lances and swords, or burned
Wounds
houses.
inflicted
lieved to be visible
its
body when
it
own
also of our
where royal
specimens are
lycanthropy.
live,
known
human
As
shape: a
after having once tasted
victim to a
incited
it,
man
generally
human
flesh
the Chinese aver that
by the ghost of every last
new murder.
a class of injurious
on men.
this idiosyncrasy to their
or to their steady predilection for
is
trait
so in China exceptional
having experienced how easy a prey
the man-eater
own
in other countries
to prey preferably
But instead of ascribing
is,
their
on the corresponding part of
reassumes
tigers
in
on a were-beast are be-
Thus fancy has created
human
specters in the service
of the monster, or sometimes thought to inhabit
it
each such specter brings the beast on the track of

a
new human
victim, desiring nothing better than
to deliver itself
from
its
bondage by thus getting
a substitute.
There
is
hardly any species of animal in China
about whose changes into

stories
to
tell.
men
folk-lore has not
Foxes and vixens
also wolves, dogs,
especially,
but
and snakes are notorious for thus
insinuating themselves into
human
society for im-
POLYDEMONISM
15
moral purposes, disguised as charming, handsome
and female beauties; and not seldom they
lads
devour them
them
ill,
picted as
the end,
in
and
at
all
insane.
events
make
deReynard
an enormous impostor, so enormous that
delirious,
also
is
there are instances of his having assumed the garb
of religious holiness, nay, the shape of the Buddhas

themselves, to insinuate himself into the favor of
men, and even to obtain access to such awe-inspiring places as imperial palaces.
known
of his descending on a cloud in a Bod-
hisatwa's shape, to settle
on an
and appropriate
altar,
for years the sacrifices offered
who
Instances are even
by men and women
flocked to worship his divinity.
Evil
hares,
may
be
monkeys,
frogs, even
inflicted
upon men by
stags,
by
rats, otters, snakes, tortoises, toads,
by such tame domestic animals as
cats,
donkeys, goats, pigs and cows, assuming human

forms, seducing
men and women, bewitching
their
senses to the detriment of their health, haunting

their dwellings, possessing the inmates
them
geese,
sects,
ill.
and making
Tales are even circulated about cocks,
crows and other birds, even

doing every
assuming human
sort
shape.
of
evil,
fishes
and
especially
in-
after
Those endless changes
l6
men
of
and beasts
into beasts
into
men,
order to
in
play their tricks as devils, are the best illustrations
of the influence exerted upon the Chinese mind by

the system of universalism, teaching animation of
beings by the same
all
the
Tao or order of
Moreover,
trees,
Yang and
Yin,
who compose
the universe.
shrubs, herbs and objects are
implicitly believed to send out their souls, in order
to inflict evil
We
on men.
read of whole gangs of
man-shaped specters of large and small dimensions,

spreading consternation and fear, and being later
on found
We
to be leaves,
blown about by the wind.
read of people overhearing conversations in
the dead of night,
which
daybreak were dis-
at
covered to have been held by utensils or other
and were no more heard after the things
things,
had been burned, or

coffins
have shot through the
Lids of
destroyed.
totally
air,
wounding people
or crushing them to death, and the spirits could not
be laid but by burning the

tents.
specters
human
coffins
and
great number of such
emitted
nauseous
or animal matter, and,
found to be soft and
slippery.
in the possession of ancestors
smell
when
their con-
flying
of
object-
decaying
touched, were
Objects which were
may
recall the re-
POLYDEMONISM
membrance of
to say, they
old brooms
Images of
17
these to superstitious minds, that
may
haunt them.
is
Rotten wood and
may haunt houses as incendiary specters.

men and animals in particular are firmly
believed to be capable of haunting, being in fact
completely identified by childish minds with the
Tales
beings they represent.

the evil
tell
how
the cause of
was discovered by brave and clever men,

ambush, wounded the specter during
in
who, lying
haunting excursion in animal shape, or in the
its
form of a man; how they followed the bloody

track, and discovered the animal, tree or object
wounded, or with the arrow
are
The
of such a specter
fate
animal,
if
in its
body
such tales
very numerous, and afford curious reading.
a tree,
it
it
was
killed,
is
soon told:
if
an
burned, cooked and eaten;
was hewn down and burned.
Especially mischievous and dangerous are souls
of animals, trees and objects which are old.
hew down an
old tree
is
most perilous work,
To
entail-
ing vengeance from the specter disease, death.

There is in Fuhkien an aversion to planting trees,
the planters, as soon as the stems have become as
thick as their necks, being sure to be throttled
the indwelling
spirit.
This
may
by
account to some
l8
extent for the almost total neglect of forestry in

that part of China, so that hardly any, except self-
sown
trees, are
We
growing
there.
see then the Chinese people believing itself
to inhabit a world filled with dangerous specters
every
the
side.
Too or order of the world, the leading part
the distribution of
evil,
because they represent
Yin, or cold and dark half.
They
dominant influence over human

shen, the
good
distributers
spirits of the
the earth; heaven then

controls
must not
fail
all
is
Yang, who are the
its
oldest
above
upon
form
spirits
this
and we
the great tenet of
harm man but
with the authorization of heaven, or
In
above
is
the chief shen or god,
Chinese theology, that no
sent.
is
it,
specters and their doings
to lay stress
its
fate as well as the
But the Yang
of blessing.
in
thus exercise a
the Yin, as heaven, which belongs to
who
on
have stated that they perform, in
its silent
dogma
is
con-
clearly
laid down in the Yih and the Shu, the principal

classical bibles of China's religion, and social and
political
institutions.
heaven's Tao or
way
We
there:
read
"It
to give felicity to the
good
harm
kwei
and bring misfortune upon the bad the

the shen render the modest happy."
;
the proud
is
POLYDEMONISM
Thus we
kwci or specters, as
see that the
IQ
sole
and general agents of heaven for the distribution

of evil
among men,
China's
religion.
Their
main inducement
the
which aims
this
its
are an indispensable element in
first
of
existence
is
worship of heaven,
the
to
secure the propitiation of
all to
to the
supreme power
avenging kwei.
dogmatical
end that
it
may
withhold
All the shen or gods of inferior
rank, being parts of the
Yang, are the natural
enemies of the kwei, because these are the constituents of the

in the
Yin
Yang and
indeed, the
the Yin,
order of the world, are in an eternal struggle,
manifested by alternation of day and night, sum-
mer and
winter, heat
and
propitiation of the gods,
The worship and
cold.
which
the
is
main part of
China's religion, has, like the worship of

or
the
Supreme God, no
induce the gods to defend
better
man
purpose but to
against the world
of specters, or, by descending and living
men, to drive specters away by

presence.
That
cult
in
fact
which
the
their
among
overawing
means invocation of
happiness, but happiness simply
misfortune
Heaven
specters
means absence of
bring.
Idolatry
means the disarming of specters by means of the

gods.
2O
the
Accordingly
China, as
among
in
belief
net
is
specters
in
banished to the domain of
us,
superstition or even nursery tale.
It
is
a funda-
mental principle of China's universalistic religion;

a doctrine as true as the existence of the Yin,
it is
as true then as the existence of the order of the
world, or the Tao

its
But for
itself.
that doctrine
and
consequences, China's cult of gods would ap-
pear
rather
show
itself in
and
meaningless,
would
certainly
forms quite different from those

If missionaries
actually assumes.
in
it
China wish
to conquer idolatry, they will have to destroy the

belief in
demons
cosmological
it
is
rooted,
will
and which
Yang and
Yin, in which
constitutes to this
wisdom of
will require
culture,
the very highest kind.
no
less
its
laws; China's conversion
than a complete revolution in
knowledge,
and mode of thought,
which have been tutored throughout

antiquity,
day Con-
have to educate China in a correct knowl-
edge of nature and
her
together with the classical
of the
dogma
fucian truth and
They
first,
and the
classical
all
time by
books through which
antiquity speaks.
The study of
spirit
the relations of the Chinese to their
world, and of
that spirit
world
itself,
conse-
POLYDEMONISM 21
quently,
is
a study of their religion.
It is
the study
of the animism, magic and idolatry of a great
human
part of the
It is at the
race.
study of customs, belief, and culture.
same time a
It is also the
study of the antiquity and history of culture.

deed,
more perfectly than anywhere
world, culture
Her
literature
in
is
may
in
else
China a picture of the
Inthis
past.
be regarded as the chief creator
Mental culture and religion
of this phenomenon.
have, indeed, been transmitted in China from age

to
age by tradition;
guided by books
oldest of
books
in
and tradition was always
which
it
was
which are the most esteemed.
that,
and the
written,
merely describing them,
was the
It
in fact petrified
them, keeping them remarkably free from novelty,
which, in Chinese civilized opinion, always

ruption and heterodoxy.
the
books have to
and genuine
fact not
tell,
is
cor-
Almost everything which

the Chinese take for truth
fact, as reliable as any, they being in
advanced far enough
in science
and
cul-
ture to distinguish between the possible and the

impossible.
This
fact, too,
renders their books of
the highest value to students of China's religion;
Chinese books must of necessity be their guides.

Individual experience and personal inquiry, though
22
become
useful,
highly
matters
of
secondary
importance.
The
world of specters which are of
belief in a
high influence upon
more than
man
its basis.
in China's religion
is
It is
even
a principal pillar in the
building of morality.
The Tao or order of

yearly and
Yang and
just
which
is
the Yin, never deviates or diverges
and equitable
them
tecting
the universe,
the
daily evolutions and revolutions of the
to
all
it
is
men, producing and pro-
impartially.
Heaven,
the
greatest
power
Yang itself, by means of
the gods rewards the good, and by means of the
of the universe, the
punishes
specters
There
in other
is,
the
bad,
words, in
with
perfect
justice.
this
world no
felicity
but for the good.

Clear illustrations of the belief in the infliction
of punishments by spirits acting with authorization
of heaven we have as early as the Tso-chwen, a
book ascribed
to a disciple of Confucius,
fore invested for

authority.
all
and there-
succeeding ages with dogmatic
That book also teaches that
spirits
even
punish or bless whole kingdoms and peoples for

the conduct of their rulers, descending to
make
it
are virtuous, or to
make
it
flourish
if
its
rulers
POLYDEMONISM 2$
decline
if
they are wicked.
disseminated
the
through
literature
of
all
Ethnologists have written collections of
periods.
such
dis-
of rewards and punishments by ghosts
tribution
are
Accounts of the
accounts
for
They
morality.
tell
maintenance
the
of
public
of souls of murdered people
betraying their murderers, and the circumstances

of the crime to the authorities while dreaming or
dozing,
and showing them the place where the
corpse or other pieces de conviction
They
how
relate
may
be found.
murderers, seeing themselves so
mysteriously detected,
made
and confessed everything.
a clean breast at once,
In one case, the ghost
prevents the culprit from escaping by nailing him
by
his hair to a wall, before betraying him.
We
are also told of victims of judicial error, chastising
unworthy judges with disease and death. A

murdered by its step-mother haunts her home
so ferociously as to bring death upon her and her
their
child
An
offspring.
innocent, wealthy
man
in
Kwang-
tung, put to death by a rapacious prefect merely

in
order
to
confiscate
his
possessions,
regularly
appears in that grandee's premises, stubbornly beating the great

for
redress
drum placed
of
wrong,
there for
until
the
all
who
prefect
apply
sickens
24
from remorse and anxiety, and

numerous
the books
in
dies.
Especially
are instances of persons
haunted by the souls of their victims on their

deathbeds, where, in most cases, the ghosts themselves
state
that
expressly
are
they
avenging
themselves with the special authorization of heaven,

at the foot of
whose throne they have lodged
their
complaints.
The
diversity of such tales
Numerous
and
also
traditions
is,
of
are the tales of
course,
infinite.
spirits,
under obligation for clemency, rewarding
their benefactors.
Imperial commanders have been
victorious through the help of hosts

assisting their troops
rewarding
those
in
battle.
who bestowed
of specters
Tales of ghosts
care
upon
their
unburied or badly buried corporeal remains, occur

in Chinese literature in strikingly large
tending to maintain
numbers,
and promote such care as a
branch of social benevolence, and as a subject of

imperial legislation in
all
ages.
Especially people
laying sacrilegious hands upon tombs have always
incurred the revenge of the injured souls.
versing with the Chinese

specters and
their
all
unshaken to
classes,
we
In con-
find that the belief in
punishments prevails throughout

this
day,
continuously
revived, as
in
it is,
POLYDEMONISM 25
everybody by hundreds of
handed down from the good old times; and
tales
are
all
considered authentic, because of the simple
Ghosts
that they occur in books.
fact
may
interfere at
any moment with human business and
fate, either
favorably or unfavorably.
This doctrine indubitably exercises a mighty and
upon morals. It enforces respect

and a charitable treatment of the
salutary influence
for
human
life,
the aged,
and the
sick,
especially if they
stand on the brink of the grave.
Benevolence and
infirm,
humanity, thus based on fear and selfishness,
have
little
ethical value in
our eyes
may
yet their exist-
ence in a country where culture has not yet taught
man
to cultivate
alone,
may
goodness for the sake of good
be greeted as a blessing.
Those virtues
are even extended to animals; for, in fact, these,

too,
have souls which
bring reward.
But
may work vengeance
their retributive justice has
deters
still
other effects.
from grievous and provoking
cause the
wronged
or
and
the firm belief in ghosts
It
injustice, be-
party, thoroughly sure of the
avenging power of his own ghost when disembodied, will not seldom contrive to convert himself
into a wrathful ghost
by committing
suicide.
It is
26
still
my memory how
fresh in
such a course was
followed in 1886 by a shopkeeper at
Amoy, pressed
who had brought him to the verge
To extort payment, this man ran away
hard by a usurer
of ruin.
with the shutters of his shop, thus giving
a prey to burglars
tents
its
con-
but in that same night the
wretch hanged himself on his persecutor's doorpost, the sight of his corpse setting the
commotion
in
at
family storming
whole ward
daybreak, and bringing

to the spot.
The
all
the
usurer, fright-
ened out of his wits, had no alternative but to pay
them a considerable indemnification, with an addi-
sum
tional
for the burial expenses;
their
pledged
Pending those noisy negotiations,

untouched where it hung.
the magistrate.
the
corpse
Thus
on which they
promise not to bring him up before
remained
the usurer
had a hairbreadth escape from
jail,
torture, and other judicial woes; but whether he
slipped through the hands of his ethereal victim,
no one could
that occasion
It
tell.
impressed
me
to hear
on
from the Chinese that occurrences
of this kind were very far from rare, and they told
me
good
many,
then
fresh
in
everybody's
retaliation
must reach
memory.
As
sure
as the
spirit's
POLYDEMONISM
murderers and causers of suicide, so sure
it
is
27
to
come down upon any persecutor whose victim dies

of grief or despair. Whatever the deed may be
for which
rendered, such spiritual vengeance
is
it
may
manifest
may
enter into the
itself in different
ways.
The ghost
make
body of his enemy, and
him, under the influence of a glass too much, or in

a
fit
all
of mental derangement, blab out his crime with
able to lay
its
session of his
may even
Or
hands on him.
to render
body
it
him
may
ill
opinion,
all
mad;
it
cause his death after long and painful

Prevalent
anew by
continuously inspired
literature
times and ages, admitting that spiritual ven-
geance
may
descend
admits also that

disease
and
it
in
all
tallies
imaginable
may come down
death
upon
the
This tenet, so revolting to our

ice,
take pos-
or
suffering, or drive him to self-murder.
of
becomes
particulars, so that earthly justice
its
culprit's
own
perfectly with the
that the severest punishment
on one, both
in the
form of
offspring.
feelings of just-
Chinese conception
which may be
in his present life
forms,
and
inflicted
in the next, is
decline or extermination of his male issue, leaving
nobody
protect
to support
him
him
after his
in his old age,
nobody to
death from misery and hunger
28
by caring for
to
and grave, and
his corpse
manes.
his
sacrificing
son squandering the
dissolute
possessions of his family, and disgracing
it
by a
licentious
and criminal
man who,
having been wronged by his father or an
ancestor,
life,
is
often taken for a
had himself reborn as that son,
Conversely, an
thus to have his cruel vengeance.

excellent child,
which
is
in order
the glory of
generally passes for a reincarnation of
its
family,
some grate-
ful spirit.
The vengeance of
spirits
very long in reaching

Chinese say, every
man
may
its
lives
in
many
object.
a case be
For, thus the
under the dominion of
his destiny, created, of course,
by the order of the
universe, the Tao, which
is
Yang and
that natural fate
the Yin; and
tous, firm, solid,
if
the vicissitudes of the
individual himself in his present
life,
vious existence, or by his ancestors

specters
these
is
is felici-
on account of merits gained by the

or in a prethe world of
perfectly powerless against him, seeing
have
will, or Tao.
to
comply altogether with heaven's

But as soon as his store of merits is
outbalanced by an adequate amount of demerits,

his account with
heaven being thus squared, the
rancorous
regain full liberty to attack his
spirits
POLYDEMONISM
and whatever expedients human
tottering destiny;
may now
work
ward
off evil
they remain altogether without
effect.
genius
him
29
set at
to
from
This simple complex of tenets lays disrespect for
human
lives
efficient
under great
restraint.
in preventing female infanticide,
strous custom, practised extensively
The
are often
They
among the
murdered
fear that the souls of
bring misfortune, induces
many
a mon-
little
poor.
ones
may
a father or mother
to lay girls they are unwilling to bring up, in the

street
for adoption
foundling hospital.
is
to
be found
founded
in
some family or
into
At
least
one such
populous towns.
many
and maintained
by the
into
institution
They
are
authorities
in
concert with the wealthy and fashionable citizens.
These worthies increase
their stock of merit by disfrom

time
to
time tracts against infantributing
ticide.
Such documents for the most part afford
They give wise exhortations from

the lips of gods and saints, with terrifying instances
of punishments inflicted by unseen powers and
curious reading.
baby souls on parents and midwives guilty of child

murder.
profusely
Many
tracts,
illustrated.
shaped
Such
murder, though they bear
all
like
books,
narratives
the
of
are
child
marks of imagina-
3O
tion,
perfectly well answer their ethical purpose,
deeply impressing, as they do, the simple minded.
Their topic
is
often,
of
course,
people
reaping
rewards for having virtuously abstained from the
monstrous practice, or for having tried

others from
The
highest
admission
to
deter
it.
ambition of every Chinese being
mandarin
the
into
almost a matter of course
find
to
becomes
it
class,
success at the
world-famed examinations which open access to

foremost
by grateful
spirits.
among the rewards bestowed

Numerous instances of their
official posts,
having helped candidates to obtain dieir degree

occur in the books of the present and the
past.
On
the other hand, being plucked often passes for a
proof that no grateful
some rancorous
spirit
spirits
interfered,
prevented
essay.
There are
the host of candidates
some who
from producing a super-excellent
among
always
become
ill
or that
candidate
the
in their cells, or
deranged
in
mind, or
even die in consequence of nervousness or excite-
ment;
it
should be stated with
the Chinese generally
ascribe
full
emphasis that
such events to re-
vengeful specters.
Curious
tales
circulate as to
how
they behave.
POLYDEMONISM 3!
Some
candidates
Others they render
them
put
sit
silly
mad,
ill,
number they
greater
bereave of consciousness.
they
stifle
delirious,
and of a
the memories,
making
over their writing paper, unable to
down even one
sentence or character.
Some
are
kept in a constant state of nervousness by soft
and sounds on the roof of
voices
are haunted by the souls of their

nay,
it
sometimes occurs
their cells.
Others
murdered infants
under the pressure
that,
of some revengeful ghost, candidates write
down
circumstantial confession of their crimes, in lieu of
an essay on the theme given.
who, on leaving their
There are
cells, blurt
also those
out their sins aloud
before the whole crowd of candidates, or are found
dead in their
cells,
having opened an artery with
a sherd of their teapot or teacup, in
default of
other cutting instruments.
With
respect to virtuous candidates, the spirits
behave quite otherwise.

arousing in them
many
They
clear
their brains,
a bright idea, which, con-
verted into writing, evinces depth of learning, wis-
dom and
intellect.
study of Chinese thought and
cidedly
which
the
existence
we have now,
life attests
de-
of a point of importance,
in conclusion, to
emphasize as
32
a cornerstone in the foundation of China's religion

it is
a doctrine of the Chinese nation, a dogma, an
axiom, an inveterate conviction, that

keeping up a most
lively intercourse
as intimate almost as that
spirits exist,
with the living
among men.
In every
respect that intercourse bears an active character.

It
brings blessing, and evil as well, the spirits thus
From them man
effectually ruling mankind's fate.
has everything to hope, but equally
As
a natural consequence,
and
spirits
it
is
much
to fear.
around the ghosts
China groups her religious
that
acts,
with the sole intent to avert their wrath and the

evil
it
The
and
help.
manners, and methods by which she
tries
brings,
acts,
and
to insure their goodwill
to realize this dual object are
numerous; they are
the fruits of the inventive genius of China as a
whole through a long

of
flection
her
wit
series of centuries, the re-
and
intellect,
both old
and
modern, which, conversely, nothing could
illustrate
animistic
religion.
so
well
Those
as
acts,
her
universalistic
manners and methods
will
chief topic of the following chapters.
then be the
CHAPTER
THE STRUGGLE
IN
my
first
chapter
II
AGAINST SPECTERS
have tried to demonstrate
that the basis of China's religion

verse, that
is
is
the
moving
uni-
to say, the rotation of nature, called
the Too, or road, manifesting itself in the revolution of time, the days
and the seasons, or
which
in the vicissitudes
of the
means the same thing
Yang and
Yin, respectively the bright
and warm, the dark and
cold, halves of the universe.
operations of
have demonstrated also that this dualism
is
con-
sidered to consist in the activity of shen, which are
the components of the
Yang; and of kwei, which
are the components of the Yin; the shen thus being
gods
whom good proceeds, and the kwei

The
specters by whom evil is wrought.
from
being
conclusion
is,
that Chinese religion
must be con-
ceived as a system aiming at the propitiation of the
aforesaid gods, in order to prevail upon them to
prevent the devils from doing

It is
up
in all its parts with

3
harm
to
man.
then self-evident that the universe
is filled
gods and specters and that

33
34
China's religion
demonism.
demonism.
has
reached
is
a broad system of polytheism and
have afforded you a peep into that
have
a
laid
high
highest probably that

the
demon world
is
stress
stage
on the
of
fact that
development,
it
the
might be reached; and that
placed under the natural tute-
lage of heaven, and occupies the rank of moral
educator of the people.

claims
the
religion.
of
In this important role

all
students
This demonism has thus
mission to
lived
attention
many thousands
and died on Asiatic
of
foreign
fulfilled a
great
who have
of millions
soil.
it
Demonism, the
lowest form of religion, in China a source of ethics
and moral education
this certainly
may
be called
a singular phenomenon, perhaps the only one of

the kind to be found on this terrestrial globe.
Demonism
interesting
further
side.
It
has another important and

is
the
principal
author
of
magic, which pervades the religious system of the

Chinese
The
of
evil
in all its parts.
intense belief in the dangerous omnipresence

spirits,
the Chinese
which has dominated
from the
earliest times,
all
classes of
and has never
been weakened by growth or change of culture,

necessarily leads us to the logical inference that,
THE STRUGGLE AGAINST SPECTERS

likewise
from the
means
No
against those beings.
was more enslaved

no
Chinese;
must have
earliest times, people
for
sought eagerly
to
defend
therefore
people
themselves
people in this world ever
fear of
to
35
specters than the
has
the
excelled
Chinese in inventing means to render them harmless.
The war
against the host of spirits of
evil, in fact,
bears in China, from days of yore, the character of
magic, art or
a
guided by
skill,
that
to say, of shuh.
invented
strategy
faculties of the nation,
is
its
by
It is
by the thinking
sophistry passing for
philosophy; but especially by tactics which ances-
word or writing to be useful

In all ages this war has had its
tors have declared in
and
effective.
men
leaders
of genius,
magicians,
pos-
priests,
sessing wise or occult fang, expedients or methods,
of
defense or attack,
from
older
specters
may
generations
expedients
be paralyzed, put to
destroyed or killed.
or
self-invented,
inherited
flight,
at the
same
or even
study of those means
study in natural philosophy and popular
and
which
by
time a study in the
which superstition exercises on
is
intellect,
boundless sway
all
minds
in
the
Flowery Kingdom, from that of the most unlearned
man
in the street
up
to ministers
and emperors.
36
Specters being also the chief causes of disease
and plague,
their ejection or expulsion
a prominent element in the healing
ing magic for medical and other ends
very old in China, probably not

the belief in specters, which
saying that
it
always was
art.
is
Exercis-
no doubt
much younger than

almost equivalent to
is
nearly as old as the people
is
In writings of the
Han
itself.
dynasty (206 B.C.-22O A.D.),
or relating to that period,
we
find quite an abun-
dance of details on the subject.
The
great
war
against specters has, of course,
always been conducted on the main principle that

the world of specters belongs to the Yin, so that
the most efficacious
weapons against
it
are derived
from the Yang, the warming and luminous half of

the universe.
The sun
is
the chief active part of
the Yang, and therefore the principal expeller and
destroyer of demons; therefore

cially in the
reigns
dawn
it is
at night, espe-
midnight hour, that the demon world
supreme and specters freely prowl; and

that they flee.
mons them
to retire,
It is
cock-crow which sum-
and the
lines of
Shakespeare
have not been written for Europe only:
"The cock,
Doth with
that
is
the trumpet to the morn,
his lofty
at
and shrill-sounding throat
37
Awake the God of Day, and, at his warning,

Whether in sea or fire, in earth or air,
The extravagant and erring spirit hies
To
his confine.
No wonder
"...
then that
in
if
China any one sud-
denly swoons, being seized by apoplexy, or, as the
Chinese say, by a devil, blood of a cock
smeared under
as possible
the solar bird

to
plague,
calamity.
is
avert
as soon
The bead of
attached to houses in times of

the
specters
which
cause
this
Earthenware cocks are placed on house-
Especially on
tops.
his heart.
is
New
Year's day, which marks
the beginning of spring and therefore the opening
of the
yearly victorious campaign of the
Yang
against the Yin, images of cocks are fixed to doors,

to defend the
season in
for a
house for the whole year.
many
few days.
parts of China the bird
In general
it
is
At
that
not eaten
holds a high position
in medical art; its bones, flesh, blood, gall, spleen,

etc.,
are often
mixed
in exorcising medicines.
The triumphal progress of

spring
is
peach.
color of
the
Yang
in
early
characterized by the flowering of the
Therefore this tree and the red,

its
brilliant
blossoms represent the destruction of
the Yin or winter, and the spectral world which
is
38
identified with
Therefore, from the oldest times
it.
to this day, branches, boards,
and human images of
peach wood have been fixed on New Year's day to

doors and gates. At present those things are
replaced by
who
has set foot on Chinese
to notice.
soil
in consequence,
Red,
cumstances a color expressing

felicity
consists
its
welfare.
can have failed

is
under
felicity,
destruction
in
human
enemies of
which nobody
of red paper,
sheets
of
all
cir-
seeing that
specters,
The peach
tree
the
and
foremost part in Chinese pharma-
fruit play a
cology, a part not less important than that of the

cock.
The same
tiger,
story repeats itself with respect to the
an animal associated for some hazy reasons
with the sun;
its
teeth
and claws are worn as
powerful protective amulets.
Fever patients
may
cure themselves by zealously reading tiger stories,
or by having them read at their bedside.
Light and
actually parts of the great
fire,
principle of nature, are as destructive to the
world as the Yang
is
to the Yin.
Yang
demon
Bonfires, torches,
candles, lanterns are used by the whole nation as a
protection
and lighted
from
evil;
at the
they are especially kindled
commencement of the
year.
To
39
increase the awe-inspiring effect of bonfires, pieces
bamboo were
of
days of yore thrown into them,
in
which, exploding, produced a crackling, popping
This bamboo was the prototype of tubes
noise.
of paper,
purpose
filled
with gunpowder, used for the same
at the present
in
day
enormous quantities
New
throughout the empire, especially about

foreigners
the
all
name of
know
"crackers."
By
extension of this prin-
ciple, the conviction reigns that
the louder the better,
The
Year
those terrible noise-makers by
is
all
noise whatever,
a mighty defense against
rattling of
drums, the clashing of
cymbals, the thundering of
gongs resound through-
demonry.
out China every day, especially in summer,

mortality increases,
double their devil-expelling energy.

is
in
when
compelling the people to re-
Noise-making
China a work of merit, frequently performed
gratuitously by benevolent people for the sake of
and public weal and
private
health.
Smoking, even scorching, patients with

cruelly cauterizing
curing them by
order
of
afflicted
ferers
the
fire,
and
them with burning charcoal, or
circles of ashes, are in
day.
by demonry,
Such
that
treatment
is
China the
of
persons
to say, especially suf-
from fever and delirium, madmen,
idiots, is
4O
drama of every-day occurrence; spells and

curses are at the same time yelled out to drive the
a queer
devil out of the patient.
Processions with torches, lanterns, volleys from

firelocks loaded with blank cartridges, concert of
crackers,
gongs and cymbals, may be seen passing
through the
in times of
streets
epidemic for the
purification of towns and wards.
They occurred
as early as pre-Christian times, being mentioned in

classical
works, and were celebrated at the begin-
ning of every year.

instructive,
showing
These processions are very

us
pagan
animism
in
full
They contain men and boys, and even

women, masked and accoutered as gods and god-
activity.
desses
by
for gods or shen are
Yang
spirits,
and thus
or drive away the specters

Ahead of them we see two gods,
their nature destroy
of the
Yin.
named Shen-tu and
Yuh-lei, who, as ancient tradi-
and condemned
tion says, have arraigned, fettered
somewhere
specters under a peach tree,
in the south-
east or the region of the morning sun, and have
thrown
them
as
food
afforded protection to the

this
to
tigers.
human
Having thus
race, they are to
day invested with the dignity of guardians of
houses, and are fixed in effigy to gates and doors.

There are also images of
the
seated
procession,
all
in
4!
sorts of other
dignified
gods in
in
attitudes
palankeens.
A
ized
is
devil-expelling procession
generally organ-
by the committee which administers a temple
dedicated to the tutelary divinity of the village, or,

in a
town, to the god of a ward or parish.
celebrated
It is
and repeated with an animation and
waste of money proportionate to the cruelty with
which the plague-devils do their terrifying work.
The money required

scription lists
among
is
by means of sub-
raised
the villagers or parishioners,
and the mandarins are expected to inscribe
names
at the top of the lists for
their
no small sum.
As
a rule, the principal god of the temple himself

dictates
on which nights the procession
out so as to
which
streets
work with
who
shall
it
mouth of a man
into
He
pass.
of frenzy.
in the procession,
go
whom
This
does so by the
he has descended, and
indicates this possession
in a state
shall
success, as also through
by wriggling about
man
is
afterwards seen
because the specters are deemed
to be afraid of the
god who dwells
in him.
He
is
then garbed in nature's raiment of bare skin to the

waist, his hair flowing
down
disheveled, in a state
42
of delirium, proving that the god
is
in him.
Dag-
gers are deeply implanted in his cheeks, or in the

flesh of his
With
out.
upper arms, so that much blood

his
cleaving the
sword he deals blows around him,

in
air
nobody sees but
trickles
he.
on beings which
At times he looks sleepy and
his
assault
unconscious; at other moments he hops and jumps,

spins around
and
from
rolls
side to side, inflicting
own back
bloody wounds on his
with his sword,
or with a wooden ball studded with sharp iron

points,
which he bears by a cord
in his left hand.
Often also men who are possessed by other gods

appear in the procession,
way.
it,
One
in the
behaving
same
by means
on the shoulders of four men, and the seat,
are carried round on
of shafts,
all
or more, should the gods have ordered
the back, and
which the
litters
which
arms of which, as
feet
rest,
rest,
also the place
are armed with
on
long nails
pointing upwards, so that they stick into his flesh.
Or
such a
the
man
litter is
lies
replaced by a nail bed, on which
stretched at full length, or by a big
chair, the seat, back, arms and foot rest of which
are formed of parallel
which the body

are
thus
swords, on the edges of
rests or leans.
carried
The bleeding men
round for hours.
Occasionally

there
may be
seen a
ing herself to the

is
it
uncommon
with
dervish
woman among
them, submit-
same disgusting torment.
to
in
see
thick
43
Nor
the procession such a
needle
stuck
through his
tongue, spitting the blood on sheets of paper, which

the
crowd eagerly
the devil-dispelling
deeming them to possess
power of the god who dwells
Such a blood-charm may protect a whole
in him.
family
seize,
if it is
affixed to the lintel of
its
dwelling.
Should the plague not abate, or even rage with

increased virulence, the processions are compelled
to
augment
their activity.
The
bearers of the gods
loudly cry and scream, and now and then actually
break into a gallop, or they give a swinging move-
ment
to
the palankeens
and
their
holy contents.
Priests, professedly of the Taoist religion, in full
ceremonial dress, trot up and
down
in the train,
expelling the specters with their jingling handbells,
and buffalo horns on which they blow
at intervals,
while ejaculating exorcising formulae.
They, too,
may be
specters
seen giving vent to their fury against the
by brandishing a sword,
or,
should this
instrument too long have proved of no

axe.
The
effect,
an
clamor of gongs, the popping of crackers,
the buzz of the crowd, and the volleys of firelocks
44
reach the apex of intensity, especially when, more-
blunderbusses detonate before
over,
and temples.
sions
long train of some hundred notable men, well
dressed, bearing smoking
hands,
who
incense
They mutter an
follow in the rear.
in
their
exorcis-
division of soldiers, or civilians in
military uniform,
follows,
dispelling trumpets.
blowing long, specter-
Behind them comes the long
row of palankeens containing

these escorted, as
if
the gods, each
of
he were a living mandarin on
by a retinue composed of bearers of gongs,
earth,
of
divine
lic
sticks
with odorous scent the road of the gods,
fill
ing poem.
fans
man-
official
state,
square boards
names and
titles,
inscribed
and a warning
to keep a respectful silence
with his
to the pub-
and not obstruct the
road; there are also policemen with
whips and
rattans to clear the populace from the middle of
the street, or
armed with bamboo
sticks of daily use in tribunals.
laths or flogging
I
have seen pro-
cessions extended enormously beyond the average
length by
many hundreds
lantern, the
of men, each bearing a
god having ordered through
the
mouth
of his wu, that every family in the parish should

have
itself
by such an
train
the
in
represented
45
object.
The
field
of exorcising magic
is
so long and so
broad that quite a volume would be needed to

describe merely
its
outlines.
whole of China
It
may
be safely said
arms against specters,

with swords, even with swords of copper coins
that the
in
is
bound together; and furthermore with daggers,

In
clubs, spears,
bows, arrows.
many
cases such
weapons bear
devil-dispelling sentences.
They are
to be brandished over the sick, the faint,
mad, with loud
yells
in obstinate cases
hammers, and mallets are swung.

ings with such objects are
tary to patients.
weapons
in
appreciated
famous
It
the
if
may
deemed
suffice
house.
and the
even axes,
Actual thrash-
to be highly salu-
simply to keep such
Weapons
are
especially
they have been in the possession of
generals.
and
Twigs
esteemed, and so are mirrors,
through them, specters
may
it
brooms are
being believed that,
be discovered and thus
robbed of the protection afforded by their

bility.
size,
erally
Counterfeits of
especially
worn on
all
also
invisi-
those things of reduced
made from peach wood,
are gen-
the clothes as amulets.
The Tao, or order of
the world, represents
all
46
that
correct, normal, or right (ching or
is
the universe
course.
It
does, indeed, never deviate
it
men and
correct and
spirits,
acts,
sie
or yin.
They are
it
all
is
especially expressed,
there
good
of
man;
and,
as
consequence,
government; they
thus endanger both the world and the throne.
If they proceed
from men, they ought to be com-
bated by everybody and eradicated
it is
the natural
duty of right-minded, orthodox rulers and
men
to
thoughts
more
and peace which are the
destroy also all good, beneficial
may
other
detrimental to the good of the world
they destroy the prosperity

highest
All
may be such antiamong men as among spirits.
It is clear that
natural actions as well
life.
Too, are incorrect, ab-
the
normal, unnatural, or, as
its
which alone
promote universal happiness and

as they oppose
in
from
all
consequently includes
righteous dealings of
twan)
persecute
such
heresies,
and
states-
even
the
and sayings which produce them; the
so, as they
may
be detrimental to virtue and
morality, but for which humanity cannot possibly
prosper, nor exist for any length of time.
when such
defensive
man,
things
proceed
from bad
And
spirits,
war should be waged against them by
either with or without the help of his
good
47
or gods; they should be fought, repulsed,
spirits
driven away, exorcised,
if
possible annihilated,
by
artful expedients, clever magic.
Which now
are the kwei which commit deeds
Tao, or order of the universe?
contrary to the
They
are, of course,
which perform
those
their
wicked work without authorization or consent of

heaven, the greatest power in the Tao.
Against
them alone exorcising magic can be performed with

success
all
against
others
it
is
totally vain,
and
only propitiation of heaven by sacrifices and masses
can afford protection.
Exorcism,
in other terms,
can only serve the good and the innocent.
From
great doctrine that specters
this
may
be in
the universe, the anti-natural element, representing
whatever
is
abnormal, another principle
emanates
all
that
is
normal or
directly
correct, or responds
in every respect to the order of the world, its Tao,
or course, naturally and necessarily neutralizes and

expels specters.
This dogma has naturally provided
some of the best weapons for their

war with the demon world, namely the
the Chinese with
perpetual
classical writings, the great
for maintaining the
Since the
Han
Tao
in
and only instruments
human
life
and
action.
dynasty, those old books have ever
48
been
by the government and the most
treated
men
learned
of the nation as the sole guides for the
Tao of man.
It
they which teach the Chinese
is
and
people the opinions, principles
and therefore
first,
than any creature
who
ancestors,
holiest,
knew what
is
of
polity
its
better
Tao, seeing that
they lived during the formation of the universal

order on this earth, and even took part in
The
pletion.
of
rules
adherence, the
dependent on
the
fate
order of the
agency of the
which
life
life.
which
universe,
But for
is
a
in-
this
absolutely
and behavior, with
can be
nothing but
ruin, brought about through the
kivei, the natural
and death.
with a
social
of man,
his accord, in life
misery, wreck and
tion
and
domestic,
dictate
books as bibles for
slavish adherence to these
dividual,
therefore
logic
com-
its
It
is
authors of destruc-
then the classics, together
and a government framed on them,
afford
the
very
best
protection
against
specters.
On
the other hand, there
is
nothing in
this
world
so dangerous for the national safety, public health
and welfare as heterodoxy, which means
acts, in-
stitutions, doctrines, not based upon the classics.
To
stern Confucianists
it is
indeed a dogma, openly
49
preached in books, that the introduction of Bud-
dhism has delivered up China as a prey

world and
all its evils;
and
China scorns Christianity and
same
terrible reason.
with the ocean of
woe
literal sense,
all
the mishis crew,
How
brilliant,
side, stands Confucian-
scholars, every inch of every
its
demon
preachers for the
these bring.
glorious, on the other
ism with
its
China unchains the devil and
sionary in
how
In the
to the
need not say that
them thoroughly imbued with
one of
and
classical learning
perfection, each an apostle of orthodoxy,
and
in this
capacity a pillar of the Tao, or correct order of the
world.
Is
it
surprising that they are the natural
enemies of those barbarian disturbers of the uni-
among men?
versal order
And
is
it
surprising also that Confucianists,
thoroughly study the classics, are
Even simple schoolboys and
of evil?
who
beyond the reach

students,
especially those who, as most of them do, believe
themselves
to
be
actual
learning and
classical
or
future
scholarship,
prodigies
believe
of
them-
same time proof against demonry of

And mandarins, recruited from among
selves at the
all
kinds.
the best of such
among
4
prodigies, that
is
to
say,
from
graduates, and, moreover, actual parts of
5O
the machine of government which
is
entirely
com-
posed of classical principles and tenets, are of

mortal
men
unless,
by neglect of duty or by vice or
farthest
all
beyond the reach of demonry,

evil living,
they wander from the great path, or Tao, so that
heaven therefore allows
But there
punish them.
all
its
is
specters to attack and
more than
that:
from
those scholars a powerful anti-spectral influence
emanates, putting the worst demons to
flight,
even
maltreating them, and bringing on them death and

destruction; and this
especially the
is
mandarins, to which the Son of Heaven,

lord and master of
all
spirits
in
case with
who
is
the
heaven and on
earth, has delegated his power.
Hence
the
phenomenon
mandarins often
that
take an active part in demon-expelling processions
and other exorcising work, especially

epidemic.
The
in times of
stupid confidence of the people in
their exorcising capacities goes so far as to ascribe
these capacities to characters or signs written with
red ink pencils which they have used for writing

their letters
and decrees.
Such
pencils
are fixed
over doors, or placed on the sick to cure them;

underlings in tribunals and offices
sell
them
people and to shopkeepers for a goodly
to the
price, as

of mandarins,
visiting cards
also
their seals, waste envelopes,
those
of
other
dignitaries
also
of
in particular
The
Such things are
schoolmasters
class,
or
draw small
who
cannot afford
with those
members of
other
even of schoolboys
sons to
poor,
themselves
content
buy them,
the
of China so
best
weapons
learned
circles of red ink around- the
commonly
have said that
of
or they invite these per-
pustules and ulcers from which children in
and
judges,
burned to ashes, mixed with water, and given
to patients to drink.
to
chief
rank.
first
impressions of
and so on,
provincial
viceroys,
51
classical
in the
all
parts
suffer.
works are among the

Even
specters.
war against
the simple presence of a copy, or a fragment, or a

leaf of a classic
is
a mighty preservative, and an
excellent medicine for spectral disease.

as the
Han
men having
dynasty,
As
early
instances are mentioned of
protected themselves
and misfortune by reciting
against
danger
classical phrases.
But
writings and sayings of any kind, provided

they be of an orthodox stamp, destroy specters and
also
their influences.
Literary men,
dark, insure their safety
by
when
alone in the
reciting their classics;
should babies be restless because of the presence of
52
do excellent service as
specters, classical passages
No wonder
lullabies.
according to tradition
that,
traceable to books of 2000 years ago, the specters
wailed at night
when
Ts'ang-kieh
holy, mythical
invented the art of writing.
high rank
among magical
exorcising books in
popular opinion, in fact one of the highest positions, is assigned in
has
its
various reasons,
it
now
all
easy to understand.
a classical book, as the principles on
It actually is
which
This
China to the almanack.
framed are believed to date back to the
is
earliest period of China's existence.
Moreover,
points out to the nation the proper days for

principal business of
all
and also the days which
life,
are unfit, unpropitious, and even dangerous,
performing
words,
it
anything
teaches
acts are in
of
nature, which
is
in
importance,
man on which
harmony with
it
the
for
other
days his various
the Tao, or the course of
the course of time.
the compass needle which shows
Thus being
man how
to the path of natural normality, the sole
to keep
means
of insuring happiness and welfare, the almanack

is
diametrically
opposed
abnormal, represented by
this respect
it
to
whatever
is
sie
the spectral world.
or
In
stands exactly on a par with the clas-

sics.
53
Finally, with the special object of keeping his
people in the one correct Tao, the emperor himself
gave the almanack to them
days of yore, and
in
we know
does so to this day, and
that whatever,
emanates from the Son of Heaven keeps specters in

complete subjection, because he
lord of
No
them
the chief and
is
all.
house in China
be without a copy of the
may
without
almanack,
or
miniature,
printed on
at
least
its
in
title-page
purpose with one or two
leaves affixed, as a charm, in accordance with the
pars pro toto principle, and sold in shops for one
These charms are deposited
coin or cash.
in corners
and cupboards, and such-like
places,
worn on
the body; and no bride passing
paternal
home
into that of her
omit the title-page
among
with which her pocket
Every man by
whereas, as
is
soul.
Yang
should be well developed
from her
bridegroom may
for that occasion
is
nature
and
exorcising objects
demon
have stated on page
possesses a shen or
have
the
in beds,
But
4,
filled.
expeller,
he himself
this
in other words,
Yang
soul
he should
vitality or health, bodily strength, boldness,
intellect,
and, above
as heaven possesses,
all
things, moral rectitude, such
which never deviates from the
54
Too or
right order of the universe.
man
beyond the attacks of
is
virtuous
spectral influences;
heaven, indeed, would not allow
him any harm.
its
specters to do
weak, languishing person
is
con-
tinually liable to disease, which, according to the
mode
Chinese
of thinking, means that he
Whenever sudden
the influence of specters.
under
is
attacks
of specters are feared, as in specter panics, people
crowd
together, crying
common
person
and shouting.
trait in specter
attacked, one
is
suffices to
put
tales, that
man running
the specters to
It is also
whenever any
to the rescue
Blowing on
flight.
the sick, the swooned, or the mad, or spurting water
on them from
the mouth, or spitting
preferably in the face, is a

the indwelling specters
is
identified with the
son
who
spittle is
exhales
it,
indeed, breath, being
and water from the mouth, or
men
of former times, of war-
and heroes, are much used as charms and
amulets,
and suspended
Tales abound of such
in
houses
men who
knocked them down, and
may
warm,
Yang, soul or shen of the per-
a condensation of breath.
Portraits of bold
riors
upon them,
to
drive out
means
good
killed
and temples.
assailed specters,
them.
Bold men
be seen to this day doing their exorcising
55
work, their long hair flowing down disorderly on

their backs, brandishing
swords and spears, jump-
ing and shouting
most awe-inspiring way
we
in the
should say behaving as madmen, scolding and
reviling.
Not seldom they wear
They appear
also
funeral
in
might be told of historical

specters,
whom
most of
endowed with the
terrifying masks.
processions.
specialists
were
at the
Much
in fighting
same time
faculty of seeing specters.
see these, they used
To
magic mirrors; or they ac-
quired their second sight by eating certain drugs,
composed for instance of the eyes of ravens, onion

seeds, blood of certain rare animals, and similar
hotch-potch, which in China, as everywhere, are
integral parts of the system of magic.
The
religion proper of the Chinese nation is the
Taoist religion, a system built up on the broad base
sketched in the
that the world
and
first
is
chapter, namely, the doctrine
ruled by shen and kwei, or gods
from the Yang and the Yin, the

of whose operations constitute the Tao
devils evolved
vicissitudes
As
or order of the world.
a system of religion,
purports to muzzle the
kwei,
operation of the shen;
is
It is
a cult of
all
it
it
and stimulate the
exorcising polytheism.
the gods with which East Asian
56
has
imagination
the
filled
universe,
marked by
and magic of a development so great that

match cannot be found in this world of men
ritualism
its
and
this
Exorcism
magic
is
exorcism.
place
this principally
by means of charms
spells.
The
occult
and ages
no
first
main function of Taoist priesthood,
the
which performs
and
the
in
is
to
limits.
tenet:
power ascribed
charms and
It
Words
puts
in
in
spells
China
may
be said to have
the forefront an important
are no idle sounds,
pen strokes are not
in all times
mere ink or
characters or
paint, but
they
constitute or produce the reality which they repre-
And whereas any
sent.
desired magical effect
be expressed in word or writing, charms and
can
may
spells
effect everything.
They have enabled Taoist and other priests for

ages to call down gods to their altars to make rain
;
or bright weather, thunder or snow.
They
are
used to divert or annihilate swarms of locusts, to

prevent attacks of tigers, banditti or rebels
to
ward
off conflagrations, burglary, theft; to deliver souls
out of
hell,
and
raise
them
to a better condition.
Making and using charms and

art
spells is a religious
and science of a high order, causing religion to

fulfil its
highest aim,
viz.,
57
human
the promotion of
happiness, as well in this life as in the life hereafter.
They have
in
bygone ages enabled many a man to
change himself into a beast.
To
this hour,
by being fastened up or burned, they
simply
houses of
rid
mice and vermin, forests of venomous snakes, the

air of mosquitoes.
they
may
By
the
hand of able magicians
be changed into living
fish,
good
to eat,
or into any species of animal, voracious or veno-
mous, calculated to wound or

enemies.
through
kill
the magician's
Charms may enable a man

fire
to
pass
unhurt, to sleep on the bottom of a
boiling stream, to travel over thousands of miles
and back
in a minute.
Men
hidden in the ground
and supposed to be specters have been
killed im-
mediately by being worked upon with charms, and,

the mistake being discovered, they were resuscitated
by means of contrary charms.
In short, the useful
miracles performed every day in China by
means of
charms are endless.

Mostly they are
and
points,
cabalistic
written or
characters
or lines
drawn on paper or little

The effect
boards, intelligible to magicians only.
of
religious
priests
is
ceremonies
performed
by
Taoist
determined by the charms they use or
58
burn during
it,
most of which are directed against
the kwei; the signs they bear express destruction
of specters by means of swords, bows, light,
fire,
gods, and saints, as also orders given to specters

to
or to gods to come and, by their mere
flee,
destroy
presence,
specters.
They generally bear
the impress of a seal, because a written order or
mandate
is
China null and void unless
in
More powerful than any
sealed.
others
it
is
are the
charms which have been bestowed upon mankind
by mighty gods, holy men, or

effect of
any decree or command whatever depends
in the first place
whom
in fact the
saints,
it
the
upon
power of
Supremely
proceeds.
the being
excellent
from
are,
of
course, the charms which have been given to the
world by Lao-tsze, the reputed patriarch of Taoism.
Charms
are used in great profusion to cure the
fever-stricken
and the insane, as well as others
thought to be the victims of demoniacal

patients are given water to drink in
illness.
Such
which ashes of
charms are mixed, or over which mighty
spells
have
been pronounced by clever magicians, who derive

a
considerable
part
medical practices.
of their income
Or
such water
them, or throughout the room.
is
from such
sprinkled over
In the meantime,
$Q
are loudly vociferated over the patient, to
spells
compel the demon to depart needles are thrust into

;
on
his body, cauterizations are applied
swords
it,
brandished over the bed.

It is
an old custom to accuse the Chinese of wor-
The
shiping devils and sacrificing to them.

cusation has been disputed, but there
And no
truth in
it.
wonder, since the Chinese are inveterate
worshipers of the dead, and

are so
is
ac-
many
monolatry
among
the dead there
De-
revengeful, malicious specters.
is,
no doubt, a necessary element
in
animistic religion.
Demonolatry
is
mentioned by
Wang
Chung, an
To
author of the second century of our era.

day, counterfeit paper
all
money
is
strewed about in
burial processions, to appease the evil
which might roam around.

of husbands or children,
rifice
to the specter
who
is
In case of the
women
this
spirits
illness
are wont to sac-
the author of the malady,
generally going out for the purpose into the street,
according
This
to
is
to
the
instructions
of
soothsayer.
done especially when the specter
is
deemed
be an earth demon, the author of troubles in
pregnancy, or of infantile ailments.
Often these
specters are regularly sacrificed to twice in each
60
month, on the second and the sixteenth day.
Many
temples contain images of gods of so low a rank in

the divine hierarchy that
it
is
impossible to say
whether they are not rather devils

gods, for the dissemination of
in the service of
Such beings
evil.
are worshiped by the people on a most extensive
Tales abound in the books, in which specters
scale.
harming men with no other purpose but to force them to offer food and paper
money in order to prevent worse evil. These facts
are depicted as
show
that
may even
demonolatry
dimensions in China than
religion in
is
attain
larger
generally suggested.
which the fear of devils performs
so great a part that they are even worshiped and

sacrificed to, certainly represents religion in a
low
strange to see such a religion prevail
stage.
It is
among
a nation so highly civilized as China
generally supposed to be
and does
this
is
not compel
us to subject our high ideas of that civilization to
No
some revision?
selves a
little
enthusiastic
doubt
we ought
to rid our-
of the conception urged upon us by
friends
of
China,
that
her
religion
stands high enough to want no foreign religion to
supplant
it.
animism, with
The
its
truth
is
that
its
universalistic
concomitant demonistic doctrine,

renders
the
Chinese people
unhappy;
6l
for
most
unhappy must be a people always living in a thousand a hundred thousand fears of invisible beings
which surround the path of
life
every hand, at every moment.
God
that
man
shall
it
have a religion
happy, the Chinese religion
shaped by God.
If
with dangers on
is
is
in
certainly
the will of
order to be
no
religion
CHAPTER
III
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
DESTRUCTION of
and
evil in this
world by exorcising
baffling the kwei or specters of the Yin, which
are the authors of
evil,
is,
as
lectures have shown, the alpha
China's
religion.
have
neutralization of specters
preceding two
and the omega of

that
such
effected, except
by a
also
is
my
stated
highly developed system of exorcising magic, by

the help of the shen or gods, the powers constitut-
ing the
universal
Yang, and therefore naturally
opposed to the Yin and
its
specters.
Having now
given an idea of the world of specters,

tell
of
the gods
have to
or shen, their exploitation and
worship.
The
greatest
dogma
already mentioned: the
of specters,
is
in China's theology I
number of gods,
like that
infinite, for the simple reason that
every particle of the immeasurable, universal
may
be a god.
have
We
Yang
thus find ourselves before an
unlimited polytheism, standing side by side with an

62
ANCESTRAL, -WORSHIP
unlimited
Both
polydemonism.
63
are
bounded by
human
nothing but the circumstance that even the

art of inventing
gods has
The shen or gods
its limits.
naturally form
categories: those which inhabit
have inhabited them
men
and
all
the
human
distinct
bodies or
the souls of living and dead
forming,
rest,
sense, parts of the universe.
ber of the
two
human
In
effect,
each
he has a shen,
race, since
widest
the
in
is
mema god,
and each god may become a man by descending

into a
if
human
A man may
body.
which dwells
the shen or soul
in a flourishing state
substance,
or,
composing
man may,
in
we might
his
fact, to the Chinese there
many
be a powerful god
soul,
is
him be powerful,
say, if the
no question
In
at all that
for this reason, exercise power,
over the gods, and bend the gods to his
in the
The
will.
means by which he may do so are numerous
may be comprised
Yang
be abundant.
they
terms worship, invocation,
magic.
Thus man,
in the Tao, or natural order of the
world, occupies a place

place
is
among
the gods, and this
higher or lower, according to his mental
capacities.
rank in the
Among
first
these
capacities
the
Chinese
place virtue, intellect, knowledge,
64
meaning
especially
knowledge of magic, magical
wisdom.
l^The Chinese mind is logical, as simple pagan
minds generally are?j Therefore they cannot possibly see
during
why
necessarily increase in
that this soul
after his death;
power
There
nor
should be invoked and worshiped
exclusively after death has separated
body.
man
the shen or divinity existing in a
his life as his soul, breath, or vitality, should
exists, in fact, naturally
it
from the
and
logically,
religious worship and invocation of living men.

An instance of it is mentioned in a book written
as early as the fourth century before our era;

refers to a
man
it
of great perfection, worshiped as
a local divinity, and invoked for abundant harvests.
Instances abound in Chinese literature of altars
and temples erected

men,
pitiating
aid.
the
for
in
honor of renowned living

of
purpose
them with
sacrifices
have myself visited
Chinchew,
in
worshiping
in
and pro-
and invoking
1887 a
their
temple in
Fuhkien, erected by public subscrip-
Tso Tsung-tang, a former viceroy of that

His
province, removed to another high post.
tion for
image represented him

official dress.
I also
in a sitting attitude, in full
saw
his
images and
tablets
on
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
65
some chapels of Buddhist convents in that

Such altars, temples and images are
province.
altars in
often
very
with
erected,
imperial
permission,
formally requested, in honor of mandarins after
they have departed from the region where they
have gained the sympathy of a grateful people.

Such worthies thus continue to protect those peoeven though, on their high seat far away, they
ple,
themselves are not aware that they do.
Solemnly,
every year, on the birthday of such an one, the

administrators of the building do reverence there,
sacrificing incense, food, spirits,
and prostrations, to
is
with bows
it
image
on the spot with a
performance or a puppet show.

object
living
empire
tea,
his soul residing in the
or tablet; and they entertain

theatrical
and
the
of
worship
emperor who
is
throughout
actually
the
reigning.
In the chief city of each province, department, and

district
altar,
there
exists
an
official
building with an
bearing a tablet with this inscription: "The
emperor,
may
he
live ten
thousand years, ten thou-
sand times ten thousand years"; dragons, the em-
blems of imperial dignity, are carved
around the
New
5
inscription.
On
his
in the
wood
birthday and on
Year's day, as also on the day of the winter
66
solstice,
he
is
mandarins
of
at
solemnity,
Do
worshiped on the spot by

the
place
differ
great
Chinaman
is
not idolatry
you that
will tell
any
does not
it
from worship paid to gods.
Especially,
their
with
conjointly,
the
a very early hour in the morning.
not believe that this worship
intelligent
all
death.
however,
men
Worship
of the
are
worshiped after
dead
is
logical,
natural continuation of the worship of the living,

in the first place of fathers
authorities
triarchal
in
and
social
and mothers, the highest
system certainly possesses
highest stage
in
of development which
where reached on
the globe.
It
and mother, so that
China has
It
forbids
authority,
has any-
places the child

its
father
has to pay to both the utmost
it
obedience,
respect,
in all time
children
China the
it
under the almost absolute authority of
amount of
The pa-
life.
family
subjection,
which
expressed by the term hiao.
ever to withdraw
whatever their age
may
from
that
and
this
be,
renders secession from the family stock exceptional.
family, as a consequence, after a
tions, develops into a clan, in
or
matriarch
naturally
authority and respect.
which the patriarch
commands
And,
few genera-
the
highest
just as naturally, this
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
hiao
is
paid to
converted after their death into worship
them
In the
China
the
67
by
all,
first place,
is
all
the offspring.
then, worship of the dead in
worship of ancestors.
It
signifies
that
family ties with the dead are by no means
broken, and that the dead continue to exercise their

authority
and protection.^ They are the natural
patron divinities of the
Chinese people, their house-
hold gods, affording protection against
and thus creating

the most natural
specters,
Ancestor worship being
felicity.
form of soul worship, the
also quite natural that
we
find
it
fact
mentioned
is
in the
ancient classics so often, and in such detail that
we
cannot doubt that
ancient faith.
of the nation's
cestors
It
may
first
it
also the core of the
even have been the kernel
and
no doubt were
was
in
The an-
oldest religion.
East Asia the
first
gods,
before mental development and culture had caused

that part of the
world to invent other shcn.
This cult of the departed commences immediately

after decease.
first place,
It
assumes various forms.
that of a scrupulous care
In the
expended on
the washing and shrouding of the corpse by the
wife and children.
Costly robes, and sometimes
68
even
are during lifetime presented as gifts
coffins,
by children
to their father
and mother.
Both before the coffining and thereafter, up
to
the seventh day, sacrifices are offered as well to

the
to the soul,
body as
gering near the spot.
come
to the house of
which
is
conceived as
mourning
lin-
who
Relatives and friends
to condole with the
bereaved family, bring their offerings, particularly
paper imitations of hollow bars of silver and gold,
which are burned, and thus transmuted into
and gold for use

clergy are
mourning
soul,
j
in
present
the
next world. (Buddhist
celebrate
the house
in
the funeral procession emerges
the 'house, the
of
ceremonies for the repose of the
their
When
to
silver
mourners offer a farewell
on the premises.
the occupants of
from
sacrifice
In the case of a high dignitary,
many houses en
route prostrate
themselves, at the same time presenting an offering
on a
table,
moments
while the procession halts for some
at the spot.
Very considerable
the burial, especially
made
also are the outlays

if
the deceased
was
for
the head
of a family blessed with offspring, rich and respected, or
endowed with a high
service of the state.
In the
position in the
official ritual
prescribed
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
69
for the state religion, detailed directions, based
on
matter in the classical books, are given for the

burial
and funeral ceremonies of emperors, em-
and members of the imperial house, of
presses,
mandarins of the nine
classes, of the
and common
There are in that ritual also
rules laid
citizens.
down
upper classes
in relation to the sacrifices
which
are to be offered to the departed in accordance
with their various social positions and grades.
Those
five in
ment,
sacrifices,
number.
is
which are wholly
The
classical, are
shortly after the inter-
first,
offered in the house before the soul tablet
of the deceased, and subsequently repeated twice.
Many
persons extend this ceremony with Buddhist
ritual
into
departed,
silver
the
form of a solemn mass
for
the
during which very great quantities of
paper and other paper objects, regarded as
of actual value and currency in the next world, are
burned, and thus despatched
through flames and smoke.
after
the
departed
The second
sacrifice
follows on the hundredth day; the third and fourth
on the anniversary of the

the
twenty-seventh
death,
month.
marks the termination of
and the
This
the
on
sacrifice
final
period
fifth
of
family
7O
mourning.
sacrifice
is
thenceforth offered on
each anniversary of the death.
An
essential part of this cult of the departed
mourning of the
the
and
in
the
official
family.
dynastic
is
In the classical books

ritual,
mourning garb of sackcloth or hemp
sorts
five
of
are prescribed,
regulated in quality of material according to the
degree of relationship of the wearer to the deceased
No
mourning signifies a sacrificial act by which the mourner offers or devotes

to the departed his good clothing and valuables.
person.
Of
doubt, the
course, the custom prevails of despatching to
the next world, by burning at the various sacrifices
most usually, however, great

For the
quantities of paper imitations of them.
real clothes or silks,
neglect of the period of
punishment
is
mourning severe corporeal

the penalty threatened in the Code of
Laws.
Besides their clothes and bodily ornaments, the
children, while in
the food
take; that
is
mourning, devote to the departed
which they themselves would otherwise

is
to say, they fast.
an ancient canonical
from several passages

that the fasting for the
This fasting, too,
institution,
in
the
and
it
classical
is
clear
writings
dead was carried out with
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
the severest rigor in olden days.
ritual prescribes the penalty
bamboo
71
The present
state
of thirty blows with a
for any participation in festive meals dur-
ing the period of mourning.
Objects of value and of daily use, such as

clothes, books,
been from
the
and the
like,
as well as foods,
silks,
have
most ancient days buried in the
grave with the dead, especially those of high rank.

In process of time, however, imitations
wood,
clay, straw,
have been
instead
paper, and of other materials
substituted
of placing
for
them
the
in
the
real
grave or in the dwelling.
things;
grave
corpse, they are offered in sacrifice,
the
made of
and
with the
and burned on
Bars of silvered
papers play the chief part in these ceremonies; at
almost every sacrifice they are burned in great

quantity.
Slaves and servants, wives and concu-
bines are also burned,
i.e.,
in paper imitations.
They
point back to the time when actual human sacrifices
677
were the custom.

B.C.,
fact,
even in those which are
statements of persons
own
In
who
in writings since
classical,
we
read
have, either of their
free will or under compulsion, followed the
dead into the grave, that
is,
accompanied them into
72
the
This was chiefly done in the
next world.
interment of princes.
The voluntary
suicide
of
committed
widows,
with the idea that, as the body
laid with the
is
husband's corpse in his grave, the soul will accom-
pany him
into the other world, frequently occurs
to-day in China,
and the
histories
custom has ever been an ordinary
prove that this

practice.
Very
often the emperor honored widows, thus faithful,
with a triumphal arch of granite, which proclaimed

their
fame
to the people for centuries
means many another wife was induced

excellent an
example.
and by
this
to follow so
Moreover, soul
tablets
of
such faithful spouses had the honor of being received into the local state temples as those of
virtuous
in
the
Confucian
obvious that suicides of this

rest
sense.
classical
sort,
on the idea that the widow
women
It
is
or burials alive,
the property
is
of her late husband, and ought, together with his
other treasures, to
world.
accompany him
from self-murder, must renounce

matrimony
It
is
into the next
In any case, widows, should they shrink

all
thought of
for the remainder of their lives.
only natural that in a country where so
much emphasis
has from the earliest times been
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
laid
73
on ancestor worship, the graves
which the
in
souls of the dead repose, as well as their bodies,
must always be objects of great

large tumuli
erection of
was ever
for
solicitude.
The
princes and nobles
the rule in China, and the
mausoleums
emperors and princes were magnificent

structures.
Those of the present ruling dynasty
built
for
certainly belong to the greatest
man
the hand of
and grandest which
ever produced.
everybody according to his
Even
social
the people,
position
and
wealth, expend on their graves the greatest care and
much money.
Indeed, the abodes of the dead are cared for
excellently
because
they
dwellings of their souls.
are
thought of
Like their soul
their graves protect their posterity,
destiny.
among
On
this
ground
it
is
as
the
tablets,
and rule
their
the general practice
the Chinese, in order to secure their
own
prosperity and wealth and the well being and hap-
and grandchildren, to choose

parents in such way and in such
piness of their children
the graves of their

place
that
the
bodies
therein under the
and the souls may dwell
good influence of the
fung-shui or "wind and water"; that

the climate, which
is
is
so-called
to say, of
determined and regulated by
74
the winds, that bring rain or drought.
words,
care,
in
In other
order that the dead, in return for
all this
bestow blessings, their offspring choose
may
them where the Too, or world
resting places for
order, which creates the climate, may work unhin-
dered, and may, so to speak, concentrate
its
This fetishism in reference to the dead

as the history of China,
sway.
Doctors versed
energy.
is
as old
and exercises untrammeled

in this
geomantic wisdom,
a class of specialists, apply their arts not merely in

the search for lucky spots for graves, but also in
the
building of
temples
and houses.
They
de-
termine the place of each part of the grave by
means of
tions,
occult calculations of fortunate conjunc-
grounded
philosophy,
on various
astrology,
and
factors
taken
chronology.
from
These
fung-shui professors mostly take as the basis of

their determinations of suitable spots for the dwell-
ings of the living and the dead, the forms and configurations of the
hills,
the windings of the rivers
and brooks, as well as the shapes of houses, temples,
and rocks;
in
according to them,
wind and
rain.
short,
everything on
may modify
earth,
those influences of
Families living in easy circum-
stances, are, of course, bent
on maintaining their
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
prosperity,
7$
and therefore are compelled to secure
for their dead, burial places
upon which
the
good
influences of nature concentrate as fully as possible.
To
this
end they must consult more than
one geomancer; each of these

trol
the result generally
To
men
and verify the decisions of
all
for their time,

in the
is,
that
of these sages earnest
and for
their
all
thus
con-
may
the others,
and
none of them agree.
money must be paid
numerous excursions
mountains, they must also be compensated by
the family.
There certainly
is
not
much exaggera-
tion in the assertion of the Chinese themselves that
many
well-to-do
unable to bridle their
families,
passion for fung-shui, are either ruined, or brought

to the brink of poverty
by geomancers.
Pending the acquisition of an auspicious grave,

the deceased parent remains unburied, either in the
house, or
somewhere
in
Al-
shed or temple.
though public opinion decries long postponement

of burial as the height of unfilialness, and law and
government threaten
it
with severe punishment, yet
these three mighty factors combined stand powerless in the matter,
sands
of
and regularly every year thou-
dead are deprived of a
because of the
timely
demands of fung-shui.
It
burial
is,
of
course, a very inconvenient matter to have to keep
a coffined corpse at
home
Most
for a long time.
Chinese, moreover, firmly believe that
burial
if
is
postponed for, say, a year, or longer, the corpse
may
bring
on the house.
evil
Indeed, even the
most angelic soul might be naturally driven

ness
so long depriyed of
if
final rest in the
tomb.
It
all
to
mad-
chance of obtaining
might even reunite
itself
with the corpse, change into a kiang-shi, and
kill
the inmates of the house.
kiang-shi
is
a horrible, ferocious specter, fond
of catching and killing passers-by.
It
is
more
malicious than any other specter because, having
a body at
its
service,
vigor than other
it
possesses
more strength and
disembodied ghosts.
Kiang-shi
are obviously parallels of the living corpses, styled
which
vampires,
during
the
eighteenth
century
excited the whole of Europe, and were believed to

leave their graves to prey
living.
of
its
upon the blood of the
In China a vampire generally breaks out

coffin
in
the night, as the powers of evil
specters are paralyzed by daylight.

kills
its
which
it
covered
prey by sucking
its
completes in a few seconds.

all
It
commonly
blood, a proceeding
Its
over with long, white hair, and
body
its
is
nails
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
77
are exceedingly long, which reminds us of a belief,

also prevalent
among Europeans,
nails continue to
grow
to render a kiang-shi harmless
thing, coffin
out of the
may
it
and
all,
by
fire,
and fry
coffin,
that the hair
after death.
it
is
best
and
way
to destroy every-
or to take the corpse

in a big iron pan.
dead
also be reduced to the
The
state
It
by belaboring
with a broom.
It is
very
common
to deposit coffined bodies, for
which no proper burial
site
has as yet been found,
outside the town, in small cottages, or in Buddhist
There even
temples.
exist large buildings especially
erected for the purpose, capable of holding several
hundreds of
coffins.
Some,
built for coffins of the
wealthy, are surrounded by lofty walls, loopholed

for
coffin,
and hold
the family to
robbers
Indeed,
musketry.
it
until a
which
it
belongs;
picion of anything of this sort

relatives
to keep
of the deceased,
watch by
night.
might remove a
ransom has been paid by
is
so,
when a
sus-
entertained by the
armed men are hired
In such
cities
of the dead,
Buddhist priests reside to perform occasional cere-
monies for the repose of the

Care of the graves of
souls.
illustrious rulers
and other
persons belonging to earlier dynasties, whose pos-
78
terity
has died out, or are no longer in a position
to fulfil this duty,
by the various
undertaken by the
is
local
authorities
dominions the graves
lasts as
any descendant, or until the

his
grave
lost.
is
whose
and
official
lie.
Worship of an ancestor
and of
in
state,
long as there
memory
is
of himself
Those who have been
long dead are, of course, gradually forgotten, and

their cult
The
is
replaced by that of later generations.
ancestral cult
is
regulated in the state ritual
by special rescripts for

people.
Many
all
classes of the Chinese
well-to-do
family
its
possesses
ancestor temple, where the soul tablets of
older
its
generations are preserved, and where sacrifices are

offered to them.
in the principal
In the dwelling house, the spot
room opposite
to the entrance
is
set apart for the worship of the latest generations.
Here stands a high
table,
which has on
tablets of parents, grandparents,
it
the
and even of
still
older generations, not yet removed to the temple,

side
by side with images of other domestic gods,
which are
not
ancestors.
have shrines for these
tablets
The
and
well-to-do
idols.
there
table in
front of the altar serves for the offerings which
are presented by the family on various fixed days
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
79
in the calendar, with the father or grandfather at
their head.
This
lated
ancestral
by the
state
and regu-
sanctioned
worship,
religion,,
is
actually oonceived
may
have.
Nevertheless, the people carry this cult to
much
to be
the
greater
only
religion
the
Everywhere
lengths.
towns they have,
in
the
people
in
villages
and
streets
in
and
in
squares,
chapels or temples built for the worship of im-
portant persons
are
who have
as
regarded
cult
state, as
we
Such
historical.
worship of the dead

of the
either actually lived, or
is
of
extension
practised also in the religion
shall see in
Chapter V,
would continually be subject
else that
danger of
to the
being declared heterodox by mandarins, and for-
bidden; and the temples would be pulled
down by
them.
There_jareJL_then, for every man__or
China three
worship
altars
exercise
woman
The
grave-altar
on the front of the tumulus
the poorest description have none.
is
in
of ancestral
one at home, one on_the grave, one
temple of the clan.

stone,
for the
in
Jhe
of bricks or
only graves of
The mausolea
of the great and grand of this earth have, in front
of the mound, a temple containing the altar with
8O
the tablet of the soul which

in the grave.
of
is
building
On
sacrifice in
ming
In
grandeur.
on the grave
the
first
some periodical
after the burial
sacrifices are offered
one
resting with the body
every imperial mausoleum this
exquisite
months and years
is
later
on there
is
every year, in spring, in the Ts'ing-
season, reserved for visits to the family tombs
and for cleaning and repairing

and ten thousands of people
these.
Thousands
living
away from
home, then undertake long journeys

important
feast,
to attend this
but for the proper celebration of
which the fung-shui, or beneficent influences of the
would not work properly and would
grave,
no blessings
this
to the family.
festival of the
tombs
yield
In the imperial family

is
observed with great
pomp, and the emperors frequently visit the mausOf course, the tombs are visited
olea in person.
on many other occasions
The
many
day
is
ancestral
too,
is
annually visited
times for worship and sacrifice.

that of the winter solstice,
reaches
of the
temple,
also.
its
extremity of lifelessness.
tribe,
whose
The
when nature
Every branch
tablets are contained in
duty bound to attend.
The
chief
itself
visitors
it,
is
in
wear cere-
monial dress, or the best garments they have to
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
The
show.
8l
so-called Continuator, the oldest
descendant of the stock or trunk of the

sides.
who
he
It is
arranged on the
of the clan,
who
offers the food, tea,
He
altar.
is,
pontiff, chief
its
tribe, pre-
and
spirits
indeed, the high priest
among
its
other priests
are the oldest male descendants of
istrator of a
house altar with
dignity thus
actually
several
its
owner or admin-
branches, and, as such, each the
means
male
Patriarchal
tablets.
China sacerdotal
in
dignity for the worship of ancestors.
Mencius
China's second great philosopher, in-
is
His writings,
ferior only to Confucius.

classical, that is to say, are
reckoned
are
too,
the fun-
among
damental codes of China's government, society, religion,
and
ethics.
This great
man
has said
things are unfilial, and having no sons
singular
dogma, we
parents.
it
does
is
the worst."
crimes against
no longer sound
when we simply paraphrase

It
"Three
should say, which stigma-
tizes sonlessness as the greatest of all
But
is
strange
the expression thus:
the highest duty of a son to have posterity
who, when he
is
dead,
may
continue the worship of
parents and ancestors, lest this holy, religious service
come
to
an end.
The connection of
worship with the greatest of

6
all
ancestral
virtues of
man
in
82
China could hardly be more vigorously emphasized

than in the
in
way
famous dogma of
which Mencius did
That
it.
his has, to this day, exercised a
mighty influence upon Chinese family
It
life.
has
driven the nation to polygamy, forcing those whose

first
or principal wife bears no sons, to take a con-
cubine,
order to procreate sons in her stead;
in
these children legally are the property of the principal wife.
Mencius' dogma prompts the rich to
marry more than one concubine,
in order to insure
The
the line of posterity in the best possible way.
dogma
has also created a system of adoption.
who
deed, for him
has no sons, notwithstanding
marriages with a wife and concubines,
duty to adopt
In-
boy of
the
same
a sacred
it is
This
tribe.
adopted Continuator in every respect, both in rights
and
duties, holds position as a
retically, this
genuine son.
Theo-
system prevents every family from
dying out.
It is ancestral
man
the
protection
his family,
Therefore
dead
worship which, by bestowing on

of the deceased
members of
endows him with wealth and
prosperity.]
his possessions actually are those of the
indeed, these continue to dwell
and
live
with
him, and the laws of paternal and patriarchal
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
authority will have
it
it
is
theft
is
The wealth of
tom
and
institution
in other
the tribe to
consequently
any goods
forbid,
is
marry
worship of parents
of the Chinese people.

in the ancient
frequency that no doubt

kernel of religious
torical,
life
religious
As
possible that
is
state
development of
all
it
and
said,
much
was the
as early as the oldest his-
religion,
ing to the classics,
have
books with so
and even semi-historical times.
tem of the
by mar-
it
one farthing.
have, then, to consider the
mentioned
left
into another according to the
and ancestors as the very core "of the
it
quite
words, that any daughter having
riage, shall inherit
social life
alienate
shall leave the family or
law of exogamy, or destined to leave
We
the
committed from the dead; national cus-
rationally, that
clan
To
property of the dead.
the
owners
that parents are the
of everything a child possesses.

living
83
which
is
In the sysa
ritualistic
things religious which, accord-
must have been prevalent
in old
China, ancestor worship prevails as the sole form

of popular religion recognized by the state, correctly
speaking,
as
the
sole
religion
people are officially entitled to have

is
heterodoxy.
It is, in
which the
all
the rest
fact, exclusively
for this
84
down
cult that ritual regulations are laid
for the
people in the dynastic statutes.
Being thus ineradicably implanted in the national

mind and morals, the worship of ancestors is the
obstacle
greatest
unless
Christianity
mandment "Thou
:
me,"
that
the
to
Christianity.
overlooks the
it
ceases to be Christian
it
cannot possibly tolerate that worship

converts.
It
com-
great
have no other gods before
shalt
to say, unless
is
of
spread
has been pretended that
her
among
it
might be
connived at by missionaries, ancestor worship being
merely veneration.
But
this
is
affectation
all
vain attempt to reconcile things which are irrec-
The
oncilable.
actually
are
its
truth
is,
that the dead of a family
patron divinities, worshiped and
sacrificed to like all other gods, with quite similar
incense,
spirits,
food,
and
genuflexions and khotaos,
dainties,
all
similar
with the plain object
The
of obtaining their blessings.
quite
truth
is
also, that
ancestral worship answers exactly to idolatry

fetishism,
it
and
being addressed to tablets deemed just
as well as images of gods to be inhabited by the

souls
of those
Christianity
whom
impossible
they
to
represent.
tolerate
It
ancestral
is
for
wor-
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
ship, almost as impossible as
renounce
To
it is
85
Chinaman
to a
to
it.
renounce
it
would, indeed, mean renunciation
of the great national duty expressed by the word

hiao;
it
would mean
patriarchal
against paternal and
revolt
which imperiously demands
authority,
that the offspring shall,
by
sacrificing, protect pro-
And
genitors from hunger and misery.
authority
the cement of social
is,
as
such, imposed
upon the nation as

ethics,
and
the
foundation of morality,
to sin against
politics;
is
rebellion, severely punishable,
He who
it
means oppo-
and
is
even with death.

is,
in
fact,
merely treated by his
No wonder
family as an outcast.
laws
its
renounces ancestral worship
leniently dealt with if he
prevail.
by law and government
sition to social order, to the state

it
paternal
China, but
life in
which dissolution and disorder would
for
It
is
that the
good
Chinese despise and decry Christian converts as

the
scum of the
converts, virtually
away from
nation.
Is
it
strange also that
and openly turning
their hearts
the worship of their fathers, are rather
phenomenal, and those

participation in that
who
abstain
from clandestine
worship are rare?
China-
86
man may
renounce
he will renounce
Allow
me
other gods, but his ancestors
all
and
last
least of
to recapitulate:
it
all.
is
in their role of
enemies of ancestral worship that missionaries show

themselves before the Chinese in the most hateful
and apostles of heresy of the
light; as preachers
worst kind.
are struck by the anathema of
They
Confucianism; that
that of
its
zealots
is
and
to say, in the first place

votaries,
who
by
are the learned
imbued with the dogmatism of the classics

further by that of the mandarins recruited from
class
that
and the whole imperial government,
class,
solidly based on the doctrines and writings of Con-
fucius and his school.

all
means revolutionism, enmity to
these powers,
the
state,
Christianity, in the eye of
to society,
and
social
order.
There
is
even more: as the classics and their principles are

the books which maintain the
among man, and
therewith
felicity, missionaries
ship
of ancestors,
Tao of the universe
human
who preach
which
is
happiness and
against the wor-
prescribed by
against
heaven,
the
principal
power
there a greater crime imaginable?

that,
when
attacks are
Is
those
itself,
and
therein.
Is
books, are revolting against the universe
it
unnatural
made on missionary
estab-
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
lishments, the literati
87
and even the mandarins so
often are the secret instigators, or at least connive,
standing in the background as
silent spectators?
/I hope I have pointed out that the predominant
position of ancestral worship in the religious

social life of the
upon
the
worship
Chinese
principle,
is,
certainly as
that this worship
itself,
material welfare of the nation,
source of the national

is
in ancestral
and
in the main, resting
old as ancestral
a rich source of
is
if
not the principal
there
prosperity.) Certainly
worship an element of
filial
piety,
and of gratitude toward great and admirable men,

for the
good examples which they have
offspring.
But
just as certain
is
it
set to the
that this
wor-
ship perfectly responds to our conception of fetishism,
being,
and graves
tion,
indeed,
worship
on account of
of
their
objects
tablets
supposed anima-
and with the object to obtain from them
We may
material advantage and welfare.

sort of religion
an animistic
vantageous; some food,

houses,
and
puppets
lottery,
spirits,
of
call this
always very ad-
paper mock money,
paper,
are
the
stakes;
the prizes are material blessings a thousand times
more
valuable, bestowed by the ancestors.
Where
88
the fool in China
is
whole
his
More
an
life this
the forefathers
in the
many
is
the
as
it
Indeed, the punishing hand of
always present on the house altar
temple of the family; will not
son or daughter
worship certainly
life,
refuse to play for
enriching wheel of fortune?
value ancestor worship seems to have as
ethical element.
and
who would
from
evil?
Ancestral
of family
chains the descendants of the clan around
common
throw
ancestral altar.
much
Chinese family
It
thus fosters a spirit
life
light
and
life.
most powerful
Its
study
upon the mysteries
social institutions,
formation and development of which

cised a
deter
strengthens the ties
of mutual help in emergencies of

will
it
influence.
it
upon
of
the
has exer-
CHAPTER
IV
CONFUCIANISM
-!N the preceding chapter
portant phenomenon
in
Asian part of the human race

to the dignity of a
have treated an im-
the religion of the East

:
the elevation of
but principally after his death.

this
phenomenon
is
same principal
soul, breath,
itself is
owing
is
man
or
is
animated by the
life
by which the
animated, namely, the Yang, each
part or particle of which
same
to that
have shown that
a logical consequence of the
great universalistic idea that
universe
man
god or shen, sometimes before,
is
a shen or god.
universalistic animation,
But,
man
not the only god, not the sole promoter of felicity
by destroying
the Yin.
and
evil
caused by the kwei or
festing itself therein,
The
of
In a universe actually composed of gods
specters, every part of
tribute to
spirits
man's happiness,
greatest
god
it,
as far as
is,
is
every power maniit
does or
may
con-
a god.
of course, the heavenly
sphere, the highest ruler of the Tao, or order of

the world, being itself the annual revolution of the
QO
seasons, of production and
second in rank
the sun
earth.
is
And
life.
the divinity
Principal gods also are
and the moon, by which heaven bestows
warmth and
its
light; further the stars, clouds, winds,
rain, thunder,
and other agents of heaven's power
and influence the subdivisions of the earth are

;
gods: mountains,
These, side
rivers, seas.
by
also
side
with souls of deified men, compose the pantheon of

China.
They and
their
worship are mentioned
oldest books, the classics.
(cf.
p.
48)
works maintain the Tao, or universal
that these
order
We know
in China's
among men hence everything

;
they say must
be adopted as law for the guidance of government
and consequently, those gods and

the
constitute
taoist,
state
their
ancient,
religion,
worship
classical,
orthodox.
This religion
deed, the
is
generally called Confucian.
name of Confucius
is
In-
inseparably asso-
ciated with the nine classical or canonical books.
Certainly he did not write them

to a
much
they belong partly
older, partly to a later period.
He
is
held to have written merely one king, the Ch'oonts'iso-,
three other kings, called the Shu, or
Book
of History, the Shi, or Songs, and the Yih, or Meta-
CONFUCIANISM
9!
morphoses, he merely compiled or edited, and even

this
In the books which con-
not be true.
may
stitute the
Li
ki,
he and his disciples are mentioned
so frequently that this classic appears to have been
put together from information about him, and from

sayings originating with himself.
And
the remain-
ing four, called shu, or books, originated almost

entirely
sage; they contain
with disciples of the
sayings and conversations of their master mostly

of an ethical and political complexion.
The Chinese empire was created in the third

century before our era. The mighty Shi Hwang
of the Ts'in dynasty, the
first
in streams of blood the
complex of feudal
which up to
that time
imperator, destroyed
had existed
in the birthplace
of higher East Asian culture, in the

fucius
and Mencius, and
sovereigns and sages of
states
homes of Con-
in the
dominions of earlier
whom
Chinese myths and
fancy have never ceased to dream.
But the house
of Ts'in did not last long enough to organize the

great
creation
of
after a
collapsed
the
greatest
of
its
sons.
It
few years, giving place to the
glorious house of Han, which maintained itself and

its
throne
Christ.
till
The
the third century after the birth of
reign of this dynasty
signified
the
92
permanent triumph of classicism or Confucianism,
and (which means the same thing) of
Taoism or
the young,
universalism.
taoistic
enormous empire,
constitution,
political
universalistic
In
organizing
statesmen built up
its
naturally,
and
formally,
systematically taking for their guides the princi-
and precedents of the old feudal time,
ples, rules,
that
to say, the ancient literature, in so far as
is
was not
irrecoverably lost in the flames,
Hwang,
in a frenzy of pride,
With a view
it.
had kindled to devour
to the completion of this gigantic
task of organization, this classical literature
sought
Thus
for,
restored,
there
it
which She
arose
was
amended, commented upon.
ultra-conservative
classical,
state constitution, which,
handed down as an
heir-
loom
to all succeeding dynasties, exists to this day.
The
religious elements, contained in the
were necessarily incorporated

tion, together
with the
into
political,
that
classics,
constitu-
seeing that every
single thing contained in the classics was to be pre-
served and developed as a holy institution of the

ancients,
in other terms,
those religious elements
became a
state religion.
This, as a consequence,
is
now
fully
principles
are
two thousand years

unquestionably
old.
older,
Its
even
basal
much
CONFUCIANISM
93
older than the classical writings by which they have
As
been preserved.
the case with
is
that of China's religion
many
origins,
darkness of
lost in the
is
antiquity.
The
state
classicism.
versalism, or Taoism.
and orthodox,
called
be called Confucianism, uni-
may
It
may be
accordingly,
religion,
It
may
be called canonical,
only one Tao, or
for, since there is
order of the world, and one set of bibles or classics
promulgating and maintaining the Tao among men,

other
all
must naturally be inconsistent
religion
with the universe
itself,
and consequently dangerous
human
for the government and the
and policy thus absolutely forbid
and religious
means
and
doctrine.
for ensuring
this
means
life
But
other religion
Indeed, there
only one
is
and prosperity to mankind,
consists in
to nature itself.
Wisdom
race.
all
making
all
acts
for the cooperation
conform
and
ing of the universe, of heaven and earth, no

existence,
is
and
possible.
state,
least
of
all
a flourishing existence,
Blessed, therefore,
which submits
bless-
human
is
the society, the
in all things to the
powers of
nature by conforming implicitly to nature's Tao, or
way,
its
ducting
course or progress, that

itself
in
all
things
in
is
to say,
by con-
harmony with the
94
classics.
But woe
presumptuous being who
to the
ventures to do anything which, even most remotely,
can be
considered
mean
audacity would
in ruin
Thus
the
or
(ching
and
all sorts,
and
destruction.
Tao represents
twan)
Such
with this supreme
collision
power, a collision generating evils of
ending
Tao.
the
to
contrary
it
that
all
embraces
all
is
orthodox
correct
and
righteous dealings which are
in
the Tao, that
or rules for private
and
social life,
The Tao
it
is,
is
is
to say the
li
conformity with
coupled with teh or morality ethics.
the creator of
all
these
good
things, as
in fact, the creator of all things whatsoever,
produced within the boundaries of heaven and

earth by the motions of cosmos.
This Tao, the
motion and motive power of the
universe,
the
order of the world, the all-creator, has no superior,
even no co-equal.
Hence
second set of moral
there
And
rules.
no room for any
is
if
by any chance
other morals should arise, these must necessarily
be not correct, not righteous; but heterodox, and

totally
As
wrong.
a
consequence,
based on the Tao, that
all
is
religion
to say, not
classics or bibles of the Tao,
and
ethics
not
founded on the
must be productive of
CONFUCIANISM
evil
95
01 every sort; and every true, right-minded
Confucian statesman
tion to destroy
it,
He
exists or crops up.
bud, ere yet
it
and
and deed
strictest obliga-
has to destroy
it
in the
it
has a chance of producing confusion
within the original

rules
under the
is
root and branch, wherever
ethics
and
li
in perfect
the only classical
tch,
which keep
man
in thought,
word,
harmony with the order of
the
universe.
These doctrines afford a complete explanation
why
the classics are the only books which have
always found supreme favor
among
They explain why
politicians.
to be the basis of all civilization
a thorough knowledge
sages, scholars,
the classics are held
and learning; why
of their
teachings
is
the
chief, nay, the only thing required in the world-
famed examinations which open the door

preferment.
It is
now
clear
why
to official
words scholar
the
and statesman are synonymous with Confucian.

All writings outside the scope of the classics are
either neutral,
scholars
and
and therefore beneath the notice of

statesmen,
abnormal minds, bent on

they breathe another
heretical,
morally
only
idle
spirit,
good
for
certain
occupation; or else
necessarily heterodox,
corrupting,
and dangerous to
96
society
and
together with
state,
all
usages and
doctrines emanating from them.
Dogmatism
always and everywhere in
is
this
world the mother of intolerance and persecution.
Could
it
be otherwise in China?
For here we
which has
alliance with the state,
lated itself with
mosity
Certainly not.
find the school of Confucius, in close
it,
everything
against
entirely assimi-
imbued with a
fanatical ani-
and
religious
ethical
which cannot be covered by the idea classicism;

it
an animosity revealing
is
tion of such teaching as lacks the
been
built
writings.
the
upon
the extermina-
itself in
stamp of having
foundation of these sacred
Crusades against such
doctrines
false
are preached by the Shu, the holiest of the classics,

in
a chapter assumed to have been written in the
twenty-third
century before
our era.
Confucius
himself has, according to another classic, said
how
injurious
is
the cultivation of heresy."
however, Mencius
born about 372
all
We
he
"Oh,
was,
in particular, his greatest pupil,
B.C.,
death of the master,

of
It
nearly a
who
laid
century after
upon
the
the shoulders
future ages the duty of persecuting heresy.
read in the classic which bears his name, that
vehemently
rebuked
heretics,
and
that
two
CONFUCIANISM
preachers of false
doctrine
in
97
had to
particular
bear the outburst of his indignation: namely,
Yang
Chu, a partisan of selfishness, and Mih-tsze, advo-
Mencius
cate of universal philanthropy.
who
sage
defines
categorically
heresy
the
is
as
first
every-
thing which diverges from the teachings of Con-
and
fucius
still
more ancient
Persecutors
sages.
of false doctrine to this day have, as a matter of

course, been the literati, including the mandarins,
who
state
are recruited from their midst by
examinations; indeed,
it
is
means of the
they
who uphold
government, based upon the only true Confucian

doctrine.
The common
ing, are free
from
people, deprived of school-
fanatical Confucianism.
They
have the privilege of supplying victims and martyrs for the blood-drenched altar of intolerant officialism.
According
to Chinese logic,
and the immutable
Confucian doctrine,
it is
that
peremptorily bound to
government
is
death and destruction

trine
as sure as
all
religious and
ligion consists, as
The
doom
to
ethical doc-
which does not bear the stamp of
origin or approval.
classical
classical or only true re-
we have
seen, in the worship of
nature-gods and deified men.

7
any dogma can be
As
the religion of
98
the state,
it is
and
to this
day practised by the emperor
his ministers for the
good of the dynasty and
themselves, and for the welfare of the people, while

the people
may
of ancestors.
been exercised
only occupy
itself
with the worship
This ancestor worship has always

in the domestic circle,
religious corporations with initiation,
anything
to
mark
it
needing no
doctrine, or
as ecclesiastical or sectarian.
Such corporations therefore are always heterodox,

and in the eyes of the state have no reason nor right
Hence
to exist.
it
is
that the state vents
its
rage
upon them with scourging, banishment, strangulation.
Thus
there
are
valid
reasons
for the
Chinese
Christianity, which, even more
state to persecute
than native sects of whatever conviction or creed,
Tao and
saps the
so
far
as
to
the classical religion, even going
assail
ancestor
worship.
equally marked out
for persecution.
Buddhism, the exotic
religion,
in the
soil
tors.
it
which planted
so
is
is
itself
of China about the beginning of the
Christian era.
fact that
Islam
And
But
it
has found some safety in the
has always respected the cult of ances-
Indeed, salvation of the dead always was the
sheet anchor with which this religion secured for
CONFUCIANISM
99
a safe position in the ocean of Confucian
itself
heathenism.
Ancestor worship was,
China's
in
confined within the family circle;
without any church to surround
pomp and
strictly
up
it
ritualism, or to regulate
Its
migration and future
with external
by means of
it
Buddhism came
defined doctrines.
this deficiency.
time,
early
was performed
it
to
fill
grotesque tales about trans-
life,
about paradises and
were eminently calculated
work upon
to
hells,
the im-
agination; they charmed and fascinated a nation

which at all times had evinced the greatest interest
in the
fate of its ancestors,
and to
not a matter of indifference to
own
fate
The new
lished
would be on the other

religion
whom
it
know what
was
their
side of the grave.
moreover decorated the estab-
worship of the dead with an elaborate system
of ritual and ceremony, even with magic art effecting the deliverance of the dead from hell and their
admission into paradise

character,
some
all this
and converted
beatification.
Is
it
it
lent to
into a
it
a cheerful
work of
that the Chinese surrendered their hearts

to the priests of that exotic religion,
fied their tastes
and
blithe-
then to be marveled at
instincts?
who
and souls
so grati-
Thenceforth Bud-
IOO
made
dha's clergy
by
it
their regular vocation to allay
solemn work, the sufferings of the de-
their
Paradise and
parted.
were
hell
its
key
to
open the
access to the heart and affections of the people.
Tolerated because of
its
usefulness for ancestral
worship, nay, even patronized for this reason by
many
dynasties and emperors,
Buddhism was only
persecuted and hampered by severe laws for the

novelties
which
especially for
introduced into Chinese society;
it
doctrines of abnegation of this
its
world or asceticism, and for the monachism born

therefrom
indeed
alien
and doctrine.
period, idea,
to
the
Its
Chinese classical
convents and
monks
have experienced very hard times, especially since

the fifth century
these times
were brought about
by a reaction against the progress and development

which had naturally marked the youth of the church
on China's
ject in
soil.
But we
Chapter VII.
shall
glance at this sub-
Taoist monachism, built up
after the Buddhist example, to
meet the demands
of competition in the field of religion and salvation,
was
also persecuted.
But, as a religion, Taoism
was not and could not be eradicated by Confucianism, seeing that
it
was, fundamentally, Confucian,
and possessed the same gods of nature.
Persecu-
CONFUCIANISM
IOI
upon numerous eclectic sects, which sought perfection and salvation by

means of religious elements and doctrines borrowed
tion fell with especial weight
in part
ticular.
from Taoism, but from Buddhism
in par-
Buddhism always was the great
Indeed,
source of novelties
which elevated ancient Con-
fucian classicism above the low level of dry, universalistic
to
give
minds,
which was evidently
polytheism
constant
satisfaction
to
simple
unfit
religious
minds plain and simple, but always
aspir-
ing after something better than the mere worldly

blessings which the worship of ancestors and gods
promised.
in
We
shall treat of those sects
more
fully
Chapter VII.
We may
then define Confucianism as a system
of government which has for its_basis everything
contained in the classics, which are the great and
only guides for the Tao of man, embracing also
and
the principles of ethics
Indeed, see-
religion.
ing that the contents of the classics have to be
obeyed and practised

detail, this
in
every sense and in every
must necessarily be the case
the religious elements of which they

Logically, then, there
must be a
also with
make mention.
state
religion in
China, and, logically also, this must be classical.
IO2
Another necessary consequence

is
is
that this religion
the only true and orthodox religion, and the only
one which the
We
now
have
and the way

I
state
in
may
tolerate.
to analyze that
which
it
have already said that
heaven and
earth,
famous
its
divinities or
shen are
and several parts or subdivisions
two halves of the cosmos, as
of these
religion,
observed.
is
phenomena; besides
also natural
We may
souls of dead men.
then define the Confucian religion as a mixture of
nature worship and worship of the dead,
or, seeing
that the souls of the dead are also parts of nature,
define
we^may
There
is,
it
as nature worship pure
nature, no maker of
Creation
is
it,
and simple.
system no god beyond
indeed, in that
no Jahweh, no Allah.
the spontaneous
work of heaven and
earth, repeating itself regularly in every year, or

in every revolution of time or the Tao, the order
of the universe.
chief
Heaven and
earth,
respectively
embodiments or representations of the Yang
and the Yin,

heaven
is
are, of course, the highest gods,
and
the higher of the two.
Because the emperor stands
at the
realm, nay, of the whole earth, he
summit of the
is
the head of
CONFUCIANISM
He
the state religion.
acknowledges the superiority
of heaven only, whose son he
Heaven
is
IC3
is.
the natural protector of his throne and
house, which would inevitably perish
he might deserve the loss of heaven's
conduct,
favors.
he
is
heaven
If then
the world,
highest
power on
this
is
power of
the supreme
and the emperor, as heaven's son,
the pontifex
To
by wicked
if,
the earth,
day heaven bears
old, classical
it
maximus of
the
is
self-evident that
is
the state religion.
in the state religion its
name Tien, heaven, and
Ti,
emperor,
most commonly, however, Shang-ti, supreme emperor.
The most important
offered
sacrifice
to
him takes place on the night of the winter solstice

indeed, at that moment heaven is reborn, because
;
the Yang, or light and warmth, which
it
represents,
the vitality of the universe, just begins to increase.
The
sacrifice
is
presented on the so-called
Round
Eminence, Yucn-khiu, also known as Tien-tan, or

Altar of Heaven, which stands to the south of the
Chinese quarter of Peking.

sky,
is
The
altar,
open to the
composed of three round marble terraces of
different dimensions, placed one above the other,

all
provided
marble
with balustrades, and accessible by
staircases,
which exactly
face
the
four
IO4
of
points
the
sphere with
celestial
A wide
purposes.
this,
This area
world.
At
the
park with gigantic
the greatest
altar
the
in
surrounded by high walls,
is
room enough
affording
the
are buildings for various
it
area, partly a
around
lies
trees,
represents
cardinal points.
its
north and east sides of
thus
It
compass.
for a
town of 40,000 or
50,000 inhabitants.
On
that longest night the
emperor proceeds
to
the altar, escorted by princes, grandees, officers,

attendants,
number of many and

And many hundreds more as-
troops,
many hundreds.
to
the
semble on the altar to receive heaven's son.

the
in
is
body
richest
ceremonial
Every-
dress.
The
spectacle, illuminated by the scanty light of large
torches,
is
most imposing.
and mandarin has

its
terraces, or
rounds
it.
On
dicular tablet
is
his allotted place
placed, inscribed
;
it is
on the north
In two rows, facing
and west, are shrines containing
it
and
"Imperial Heaven
in a shrine
ancestors of the emperor; which
cause
altar
the upper terrace a large perpen-
and faces due south.
side,
on the
minister,
on the marble pavement which sur-
Supreme Emperor"
east
Every prince,
is
tablets of the
significant be-
shows that the Son of Heaven worships
CONFUCIANISM
heaven as the
IO5
oldest, the original procreator of his
house.
Before each tablet a variety of
food
placed: soup, meat,
is
vegetables,
rice,
spirits,
sacrificial
fish,
dates, chestnuts,
all
conformably to
etc.,
On
ancient classical precedent and tradition.
second terrace are tablets for the

the
moon,
the
great
spirits of the sun,
the
bear,
the
five
the
planets,
twenty-eight principal constellations, and the host
of stars; furthermore, those of the gods of clouds,

rain,
and thunder.
Before these
too, are
tablets,
dishes and baskets with sacrificial articles.

goats, and swine have been slaughtered
those
offerings.
And
celebrated, a bullock
while
is
the
Cows,
for
all
ceremonies
are
burning on a pyre as a
special offering to high heaven.
The emperor, who has

solemnity by fasting,
is
purified himself for the

led
up the
altar
by the
southern flight of steps, which on both sides
crowded by ministers and
is
Directors
dignitaries.
of ceremonies guide the emperor, and loudly proclaim every act he has to perform.
heaven
is
invited
spirit
of
by means of a hymn, accompanied
by music, to descend into the tablet.

tablet,
The
Before
this
and, subsequently, before those of his an-
cestors, the
emperor
offers incense, jade, silk, broth,
IO6
and
He humbly
rice spirits.
kneels and knocks his
forehead against the pavement several times.
grandee reads a statutable prayer in a loud voice,
and several
incense,
officials,
silk,
appointed for the duty, offer
and wine on the second
the tablets of the sun,
wind,
and thunder.
moon,
clouds, rain,
stars,
the
Finally
terrace, before
sacrificial
gifts
are carried away, thrown into furnaces, and burned.
This imperial
sacrifice
the most solemn, the
is
most pompous worship ever paid on

a divinity of nature.
remarkable antiquity.
It
number of musicians and

forming
at
is
attended by a large
religious
Round Eminence, another
form, but of smaller dimensions.

circular building with
edifice
dancers,
per-
every important moment.
In the same vast altar park there

of the
this earth to
It is also interesting for its
dome or
is,
to the north
altar of the
It
same
bears a large,
cupola, the only
of this shape and size in the empire.
It
represents the vaulted form of the celestial sphere.
This
are
is
the ki nien tien, or temple hall, where prayers
made
for a happy year, that
is
good harvest throughout the empire.

annual sacrifice
and
is
to say, for a
Here a great
offered by the emperor to heaven
his ancestors in
the
first
decade of the
first
CONFUCIANISM
month of
And
the year.
to obtain seasonable rains
for the crops, a sacrifice
building in the first

tablets,
fall
is
presented in the same
month of summer
to the
same
as also to those of rain, thunder, clouds,
and winds.
not
IO/
in
This
sacrifice
is
These
due time.
repeated
rains
if
sacrifices
do
mostly are
performed by princes, grandees, or ministers, as

proxies of the Son of Heaven.
The ceremonial
for
all
other state sacrifices
Pomp, show, and
similar to that for heaven.
is
offer-
ings vary with the ranks of the gods, and so does

the
number
Next
of officials in the suite of the celebrant.
to heaven in the series of state divinities
earth, Hu-tu, or empire of earth.
open altar of marble,

the
built within
northern
square
outside
solemn
sacrifice is offered
wall
On
a vast, walled
of
Peking,
solstice is
annually by the emperor
or his proxy on the day of the summer
This
is
a square,
indeed the
moment
in the
solstice.
annual
revolution of the Tao, or order of the universe, at
which the earth
owing
is
at the height of
to the fructifying
its
animation,
power of heaven.
Here,
too, the tablets of the ancestors of the emperor are
placed on the right and
On
left
of that of the earth.
the second terrace sacrifices are at the
same
IO8
time offered to the tablets of the principal com-
ponents of the earth,

rivers,
and
From
viz.,
the
chief mountains,
seas.
the fact that the
emperor
at the sacrifices
to heaven
and earth
ceremony
to the tablets of his ancestors,
allots the
second place in this

it
follows
that they stand in the system of the state religion
next to heaven and earth in rank.
Sacrifices are
presented by the emperor to those ancestors
on
various fixed days in the calendar as well as on

special occasions,
whenever he deems
fit
or useful
to invoke their aid for himself, his house, or his
realm.
They are
celebrated in the ancestor tem-
ples of the dynasty within the palace grounds, as
also
on the imperial graves
there in front of the grave
or ancestress
is
in the temples erected

hills.
Each ancestor
represented in those buildings by a
soul tablet.
of
We
have mentioned these mausolea, the grandest
all
structures in China, and, as such, chief mani-
festations of the
They
respect paid there to the dead.
are certainly worth the attention of every
student of China's religion.

historical
books
entitle
Notes disseminated in
us to infer that under
all
dynasties enormous mausolea have been erected to
CONFUCIANISM
IOO,
Far East.
All have disap-
the imperators of the
peared, save a few ruins here and there

the
Ming dynasty
still
state of mutilation
exist,
though
and decay.
those of
in a deplorable
lie in
They
Ch'ang-
p'ing, north of Peking, except that of the founder
of the dynasty, which
hood of Nanking.
are
distributed
is
situated in the neighbor-
Those of the reigning dynasty
over two valleys, one group
in
Tsun-hwa, eastward of Peking, and therefore called

the Eastern Mausolea,
and the other
in
Yih, near
the Great Wall, southwest of Peking, called on this
account the Western Mausolea.
An
stone,
ficial.
imperial
tomb
consists of a crypt of solid
under a high mound, which
tunneled
subway
is
forms
arti-
mainly
its
entrance
by a door of stone after the
this is firmly closed
burial of the emperor,
and probably barricaded

again.
at the foot of a large,
mass-
ways, never to be opened
mouth of
the tunnel
is
in
The
effective
ive pile of brickwork, in fact a high, square ter-
race
with
turret
through
crenelated
double-roofed
which
crosswise.
turret
parapet,
with
two
bearing
bright,
vaulted
square
yellow
tunnels
tiles,
run
In the center of this cross stands the
polished marble tombstone which bears the
name
IIO
of the emperor, engraved in the stone; this

fact his soul tablet, a seat of his manes.
crenelated wall completely surrounds the

front of the
square.
mouth of the tunnel

contains
It
is
marble
is
in
high,
hill.
In
a broad, walled
some
altar-table,
splendid gates, and the large temple for the imperial sacrifices to the soul.
This edifice
is
raised
on a rectangular terrace of marble, with marble

balustrades and flights of steps.
Many
of these
wood
temples are of large dimensions; precious
and marble are
lavishly used in their construction;
masonry and woodwork are
all
gaudily colored.
In front, each temple has a broad courtyard, closed
The
by a gate with three openings.
cost in
money
and labor of every mausoleum must have been

enormous the sums become fabulous when we take
;
into consideration that there are five imperial
and three
in the eastern
Further, there
is
in the
at a little
tombs
western cemetery.
distance in front of
every mausoleum a high and large pavilion sheltering an enormous marble slab, on which a eulogistic
biography
is
carved.
There
is,
moreover, a long
avenue, lined on both sides with gigantic images
of unicorns, elephants,
horses,
camels,
civil
and
CONFUCIANISM
Each image
military ministers.
III
a monolith.
is
lofty gate forms the entrance to this avenue.
And, besides these tombs of emperors, there are

in
each cemetery a great number for the empresses
who
Those who died
died after their husbands.
before them repose by their side in their crypts.
Moreover, there are special tombs of inferior consorts
The
or harem ladies.
those grounds
is
enhanced by large
broadcast between the tombs.

entirely surrounded
aspect of
druidical
The
trees, planted
cemeteries are
by high walls with parapets,
respectively about twelve and eight miles in length.
Outside each there
is
a vast area of forbidden
ground, likewise thickly wooded.

not exaggerate
when we
No
doubt
we do
say that these cemeteries
are the greatest and grandest that have ever existed

in this
world of men, the greatest monuments of
worship of the dead ever built on earth.
The
in
imperial house also has
two
large cemeteries
Manchuria, one near Yenden, the other near
Mukden.
They
shelter the remains of the oldest
ancestors of the dynasty,
who
never were seated on
the throne of China, but in honor of
were piously
built
by
whom
their descendants
they
who wore
112
the crown.
They seem
more modest
scale.
The grandeur
of
to
these
all
constructed on a
be
tombs
is,
of course, to
a very great extent owing to the fact that they are,

their fung-shui (pp. 73 ff.) cornerstones of the
by
felicity,
and prosperity of
power,
the
imperial
house.
Next
in
rank to the imperial ancestors
the
in
pantheon of the state are the Sie-Tsih, or gods of

the ground, and of millet or corn.
large,
open
in
altar
The emperor
the Tartar city.
They have
their
a park to the southwest of

there in
sacrifices
spring and autumn, or sends a proxy
to
perform
this high-priestly duty.
These are the so-called Ta-sze, or great

fices.
Next
in
sacri-
rank are those of the second cate-
gory, the Chung-sze, or middle sacrifices.
These
are presented on various altars or temples erected

in or
about Peking.
The sun god has
his large,
walled park with round, open altar terrace outside

the gate on the east, or the region of sunrise; the
moon goddess
has her square altar on the west,
because the west
moon
is
born.
is
the region from which the
new
Sacrifices are offered to the sun
by
the emperor or his proxy at the astronomical mid-
CONFUCIANISM
spring,
when
113
the sun conquers darkness; the
moon
receives her sacrifice on the day of mid-autumn,
autumn being
in China's natural philosophy asso-
ciated with the west,
The other
where the moon
gods of
state
this
is
born.
middle class are the
famous men of fabulous antiquity who introduced

the Tao, or orcfer of the universe,
among men,
conferring on them the blessings of

learning, and
ethics,
thus
civilization,
namely:
Shen Nung, the divine husbandman, the emperor
who
taught people husbandry in the twenty-
eighth century
B.C.
Sien-ts'an, or
first
breeder of
silk
worms, sup-
posed to have been the wife of the emperor

in
the
twenty-seventh century
month of spring
B.C.
In
the empress, followed
Hwang
the
first
by a great
train of court ladies, presents to her a sacrifice.
considerable
number of
The
rulers of the past.
mythical
Fuh
five
receive
period
imperial and princely
emperors of the oldest
special
reverence,
viz.
Hi, Shen Nung, Hwang-ti, Yao, Shun, to-
gether with the founders of the house of Chen.
Confucius
is
the
man
to
whom, according
China, mankind owes the classics which enable
walk
8
in the
Tao.
He
is
it
to
to
worshiped together with
114
and over seventy earlier and later

exponents of his doctrine and school, all of whom
his
ancestors,
have tablets in his temples throughout the empire.

State deities also are holy
men and women, who
in
the course of the centuries have been distinguished

for Confucian virtue
and learning.
The Tien-Shen, or
deities
of the sky, that
to say, of the clouds, the rain, wind,
The
cipal
is
and thunder.
or earth-gods, namely the ten prin-
T'i-ki,
mountains of the empire, besides
and ranges of
which dominate the
hills
mausolea of the present dynasty and
five
hills
site
of the
their
fung-
shui; further the four seas or oceans at the four

sides of the empire or of the earth,
main
rivers of China, viz.
tzse, the
the
Hwai, and the Tsi;
and streams
in the
and the four
Hwangho,
the
finally the
mountains
Yang-
neighborhood of Peking, and
within the empire.

T'ai-sui,
or the great year, the planet Jupiter,
whose path in the heavens governs the arrangement of the almanack which is annually published
by imperial authority, and gives the various days
considered suitable for the transaction of the various
business of
life.
Tao f or revolution of the
This god thus rules the

universe, and, as a conse-
CONFUCIANISM
quence, the Too of
human
11$
which, in order to
life,
bestow happiness and prosperity, must
fit
in
with
the universal Tao.
And
the third
section
Confucian
of the
state
religion embraces the Kiun-sze, or collective sacrifices.
gods
These are
all
offered by mandarins, to the
in the following list:
The
or
Sien-i,
of
physicians
the
old
time,
patriarchs of the art of promoting and preserving
human
health
Kwan-yu,
Fuh-Hi, Shen Nung, and Hwang-to.
the
war god of the present dynasty,
a great hero of the second and third centuries A.D.
Wen-ch'ang, a
star in the great bear, the patron
of the classical studies on which

tion of state officials,
the
who by
is
based the selec-
their rule maintain
Tao among men.
Peh-kih kiun, the prince of the north pole.
Hwo-shen, the god of
fire.
P'ao-shen, the canon gods.
Ch'ing-hwang shen, gods of the walls and moats,

to say, the patron divinities of walled cities
that
is
and
forts
throughout the empire.
Tung-yoh shen, the god of the eastern mountain,

i.e.,
the Thai-shan in Shantung.
Four Lung, or dragons, gods of water and
rain,
Il6
for
whom
temples exist in the environs of Peking,
management and
apparently for the
regulation of
the fung-shui of the city and the imperial palace.
Ma
Tsu-p'o, the goddess of the ocean and water.
Heu-t'n-shen, or god of the ground; and Sse-
kung
shen, the patron of architecture, to each of
whom, before any building works

sacrifices are offered
on
are undertaken,
altars erected
on the
site
of the building.
Yao
shen, the gods of the porcelain kilns.
Men
shen, the gods of certain palace doors and
gates of Peking.
Ts'ang-shen,
the
gods
of
the
storehouses
of
Peking.
Many
of these state sacrifices are also offered by
the authorities throughout the provinces on altars
or in the temples which have been built for this
purpose in the chief city of each province, of each

department, and of each district; namely, those of
the
gods of the ground and of
millet;
those of
Shen Nung, Confucius, of
the gods of clouds, rain,

and
and
of
the
mountains and rivers
wind,
thunder,
in
the
region in
question;
walls and moats of the city
of
the
gods of the
and of Kwan-yu.
In
Peking, as in the provinces, there are, moreover,
CONFUCIANISM
temples built with the same
great number of
dered
official
historical persons
to
services
117
the
dynasty,
design for a
who have
and
the
ren-
people.
They have, on that account, received titles of honor

from the emperor, and have had special temples
erected to
worked.
them
in the places
where they
and
lived
There are also similar temples for former
wise and faithful princes, nobles and statesmen;

for
men who have
sacrificed
their
the
in
lives
service of the dynasty, etc.

Lastly,
three
sacrifices
are
prescribed
offered annually by the authorities
all
to
be
through the
empire for the repose and refreshment of the souls

of the departed in general.
Almost
all
state sacrifices take place
on
certain
fixed days of the calendar, while for the celebration
of the
rest,
days are chosen which are indicated as
favorable.
This synopsis of the state pantheon

instructive, as
it
is
dry, but
shows the truth of what
have
stated at the outset, viz., that the Confucian religion

is
a mixture of nature worship
dead.
It is
and worship of the
the rule to represent the gods
who
believed to have lived as men, by images in
are
human
form, and the others by tablets inscribed with their
Il8
principal divine
fices,
Images as well as
titles.
are inhabited by the
spirits, especially
when,
tablets
at sacri-
they have been formally prayed to or sum-
moned, with or without music, to descend

Confucian
objects.
worship
and
into those
sacrifice
then,
being actually addressed to animated images, constitutes
sistent
pure idolatry.
Certainly
with the Chinese
images are
The
it
religion of the state,
quite incon-
such tablets and
spirit that
mere wood and
is
paint.
performed by the Son
of Heaven as high priest, and by ministers and
mandarins
is
through the empire as his proxies,
all
ritualistic.
thoroughly
Since,
during the
Han
dynasty, under the auspices of emperors and by the

care of illustrious scholars, the classics were rescued
from eternal
those
oblivion, an elaborate ritual, based
classics,
was
at
the
same time
called
on
into
existence in the form of rescripts, regulating every
minutest details.
point in the state religion in
its
Subsequent dynasties framed
their
general,
and
particular,
their ritual
institutions
in
of the state religion in
on those of the House of Han, though
with modifications and additions of more or

importance.
less
Instances of eminent statesmen pre-
senting memorials to the throne, in which they
CONFUCIANISM
IIQ
criticized rituals
and proposed corrections, abound
in the historical
works
and these instances prove
that formal codifications of rites have always been

in existence since the reign of the
These
house of Han.
have for the most part been
codifications
preserved in the dynastic histories, but

sible
now
an abridged shape.
None of
in elaboration that of the
Khai-yuen
their entirety or in
them equals
period (713-741) of the
Tang
dynasty.
This vast compendium of statutory

systematic compilation of nearly
usages mentioned
all
rites
It
Lung,
assisted,
with a few
borrowed from the House of
as
we may
and scholars.
It
admit, by a body of
has
been the medium
through which the most ancient religious
rites
was drawn up by the statesman, Liao
Han.
tions of
is
the ceremonial
in the classical books,
additional elements
officials
not pos-
it is
whether these give them in
to decide
institu-
China have held their place as standard
of the state religion to this day.
The Ta
Ts'ing hwui tien, or collective statutes of the great
house of Ts'ing, are molded on

prototype of the
Ta
Ts'ing
it.
fung
It is
also the
or
general
li,
rituals
of the great Ts'ing dynasty, which
official
codification of the rites proper for the use
is
an
I2O
of the nation and

able to read
is
in his
power
from
official
its
Therefore whoever
rulers.
and interpret Chinese

and describe the
to study
printed
in
documents,
texts, has
it
state religion
each
of
its
details.
The conclusion
is,
the state religion
of course, ready to hand, that
no other purpose
instituted for
is
but to influence the universe by the worship of
gods who constitute the Yang,
may be
piness
House, and
insured
to
to his people.
in order that
hap-
emperor and
the
religion purporting to secure the
his
other words, a
It is, in
good working of
the Tao, or universal order, thus naturally to frustrate the
the
work of
exercise
of
the Yin and

that
highest duty of rulers,

to secure the
The people
its
is
religion
whom
specters.
Thus
reasonably
the
nature has assigned
good working of the Tao among men.
are not allowed to take part in
it,
except
by erecting the state temples and altars, and keeping them in good repair at their
their
own
labor.
them by the
state
The only
is
own
cost,
religion
and by
allowed
the worship of their
cestors, which, as I have demonstrated,
is
own
to
an-
classical
and Confucian.
Yet,
as
everywhere
on
this
globe,
religious
CONFUCIANISM
instincts in
official
121
own way
China go their
Not content with
rescripts.
in
the
spite
of
worship
of their ancestors, the people freely indulge in the
worship of Confucian
deities.
In villages and in
other localities they have temples for the worship
of mountains, streams, rocks, stones, and the
The god of
the earth in particular enjoys
veneration; on
all
sides
the people have
like.
much
erected
temples or chapels and shrines to him; they regard
and worship him as the god of wealth, and the pa-
And
tron divinity of agriculture.
everywhere do
the people resort to certain state temples in the chief
towns and provinces, departments, and

and worship the
idols there after their
own
districts,
fashion.
Besides, the people worship in their temples
kinds of patron divinities whose origin
it
is
hardly possible, or quite impossible, to trace.

are generally thought to have lived as
ings.
all
often
They
human
be-
There are gods and goddesses, invoked for
the cure of particular illnesses

in child-bearing;
gods who
goddesses for safety
impart riches, or, be-
stowing blessing on various professions, are patrons

of the callings of
who bestow
their
life; in fine,
a multitude of idols
every possible grace and favor, because
images are shing, or holy, that
is
to
say,
122
because they possess
power, or shen,
temples visited
pilgrims from
collected
or shen ling, spiritual
ling,
Daily are
soul.
Yang
their
by great numbers of persons and
all
Considerable sums are
quarters.
from those
visitors for enlarging, repair-
ing and decorating the buildings, or for celebrating

in them great sacrificial feasts.
This fame of a god
may
last
disappear;
it
may
also quickly
few prayers remaining unanswered
sometimes
will
But
for centuries.
to
suffice
destroy
its
fame.
then, as a result of the ensuing neglect, image
temple quickly
For the
as
fall
festivals, the people
money.
down
their
and repairs of such temples,
who own them
The
collection
subscribers
are
the
local
subscriptions
circulating
of
temple,
and
into ruin.
erection
well as for the celebration of great
their
And
the
usually
put
such purpose in the
books,
and very
committee
under
willingly give
authorities
to
religious
whose
of
generous
administration
direction
also
the
festivals are celebrated.
Gods or goddesses are placed in their temples

in a wooden shrine, facing to the main door.
Two
or more tables form the altar.
wax
On
these are found
candles, flower vases, a pot filled with incense
CONFUCIANISM
which
in
ashes,
the
their incense sticks
devoutly
fire,
and the ashes of
as well, are supposed to contain shen
matter of the god,
or soul
and are on that account con-
With
sidered as shing, holy.
the divine protection
wear small
place
every invocation and
at
This incense
act of worship.
it
worshipers
which burn from the top down-
These they present
wards.
123
the object to have
always about them, people
quantities of those ashes in
broidered bags as amulets, or place a

incense burners of their
own
domestic
little
little
altars.
em-
in the
The
ashes are even taken in water, as medicines and

prophylactics.
This popular religion

the empire.
is
exercised
The images of gods
exist
thousands, the temples by thousands.
temple has
idol
gods which are
all
through
by tens of
Almost every
in coordinate
or
subordinate rank to the chief god, or even regarded

as
its
high
attendant servants.
altar,
much
as
on
the
They
are placed on the
side altars, or in side chapels.
worship
of
images
rests
on
Inastheir
supposed animation and they derive their power
from
this fact,
Large
clay
it is
throughout a form of fetishism.
idols are for the
most part of wood and
the small ones are often of copper, bronze, or
124
Ikons painted on paper are worshiped
porcelain.
in
titles
for
tablets,
even
numbers;
great
names and
in
veneration;
of a god
representation
or
engraved
inscribed
of the gods are set out, like soul

short,
every possible
considered to be the
is
abiding place of his soul, and therefore identical
with the god himself.
Also for the mountains, rocks, stones, streams,
which
brooks,
fashioned
temples
goats,
to
are
the
worship,
people
images
are
souls,
and
be the homes of their

erected
them.
to
and other animals of
Horses,
camels,
stone, principally
found
on old tombs, are very frequently worshiped and

invoked, and to this end,
if
they have proved to be
"holy," the people build temples or chapels beside

the spot, with or without images
have
fetishism
connected
with
here then
animal
we
worship.
Tigers, fishes, serpents, etc.,
not infrequently have
temples dedicated to them.
This animal worship
probably
is
connected
with
the
belief
in
meta-
morphosis of animals into human beings and of
human
beings into animals.
and other
Trees, like animals
objects, are supposed to be living abodes
of shen, and therefore take a rather important place

in the popular religion.
CONFUCIANISM
The temples
12$
are the centers of the religious
To
of the people.
numerous men and women, young and
"holy,"
daily resort in
life
those of the gods which are

old,
order to pray, offering incense sticks,
food, and dainties,

selves before the
bowing and prostrating themimages. For the most part the
visitants expressly
mention their desires and make
vows.
idol
As
a rule, they at the
bamboo
pieces of
wood or
root; these are dropped to the floor, and
the answer
is
considered to be affirmative or nega-
according as both
tive
same time consult the
by means of two semi-oval
Or
uppermost.
flat
or both curved sides are
number of
slips
of
bamboo or
wood, on which different characters are marked,

are placed in a case, and one of them
then out of a cabinet
fitted
is
drawn out
with several compart-
ments marked by the same characters which the

slips bear, is
god
is
taken a
deciphered
printed on
ticket,
and the answer of the
from the enigmatic sentences
the latter.
The gods
to
whom
the people dedicate temples
have their feast days, fixed by old custom, on which

sacrifices, called tsiao, are
presented by priests, and
dramatic performances or puppet shows take place

in
their
honor and for
their
amusement.
Occa-
126
sionally
on
such
solemn
days
processions
are
arranged, and the images of the gods are carried

round.
this
By
means
the influence of the specters
which haunt the ward or parish

gods,
besides
while,
to
opportunity
blessings and
them
destroyed by the
is
this,
the
to
scatter
procession
offers
broadcast
their
gifts.
Great feasts of this kind are also celebrated at
when
the inauguration of a temple, and
repairs have been completed; also
considerable
when
a confla-
gration or flood has raged in the parish or ward,
or an invasion of rebels
swarms of
for the exorcism of
drought prevails;
rage, that
For
is
this
also
to say,
name
is rife.
popular religion
by the name wu.
either sex; the

hih.
represent these priests
when
of sickness
the classical books
later ages denote
They always were of

the
the
whom
or
locusts,
when an epidemic
main branch of
and works of
feared; further
when demons
there exist special priests,
over bore
to be
is
The
male more-
ancient
writings
and priestesses as able to
receive the departed and the gods into their bodies,
so that they could bring the help of those beings,
produce
rain,
oracles.
At
drive
away
sacrificial
evil
feasts,
spirits,
in
virtue
and utter
of their
CONFUCIANISM
they were
possession,
in
127
find
to
position
out
whether the objects of worship occupied a higher

or lower place in the ranks of the gods, what cere-
monies as a consequence ought to be observed,
and how much
zeal
ought
to
be shown.
It
was
generally believed that through those priests and

the
priestesses
desires
of
the
and gods
spirits
could be discovered, and thus by satisfying them,

the greatest
possible blessing
and fortune might
be received from these beings.

Histories
we meet
at
and hih as curers of

spirits also
periods with
illness, able to
from the
day probably in
all
In the dynastic
sick.
all
parts
drive
these
wu
away
evil
are found to this
They
of the
empire,
under
various names.
Their main function

tsiao in temples, or,
houses.
on
Only a few
is
the
celebration
of the
special occasions, in private
priests are
now
able to admit
a god or soul into their body, and so to reveal
unknown
things.
At the temple
sees specially qualified

this
work, raving in
hair disheveled, as
if
feasts
one usually
men and women engaged in

mad possession, half naked,
bereft of reason,
wounding
themselves with swords, daggers and sharp-pointed

balls,
and uttering strange
cries,
which are
inter-
128
who
preted by those
of
exclamations
are held to understand oracular
the
gods.
These dervishes are
carried in palankeens, or on chairs studded with
of these sticking deep into their
nails, the points

flesh.
With
fork-shaped
twigs
likewise
they
scratch on boards or tables on which flour, sand,

ashes, or dust have been scattered, in order to pro-
duce written oracles, which are likewise interpreted
by adepts.
The
laity.
priests are
As
wear any
married men, and
live
among
a rule they do not in their daily

special dress, but
when they
the
life
exercise
their religious functions they clothe themselves in
ceremonial garb.
selves
They
are fond of calling them-
Tao-shi, or Taoist doctors, and like to be
regarded as the priests of

Lao-tsze,
Tao.
the patriarch of Taoism,
They consider
as their pro-
tecting patron.
The exorcism of
sick, is
duties.
specters, especially out of the
one of the most important of their
And by
priestly
the use of magic they bring back
the souls of sick people,
which demons have
stolen.
For these and many other purposes they possess a

complete repertory of rites, prepare and sell
amulets and
formulae,
and procure blessing and
CONFUCIANISM
happiness by dancing movements.
Besides
29
all this,
of them are soothsayers.
many
The
religion of the
gods
also exercised
is
by the
In rooms and apart-
people in their private houses.
ments, gods and goddesses are represented by small
images or written characters, and occasionally wor-
and consulted with a
shiped
incense and tea.
polite
offering
of
In the better class of houses there
are images of gods on the domestic altar, side by

side
with
the
ancestral
tablets.
Domestic
gods
most frequently found are the god of the earth or

the ground, also regarded as the
god who gives
wealth (p. 121 ); the god of
or the cooking
fire,
(p.
115); the Buddhist goddess of mercy,
Kwan-yin
or Avalokitecvara', and a patron or pa-
stove
troness of the calling or trade of the head of the

family.
Of
course any deity
patron divinity of the house.
may
be chosen as
In the workshops,
too, there are representations of the patron of the

calling,
(p. 115)
On
and schools have images of Wen-ch'ang

and other gods of
one or more days
literature.
in the calendar of
year each domestic patron god receives a

meal, which
members of
9
is
offered with
the family.
In
every
sacrificial
genuflexions by the
many
cases they give
I3O
by a dramatic performance or
in the calendar
whole
On
set apart
show
puppet
There are also days
cheerful air to the ceremony.
for the worship of the
household gods.
set of
numerous
when
special occasions, such as
house has been newly
the
built or recently occupied,
and the good fortune of the occupants needs to be

assured; or
when
dwelling; also
ill-health or
death has visited the
on the occasion of a wedding,
order to secure the bride's
fruitfulness
in
in
pro-
creation; on the celebration of a birthday for the
continuance of long
life,
and the
like,
well-to-do
persons engage a priest to celebrate a mass at their
For
homes.
principal
purpose an altar
this
apartment
and
filled
is
erected in the
with
images,
or
names of gods written on cards. The presence

then of so many gods, whose hearts rejoice in the
offering
of
so
much food and
theatrical performances,
fills
the
in
pleasant
the house with bless-
ing and good fortune.
The great thing which

fucian
religion
thorough
and
its
materialistic
us in this Con-
strikes
popular outgrowth
selfishness.
the material happiness of the world

end.
As a
religion of the Tao,
it
is
its
Promotion of
is
is
its
aim and
practised by
CONFUCIANISM
the emperor and his
13!
government for no other pur-
pose but to insure a good and regular working
order of the Tao, so that the throne

firm and safe.
observed
may
give
blessings.
in
And by
the people
it
may
is
stand
diligently
order that their ancestors and gods
them protection
There
is
in
of a higher religious aim, and

suffices to define
it
and bestow material
Confucianism not a trace

I
think that this fact
as a religion of a lower order.
Elements of a higher order occur only

imported Buddhist
religion,
has persecuted to this day.
in
the
which Confucianism
CHAPTER V
TAOISM
IT
is
a noteworthy coincidence in the history of
human
religion
marked by
the
and
life
civilization
that
the
epoch
of Christ and the establishment
of His church was the epoch also of expansion

of religious
life in
China.
We
have seen that the
ages covered by the reign of the

the
first
Han
dynasty, or
and second centuries before and after
Christ, were characterized by the consolidation of
the ancient religious ideas, as they were handed
down
by the
to the nation
classical writings,
that the Confucian state religion
of this process.
It is to
and
was the product
be observed that from the
same epoch dates the first growth of Buddhism,

the apostles of which had already found their way
We
must
into
China before the birth of Christ.
also
note that this period gave birth to a third
church which to
namely
this
that of the
day exists on Chinese

Tao, generally
called
soil,
by us
Taoism.
What
are
we
to
understand by this term?

132
We
TAOISM
must
Taoism
define
which
that
principal
It
erally.
as universalism
have mentioned
and developed
the
133
the
times
many
same as
modeled
into a religious system containing
elements of heathen religions gen-
has
pandemonium and a pantheon,
both composed of beings which actually are parts
of the universe or
its
Yin
it
furthermore
devils
two
souls, the
Yang and
the
has a system of exorcism of
and propitiation of gods, conducted by a
priesthood
observance
with
of
ritual
highly
developed, created to a great extent in imitation
of Buddhism.
to render
It is
a universalism which purports
man happy by
such exorcism and pro-
pitiation, and, moreover, by teaching him the disci-
pline securing assimilation with the Tao, or order
of the universe.
The
origin of this universalism
night of time.
founder of
it.
is
hidden
The Chinese know no
They can only
in the
inventor or
refer to the Yih and
the Li ki as the oldest classics in existence in which

its
fundamental dogmas are laid down, stating the
existence of a Tao, or universal order, which manifests itself
Yin, or
which
by the vicissitudes of the Yang and the
warmth and
all
natural
cold, light
phenomena
and darkness, from

are derived and
all
134
life
These two powers constitute the
created.
is
Shen and Kwei, composed of myriads of
universal
shen, or gods, and kwei, or devils.
men, animals,
They animate
and everything, and death
plants,
reabsorption of the souls of beings into that
is
Yang
and that Yin.
The
earth,
subdivisions of the universe, of heaven and
were the gods of ancient China, and are the
gods of China to this day.
They
But we have seen
Taoism.
are mentioned
in
the
are the gods of
that, in so far as they
classics,
they also are the
Thus
gods of Confucianism, or the state religion.
both religions have, fundamentally, the same pan-
But Taoism has greatly increased the num-
theon.
ber of gods in course of time, owing to boundless

in
vagaries
the
and other occult

all
These modern gods are
sciences.
from a Confucian point of view
false
ship
domain of cosmology, astrology,
is
heterodoxy, yet
it
extent, since the character
of the Confucian gods.
is
their
tolerated to a great
which they bear
We
wor-
is
that
now understand
that
the classics, or the books to which China
owes
its
knowledge of the ancient gods, are the bibles of

theology
Taoism as
not
only
well.
for
Confucianism,
but
for
TAOISM
To no
135
higher conceptions about gods and god-
head have the two native religions of China allowed

the
mind
to
is
theology
But
rise.
certainly
that
The Chinese do not
not very low.
god dethroning
all
the rest; to this
day they see
neither the logic nor the necessity of
The Too
it.
creation, as well as the creator, spontaneously
working
from
ancient times,
all
man
eternity.
in
Thus
it.
exist,
and
Evidently,
in
very
China has mused on nature's
awful power, and realized
on
of
god above the Too, or universal order, a
place a
is
stage
his absolute
the conviction ripened in
to exist in a
happy
state,
dependence
him
that, to
he should com-
port himself as perfectly as possible in accordance
with the order of the universe; should his acts

disagree with that almighty Tao, a conflict must
necessarily ensue, in which he, the weaker party,
must unavoidably succumb. Such meditations have

led him into the path of philosophy
to the study
and discovery of the characteristics of the Tao, and
of the
means of acquiring these
for himself
and
of framing his conduct upon the same; in other
words, he has traced out a Tao, or
way
(jen-tao), being a system of discipline
of
and
man
ethics
based upon observation and divination of nature,
136
conducive to
This
imitation.
its
is
a system of
Tao of man pretending to

be a copy of the great Tao of heaven and earth, the
order of the world. It is directed towards comoccult science, magic, a
nature's beneficent influences personified
manding
by the gods,
sented
and averting
by the
specters,
its
bad influences repre-
and therefore naturally
embraces worship and propitiation of gods, side bj

side with expulsion of demons, or exorcism.
Of
this
system the great fundamental dogma, but
for which conformity with the
importance,
is,
that the
Tao
is
Tao would lack

the
summum
all its
bonum,
the very highest good, the source therefore of

felicity
This dogma
whatsoever.
is
all
preached by the
This natural goodness the Tao owes to the
Yih.
fact that
the
Yang and
the
Yin,
with
identified
heaven and earth, benevolently cooperate in giving

birth to
all.
all
beings, and nourish and sustain them
Thus speaks
the
Yih:
"Heaven and
nourish the myriads of beings and things

the perfect
that they
man
nourishes his
may come
earth
therefore
wisdom and
talents,
to the profit of the myriads
of people."
The
soul of
man, being produced by the Yang
and the Yin, that
is to
say by the Tao, and the
Tao
TAOISM
being the source of
all
of his soul,
qualities
137
it
good,
his
follows that the
character,
instincts,
must be naturally good.
moral constitution
or
This
inference comes into prominence in the classics as
a dogma, and therefore has been the principal basis

of
all
Taoistic and Confucian ethics to this day.
The Yih
divides man's natural goodness into four
cardinal
virtues:
benevolence,
servance of ceremonies and
The
classics
rites,
ob-
and knowledge.
describe these virtues as emanations
from four principal

the
righteousness,
man who
qualities of heaven, saying that
cultivates those virtues
to those celestial
qualities
manifestations of the Tao.
is
assimilated
and so with the chief
Such a man
is,
accord-
ing to all classical philosophy, the kiiin-tsse, princely
man, the holy man, the

god-man,
the universal
This
is
saint.
He
is
a shen-jen, or
his soul, or shen, being assimilated with
Shen or Yang.
few words the
in a
ethical basis of
Con-
fucianism and Taoism, the great outline of the Tao

of man, leading to virtue, perfection, sanctity, or
divinity.
the
The
sum and
man by
the very
cardinal virtues are the
Tao of man,
substance of morality, bestowed on
heaven
itself.
Morality
is
universalistic to
marrow, and Confucianism
is
on
this
most
138
important point Taoism
synonymous with
classical
The human Too
itself.
it
virtue;
is
synonymous with
is
or orthodox doctrine;
it
is
synonymous
with Shen, or divinity, and also with harmony with

the world of gods
especially
by the second cardinal virtue:
ceremonies, that
All this
such harmony being fostered
is
It
especially in the Yih
was
set
famous Tao-teh-king, or
Nan hwa
forth in the classics,
and the Li
ki,
but also in the
classic of Taoistic virtue,
ascribed to Lao-tsze; and,
much more
elaborately,
chen king, the great Taoistic work
The
of Chwang-tsze.
more
and
Taoist doctrine prevailed in the pre-
Christian epoch.
in the
rites
to say, a ritualistic religion.
classics
being appropriated
by
Confucianism as
its
holy
books, the writings of
Lao and Chwang
are
more
particularly
peculiarly designated as the holy books of Taoism,
though Taoism emphatically claims the

be
its
own
Among
holy books as
the
means
classics to
well.
which
the
ancients
have
invented to bring about a realization of the highest

ideal,
which
is
conformity with the Tao, imitation
of the Tao stands foremost.
nature behaves,
is
In fact, behaving as
adaptation to nature.
Imitation of the Tao
is
imitation of
its
qualities
TAOISM
139
or virtues.
Ancient books contain several hints as
to the
in
ways
which
man
has to act in accordance
and harmony with the Too, and those which occur

in the classics pass, of course,
for stringent dog-
matic rescripts, to be slavishly obeyed not only for

the sake of self-preservation but, in the case of
rulers,
for the preservation
their
Not a few of those rescripts have always
subjects.
commanded
main of
a wide sphere of influence in the do-
politics,
state
important
the nation and
Many
and welfare of
also
and have
given
existence
to
institutions, considered to be, for

its
we may
rulers, matters of life or death.
characterize as
mere moral
les-
or
maxims, speculative phrases, devoid of
practical
value; as, for example, the doctrine of
sons
the
Yih that
man
should raise his intellect to a
par with the lucidity of the sun and moon, his firmness or constancy to a par with that of heaven
which never diverges from

earth, he
blessings.
its
course, and, like the
must support and nourish
Heaven and
all
beings with
earth produce everything
without partiality; the perfect ruler therefore ought
always to be impartial in administering government.

ethics,
Thus universalism appears
as a source of
exhorting to altruism and justice.
140
It
many more virtues. The Yih

every man to be compliant with the will
to
incites
teaches
and wishes of others
Tao
is
the
first
indeed, compliance with the
of necessities, seeing that,
opposes the Tao, the
Tao
is
man
if
sure to destroy him.
Besides, do not heaven and earth manifest the most
towards one another, moving
perfect compliance
eternally without the slightest collision?

is
Thus
it
comply with the wishes of

them in accordance with their
that rulers ought to
and
their people
will.
There
rule
This
istic
is
then any more collision
will not be
or rebellion than there
is
between heaven and earth.
a theoretical constitutionalism on the Tao-
basis
The
general state of compliance
an
is
ideal state of bliss.
The Tao
also teaches emphatically humility
self-effacement.
done
its
Heaven,
after
having
annually
highly meritorious creative work, never
shows any
pride.
Hence
it is
"when your meritorious work
that Lao-tsze taught

is
done, and fame
thereby gained, to retire to the background
Tao of heaven."
after
and
shining,
set;
Indeed,
the
sun,
moon,
wanes; the
warmth of summer
finished
work of
its
creation.
moon, and
after
retires
its
is
is
the
stars,
fullness,
when
it
has
Again, "water," says
Lao-tsze, "benefits
TAOISM
141
things,
and yet humbly occu-
all
pies the lowest places which
reason
why
all
men
dislike.
The
the large rivers and the seas are able
to act as kings of the streams
which flow down
into the valley, receiving tribute
from them
their skill in taking a lower level than they."
Taoist does not
all,
is
The
indulge in self-advertisement or
in self-sufficiency or self-praise; he does not strive
He
for glory.
is,
in
passion and desires,

the
Tao which
other words, exempt from
This absence of passion

"emptiness."
It
freedom from
care,
implies
The pure
is
expressed by the word
placidity,
and means
of mind and character

itself.
heaven and earth, and
like
rules their course.
contentedness,
in particular purity
a purity like that of heaven
shen, or soul of heaven and the
universe, pervades the
man who
has no passions
he becomes a shen, or god, himself, a celestial

being, a
man
Emptiness
two
of perfection.
is
the mother of inactivity or stillness,
which again heaven and earth are

the prototypes.
In fact, the Tao of heaven and
virtues of
earth
is
not the active cause of
universe, but that
but law.
Is
it
movement
all
movement
itself; it is
not clear therefrom that
in the
not action,
man must
142
live a life
moved by inward
He
spontaneity only?
not allow himself to be guided by self-deter-
may
mination or a strong
by desire or
spirit
will,
is
he be dominated
may
of initiative; he should never
act a part, least of
This
nor
force the nature of things.
all
the famous doctrine of inactivity, or
wei, preached by Lao-tsze,
wu-
warmly recommended
Like heaven and earth, which do
by Confucius.
not exert themselves, yet produce and create everything, so
he
is
ible,
man who
almighty.
is
inactive can
If he
do everything;
a ruler, he
is
irresist-
is
and reigns most successfully, without any
exertion, simply because he possesses that great
of heaven and earth.
man who
Shun?
What
on
all
taneously.
did he?
He made
his throne facing
himself venerable
due south
The Taoist may not even
he did."
doctrines;
"The
reigned without exertion, was he not
and
sat
Confucius exclaimed
Tao
they
must
Confucius,
emerge
in
from
mood
once said: "I would rather not
that
was
teach his
him
spon-
of wu-wei-ism,
talk.
But
if
thou
sayest nothing, master, his disciples replied, what

shall
we have
to record?
Does heaven say aught?
retorted the Sage, and yet the seasons pursue their
TAOISM
and yet
course,
all
143
are
things
does
produced;
heaven say aught?"
The
true Taoist then
is
the
man who
unites in
himself those virtues or qualities of the universe,

including the constant virtues.
He may
thus be,
or become, a part of the shen of the universe, that

is
an unsubstantial, incorporeal god.
to say,
Lao-tsze,
Chwang-tsze,
and the Chung-yung
in
the
Confucian
particular,
classics,
on the
dilate
whom
qualities of such a man-god or princely man,
they also
earl.
tendency
does
call shing,
As among
is
is
or saint, chin and ch'ing or
the Stoics of ancient Greece, his
to live in accordance with nature
right, all his opinions are true,
skilled to govern, his happiness falls
of the happiness of the gods.

place
ought to possess
in
many who,
the
all
he alone
he
is
nowise short
Rulers in the
first
Taoist qualities, and
fabulous antiquity, introduced the
universal order into
human government and
life,
are described as being thus perfect, real, and holy.
They are
the
paragons
of
Confucianism
Theoretically, to this day, the living
a saint.
He
is
emperor
also.
such
one of the highest gods, with none
above him but heaven, whose son he
man
is
needs no food to sustain him.
is.
He
god-
rides
on
144
with
clouds
for
dragons
flying
his
team.
rambles beyond the four oceans of the world.

rides
on the sun and the moon.
makes
life
any
change
in
He
He
Neither death nor
him.
Thunder and
lightning do not frighten him; the greatest heat
burn him; the highest floods not drown
will not
him.
him
terms that Chwang-tsze depicts
It is in these
;
and other authors
dilate
on him with enthus-
iasm.
The great
doctrine of absence of passion, that
is
to say indifference, stillness, inactivity, elevated to
the rank of highest virtue of the universe and of
man, implies the prevalence

a strong
ment from the world.

called shi,
in early Taoist time of
leaning towards asceticism
and
retire-
Taoist recluses or anchorites,
or scholars, doctors, are indeed men-
Lao and Chwang; and

according to Sze-ma Ts'ien,
tioned in the writings of

these
two prophets,
themselves lived in seclusion and solitude.
on we
find
"scholars
their
that
settled
dwelling in
the
at
Tao-shi
home,"
search
of
are
Later
mentioned as
scholars
position
not leaving
and glory.
Since the beginning of our era such divine beings

are mentioned and described in very great numbers
as having lived
from the commencement of China's
TAOISM
145
mythical time, and though they are, no doubt,

or nearly
products of fancy,
all
worshiped as gods to
retired into
of
tivation
this
many
Most of them,
day.
mountains and acquiring by the culsanctity
and perfection
the
magical
powers of the god-man, became immortal
Tao
itself.
all
of them are
They are the
like the
so-called sien, generally
reputed to have lived to an extreme old age, even

a
forever
class
of
terrestrial
genii,
becoming
so soon as the process of perfection
celestial genii
enabled them to soar on high to the heavenly gods

in their
Olympian paradise.
Such perfect worthies attracted, of course,
who
ciples,
gathered round them
cipline of perfection
dynasty their
found
are
many
and
so-called
frequently
dis-
to learn the dis-
Since the
salvation.
"cottages
for
mentioned
in
Han
refinement"
literature;
of these abodes were grottoes and rock-caves.
Ancient doctrine taught that the god-man might

live
without food.
These votaries
in
retirement
explained this in this sense, that, could they only
succeed in living without food, they would be gods.
To
this
end they fasted and emaciated themselves.
Besides, they ransacked the mountains for drugs,
which,
01
when
eaten,
might
silence the
craving of
146
their stomachs, and,
by bestowing
and prolong
them
invigorate
might
vitality,
their
Thus
lives.
they tried to shed their material body, their mortal
and to become
coil,
The
thing,
universal Athmos, or Shen, pervades every-
and man's
of a part of
vent
ethereal gods.
it
life is
Therefore he
into himself.
death by
his
derived from the infusion
constantly
long as heaven
may
so often
shown
itself
This process,
even make him
The
itself.
pre-
absorbing Athmos
from the world surrounding him.

properly conducted,
may
vegetable
if
as
kingdom had
capable of infusing
into the sick, that plants, declared
live
new
by human
life
reason
be specially animated, naturally supplied the
to
The
elixirs of life.
art of discovering, preparing,
and consuming these was, of

istic
old,
eminently Tao-
indissolubly allied with the art of curing
it is
the sick, that
is
to say, of pouring
new
life
into
them.
In the
we
find,
list
of those sovereign plants of the sien
for
example, the pine and the cypress,
especially the seeds and their resin, or blood, which
are
concentrations
Further
we
find
of
the
among such
vitality
of
the
tree.
the plum, pear, and
peach, the cassia, and also various kinds of mush-
TAOISM
furthermore
rooms,
sweet-flag, asters or
147
so-called
shuh,
chrysanthemums,
calamus
or
To
ac-
etc.
count for the capacities of each of these plants in
prolonging
had
its
and conferring immortality, Taoism
life
reasons and deductions, derived from cps-
Of
mological-animistic philosophy.
stances bestowing immortality
the other sub-
we merely mention
gold, jade, pearls, mother-of-pearl, cinnabar.
these things,
All
and a great many more, have, of
course, occupied a place in the pharmacopoeia for

all
ages.
Learned reasoning also demonstrated that the

absorption of these life-bestowing substances
by
the body might be advantageously connected with

inhalation of shen
directly
from the atmosphere.
The atmosphere indeed is nothing else than

great Athmos of the universe, its very Shen.
halations,
the
In-
deep and long; exhalations, slow and
short, periodically
and
in a
proper cadence, accord-
ing to prescribed rules of the sages, could not but

highly promote assimilation with the Tao, and pro-
duce deathlessness.
This discipline was connected
with movement of the limbs,

rectly
discovered
influence
upon
that
it
having been cor-
such motion exercises an
respiration.
Hence
there
was de-
148
veloped a system of indoor gymnastics, preached
and practised
day as highly
this
to
promoting health and longevity.
beneficial
in
Slow dances, or
rather marches, and combinations of paces forming

figures,
completed the system.
wrote Chwang-tsze,
heels," so that his
is
imbued with the
"is
he
body
who
to
its
"The
perfect man,"
respires even to his

farthest extremities
Thus
vital ether of the universe.
same author goes on to say, "Blowing and gasping, sighing and panting, expelling the old breath
and taking in new, passing the time like a hiber-
the
nating bear, and stretching and twisting the neck

like
a bird
all
this
merely shows the desire for
longevity."
Longevity seeking was, as the works of Lao and
Chwang
justify us in asserting, firmly established
as a system before the rise of the

It
reached
swayed
height in the epoch
the empire.
men were
on the
its
subject,
in particulars.
it;
and many of
exist, enabling us to
their
Famous
then devotees of
know and
Men who
constitutions
for a
House of Han.
when
scholars
learned
their
this
and
house
states-
men wrote
writings
still
describe the system
thus had fed and refined
number of years
could,
without dying, transmigrate into another existence
TAOISM
149
and could thus become men of
immortals,
reality,
either terrestrial or celestial, according to the de-
gree of divinity they had reached.
Such were the holy men supposed

in great
of
numbers,
common
They dwelt
Herbs
in islands in the limitless ocean, for the
before
of
where no foot
mortals had ever trodden the earth.
discovery of which even Shi
century
to live together
in mythical places
life,
our
Hwang,
sent
era,
substances
filled
out
in the third
expeditions.
with
Athmos, grew there luxuriantly; there
universal
fluid
jade
those
Most important among

paradises was the Kwun-lun range in the far
west,
where the sien enjoyed immortality under the
gushed out of the rocks.
sway and direction of Si-wang-mu, a mysterious

queen, strange ideas about whom occupy the minds
of the Chinese to this day, and whose worship
is
still
general.
It
is,
more than a mere coincidence
perhaps, not
that the dwelling together of Taoist votaries as

religious fraternities for the cultivation of divinity
and immortality, that

dates, according to
of
the
to say Taoist monastic life,
Chinese literature, from the age
introduction
growth on Chinese
is
of
soil.
Buddhism and
its
first
This coincidence renders
I5O
it
doubtful
hardly
that
it
developed
principally
under the impulse of Buddhist example, and probably also under stimulation of a spirit of competi-
Be
tion.
convents
China
in
this as
may,
it
it
is
a fact that Taoist
and nunneries have always existed in

much smaller numbers than those of
Buddhists, and that at present only a few survive.
The
presence
monastic
Buddhism
of
with
its
intensive
rendered the growth of Taoism in
life
indeed, the road to sal-
that direction superfluous
vation and perfection leading through the Buddhist
monasteries
Even
of
proved
broad enough
for
all
men.
the anchorites, or scholars "living at home,"
whom
have spoken, learned notables not em-
ployed by the state, are, since the
Han
dynasty,
mostly described as Buddhists, or are mentioned as

votaries of the
at first
In
fact,
hayana
two systems together, or as Taoists
and Buddhists
in the end.
Buddhism entered China
form, that
is
broad way to salvation.
This name
august vocation which the
upon
itself; the salvation
even animals and

this
in
the
Ma-
to say, that of the great
devils.
of
It
signifies
or
the
religion had imposed

all
beings whatsoever,
was believed
to effect
by means of asceticism and mortification, prom-
TAOISM
man
151
to rise thereby
through several stages of
perfection to the highest
the Buddhaship, or ab-
ising
Nirvana or universal
into
sorption
This great
way and the goal
nothingness.
which
to
Wu-wei
leading
to
action,
that
is,
to
or
led bore
way of man,
a striking resemblance to the Taoist
which, in the main, consisted
it
of killing the passions,
universal
nothingness
of
assimilation with the universe.
Need we then be surprised

met harmoniously, and
that
two systems
Buddhism considered
that the
her road into China paved by Taoism?
And
that,
on the other hand, Taoists deemed Buddhism, as

well as their
tsze
own
system, to be preached by Lao-
who journeyed
This fusion was
and syncretic
for this purpose to the west?
facilitated
by the
universalistic
spirit of the Mahayana, which, while
imperatively insisting on the active salvation of
all
beings, and the increase of the ways leading to

that great end, allotted with almost absolute toler-
ance a place in
its
system to the
way
or Too of the
Taoists.
Thus
it
is
that the Taoist religion,
by inventing
number of men who by walking in the Too

successfully became saints or gods, enriched the
a large
Olympus
of China with
numerous
divinities.
Their
152
worship represents an extension of the worship of

ancestors, therefore ancient
Confucian and orthodox.
and
Many
classical
therefore
Taoist saints have
temples and religious festivals to this day.
their
Highest among them are the supreme gods of

Chaos, before
nature.
it
Yang and Yin
split into
and became the Tao, occupies the principal place

the
pantheon under the name of Pan-ku.
in
The
Yang is named Royal Father of the East,

and as such he bears sway in a kind of paradise
deified
The
in the ocean.
wang-mu,
p.
149),
who
deified
Yin
is
Royal Mother of
the
his consort, Si-
wields the scepter in the
the region of the death of light, Si-
is
wang-mu
(see
Kwun-lun
And whereas
paradise over myriads of immortals.

the west
West
the
is
enthroned in her realm as a goddess
presiding over death.
of this earth are stated
few very worthy emperors

to have visited her, and
have even been called on by her.
goes without
It
saying that the beauties of her paradise have been

enthusiastically
even more
The
described by
detail than
place which,
many
authors,
any country of
in the
with
this earth.
ranks of the gods, fol-
lows that of the Yang and the Yin, was respectfully

allotted
by theogonists
to Lao-tsze, the prophet
who
TAOISM
endowed man with
153
the Tao-teh-king, the
first
book
that taught him about immortality and divinity by

the discipline of the breath and imitation of the
This immortal
Tao.
man
lived
on earth several
times, and existed before heaven and earth separated.
He
paradise
is
the lord of the gates of the celestial
which cultivation of the
to
Tao gives
access.
If
life
we may ascribe to Taoism some merit

of the human race, it is certainly this,
in the
that
it
has endowed East Asia with ideals about a future

life
of
bliss, accessible
by a
True,
self-abnegation.
this
first life
of virtue and
doctrine
has
degen-
erated into vagaries, such as pulmonary gymnastics,
and searches
after elixirs of life; nevertheless,
by
fostering a submissive respect for overawing nature,
Taoism has produced something better than what

was given by Confucianism, which itself refuses
to be anything
We
have
more than dry
now
ritualism.
seen that under the
Taoism had grown up to an actual
Han
dynasty
religion, with
a pantheon, with doctrines of sanctity, with ethics

calculated to reach sanctity, with votaries, hermits
and
saints, teachers
the
votaries
and
pupils.
We
organized themselves
have seen that

into
religious
154
communities; the process of evolution even trans-
formed the religion
in that
same epoch
This phenomenon
ciplined church.
is
into a dis-
inseparably
connected with the name of Chang-ling, or Chang

Tao-ling.
To
this
day
this saint is described as a miracle-
worker of the highest order, as a

of
life,
distiller
of elixirs
as a first-rate exorcist, as a theanthropos
who commanded
spirits
and gods.
He
personifies
the transformation of Taoist ancient principle and

doctrine into a religion with magic, priesthood, and
hierarchy,
under the very auspices of Lao-tsze,
who, appearing to him
in person,
for that great organization.
commissioned him
In obedience to this
prophet, he transmitted his mission to his descendants,
who
indeed have lived to this day as legal
heads of the church in the province of Kiangsi,
in
the same place in the Kwei-khi district where he
prepared his
elixir
of
life,
and flew up
to the azure
sky.
History and myth teach us
that,
century of our era, this remarkable

in the province of
in the
man
second
founded,
Sze-chwen, a semi-clerical
state,
with a system of taxation and a religious discipline
based on self-humiliation before the higher powers,
TAOISM
and confession of
tell,
of
This state was thereupon
sins.
ruled by his son, of
whom
and subsequently by
whom
history
tells
155
history has nothing to
his grandson,
much.
Chang Lu,
This priestly prince
The
extended his sway also over Shensi province.
legions of demons, that indispensable element in the
order of the universe as ministers of punishment,

played a prominent part
Seclusion
that state.
in
and asceticism were greatly encouraged, and so

were benevolence and confession of
Bodily punishment was abolished,
gods.
their
sins before the
restrictions
animals
see Buddhist influence.
Chang Lu, two Taoist
same surname were engaged
apostles of the
in the
work of con-
version and ecclesiastical organization,
and Chang Kioh.
The
kingdom of Chang
of Chang Lu. The "re-
ligion of universal pacification," of
Kioh was the high
slider
end.
accused
priest,
less
a ter-
In A.D. 184, a perfidious back-
him and
his
mediately,
compelling the
bloody
This
which Chang
had none the
rebellion.
self-defense.
Chang Sin
religious
Siu was absorbed by that
rible, tragic
in
imposed upon the slaughter of
we may no doubt
Besides
and
church
persecution
the
of
plotting
broke out
religionists
government,
imin
to
rise
of
course,
156
called rebellion;
blood.
Still,
of that time
it
was smothered
streams of
as late as our year 207, the annals
make mention
Yellow Turbans,
so-called
in
of the existence of these

a proof that the tenacity
of that religion was great, and the carnage long

continued.
The church of Chang Lu
in
Sze-chwen and
Shensi escaped destruction, for he sagaciously and
Han dynasty.
He was endowed by this house with high titles of
honor. He is, next to his grandfather, the glorious
ancestor of the Chang family, but for whom the
seasonably submitted himself to the
pontificate
would not
exist at this day.
Taoist monachism was devoted to the silent cultivation of divinity and immortality by means of the
discipline
which
have described, combined with
constant propitiation of gods and goddesses by sacrifices
It
and worship, and exorcism of
has,
evidently,
evil
spirits.
never prospered greatly, never
taken deep roots in the nation; Buddhist competition
was, indeed, too strong for
development was no
less
this
And
its
hampered by Confucian
enmity, of which government
To
that.
was the instrument.
day only a few Taoist monasteries of con-
siderable size and significance survive.
The
tao-
TAOISM
157
shi or Taoist doctors always
were for the greater
midst of society, living in ordinary
in the
part busy
houses, marrying like everybody else, and rearing
No
families.
home
doubt some applied themselves at
to asceticism
They have to
first
day been servants of the people,
and behaving
They
and assimilation with the Too.
for
them,
assisting
living
this
harmony with the Too.

In the
exercise this duty in various ways.
place
by soothsaying.
the universe
is
in
compensation,
pecuniary
in
Indeed, the order of
the annual course of time.
conformable to the Too, the source of
all
life
that
is
good, demands a knowledge of the happy and
unhappy
influences,
time which the
may
life
which the principal parts of
Yang produces, namely,
the days,
upon man; at the same time such a

demands a sage and practical application of
exercise
In plainer terms,
that knowledge.
perform
felicitous
all
the
days
Chronomancy
important
also, if
is,
on
among mankind,
his
to
on
life
possible, at felicitous hours.
this account,
published to this end

its
of
acts
element in the Taoist system.
obedience to
man ought
(p.
holy duty
52).
to
an indispensable
The almanack
is
Government, in
maintain the
has, indeed, ever since the
Too
most
158
ancient times
we know,
considered
it
its
principal
As
function to supply the people with this book.

a matter of course
it
priesthood to help the

interpreting
But
their
scope.
The
birth
is
its
is
incumbent on the Taoist
illiterate in
deciphering and
indications.
chronomantic functions have a wider

felicity
of the day and hour of a man's
his felicity forever; therefore those dates
are employed by Taoists to calculate the

for
many
of his acts.
fit
moments
The grand conception which
forms the base of the chronomantic system has not

prevented this from becoming a
nonsense.
cated
Nevertheless,
origin in nature,
chronomancy
web of complito
owing
its
holy
passes for a branch
of the highest science which ancestors have deliv-
ered to man.
There are several methods of soothsaying.

sublimest
cian
is
book,
that of the holiest Taoist
the
Yih,
extolled
in
The
and Confu-
high
terms by
Confucius himself as the wisest that ever was.
The
influences exercised
by the Tao
in the universe,
and the chief manifestations of the Tao, are represented

entire
by combinations of lines,
and broken, called kwa, and interpreted by
in
that
classic
means of verses;
the divination of
human
fate
by
TAOISM
159
means of those kwa and those verses

the
work of
The kwa
Taoists.
especially
human
for divination about sites of tombs,

ings, temples,
is
also are instruments
dwell-
and even towns, and about the par-
ticulars of their construction.
are the basis of the
That
to say, they
is
system of geomancy, called
fung-shui, stating that
it
professes to cause
and to be buried
man
in places in
which
the beneficial influences of nature converge.
It is
to live, to die,
certainly not too

nation,
is
much
to say that the
from the emperor
to
whole Chinese
the lowest subject,
under the absolute sway of that would-be scien-
tific
system.
But the principal work of the Taoist priesthood

is
the performance of magical religious ceremonies.
The
great
Taoist
and Confucian prophets have
stated that
men who
assimilated
themselves
possess the
Tao by having
with nature,
also
possess
miraculous powers, the same as those which nature

herself displays; they are, indeed,
the
gods or shen of
same kind as those who constitute the Tao.
Among
these
powers the most useful
is
that of
destroying and casting out evil spirits, and thus

saving mankind from disease, plague, and drought.
Even
the
man who, by
practising Taoist discipline,
l6o
is
on the way
with the Tao, that
to assimilation
to say, the Taoist doctor or priest,

this kind, of
is
a magician of
lower or higher order according to
He
his attainments in the Tao.
is
a physician and
an exorcist; he may quench conflagrations

distance, stop swollen rivers
duce fogs and rains;
may command
the central
and other ends he
Magic has always been

nerve of the Taoist religion, and always
the gods.
its
It
priesthood.
runs
main artery through a most extensive ritualism
and ceremonial, aiming

felicity
at the
promotion of human
mainly by destruction of
bined with propitiation of gods.

cially
is
in the
and inundations, pro-
to these
determined the functions of

as a
is
with charms and
unlimited
spells
desire,
spells, the
gods are ordered
to
and demons and
and destroyed
in
means
By
faith.
evil spirits,
power of which
of
charms
do whatever the
work are
their
com-
works espe-
It
and
priests
dispelled
fact, they express orders from
Lao-tsze
and
Wherever
calamities are to be averted or felicity
other
to be established, a
powerful
temporary
saints
altar
is
or
gods.
is
erected by
the priests, adorned with portraits of a great
num-
ber of gods, with flowers and incense burners, and

sacrificial
food and drink
is set
thereon.
The gods,
TAOISM
l6l
by the savory smoke and
attracted
down by means
smell, are called
of charms, which, being burned,
reach them through the flames and the smoke; and
by the same magic, connected with invocations and

they are prevailed upon to remove the
prayers,
Thus
calamity.
it
is
down
thunder send
gods of rain and
that the
fructifying water wanted for
agriculture; that they stop their rains
are
withdraw
forced to
gods of
fire
prevailed
river
destructive
their
upon
and showers
Thus
in seasons of excessive wetness.
to
gods
floods,
quench conflagra-
Thus, again, in times of epidemic or drought,
tions.
the devils which cause these calamities are routed
with the help of gods.
That magical
who
of gods
universal
that
Yang-Aihmos
exorcising,
spoken
cult of the universe, that is to say,
are parts or manifestations of the
ritualistic
of
in
is
religion,
IV which
Chapter
sacrificial,
exercised in the temples
erected everywhere by thousands
people
have
throughout the
empire, nominally consecrating each to one god,
but
filling it
more.
soil,
up with images and
many
Myriads of images thus stud the Chinese

characterizing
it
country in the world.

ii
altars of
as
the
Those
principal
idols,
idolatrous
deemed
to be
162
actually
if
animated and therefore miracle-working
properly worked on by magical worship, at the
same time characterize China as the principal country in the world for fetishism.
This idolatry even
embraces the worship of animals and trees

animals and
trees,
as well as
indeed,
men, are animated
by the Yang and the Yin.
For the exercise of magical
learned
religion,
Taoists have in course of ages invented numerous

systems.
Only a
tically in
vogue.
other
the
in
number of
limited
Those systems
first
place
these are prac-
differ
according
from each
to
the
gods
employed; but among these gods those of thunder
and lightning, the devil-destroying instruments of

heaven, are prominent.
These gods generally
fight
the host of devils in close alliance with thirty-six
generals of an
whom
army of
celestial warriors,
many
of
have an astrological origin.
Those systems have been carefully printed and

published for the benefit of the
human
race.
They
have been inserted in the great Taoist canon, published under imperial patronage in 1598,
and con-
taining probably between 3000 and 4000 volumes.
A copy of this
enormous compendium
probably outside of China
is
in the
the only one
Bibliotheque
TAOISM
163
Nationale at Paris, but only in a fragmentary state
which
is
the
more
doubtful whether
deplorable, seeing that

it
will
it is
highly
ever be possible to find
a complete copy.
The conclusion
Taoism
is
principle,
to be
drawn from
that in spite of
it
its
the history of
sublime universalistic
has, practically, not been able to rise
above the level of Idolatry, Polytheism, and Poly-
demonism, but even has systematically developed

all
these
paganism.
branches of the
great tree of
Asiatic
CHAPTER
VI
BUDDHISM
THE
age
which the Taoist principles of uni-
in
versalism were constructed into a formal religion,
and a church,
was
dynasty,
that
is
Buddhism was
the age also in which
introduced into the Chinese empire.
open question whether
younger
But a
it
form,
fact
it
is
the
Small Road,
older
its
or in
Great
or
Mahayana,
that
it
its
Road.
that at a very early date the
hayana was predominant, and
an
It is still
entered China in
Hinayana, the
form, the
Han
to say, the age of the
Ma-
has remained
predominant to the present day.

Mahayanistic Buddhism,
versalistic religion.
Its
like
Taoism,
is
a uni-
great principle or basis
the order of the world, which
it
is
dharma or
calls
law, and the Chinese have not hesitated to identify
fests
this
dharma with
itself
especially
their
Tao.
Dharma mani-
by the universal
light,
creator of everything in this world of man.

light
is
the
This
emitted by the buddhas, or beings endowed
with the highest bodhi or intelligence.

164
There have
BUDDHISM
been an
infinite
and there
future
day
number of
these beings in the past
be born an
will
165
infinite
number
indeed, the light of the world
in the
morning, to enter into
ingness in the evening.
The
life
is
in the
born every
Nirvana or nothof a buddha
is
day of preaching of the dharma, a so-called revoof
lution
Thus
wheel,
that there
is
it
billions
its
and
emanation of
light.
have been delivered
many
daily
of sermons, each having for
trillions
subject the elevation of
its
man
to a state of bliss
and those which have happily been written down

for the use of posterity are called Sutras.
Man, accordingly, should behaye

as those
in
every respect
Sutras preach, thus assimilating himself
with the dharma, or order of the universe.
This
same end being reached by Taoists by regulating

life
upon the king or
classics,
Buddhists in China
rightly denote their Sutras by the same

king.
It
paved the
is
name of
then clear that Taoism has in China
way
to
Buddhism, but
it
may
also be that
the Taoist doctrines of sanctity and immortalization of
man have owed much
under the
Han
dynasty to Buddhist impulse.
process of influence
reciprocity.
of their development
may
The
have been a process of
l66
we may admit
Certainly
that
Mahayanism did
not collide with or attack Taoism.
which has given

great way,
the
it
name
Its
to uplift the whole of
is
great aim,
of Mahayana, the
mankind
to
certain states of salvation, called that of the dewa,
the arhat,
and of the bodhisattwa or the buddha, as
also to increase to the highest possible degree the
number of ways or means
And
such grades of blessedness.
man
ing
for the obtaining of
Taoism, elevat-
and
to the state of the sien or immortality,
even to that of the shen or gods, was one of those
Taoism.
But
ways.
Mahayanistic
Mahayanism improved
Assimilating the Taoist state of godli-
ness with that of the dewata,
much
it
opened to
man
higher sanctity, namely to arhatship,
way
to
and
to the superior state of the bodhisattwas
the buddhas, which

total
the
absorption
means entry
by the
and
into Nirvana, or
universe.
Mahayanism
thus was predestined to supersede Taoism, which
we may
it
call its
unfinished prototype, and to throw
in the shade for all ages.
Dharma, the universal law, embraces the world

in
its
beings,
entirety.
for,
It
exists
does not
its
for
the
benefit
of
all
chief manifestation, the
light of the world, shine for blessing
on
all
men
BUDDHISM
and
all
life
first
both for
means
which
Salvation,
things?
formity of
in the
167
to the dharma, consequently
con-
means
place manifestation of universal love,
men and
animals.
Indeed, as
men and
animals equally are formed of the elements which
may become
constitute the universe itself, animals
human
and, through the
men,
into arhats, bodhisattwas
for animals salvation
is
means; and
their lives,
must by
means be
all
The Hinayana,
be converted
state,
Thus even
and buddhas.
to be prepared by religious
no
less
than those of men,
spared.
the small road to salvation, the
older form of Buddha's church in India, could not

lift
man
arhat.
to
any higher dignity than
tion
of the
This dignity was only obtainable by those
who renounced
and
that
asceticism.
the world, that
The man who
is
to say
by poverty
strove after salva-
was a bhikshu or mendicant monk.
This
fundamental principle of Buddha's church has maintained
its
position in the
Mahayana system; which,
indeed, rejects not a single means of salvation, and

certainly not the one
lished
life
by
which Buddha himself estab-
his doctrine, life,
has been
the
chief
from the very beginning;
and example.
Monastic
Mahayanistic institution
it
grew up
in
China side
l68
with
side
by
stimulation
Taoist
monachism,
done greater work:
by
reciprocal
But Mahayanism has
and example.
has added two upper steps,
it
the bodhisattwaship and buddhaship, to the ladder
of salvation.
Mahayanistic monasteries,
studded the
soil
of China, must be defined as special
institutions devoted to the

tion.
which have actually
working out of salva-
Various methods are practised there to
this
end; and the monk can choose those which best

suit
and
inclinations
his
character.
his
choose one method, several, or even
He may
Asceticism
all.
and poverty of a severe type are almost exceptional.

It is in fact only in a few monasteries that some
brethren are found
who seldom
or never leave their
cells,
or the grottoes in the grounds of the monas-
tery,
spending their
and meditation, or
lives therein in pious isolation
in
a state of passivity, even
without ever shaving themselves, and looking some-
what as pre-adamite man must have looked.

mendicancy
outside the monastic walls
rare occurrence.
deem
it
When
the abbot
and
is
And
now
his cashiers
necessary, he sends the brethren to collect
from the
laity.
This
is
also
done on certain days
of the year by several brethren in company.
Not
BUDDHISM
169
now
instances of begging for private needs
many
occur; the bhikshu, the mendicant

disappeared. The majority of
vation in more dignified ways.
The
has nearly
friar,
monks seek
the
sal-
and chapels which constitute a
buildings
monastery are provided with images of bodhisatt-
was and buddhas, and
these are continually wor-
hand
shiped, and besought
to lend a helping
seekers of salvation.
The most commonly practised

commandments
method
to the
to live according to the
is
which Buddha has given for the preservation of
human
purity,
and virtue
cipal
and for man's progress
that
with
commandments,
two hundred and

all
to say, the five
is
the
monastic
fifty
in excellence
and the ten prinor
pratimoksha,
rules,
which have
been taken over from the Hinayana, but espethe
cially
hayana.
fifty-eight
The
latter are
with
Brahmadjala
these
its
contained in the
network
sutra.
in this life;
trouble himself about the
or arhatship,
Fan-wang
celestial
constellations;
The man who
commandments becomes
buddha even
ship
of
Ma-
the
Net of Brahma or the
king, sutra of the
sphere,
commandments of
truly lives
the
by
a bodhisattwa or a
and he has no need to
two lower
stages, dewa-:
which are attained by
strict
THE RELIGION OF THE
I7O
obedience
to
the
commandments and the
ten
pratimoksha.
solemn
vow
to
live
fife
of saadfty in
obedience to the commandments makes the monk.

It
constitutes
his
ordination,
which only a few
monasteries nowadays have the privilege, granted
by imperial authority, to confer.

place in the fourth
festival
who
month of
of Buddha's birth.
The
It usually takes
the year,, about the

pupils of the clergy
are living in small monasteries and temples
scattered throughout the empire* repair to the abbot*
who
has the episcopal right to exercise the function
of consecrator, and at his feet they express their

determination to devote themselves to the sangha,
or church.
They express penitence

and swear by Buddha that they will
five great
for their
truly keep the
commandments, which are: not to
not to steal; to commit no adultery; not to

to drink any
spirits,
little
lie
kill:
;
later they are*
not
on
account of this vow, admitted as pupils, and
emnly take upon themselves to renounce the world

and keep the ten commandments, which are the
five just
mentioned, and besides: abstinence
perfumes and flowers, from chanting and dancing,

from laif beds, from htvfa| mttll .11 u-nUi
BUDDHISM
times,
second
On making
this
the neophytes receive the tonsure,
and
and from precious
vow
I/I
things.
the abbot hands to each of
them a mendicant
friar's
robe or the garment of poverty, the kashaya.

are
now sramanera or monks
at the
same time devas,
day or two
hundred and
the
saints of the lowest degree.
later they are
bhikshu, ascetic monks.

fifty
They
of inferior rank, and
ordained sramana or
The vow
to keep the
two
monastic rules, or pratimoksha,
most important part of
ceremony takes place
this
is
The
ordination.
in the presence of a chapter
consisting of eight of the principal
monks with
the
The
abbot as president, and lasts several hours.
abbot occupies an elevated seat, and the members

of the chapter are seated on his right and
Each candidate
receives an alms dish.
The
dates are taken apart in small groups, and a
ber of the chapter asks them whether there
left.
candi-
memis
any
hindrance to their reception into the order of the
mendicant
friars.
Then they
are immediately taken
once more into the presence of the chapter,

another of
its
members asks whether
to the admission of the novices.
The abbot
it
Silence
whom
consents
is
assent.
then asks whether they will yield faithful
obedience to the two hundred and
fifty
monastic
172
rules
of
life,
contained in the pratimoksha; the
candidates answer in the affirmative

the vow.
the
and thus take
The ceremony ends with
a sermon by
abbot, and
his
They are now
benediction.
arhats, or saints of the second degree.
Then
there follows, on the very next day, or the
second, the highest consecration, which raises the
sramanas from the recently gained stage of arhat

sanctity to that of the bodhisattwa.
This
is
pre-
ceded by a ceremonial purification from sin before
an
of
image
The
Buddha.
candidates
and plead that the pains of
their sins,
recount
hell,
which
they have deserved, may be remitted then they per;
form a bodily ablution, and put on new
The
purification
to the Triratna,
is
combined with a solemn
which
is
sacrifice
the Buddha, the dharma,
and the sangha or the church,
in
order to sue for
The candidates now confess
pardon.
clothes.
their
sins
before those saints, and swear that they will forever

live
by the
Net.
litany,
fifty-eight
in
which they
hundred buddhas, and

selves
commandments of Brahma's
Finally, they all atone for their sins in a long
and press
The next
call
at
on the names of three
each name prostrate them-
their foreheads
ordination
on the ground.
ceremony,
in
compliance
BUDDHISM
173
with one of the fifty-eight commandments,

singeing of the head.
convent, where stand the three
buddha,
the
dharma,
the
is
In the great church of the

great images of
and the
sangha,
all
they
assemble, and each of them has quite a number of

bits of charcoal stuck
These are
set
on
fire
on
his
by the
smooth-shaven head.
monks of
the monastery
by means of burning incense sticks, and allowed to

burn away into the skin. At an earlier period, it
seems that the novices used to burn
even the whole arm, as a
even read
in
off a finger, or
sacrifice to
Buddha; we
Chinese books of cases of complete
self-immolation on a pyre of wood.
The ordinands now humbly

from the
abbot.
He
request ordination
gives them instruction on
meaning and importance, and,
led
by him, they
its
all
in unison invoke the buddhas, shakya, mandjusri,
and maitreya, with
all
the
buddhas of the ten parts
of the universe, to form a chapter, and bestow on
them
the
highest
acknowledge
ordination.
of repentance, repeatedly
they will seek the

instructing their
promote
Once
good of
own
more they
through a
state
make solemn vow
that
their sins, and, passing
all
creatures, and, besides
selves in holy doctrine, will
the salvation of
them
all.
The abbot asks
174
them whether they have committed any of the seven

great sins which exclude from the sangha, or
church, and reminds them of their need of firm
determination to live by the
express their
promise
with firmness.
promise,
exists.
that
They
to
they
firm determination, this
completion of their ordination
now
are
carry out this intention
It is in this
the
commandments
bodhisattwas, on the
way
to
buddhaship.
In the monastic
is
life
of the
the object
Mahayana
the attainment of the dignity of bodhisattwa and
buddha by means of obedience

ments of Brahma's Net.
this fact
it is
to the
command-
Without a knowledge of
impossible to understand this monastic
life.
The
first
and greatest commandment forbids the
slaying of any living creature.
eaten in the monastery, and the

vegetarians.
ducks, and
The
fish,
cattle,
So no
flesh or fish is
monks
are absolute
sheep, pigs, fowls, geese,
which pious laymen,
in
order to
acquire merit beyond the grave, entrust to their

care,
and for the keep of which they pay, are
allowed to live the natural term of their existence.
From
time to time the
monks perform
at the cattle pens or the fish ponds,
certain rites
by means of
BUDDHISM
which animals,
175
men, undergo a new
like
birth,
and
are able to attain to the higher states of salvation of

the dewa, the arhat, and the bodhisattwa.
The commandments demand with
opening of the way of salvation to
are called
And
preachers, with the abbot as their foreman.
because preaching
Winayas or
the exposition of Sutras, and
is
man-
laws, which have been given to
kind by Buddha as the means of salvation,

to understand
why
the
a preach-
is
who
ing hall and a college of monks,
is,
the world.
all
In each monastery, accordingly, there
em-
special
phasis the preaching of the Mahayana, that
it is
easy
the monasteries are the places
where such books
are
The most important
and published.
prepared
of these institutions
conse-
quently possess printing departments with
monks
acting
as
copyists,
engravers,
correctors,
There are also monks whose duty
it
is
etc.
to afford
instruction in the sacred writings to the less edu-
cated brethren.
There are several annually recurring preaching

days.
The sermons
of the monks, because they are
taken from sacred books which are the gifts of
Buddha, are the sermons of Buddha himself.
most holy
saint
is
in
the
system of
This
Mahayana
176
and
the light of the world,
dharma,
teaching, or the
his
which the order of the
that light in
is
world finds expression, and which, by
embraces and blesses
all
existent
sermon or "illumination,"
sattwas, arhats and
all
its
diffusion,
So
life.
in every
the buddhas, bodhi-
dewas are supposed
to be pres-
honor them, incense, flowers, food, and
ent, and, to
other gifts are on such occasions set out on an
On
altar.
the other hand, the maras, or spirits of
darkness, are blinded by the presence of so
much
light
and so many light-giving gods, and driven
away
or utterly destroyed, together with
which they are the universal authors.

is
all evil
of
Preaching
accordingly not merely a holy act, but in every
respect a beatific act.
ing of the
The monks
dharma wheel,"
that
is
call
it
"the turn-
to say, the revo-
lution of the order of the world.
The Sutra
of Brahma's
Net
also ordains that in
case of a death the sacred books are to be read, in

the presence of the corpse, each seventh day
up
to
seven times seven, in order that the sleeper's soul
may
be advanced to the dignity of a bodhisattwa.
It is
a chief duty of the
ordinance
formed
among
in a
monks
the laity, and
very solemn way.
to carry out this

it
The
is
indeed per-
principal
book
BUDDHISM
on these occasions
is
the Sutra of Amitabha, or the
buddha representing the sun

which
is
lies
177
Nirvana, paradise.
behind
in the west,
The
recitation of this
accompanied by a thousand-fold recitation of that
buddha's blessed name.
Buddhism then
contributes
much
to
the cere-
monial adornment of ancestor worship.
had occasion
to state before that
work on behalf of
it
was
its
salvation
the dead which saved
its
Confucian China; for of Confucianism
in
piety
have
place
itself,
and devotion towards parents and ancestors,
and the promotion of
were the
their happiness,
core,
and, consequently, their worship with sacrifices and
ceremonies was always a sacred duty.
The regular course
much
helped
by
of the universal order
the
artificial
dharma wheel" by man.

up
altars
excessive
And
"turning
The monks
is
of
very
the
therefore set
on occasions of destructive drought or

rainfall,
at the
same
and there
time,
recite
their
sutras.
as at every recitation of
sutras, the saints are invoked, sacrificial ceremonies
and other
uttered.
rites
Such
are performed, and

religious
magic
performed by command of the
is
numerous
nearly
authorities,
spells
always
who, of
course, in times of threatened failure of the harvest
178
are always in dread of
formed when there

ness or epidemics;
in
when
short,
is
also
per-
a plague of locusts, in sickthere
an impending
is
flood, or con-
whenever danger threatens
which must be averted.

be seen
It
and on occasions of
revolt or war,
flagrations
is
famine.
Taoist priests
same
officiating at the
may
then
performing
place,
religious magic of their own.
Since then the sacred books avert
mankind, and make mankind

merely happy, but holy, even
dhistic degree,
it
in
all
every
evil
from
way not
in the highest
bud-
stands to reason that in the golden
age of China's Buddhism the number of these sutras

increased infinitely.
Learned
selves to the translation of

Pali,
clerics
devoted them-
them from Sanskrit and
and apparently wrote a good many themselves,
thus acquitting themselves of the holy duty of in-
creasing
the
ways
of
salvation.
undertook pilgrimages to India,

there the sacred writings
Some have
left
in
Pious
monks
order to collect
and bring them
records of their travels,
to China.
which are
of very great value for our knowledge of their holy

land,
and other countries.
pilgrims are Fah-hien,

in
who
Among the
most famous
entered upon his journey
399 ; Sung-yiin, whose travels took place between
BUDDHISM
518 and 522; and
179
who
I-tsing,
lived
713; but particularly renowned
who was
We
absent from his
is
from 634 to
Huen-chwang,
home from 629
to 645.
may, of course, consider the Chinese Bud-
from the very moment of
dhist literature to date
the introduction of the religion in China.
No
less
than 2213 works are mentioned in the oldest catalogue of the year 518 of our era; 276 of these are
now
In
in existence.
for the
first
A.D.
972 the holy books were
time printed collectively, and since that
time several Tripitaka editions were
Corea, and Japan.
made
in China,
In China, owing to the general
decay of monachism, probably no complete editions

exist
any longer, but, fortunately, copies of several
found
have
editions
their
way
into
Japan.
In
1586, the Japanese priest, Mi-tsang, began a reprint
of the Tripitaka
the
was
Ming
made
dynasty,
Peking under T'ai-tsung of
at
who
reigned from 1403-1424;
finished after his death.
fully reprinted.
versity,
copy of
another in the
London.
In 1681
it
is
in
India Office
it
was
it
care-
Leiden UniLibrary in
Within a few years an excellent and
cheap edition
in
movable types has been made by
a scientific society in Tokio, which purposes the

collection
and reproduction of everything which
ISO
may throw
light
on Japan's history and culture;
and since that same society has even prepared a

supplement, containing everything
else
present time exists in the Buddhist
which
field,
dhist sacred literature of East Asia need
be missing in any considerable

world.
the
The Japanese
at the
Bud-
the
no longer
of
scientific library
collection
the
in
is
Chinese language, which has remained to this day

the sacred language of the Buddhist church in the
Land
of Sunrise.
The
great Sutra of Brahma's Net also makes
a law for
all
seekers of salvation to secure
it
and
further each other's welfare and holiness by pious
Good
wishes.
are
wishes, on the supposition that they
made with
They
fervent
honesty,
have
efficiency.
are uttered at almost every ceremony, every
act of the brethren of the monastery,
and give a
special impress of devoutness to their
common
life.
The
daily matins, or early service in the church
of the monastery, consisting principally in the recitation of a sutra devoted to the

east,
Amitabha's
counterpart,
buddha of the
concludes
comprehensive wish for the welfare of

tures.
with
all
crea-
Side by side with such wishes, the brethren
continually utter an oath to the effect that they will
BUDDHISM
l8l
endeavor to secure the happiness of
own
as well as to cultivate in their
dom
of the buddhas.
In this
creatures,
persons the wis-
way do they zealously
minister to general progress on the
An
all
to salvation.
way
important monastic method for the attain-
ment of holiness
is
the
and by
salvation,
this
means
it
reality is obtained.
rooms, or a
somnolence.
in
quiet
it
has crea-
devoted
hall, specially
work of meditation, where
themselves
in
In the larger monas-
acts like magic.
teries there are
to this
its
this reality;
Thought, indeed, produces

tive force
consists
It
dhyana.
on for a long time, on
deep meditations, carried
reflection,
the
or
The winter months
monks bury
a
in
state
of
are specially de-
voted to this pious exercise.

Finally, I
must mention the exercises of repent-
ance and confession of

every morning
is
impossible for
tion with
from
which are performed
man
to
walk
results unless he
good
which lead
sins
ing hardly
sin,
Of
at the early service.
suffices,
astray.
the
in the
is
way
course
it
of salva-
continually purged
As
this daily cleans-
monks have introduced
another: the so-called poshadha, which takes place

at each
new moon and
full
moon.
other occasions as they think
fit,
On
this
and on
they purge them-
l82
selves
from
sutra which
their sins
by
recitations of a certain
Buddha preached
to
men
for this pur-
pose; and they also say litanies consisting of the
names of innumerable buddhas, and use many other

rites for the
same end.
These few
may
lines
suffice
and purpose of Buddhist monastic

there
is
no doubt
that
aim
to sketch the
think
life.
represents the highest stage
it
of devotion and piety to which, to this day,
man
in
East Asia has been able to raise himself.
Its prin-
ciple, love and devotion for every creature
endowed
with
life,
carried
up far above the
level of practical
use, to a height almost fantastical, fanatical,
woof of Brahma's Net
the
warp of
the
is
this net is
com-
passion, disinterestedness, altruism in various forms

virtues, but for
is inaccessible.
It is the
very
which the realm of the buddhas
The
first
interdiction to kill
is
absolute.
commandment, including
also
interdiction to eat flesh, fish, or insects, or to
anything whatever which might endanger a

It is, as
do
life.
a consequence, even forbidden to trade in
animals, or to keep cats or dogs, because these are
carnivorous beasts, or to
or to possess or
sell
make
fire
unless necessary,
any sharp instruments, or
weapons, nets, or snares.
"Thou
shalt not be
an
BUDDHISM
183
ambassador, because by thy agency a war might

break out; warriors or armies thou shalt not even
look
Thou
at.
Drawn
the
shalt not bind
out to
interdiction
its
to
anybody ..."
farthest consequences also

steal.
It
prohibits
is
incorrect
The command-
weights and measures, and arson.
ment against untruthfulness and lying includes all

cheating by word and gesture, all backbiting or
calumny, even the mention of faults and sins of the
brethren
the
in
Further, the principle of
faith.
Code of Brahma's Net
universal love causes the
to
forbid slave-dealing and slave-keeping; the honor
of having prohibited slavery at least fifteen hundred

years ago, therefore pertains to Buddhism.
plete
for
forgiveness
ordained
all
any
and mother,
trasted
herewith
to the
is
is
forbidden.
the
who
or mother?
Remarkably con-
doctrine
Li Ki, one of the
hia asked him, saying:
himself
is
revenge, even for the murder of a
father
According
Com-
wrong whatsoever
How
of
Confucius.
classics,
"Tsze-
should a son conduct
has to avenge the murder of his father
The Master
said:
He
should sleep on
straw, with his shield for a pillow; he should not
take office; he must not live with the slayer under

the
same heaven.
And
if
he meet with him, be
it
THE
184
RELIGION, OF
market or even
in the
not turn away
his
THE CHINESE
he must
in the royal court
weapon, but
The Buddhist code does
fight
with him."
not, of course,
preach abstinence from crime and
sin,
merely
but also
active cultivation of virtue; a natural consequence,
indeed, of its great principle of promoting the good

and salvation of every one. It ordains the rescue
of creatures from imminent death always and every-
where, the giving of possessions to others without

the slightest regret or avarice, especially to brethren
in the faith
thy
thou shalt
own body;
flesh of thine
flesh
to
satisfy
injury, insult,
sell
the
virtue
hunger of wild
calumny which
others.
ransom
and excellence,
It is
them thy kingdom,
nay, thou shalt give thy
thou divert upon thyself.
own
for
whatever thou possessest, even the
children,
falleth
Thou
lest
beasts.
All
on others
shalt
shalt hide thine
they eclipse those of
further ordained to nurse the sick, to
slaves.
It is strictly
forbidden to do any-
thing which might induce another to a sinful
and as a consequence might be an impediment
way
act,
in his
to salvation; such as to sell spirituous liquors
or to facilitate their sale
or to commit incest, since
such an act also makes another person

Salvation
being
the
sin.
alpha and the omega of
BUDDHISM
Brahma's
the
Net,
185
which bears
code
name
its
abounds with rescripts on the preaching of the doc-
learned by heart,
recited
published
reprinted,
shalt to this
own
The commandments must be
and the laws.
trine
end
over
thus
it
constantly, printed
and over again
and
thou
tear off thine
proclaims
skin for paper, use thy blood for ink, thy bones
for writing pencils.
On
the other
sin to refuse to listen to
grave
hand,
it
is
sermons on the holy
religion, or to treat carelessly
or apostle
they
all
any foreign preacher

must be hospitably received, and
requested to preach three times a day, and from

sides disciples
and monks must run
Religious books must be

care,
and even
as if they
sacrifices
were living
As we might
does not
mands
fail
to
him
treated with idolatrous
must be offered
to them,
saints.
expect, the code of Brahma's
to
all
to hear.
mention conventual
life.
It
Net
de-
that convents shall be erected with parks,
forests, fields, that is to say,
with grounds on the
products of which the monks
may
the erection of pagodas of
Buddha
live.
It
ordains
for the exercise
of dhyana, and forbids mandarins to hinder their

erection, or confiscate
any of
a matter of fact, history has
their possessions.
many
As
cases to record
l86
of zealots
who founded
monasteries, or gave of
their wealth to increase their estate
and therewith the number of
their
and income,
monks.
Yet
in
by far the majority of cases have they been erected
and supported for the regulation of
the climate, or,
as the Chinese themselves say, for fung-shui pur-
poses (p. 73
ff.).
Since the fourth century of our
era I find mention of the erection of convents in
where dragons
mountains
and
tempests,
thunderstorms
caused
and inundations, with the
floods
object of bridling these imaginary beasts
or where,
on the contrary, monks had conjured away droughts
by compelling dragons
and a
fact
it
is that,
to send
down
their rains;
to this day, people
and man-
darins openly confess that such institutions exist

for hardly any purpose but regulation of winds
(fung) and
rainfall
(shui), and, consequently, to
secure good crops, so often endangered in treeless
China by droughts.
Thus
it
is
that convents are
generally found in mountains which send
down
the
water but for which cultivation of rice and other

products in the valleys
is
impossible
thus
it is
that,
conversely, the people, thus protected, support the
convents with gifts for which the monks are bound

to perform their sutra readings and their religious
BUDDHISM
187
And
magic for the success of agriculture.
it
is
on the same important considerations that man-
however thoroughly Confucian they are,

support the convents, and lack the courage to
darins,
sequestrate and demolish them.
The
and
influence of a Buddhist convent'
rainfall
bors in
is
merely due to the fact that
it
har-
which
is
con-
central or principal part,
its
on weather
sidered the great sanctuary or church, three large
images of the Triratna, that
dharma or order of
is
to
the universe, the
say,
of
the
Buddha or
the
and the sangha or assembly of

bodhisattwas, dewas, arhats, and the whole host of
universal
saints
light,
who perform
their
The
of the universe.
role in the
revolutions
place of the images of these
three highest universal powers has been calculated
with the utmost care by fung-shui professors, so

that all
the
favorable
mountains, rivers,
etc.,
influences of the heavens,
converge on them, and
may
be emitted by their holy bodies over the whole country around.
In
many
cases a
pagoda
is
erected to
same purpose in the immediate neighborhood

of the convent, on an elevated spot commanding a
the
wide horizon.
Buddha,
It
contains an animated image of
or, if possible, a
genuine
relic
of his
own
l88
body, in consequence of which

itory of universal
maras, or
light,
and
Such a
evil.
protects and blesses the whole
country bounded by
himself in his
always driving away the
of darkness
spirits
tower therefore
becomes a depos-
it
own
its
as
horizon,
person would
Buddha
the
do.
Brahma's Net
Seeing that the holy sutra of
is
very basis of the system of Buddhist religious

in
the
life
Far East, the principal instrument of the
great Buddhist art of salvation,

to
the
it
certainly deserves
be called the most important of the sacred' books
of the East.
the fact that
least
Its
it
1500 years,
that a preface
importance
if
also
paramount from
its
influence for at
the general statement
was written
and
lived in the fourth

era.
is
has exercised
to
it
by Sang Chao, who
in the fifth centuries of
study of that influence
history of
correct
is
Mahayana Buddhism
is
our
a study of the
itself,
as
it
has not
only prevailed in China, but also in Indo-China,
Korea, and Japan.
Such study might show
that
the book has been the mightiest instrument for the
amelioration
of
cruelty in Asia.
show
that
its
customs
and
the
mitigation
But on the other hand
it
of
might
influence has not passed so far be-
yond the pales of conventual
life
as
we might
BUDDHISM
desire,
owing
to the fact that the church of
dha, in spite of
versal
its
devotion to
spirit of
all
189
Bud-
benevolence and uni-
beings endowed with
life,
has never found favor in the eyes of stern Confucianism,
CHAPTER
BUDDHISM
CERTAINLY
the career of
to have been a
of
its
VII
II
Buddhism cannot be
happy one.
think that,
on account
noble principles of humanitarianism,
have deserved a better
where
cess in India,
fate.
it
It
said
it
might
had no lasting suc-
was born; Brahmanism and
Shivaism there have actually superseded, not to say
in the
Nor has
it.
destroyed
empire of China.
it
met with better fortune

There
it
has never been
able to supplant Confucianism, the religion of the

state.
On
the contrary, after
some
centuries of
considerable prosperity and growth, a strong reaction against
reducing
in
monachism
it
it
set
in
from the Confucian
course of time
the
to the pitiable state in
side,
church and
its
which we know
at the present day.
We
have already read something on
Chapter IV,
spirit
in the
this topic in
pages relating to the Confucian
of intolerance and persecution, and have seen
that the church
was not destroyed
totally, since in
particular the worship of the dead saved

190
it.
Sal-
BUDDHISM
191
vation of the dead was, indeed, an art which
no
other religion could exercise in so high a degree of

perfection;
no
other
but
Buddha's
church,
in
obedience to the commandments of Brahma's Net,
redeem the departed from
could
them
elevate
to
arhatship,
to
and could
hell,
dewaship, nay, the
dignity of the bodhisattwas and even the buddhas.
To
august end the church had
this
its
sutras,
tantras,
same purpose
its
or
spells.
It
its
magical
practised to the
wonderful dhyana
art,
for
by
fixedly
imagining that the souls in
hell,
hungry,
thirsty,
indescribably miserable, are
fed,
clothed,
refreshed
and released, the clergy magically
freshed and redeemed them in reality.
re-
There was
even more: Amitabha, the buddha of the paradise,
and Kwanyin or Avalokitecvara, the goddess of

mercy, were, on the frequent repetition of their
names, always ready not only to save the

the departed as well.
rites
and
sacrifices,
living, but
Combined with Confucian
Buddhist ceremonies were fash-
ioned into grand masses for the departed souls, and

these
even
were celebrated by the clergy of Buddha

in
good Confucian
families.
Moreover, the
whole seventh month of every year was devoted to

the refreshment of the souls of the departed gen-
IQ2
and
erally,
their deliverance
from
The
hell.
clergy,
consecrated and unconsecrated, both those living in
temples and convents as well as in ordinary dwellings, are to this
work of
It is,
day employed
deliverance,
main
in the
in this
and make a livelihood by
it.
of course, worth while collecting from writ-
ings the reasons for the antagonism and spirit of
persecution manifested by the Confucian world to

this
this
day against
reproach was
Buddhism, as
astray by
it
chief
were deceived and led

Confu-
did not, like
cianism, give truth pure and unalloyed.

its
The
foreign religion.
that the people
Especially
tenets concerning the possibility of raising the
dead unto a condition of higher

gossip;
are,
as
bliss,
are
idle
ceremonies instituted for that purpose
its
consequence, absolutely valueless,
nay,
even harmful because of the outlays which they

Since
entail.
age of
man
the
introduction
of
Buddhism the
has been considerably shortened.
No
dynasty since that time has been able to maintain

itself
and
on the throne for any great length of time,

this
point
history
accidentally
shows
correct during the period between the
Han
and the seventh century of our
It
era.
fore as clear as clear can be: this
to
be
dynasty
was
there-
religion
was
BUDDHISM
193
dangerous to every emperor individually, dangerous

also to his dynasty.
is
directly
This precarious phenomenon
brought into connection with the alarming
increase of faithlessness and treason
towards their sovereign, and their
ministers
and
creased
stupidity,
people
a charge which
we
their
in-
towards the
cruelty
we
should prefer to
far-fetched or insinuation.
either
amongst the
call
But what can
say about the appeal to the longevity of sov-
ereigns and the duration of dynastic governments
an ideal antiquity of which
in
but Confucianists
we
really
know
know
so
everything, at
very
little,
least
everything worth knowing, thanks to their
which are
classics,
in their eyes the truth
ing but the truth?

that appeal
theme
in all anti-buddhistic
Under
in
yet
the
Its insipidity
from remaining
to
and noth-
has not prevented

this
day a main
argument.
the T'ang dynasty, which began to reign
seventh century, anti-Buddhism possessed
other
weapons.
Why
be
when one
statesmen argued,
Buddhist,
sees that
perors and members of imperial
thus
some em-
families,
most
zealous sons and daughters of this religion,
came
to a miserable
end
Why
tolerate their clergy, that
class of useless drones, idlers,

13
and beggars, who, by
IQ4
not
devoting themselves
treasuries
the
to
agriculture,
rob
the
by paying no ground rent or land tax
to
Son
of Heaven, and who, by remaining unmardo not give birth to any soldiers for his
ried,
majesty's armies, and therefore are an impediment

to the spread
and maintenance of
glory and bliss to
dominion of
the uttermost confines of the
Their celibacy, moreover, impoverishes the
earth?
people, as
try of
his
it
deprives husbandry and the silk indus-
many producing hands
yet unborn.
On
the
other hand, their religious works encourage waste
of money, especially spent in the erection of tem-
and monasteries.
ples
And
their ethical doctrines ?
These are decidedly
of a low order, because they pursue other

than that of a worldly nature.
all
right
if
it
preached nothing else than mental
quiet, compassion,
and
and the avoiding of

but
why drown
felicity
Buddhism would be
charity, the doing of
good
evil in this earthly existence
all this in
lead to misconception?
a sea of
In truth,
astonishing to see such a line of
idle stories
it is
which
by no means
argument used by
ardent partisans of Confucianism, which teaches

that,
as long as there
is
slavish
devotion to parents and sovereigns,
submission and
all
human
per-
BUDDHISM
195
faction will be produced spontaneously by virtue of
the Tao, without any further activity or exertion
of any kind being required.

it
is
Quite natural also
that in anti-buddhistic writings there
a word of appreciation of the pious
wherewith
and
in this religion,
charity towards
by the
fellow
practice of virtue
there
creatures,
sought a higher state of perfection and

this
gravity, rests
soul
all
This aspiration,
world can give.
is
on
lies
and
fiction, for
found in the Confucian
doctrines leading
up
dhist goal are heretical,
bliss
is
than
center of
its
nothing of the
classics.
to this
not
is
sentiment
Therefore,
one and only Bud-
and should be exterminated
without delay, to give room once more for the
dogmas of Confucius and
his school.
chilling
and absolute denial of the worth of religious
ment and moral

effects
and
senti-
which are the necessary
of a striving after perfection in this world
world to come,
in the
tures of
One
elevation,
all
is
one of the chief fea-
anti-buddhistic writings.
of the main principles of Buddhism so
flatly
contradicts a fundamental tenet of Confucian doctrine that
it
precluded once and forever
all
of reconciliation between the two powers.
ment from the world
chance
Retire-
into a convent passes in the
196
Buddhist religion for the main road to salvation.
To
the Confucian, however, such a breach of the
ties
by which nature has united children to parents
and
relations, is a sin against the sacred hiao, or
duty of
filial
submission and devotion, preached by
the classics and the sages of

inal act of the
nature
itself
all
times
it
is
a crim-
worst kind, an execrable sin against
and the Tao] and words
with to condemn
its
fail
How
wickedness.
where-
low,
degenerate, must have been the character of
dha, the founder of that very religion,

set the
monk
who
how
Bud-
himself
example of such criminal proceeding!
And
nun does not marry and found a family,

while Confucianism most emphatically demands,
a
or
for the sake of the
person
shall
same hiao
principle, that every
have male descendants,
in order that
the prescribed sacrifices for his deceased parents
and ancestors may be continued
after
his
death,
and by the offspring throughout all ages. For did

not Mencius exclaim "Three in number are the
:
great sins against the hiao, but to have no posterity

is
worse than any"
(p.
81).
Abundant reason
therefore for the Confucians to despise and scorn
Buddhism;
to
assail
it
without mercy,
wherever
found and under whatever conditions; to consider
BUDDHISM
197
the use of any weapons justifiable, even those of
exaggeration, satire, gall, and venom.

particular often plays an
buddhistic
sexual
of
pale, placing
on
the
clergy.
score
of
How,
in
church fare differently at the hands
women
into its
in matters of salvation
and the
sworn enemies,
its
the
among
immorality
truth, could a
important part in anti-
especially
writings,
Slander in
them
means thereto on a
admits
if it
with men, while at the
level
same time preaching celibacy?

There
against
is
still
one great Confucian argument
Buddhism which
tioned.
It
was
set
must not leave unmen-
forth with
venomous indigna-
tion as early as the year 624,
by the great minister
Fu
the existence of other
Buddhism preaches
Yih.
punishments besides those which the imperial gov-
ernment
and
inflicts,
allotted
Well,
is it
other rewards than those conferred
by the emperor and
not clear that this
is
his
ment upon the imperial power, that

treason?
cian
mandarins.
a shameless encroachis
to say, high
Indeed, the Shu, the venerable Confu-
classic,
emphatically
states:
"The sovereign
alone creates blessings and holds out threats; to
him belongs
all
his subjects
create blessings and inspire
that
is
precious and edible; and
if
fear, or
198
treasures
appropriate
or
food,
damage
they
house, they bring misfortune upon his
men
then the
than
his
dynasty;
in his service further other interests
and become corrupt."
his,
On
curious piece of state doctrine!
the au-
thority of this dictum of one of the chief classical
books, every religion stands indicted with encroach-
ment upon
the imperial autocracy, that
treason,
by preaching the existence of other than
if,
terrestrial
punishments or rewards,
kind from
and encourages
evil,
it
to
is,
with high
deters
man-
do good.
For
it
the sovereign alone has the right to punish and to
The
recompense!
in force
now
classical principles are as
as they
were
Christians and Christian missionaries

ber, therefore, that,
much
in the seventh century.
on account of
may remem-
their doctrines
of reward in paradise and punishment in
hell,
on
account even of their penitences for sins committed,

they,
like
country
the
of
Buddhists, stand convicted in that
violation
of
the
imperial
rights,
of
sapping the imperial authority, of sowing moral

corruption
among
the
mandarinate
in
word,
they disorganize and demoralize China's government, and are therefore all liable to the penalty of
death.
And
again,
by collecting money from con-
BUDDHISM
199
verts for the maintenance of their churches, as the
Buddhists do,
the
like
they,
latter,
defraud the
imperial house and sap the dynasty; the highest
Confucian bible of
Thus may
politics
itself
has declared
it!
anti-buddhistic reasoning enable us to
understand the antipathetic feelings of the governing class towards Christian doctrines and missions.
The
Buddhism
persecutions themselves, to which
has for long centuries been a prey, are likewise

highly instructive for Christianity, for, in fact, persecution of Christianity
Confucian
is
a fruit of the very
When,
intolerance.
dynasty, Buddhism had secured
Chinese society,
it
under
the
same
Han
for itself a place in
enjoyed a period of prosperous
development which reached

century of our era.
At
its
climax
in the fifth
that time the northern lands
of the empire were subject to the Tartar house of
Toba, also known as the Northern
The
residence of this house
tic life.
A.D.
was Wu,
424 to 452.
the
who was
hands upon Buddhism.
Warlike,
He was
dynasty.
was a hotbed of monas-
This house produced a sovereign
to be the first to lay violent
This
Wei
who
reigned
from
a stanch admirer of Con-
fucianism, but, says the historian, "as he professed

the Buddhist religion
and appreciated
its
clergy, he
2OO
had
so
classics."
far
It
not
patronized
the
school
of
the
happened then during the suppres-
sion of a rebellion, that the emperor and his armies
were encamped near a monastery,
in
one of the side
rooms of which some arms were discovered.

proved, he thought, that the
His mandarins
cause with the rebels.
This
monks made common

tried
and
executed the monks; the monastery was sacked,
and a large quantity of ingredients for the fabrication of spirituous liquors
was found, as
treasures, entrusted to the care of the
also vast
monks by
nobles and wealthy persons in the district.
Certain
grottoes which they discovered were held to be the
haunts of monks with
women
of good family.
Now
the emperor stormed, and he decreed, "that the
monks should be put
to death,
and the Buddhist
images should be burned or smashed; every one

should deliver the monks to the authorities; every
one who concealed a monk should be put to death,

together with his whole
in 444.
Another
had the boldness

to
make images
all
This occurred
decree prescribed that

to
worship any western
whosoever
deities,
or
of them, should be executed with
his family; that the
burn
family."
governors should demolish or
temples and pagodas, images and sacred
BUDDHISM
down
books, and throw
201
the precipices
all
monks,
young or old."
No
statistics are
given us of this iconoclasm and
slaughter; but Asiatics to this day, whenever they

take to murdering, are
wont
to do thorough work.
of the clergy may, of course, have escaped
Many
with their
lives,
but, says the historian,
"temples
and pagodas, and the buildings where the doctrine

was preached, were all effectually destroyed to the
very
last."
few years
later a persecution
of the empires in the south,
broke out in one
named Lung, but
have not found out any particulars concerning the

scale
on which
it
raged.
In the year 573 a curious
synod of the three religions was convoked by the
emperor
Wu
of the Northern Ts'i dynasty, with
the purpose of ascertaining

best.
was
It is
which of them was the
unnecessary to say that the
assigned
to
Taoism, and the
Confucianism,
last to
the
first
place
second
to
Buddha's church; and, of
course, as there can be only one true religion, the
extermination of the two others was resolved upon

at once.
official
In the following year, thus
we
read in the
standard history of that dynasty, Buddhism
and Taoism were proscribed, the sacred books,
2O2
together
with
the
images,
destroyed
altogether.
Buddhist and Taoist priests were no longer allowed
and
to exist,
were ordered
all
to
become laymen.
All sacrifices were strictly prohibited, except those
mentioned
Confucian canon of Religion and

millions of Buddhists and Taoists had
in the
Two
Rites.
to forsake the ecclesiastical state.
The T'ang dynasty was
destined to destroy the
The
prosperity of the Buddhist religion forever.
three centuries embracing the reign of this house,
which commenced
in 618,
were an epoch of aggres-
by which the glory of the church departed
sive war,
forever and her strength declined,
an epoch
in
which she entered upon a decadent existence, not

ceasing to show, however, to the present day, a
remarkable tenacity of
when
In 624,
the
life.
first
emperor of the house of
T'ang had occupied the throne for hardly

the campaign
Yih, of
posed,
was opened by
whom
in a
altogether.
have already spoken.
memorial, to
viz.,
it
He
Fu
pro-
do away with Buddhism
This remarkable state document exists
to this day, probably in

things,
six years,
the high minister
its
entirety.
Among
other
demonstrates a thing most easy to prove,
that neither emperors nor dynasties have
by
BUDDHISM
any means always saved
2O3
their lives
and thrones by
Happily the emperor was pre-
being Buddhists.
Fu
vented by his death from carrying out

advice otherwise than in theory, that
It
paper.
is
Yih's
to say,
on
gives evidence of the great vital strength
upon the people and

the court, that this energetic campaign of Fu Yih
and other grandees, who no doubt sided with him
of Buddhism, and
in great
it,
its
firm hold
numbers, before his death as well as after
remained for a time without
fact,
was, in
not until almost a whole century had elapsed,
that the imperial

to take forcible
It
result.
government gave way, and began
measures against the church.
memorial which the magnate, Yao Ch'ung,
then at the summit of his glory and power, presented to the emperor in 714, gave the impulse.
It
caused the emperor to order secret inquisition into

the conduct of the clergy, and
monks and
world.
priests
Since that
more than 12,000
were sent back into the lay
moment we observe
steady
progress of Confucian power in natural alliance
with enactment of imperial laws, the object of which
was not
so
much
force as to deprive
ing
it
at its
to destroy the church

it
of
very root
its vital
its
by brute
strength by attack-
conventual
life.
Edicts
2O4
appear, allowing ordination to limited numbers of
persons
monasteries
certain
in
only
specially
authorized thereto; and these numbers, which are

strikingly small
time to time,
The number
reduced to a yet lower figure.
i.e.,
of the monasteries
ably reduced, and
government
begin with, are revised from
to
and the board of
rites
every third year.
And,
also consider-
were appointed by the
officers
to control the
was
monks and
had
their doings,
to register the clergy
to put the seal to the work,
was invented
the consecration certificate
a diploma
awarded by the secular power, without which
to be
none might exercise the profession of a monk or

priest.
Nay, the government sold these documents
for money, thus exploiting the road of salvation for
the benefit of the
And no monastery
treasury.
might be erected or re-erected without a special

imperial permit.
An
important point of
ures certainly
including that
is this,
that
mandarinate, the
off
harsher
these legislative meas-
all
succeeding dynasties,
which possesses the throne to-day,
has taken them over.
left
all
Meanwhile the Confucian
sworn enemy of Buddhism, never
urging the
measures.
imperial
government
Especially famous
is
to
yet
me-
BUDDHISM
2O5
morial, in which in 819 the celebrated statesman,
Han Yu,
upbraided his imperial master for his
famous
Buddhist tendencies
this
because to
forever,
day every Confucian swears by
it
and
if
ever
the heresy-hunting party in China should choose a
patron
this dignity
Han
no doubt
saint,
Yii would be elected to
with universal acclamation.
This bold memorial cost him his high position at

court: the emperor sent him
in
Ch'ao-cheu,
live to see the
movement of
that an
distant
away
as governor to
He
Kwangtung.
did not
triumph of the great anti-Buddhist

that time, for
emperor of the
name
it
of
was not
until
Wen Tsung
dicted by decree the ordinations of Buddhist
and nuns, and ordered the ejection of

images and altars from the court.
however, were but
measures
by
all
835
inter-
monks
Buddhist
Those measures,
feeble precursors of the rigorous
which
brother and successor,
Wu
was
Tsung,
Wen
Tsung's
to immortalize his
name.
In 845 he decreed that only Confucianism should

prevail in the world; that the
4600 convents
in the
empire, and the 40,000 religious buildings should
be pulled down, and the 260,000 monks and nuns

should adopt secular
the church
life.
Herewith the glory of
was gone forever;
the
number of
its
2O6
monasteries and ascetics remained from that time
minimum
at a
remain
convents to
Wu
level.
Tsung
suffered a few
existence; but his
in
death,
which occurred as early as the next year, induced

his successor to relax his rigor;
he even revoked
on the consideration
his father's decree, also
that
was damaged by it
But the harm had been done, and the
the fung-shui of the empire
112).
(p.
state
its
henceforth continued to give Confucianism
full
due; that
is
to say, the laws
and
rescripts
shackling Buddha's church were maintained
to this
day, and even increased in severity.
Those of the now reigning dynasty, taken over

from the house of Ming, have their place in the
Ta
Ts'ing luh
empire.
of
They
li,
the great code of laws of the
prohibit
any erection or restoration
Buddhist or Taoist convents without special
imperial
shall
authorization,
have more than one
before he himself
this
least
and that
is
disciple,
forty years old.
measure, which has been doing
some
five
any
clergyman
or adopt this
The
its
result of
work
for at
hundred years, has been that the
Taoist monasteries have almost entirely disappeared,
and
that
numbered.
the
days of the Buddhist abbeys seem
The hundreds of
stately edifices stand-
BUDDHISM
ing out elegantly against the
with brightly shining
2O7
hills
and mountains
tiled roofs, lofty
pagodas and
ancient parks, which, as books profusely inform us,
once studded the empire, picturesquely breaking the
monotony of the
slopes; buildings where the pious
by thousands, crowding the Mahayana, or broad way to eternal perfection and

sought salvation
bliss,
and whither the
laity flocked to receive initia-
tion into a life according to the holy
ments
these institutions can
dozens.
Crowds
now
command-
be counted by
of sowers no longer go out from
there to scatter in
all
directions the seed of faith
and piety; no religious councils or synods, such as
were attended by thousands, take place there now.
Of many
of these buildings, only the spacious tem-
ple halls exist, but the clergy
them resound with

aH but a few.
Nuns
who crowded
make
are a rarity, and no longer
dwell in cloisters, but in houses
With
to
hymns have disappeared,
their
the greater part of the
learning has vanished.

to history; philosophical
among
the laity.
convents, religious
Theological studies belong
works have well-nigh
dis-
appeared, and to collect a complete canon of holy

writings
has
become an
impossibility
in
China.
Propagation of the doctrine of salvation, through
2O8
preaching, which the
Mahayana
upon the sons of Buddha
principles imposed
as one of the highest
duties, has long since ceased.
In short, from what-
ever point of view one considers the matter,
gious conventual
it
was
life is at
best a
reli-
shadow of what
in past centuries.
Under
of
the
Buddhist
church languished, yet did not perish.
Whence
that
this vitality?
oppression
ages
Let us try to give the answer.
see the Indian religion of salvation,
We
which made
its
entrance into China about the beginning of our era,
become a power there. Indeed, neither

Confucianism nor Taoism had been able to satisfy
quickly
the
human
craving after higher ideals, for of a
state of perfection after the present life
Confucian-
ism made no mention, Taoism but slight; but the
new church proclaimed such

wholly obtainable already
salvation, partly or
in this earthly existence.
Love and compassion toward all that lives, expressed in good works of a religious and a worldly
to
means of attaining it, hand

saints and invocation of their
this
enormous blessing the new
nature, were the chief

in
hand with resort
assistance.
And
religion brought without interfering with
any
exist-
ing conditions, even without accusing or incrim-
BUDDHISM
2O9
mating with heresy the religious elements which
were found
in
pagan hearts and customs.
allotted a place within the pale of its

to that
paganism, principally to
dead.
This
worship
its
It
own church
worship of the
surrounded for the
it
even
first
time with an aureola of outward splendor, introduc-
ing
new
new
freshness and
respecting another
vitality
and by
life,
its
by
new
is
Moreover,
was a doctrine
doctrine of salvation
true oriental spirit, that
dogmas
ceremonial for
raising the dead into better conditions.
the
its
in the
to say, aristocratic in
shape and appearance, yet excluding no one, however low and insignificant
which
is
not even the weaker sex,
regarded and treated in the East as of
inferior quality
can conceive
and importance
how
readily
and we therefore
ingratiated itself into
it
the sympathies of the oriental mind, bent

ticism.
hearts
therein,
on mys-
great void had hitherto remained in the
of the Chinese people;
and maintained
Buddhism
itself there, as in
nestled
an impreg-
nable stronghold, to this day.
This mighty influence of the church upon the

people gave birth to a
the
number
members of which made
it
of lay communities,
their object to assist
each other on the road unto salvation, with broth14
2IO
erly
and
They were a
sisterly fidelity.
natural fruit
of the doctrine that, to obtain salvation,

at
all
necessary
ordinary
obey
to
into
retire
men and women
was
it
was not
it
monastery; for
quite sufficient to
fundamental commandments against
the five
the infliction of death, theft, adultery, lying, and

alcohol, as observing these
might
raise
sanctity of the dewas, or gods.

find such societies
mentioned
in
inations which evidently bear
means for reaching

trines or rules
principal
strictly
we
cation of the
Frequently
we
books under denom-
upon
their principal
little.
compelled
The
first
them
to
and
be
they applied themselves to the
rescuing of animals in danger of
works of merit,
to the
sanctity; but about their doc-
read very
commandment
vegetarian
them
life
and to other
as also to the worship
chief
saints
who
and invo-
lend the
seekers
after salvation a helping hand, namely, the buddhas
Shakya, Amitabha, and Maitreya, and the merciful
Kwan-yin.
The potent names of these saints are

The female element
lips.
continually on sectarian
plays a part of great importance in the sects, even
a predominating part.
The broad
universalistic views of the
church ever compelled
it
Mahayana
to regard Confucianism
BUDDHISM
211
and Taoism as parts of the order of the world,

therefore as
ways leading
to salvation.
Buddhist sects contain elements
natural that the
borrowed from the religion and
and Lao-tsze.
sects
to be
futable
then
It is
It
is,
indeed, the nature of those
thoroughly
evidence
to
ethics of Confucius
eclectic.
the
They bear
blending
of
irre-
Buddhism,
Taoism, and Confucianism into a single religion;

the Chinese saying that three religions are but a
single
one,
is
realized
in
by sectarianism.
In
the
Buddhist element predominates
principal sects the
every respect, their institutions being molded
upon Buddhist monasticism.

to
thing pertaining
They
possess every-
a complete religious
system:
founders and prophets, a hierarchy and a pantheon
commandments and moral philosophy;

and consecration
religious ritual
initiation
meeting places
or chapels with altars; religious festivals; sacred
books and writings
even theology
a paradise,
and
everything borrowed principally from Mahayanistic Buddhism, and partially from old Chinese
a hell
Taoist and Confucian universalism.
It is
through
these associations that piety and virtue, created by
hopes of reward, or by fears of punishment hereafter, are fostered
among
the people, who, but for
212
would
the sects,
matter;
live in utter
and
Confucius
indeed,
ignorance about this
have
school
his
written or said nothing of importance on this sub-
and the Taoist aspirations
ject,
and
virtue
The
perfection by
religion have evidently died.
sects thus
religious
to
fill
a great blank in the people's
They form
life.
main element
the
thereof.
Born from a desire to understand the eternal and

and from a conviction that man
infinite,
not
is
destined to die, but to live forever, the sects are
manifestations of the
are
They
instincts
religious
accommodated
of man.
to the religious feelings of
the humble, and, by satisfying their cravings for

salvation, are able to hold their
bloody persecution and oppression.
how
to
untrue
it
is
which
is
for
The
sects
human
not of this
supply
life,
prove
its
is
need of
final
attainable
aim
by
Their doctrines of
and salvation speak to the hearts with more
emphasis
than
conceited
Confucianism,
merely outward ceremonial and
ritual,
and
virtues, which, at best, only contain the
sects
and of a
earth and
obedience to those rescripts.

virtue
The
of
that the Chinese people are a prey
indifferentism.
commandments
in spite
own,
problematic
blessedness
in
this
with
its
its
main
promise of
earthly
life.
BUDDHISM
213
China within the
Spiritual religion only exists in

circle of
Buddhism and Buddhism meets

;
need of such an inward religious
the
human
through the
life
sects.
In spite of persecution by the government, sects

are very
numerous
founded or developed
up
as envoys of
Messiah,
church.
some high
and
writings
mention
such
have been
themselves
divinity, or even as a
Maitreya promised by
Chinese
sometimes
Many
by men who set
to this day.
Shakyamuni's
imperial
prophets,
decrees
who worked
miracles, pretending to have dominion over spirits
and gods, and
to be helped
and served by them.
Almost invariably we are told

were hunted
like
game
for years,
that such prophets

fell
into the
hands
of the authorities, were tortured and put to death,
or
banished
heresiarchs,
spirit
to
the
owing
far-off
dependencies.
to the ever-watchful
Such
Confucian
of the rulers of the nation, could never meet
with lasting success, and indeed, Chinese history

is
remarkably lacking in information about actual
founders of religions.
But there must have
numerous founders and leaders of

ing in obscurity,
managed
sects
lived
who, work-
to avoid collision with
mandarins, and as a consequence were not recorded
THE. RELIGION OF
214
books of an empire where the persecuting
in the
almost the only one which wields the pen.
is
party
THE CHINESE
Persecution, a danger always impending over the

sects, naturally fosters fraternization
among
tion,
their
members, a
and even
spirit of
virtues
sacrifice,
and
solidarity
mutual help, devo-
much
furthered by
the principle of altruism which characterizes East
Asian Buddhism
The dangers
in particular.
rounding the sectaries enhance their faith

protection
of their
saints
principal
sur-
in the
and patrons,
Shakya, Amitabha, Maitreya, and Kwan-yin; they
enhance therefore their piety and devotion.

avert those dangers,
it
is
for every sect, or
To
branch
of a sect, a matter of the highest importance to
keep
existence secret.
its
societies,
to distinguish, are
clubs,
are, in fact, secret
branded as dangerous also to the welfare
of the people and the
among
They
the
state.
wont
various
to
secret
And
foreigners, unable
rank them
societies
which apparently abound on the
working, as
is
impartially
and seditious
soil
of China,
universally supposed, for the over-
throw of the reigning dynasty.

preposterous identification
protest.
all
it
is
But, against such
necessary to raise
Only from the Confucian point of view
can there be a semblance of correctness in
it;
but
BUDDHISM
for foreigners there
from that
ter
Yet
215
no reason
is
to regard the
mat-
side.
the fact
is,
that China's history proves con-
in
vincingly that religious sects have often risen
arms against the
state,
fostered agitation, sedition,
nay, even rebellions and wars which have raged for
But
years.
writers
reverse the picture;
question whether
China
in
always
to
forget
they have never raised the
such events were outbursts of
suppressed exasperation provoked by centuries of

persecution and
cruel
oppression,
or by endless
tribulations fanned into a frantic desire once for
to rid the country of the
yoke of
state fanaticism.
China's authors do not enter into such

are
trifles.
adepts of the Confucian school,
all
They
and, as
such, acknowledge only one Confucian alpha
omega, namely, the state,

ests; he
who
its
all
standpoint,
its
and
inter-
thwarts government, for any reason
whatever, or under any circumstances whatever, be

it
is
for religious liberty or for natural self-defense,
rebel,
or,
which means the same thing, a
criminal of the highest order, deserving the most

cruel
form of
capital punishment,
slow carving to
death with knives, and extermination of his family.
The
hostility
of the state against the sects
is
2l6
considerably enhanced by the mere fact that they
are societies.
dread of anything,
resembling association,
and
state
whole
its
in
any way
weighs heavily upon the
officialism,
rigorous laws threatening
as
is
proved by
except those
all societies,
of fellow clansmen, with strangulation, or flogging,
and banishment.
tainly
is
This dread of conspiracy cer-
a proof of the tyrant's self-conscious weak-
ness against his oppressed and discontented people,
who have
several times resorted to
Thus, since the Chinese state
is
arms by
millions.
totally unable or
unwilling to distinguish between a religious society
and any other
association,
it
impartially
dooms both
categories to annihilation.
Persecutions of sects, connected with rebellion or
followed by
Chinese
it,
are mentioned in great numbers in
literature.
It is
well
known
of bloody rebellions marking the

of the reign of the
last
that a series
eighty years
Ming dynasty and
its
final
downfall, were preceded by severe measures against

the Buddhist church, and that in this gigantic ris-
ing a principal part was played by the White Lotus

sect,
which, evidently, was not one single corpora-
tion, but
Under
embraced
the
now
several.
reigning dynasty persecution has
BUDDHISM
been peculiarly severe.
217
Imperial resolutions
and
decrees relating to persecution of religious sects
may
be counted,
probably,
smothered
risings of sects,
by hundreds.
by imperial edicts to have been
clearly declared
preceded by bloody persecutions under
approval.
Many
in streams of blood, are
most
frightful
between 1795 and 1803
religious
full imperial
war raged
in those years, the imperial
armies, sent out to destroy the rebels, devastated

five
provinces
and Shansi,
to the last
Hupeh, Sze-ch'wen, Kansuh, Shensi,
literally
slaughtering their population
man, perhaps one fourth of that of the
whole empire.
Historians declare themselves un-
able to estimate the
number of
victims.
Starvation
and suicide no doubt destroyed almost all the aged

and the weak, the women and children, driven
helpless out of their devastated homesteads.
certainly
is
We
do not exaggerate when we say that there
in the history of the
world no second instance
of such wholesale destruction of people by their

rulers for the sake of politico-religious fanaticism.
It
has
made
the altar of Confucius, on which the
Chinese people
iest
ever
is
frequently immolated, the blood-
built.
famous
religious rebellion also
is
that
which
2l8
broke out in 1813 in Honan, Chihli, and Shantung.

It
was likewise preceded, and thus undoubtedly
provoked, by persecutions of peculiar rigor.
This
rising of sects
com-
is
important for having been
bined with a bold invasion into the palace at Peking,
during the absence of the emperor on a journey to
The invaders were driven
the West.
back, slain,
and captured; but the imperial family had a very

narrow escape from extermination. In the provinces,
dozen
this
rebellion,
districts,
which extended over half a
was soon broken with tremendous
bloodshed by a military force from several provinces, reinforced
by three extra armies of Tartars,
picked Chinese infantry, and horse.

a terrible carnage at Sze-chai and
strongholds of the insurgents.
events,
scene
It
ended with
Hwah,
the last
Consequent on these
Peking was for more than three years the

of
bloody
terrorism,
being
thoroughly
searched for sectaries and their families.

leaders
brought thither
Rebel
from the provinces were
slowly carved tc death or beheaded by hundreds.
And
last,
rebellion.
but not
This,
too,
least,
we have
according to
the T'ai-p'ing
large
scale,
causing
the
first
docu-
official
ments, was preceded by persecutions of

risings
sects
in
on a
Hunan
BUDDHISM
Much
province in 1836.
progress and issue of
219
has been written on the
this
most
terrible of catas-
trophes which visited East Asia in the last century
we
all
have heard of the principal leader,
Siu-ts'iien,
who had
Hung
himself crowned emperor in
Nanking, and of the fact that this man and his sect
had adopted some Christian principles and docWe know of the campaign of England and
trines.
France against Peking
insurgents,
who,
in
shortly
1860, facilitated
before,
had
by the
sent
their
armies under the walls of that metropolis of the

East.
Well known also
is
the great part played in
the crushing of the insurgents by
ever-victorious army.
tian armies with
the
way
Gordon and
his
This cooperation of Chris-
Confucian heretic butchers paved
for the fall of
Nanking on July
19, 1864,
and for the death of the T'ai-p'ing emperor, who

had
his residence within its walls, as also for the
re-conquest of the rebellious provinces, which, of

course, the imperial forces converted into deserts,
calling
their
that longest
work
pacification.
Should
and most bloody of Asian
in
truth
rebellions
have been an effort of a desperate people to throw

off
yoke of bloody religious
intolerance
and
tyranny, will not then the curse of the millions of
220
its
forever be on the European policy of
victims
those days?
Religious
communities or sects are constantly
being formed
the people to this day.
among
the Buddhist church
itself,
which
them
calls
Like
into
existence, they are an eye-sore to the Confucian

state.
That man has religious and
and that
his material happiness,
more
spiritual wants,
is
a foundation for
solid
perhaps than any
gratification of these
other, this the Chinese state appears never to have
discovered; nor does that state seem capable of

cherishing any sympathy for the people's craving
to
be
elevated
to
something higher
earthly bliss, by means of

nevolence, and abstinence
slaughter of
heresies,
men and
piety,
from
animals.
than
mere
compassion, be-
bloodshed
and
All such things are
which must be expelled from minds and
customs.
The
obstinate
propaganclism,
sects
must
be
their
persecuted;
religious
their
practices
and pious meetings must be punished with strangling, flogging,
and
exile.
For the carrying out of these
principles the state
possesses a series of laws, which, as

the law on convents
and the
is
the case with
clergy,
heritance from the Ming dynasty.
are an in-
We may
call
BUDDHISM
221
law par excellence against heresy, specially
this the
enacted to keep the laity free from pollution by

heretical
dogmas and
and
practices,
to
destroy
everything religious and ethical which cannot be

said to
ism.
come up
Whether
to the standard of pure Confucian-
the systematic state intolerance, for
which during the
last five centuries this
the most eloquent witness,
law stands
was already
active in
the direction of persecution in an earlier period,
cannot assert, as
we have
mentary evidence on
dhism
in
its
this head.
But knowing that
principle of intolerance was even
the Confucian
then,
halcyon days, working against Bud-
in particular,
it
is
difficult to
get rid of the
supposition that
heresy-hunting was
vogue then as
is
it
the future reveal
We have
we
not discovered any docu-
now.
much
as
much
Chinese sources
may
in
in
to support this conclusion.
also here to take into account the fact that
ultra-conservatism has always been the backbone of
China's state policy, and that, therefore, the legislators of the
Ming
dynasty can hardly have failed
in this matter, too, to build
That law
is
upon precedents.
of special interest for preachers of
the gospel, because the Chinese government has
from the very outset considered
it
to be also appli-
222
No
cable to Christianity.
missionary or preacher
in China, no instructor of future missionaries at
man
home, no leading
should be ignorant of
less
the
in
its
missionary
contents and
world
spirit,
still
any ambassador or consul of the powers which
give protection to missionaries and their converts.
mandarinate to punish, without any
It entitles the
leaders
restriction,
and members of
all
religious
corporations with strangulation, numerous blows

with long sticks, and lifelong exile to a distance of
That law shows us as plainly as pos-
3000 miles.
sible that they
communities
may
rage blindly against religious
in general,
without any discrimination
between degrees of heresy, and even against
all
innocent religious practices whatsoever, should they
deem them
our eyes, in
tianity in the
to expect
this
walks
The
That law
to be heterodox.
its
raises before
fullest reality, the fact that Chris-
Far East has nothing but martyrdom
from the Chinese government,

in the
syncretic,
path of
its
tolerant
own
culture.
character of the
their doctrines of love, truth, sanctity,

life
as long as
sects,
and future
these and yet other points cannot but inspire
them with sympathy for the Christian communities,

which are likewise so often and so cruelly perse-
BUDDHISM
cuted by Confucianism.
223
have known sectaries
who
possessed some acquaintance with the Gospels,

translations of which are distributed by the mis-
hand; some of
my
knew passages of
the
sions everywhere with a free
sectarian acquaintances even
Bible by heart.
World
is
the
in their eyes
buddhas,
To many,
the eternal Order of the
same being as our God
and Jesus
is
one of the many dipankara or luminous
whom
the
Order of the World
for the redemption of mankind.
set to
work
Seeing sectaries
thus interested in the Christian faith, I cannot dis-
miss from
my mind
the conviction that,
would make the
tian missions
labor, converts
would
numbers, encouraged
flock to
also
by
if
Chris-
sects their field of
them
in considerable
the prospect of
work-
ing out their salvation more safely under foreign

protection.
humble
Is
it
too idle a suggestion that those
sects are destined to be the precursors of
Christianity in
China?
INDEX
Aceticism, 144
Taoism, 150
f.
Almanack, magical use

52
f.
significance of, 157
Altars,
116
79,
Ancestor
66
ff.
altars
a national duty,
79;
85; combined with Buddhist
ritual,
classical
69;
Confucianism,
120;
meaning
of,
missionary relation
to,
of,
67
ff.
philosophy
63
of,
ff.
sacrifices of, 71
the
87;
ligion,
re-
80; the great obstacle

to Christianity, 84
for,
Anchorites,
145
re-
Animism, 3-32; original

ligion of China, I
Annual
sacrifices,
80,
;
persecution of, 199 ff.
reasons for vitality, 208;
f.
worship 69; universalism

165
Buddhist
178
rites
Books, influence of in petrifying Chinese culture, 21

Breathing, life-giving quali-
Buddhism,
147
the
for
dead,
anity of sects, 223

Burial customs, 71
Burial long delayed, 76
Burial rites, 76 ff.
Charms
Magic)
(see
and
3 as
Chang-ling, sketch
use
of,
56;
58
of,
154
f.
Chinese Empire, early history of, 91
ff.
Chinese culture
ff.
164-1223
ff.
mo-
191; salvation, 184; sects,

212 f. ; relation to Christi-
147
of,
ff.
monks, 170
nasteries, 168;
ff.
183
ethics,
literature,
portraits as, 54
ties
in
164
mahayanistic,
117
Atmosphere, medical value

of,
China
grounds
100;
popularity,
of,
temples
120;
79,
elevating
its
supplies ritual to ancestor
summary
people's
99 ;
qualities, 101
for
67
86
pri-
ff.
185
210; conenriched
of,
cult
mitive, 98; state cult, 78;
of,
vents,
165; "com-
f.,
mandments"
animism,
62-88 ;
Worship,
definition,
for,
of,
past,
21
reflects
the
INDEX
226
Chinese
Chinese
Re-
(see
religion
ligion of
state
in-
logically
tolerant, 215
Christianity liable to persecution, 199 f. ; obstacles

social
opposes
83;
Crusades against heresy, 96

Cult
China)
ancestor
of
worship,
67 ff.
Culture of China, 21
Demons
(see Ghosts, Spec-
interpret the universe, 48;
Magic), Activities
of, 5; animals possessed
methods of,
by, 12 ff.
overcoming, 8; old ob-
magical value
jects
to,
custom, 85
Classics,
why
Cock
and Taoism, 133

49
of,
influential, 95
in
f.
ff.
ff.
magic, 36
174
16;
f.
142
Lao-tsze,
Mencius, 81 ;
and
condemns
teaches
teaches
passivity,
142
retaliation,
183;
teaching
about
96;
heresy,
specters,
9; writings of, 90
Confucianism,
alysis
103
of,
89-131
102;
definition
an*<
cult
of,
of,
101
local
91 ff.
sacrifices, 116; opposes all
history
of,
sacrifices
religion, 32; ethical influ-
12;
13; literature
effects
9;
of,
of,
of,
and
attitude
official
magic, 34;
towards,
folklore
sociological
12;
summary
of doctrine, 34
Disease caused by specters,

54
Dharma, 166
Dhyana, 18
Doctor and priest
identical,
relation to
Taoism, 93
Continuator, 81
Convents, influence on weather,
187; laws against,
160
Domestic
rites,
Emperor
as object of worcult of worship,
ship, 65
103
ff.
130
related to religion,
103
Emptiness, doctrine
206
Conversion of China, 20
Corpses, care
59
to,
Demonism, corner stone of
foreign religions, 192 ff. ;

a persecuting religion, 215,
ff.
haunted,
especially
plants possessed by
ence of,
and
Confucius,
117;
Codification of rites, 119

Commandments of Buddha,
169,
ters,
of,
76
Epidemics,
against, 40
of,
132
protection
INDEX
Ethics
of,
of
Chinese,
137
22,
Examinations
decided
30
ff.
Exorcisms, 39
45 ff-
ff.
specters,
theory
by
basis of,
109
39
186
112,
75,
73,
Ghosts (see demons, magic

6;
life,
activities
towards, 8
measures
Infanticide,
against, 29
Islam, 98
Kwei, meaning
of,
Lao-tsze, 58, 128; teachings

of 140 f. ; agreement with
of,
Lay communities, 209
Confucius,
ff.
ff.,
of,
102
121
104
attitude
official
God, Confucian doctrine

Gods,
tombs,
ff.
of,
dominates
in
belief
9;
and
Idolatry, 84, 121 f., 161 f.

Idols multitudinous, 123
Images of natural objects,
Imperial
38
Fire-crackers,
specters)
state
96
Immortality, 148
Imperial graves, 78
Fetishism, 74, 87
Fung-shui,
of
Identification
124
Feasts, 126
Fire,
71
sacrifices,
religion,
70
Fasting,
Human
f.
classes
142
innumerable, 62; of
Confucianism, 113 ff. of
Taoism, 152
representa-
Life
tions of, 117
Light, 38
Literature of Buddhism, 179
Longevity, how to secure,
63;
Government
state)
(see
must persecute sects, 221
Graves and tombs, 73 ff.
Hereditary
entail,
83
Heterodoxy endangers public
welfare, 48
146
148
f.
ff.
Magic,
used
33
in,
ff.
52
used
f.
almanack
basis of, 35
in,
demonism, 34
by processions,
;
Philosophy
ff.
Household gods, 129
protected by specters,
means of prolonging,
classics
f.
Hinayana, 167
of
History
persecutions,
198
25;
portraits
in,
of,
52;
47; and
exercised
40
36
ff.
ff.
practice
INDEX
228
36; systems of,

162; theory of, 46; value
of words in, 56
ancient,
Mahayana, 166
Mahay ani stic Buddhism,
150,
164
Man's relation to the universe, 4

Mandarins, magical powers
of, 50
Mausolea, 73, 79, 108
Men
as Gods, 64 ff.
Mencius, 81, 196; condemns
heresy, 96
Missionaries to expect persecution, 222
Monasteries, 156; Buddhist,

168 ff.; Taoist, 149 f.
Monastic
commandments,
Monastic holiness, 181

Monastic life, 174
Monks, ordination
;
48
fare,
Pantheon,
Chinese,
112
orders
Morality
of,
of,
fucianism,
basis
199
ff.
ff.
of,
f.
96
f.
logical
46; history of,

reasons for, 192
of Buddhist sects, 199

result
prescribed, 98;
of
Confucius'
teaching,
20 1
Philosophy of magic, 36
power of, 146

Polydemonism, 3-3?
Plants,
170
specters,
22
Mourning,
70
by
ff.
130
Portraits as charms, 54
Preaching of monks, 175
Priests, 43, 56, 126
ff.
safeguarded
ff.
f.
Polytheism, unlimited, 62
Popular religion, 120 ff.
materialistic,
169
f.
Peach, symbolism of, 37 f.

Persecution essential to Con-
develops idolatry, 122
174
ff.
to Buddhism, 196 ff.

Orthodoxy the basis of wel-
ff.
mar-
ried, 128; duties of Taoist,
159
ff.
Priestesses,
126
Private worship, 129
Nature dominated by
spirits,
Non-Confucian religions oppose the
Nunneries,
Processions, 40 ff.
Psychology of the Chinese,
53
198
state,
Taoist,
related,
Opposition
of
Chinese
and
Rebellion
150
to
Christianity, 86
Opposition of Confucianism
persecution
216
Religion of the Chinese, a

conworld religion, i
;
servatism
of,
2; cult deter-
1NDKX
229
mined by demonism, 20;
heaven, 17
designed to influence Tao,
wrong, 24;
120; dogmatic and perse-
basis
cuting, 96; fundamentally

a fear of demons, 60; a
ion,
low stage of
origin
religion, 60;
Polythe-
93;
of,
of
development
high
ism and Polydemonism, 5

spontaneously
I
developed,
juniversalistic animism, 5
Repentance, 181
Relation of
Confucianism
and Taoism, 100

Rites, codified,
Ritual, 121 f.
Sacrifices,
at
103,
temples,
106
125;
ous,
Shen,
Sick,
persecution
of,
ff.
191
good and
Spirits
State, based
on
107
divinities,
evil,
ff.
classics, 92;
opposes
non-Confucian
religions,
sovereign in re-
conservative, 92
State
rites
religion,
118
of,
f.
against
specters,
of,
Sutras,
165
216;
70
128
sacrifices,
Systems of magic, 162

Tablets,
of,
in
ff.
numer3,
63
ff.
Sickness, care of, 41 ff.

Social life rests on parent
worship,
struggle against,
32-61 ;
three classes of, 9 ff.
upholders of morals, 22 ff.
Symbols used
220
meaning
care
examinations, 30;
33-6i
sedition, 215;
213,
in
influential
20;
official
Struggle
149
Salvation, 207
Salvation of the dead,
and
f.;
189; supports persecution, 211 ff.; ultra-
Saintship, qualities of, 143
Sects,
the
in
of morality, 22, 25
fundamental to relig-
198, 220;
to dead, 69; tablets, 73

Saints,
avengers of
belief
ligion,
119
Round eminence,
f.;
83
Soothsaying, 157 ff.

Soul, nature of, 4
Soul tablets, 72, 80, 84, 87
Specters (see demons, ghost,
of
the
magic)
agents
80,
105
T'ai-p'ing rebellion, 218

Tao, the order of the universe, the basic conception of the Chinese religion,
3,
133, 137,
fied
with
22,
33,
61,
go,
164, etc.; identi-
Dharma,
significance,
91
summum bonum,
Taoism, 132-163, 91
ff.
164;
the
136
ff.;
re-
INDEX
230
to
lations
f.
Buddhism, 150
relation to Confucian-
ceremonies
ism,
134;
57;
definition
ethics of, 137
f.
of,
133;
of,
merit of,
nature
153;
origin
of, 55, 137;

133; duties of
the re159 ff.
of,
priests,
(see mausolea), 108
ff.
Universalistic animism, 3-32
Universe,
dualism
Tao)
(see
of
theology
passive,
China,
of,
135;
55 f.;
virtue
monasticism,
149,
theon, 152; priests, 157
centers
ff.
103, 116, 121, 125;
of
religious
Buddhism, 208
Chung,
59
life,
ancestor
worship)
Worship of dead,
109
in magic,
38
67
ff.
logic of,
66
Worship of Emperor, 65
Worship of living men, 64
123; support of, 122; ruins

of,
ff.
Widows, suicide of, 72

Worship of ancestors (see
ff.
156; nunneries, 150; pan-
Temples,
Vitality of
Wang
142
Taoist magic, 159
Tiger
93,
33 how conceived, 3; constitution of,

of,
ligion
Taoist
Tombs
Yang, meaning of, 3

Yin, meaning of, 3.
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'

THE RELIGION OF THE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

PROFESSOR OF ETHNOGRAPHY IN THE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Published January, 1910

THK MASON-HENRY PEK88

Hartford-Lamson Lectures on "The Re-

son Fund, which was established by a group of

D.D., sometime President of the American Board

preparing students for the foreign missionary

are designed primarily to give

good knowledge of the

they expect to labor.

their respective fields,

and customs of the peoples among

they are delivered

expected that in pub-

For the use of students desiring

the subject of these Lectures, the following

the Religion of the Chinese.

Les Fetes annuellement celebrees a Emoui (Amoy).

Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China.

Religious System of China.

Manevolution, history, and present aspect.

On the Soul and Ancestral Worship.

THE STRUGGLE AGAINST

place as a world-religion must, without hesi-

on account of the vast

has extended the circle

beyond the boundaries of the

empire proper, and has gained access, together

a proper understanding of the religions of East

in general requires in the first place

standing of the religion of China.

the course of time.

no reason to doubt, that

Chinese race ever had.

Theories advanced by some

scientists that its origin

looked for in Chal-

dean or Bactrian countries must as yet be rejected

archs and apostles, whose writings, or the writings

about whom, hold a pre-eminent position; but

has had no founders comparable with

has had a spontaneous birth on

influence of the strongest conservatism.

forms were never, as far as

known, swept away by any other religion, or by

Buddhism eradicated nothing; the

only at the beginning of

of the Cross has hardly passed the threshold of

have to distinguish sharply between

exotic or Buddhist element.

element which will occupy us

primeval form of the religion of the Chinese,

then the same element which

same even which eminent thinkers of

our time, as Herbert Spencer, have put in the fore-

systems as the beginning of

religion of whatever kind.

based on an implicit belief in the

animation of the universe, and of every being or

books of the empire teach that the universe consists