DC Machines

Energy is needed in different forms: Light bulbs and heaters electrical energy Fans and rolling miles mechanical energy Need for energy converters

Continuous energy converter are called electrical machines Motors and generators Operate in both modes AC electric supply AC machines (synchronous and asynchronous) DC electric supply DC machines

Electromagnetic Conversion
Conductor moving in magnetic field Motional voltage

e = Blv
Current carrying conductor in magnetic field Electromagnetic force

f = Bli

Both phenomena occur simultaneously in energy conversion process

Electric Machines construction

Basic structure of electric machine Stator and rotor Slots with conductors Cylindrical machine = uniform air gap Salient pole machine = nonuniform air gap Iron core maximize flux density Laminations reduce eddy-current (AC) Conductors interconnected to form windings Armature winding = in which voltage is induced Field winding = the one that produces the primary flux Permanent magnet can be used to produce the flux

DC Machines
Can operate as motor and generator but mainly used as motor variable speed, large and small power range Field winding currying DC-current in stator produces flux symmetrically distributed about pole axis = dirrect axis Armature winding in rotor Alternating voltage is induced Mechanical commutator and brush assembly rectify the voltage Commutator-brush combination makes armature current distribution fixed in space mmf of armature winding along quadratic axis maximum torque

Evolution of DC Machines
Turn a-b sides placed on diametrically opposite slots terminals connected to slip rings brushes provide access to revolving turn a-b induced voltages on each side of the turn are in series induced voltage in the turn is alternating its waveform is the same as that of flux density in space

Evolution of DC Machines
Slip rings replaced with commutator segments copper segments separated by insulating material Segment Ca connected to terminal a and Cb to terminal b Motion of the rotor counterclockwise terminal under N-pole positive with respect to terminal under S-pole B1 positive terminal and B2 negative terminal voltage rectified The commutator and brush combination can rectify the voltage Large number of turns in several slots connected in series through commutator segments Voltage with less ripple.

Operation of Commutator and Brushes

When the turn passes the interpolar region the turn is short-circuited the current in the turn will reverse

Armature Windings - Terms and Definitions

Large machines have more than two poles most of the conductors are in region of high flux density electrical degrees ed mechanical degrees md p number of poles

ed

p = md 2

pole pitch = distance between centers of two adjacent poles =180o ed coil pitch = distance between two sides of a coil full-pitch: coil pitch = pole pitch short-pitch: coil pitch < pole pitch (mainly in ac-machines)

Armature Windings - Lap Winding

one coil between two adjacent commutator bars 1/p of the total coils are connected in series suitable for high-current low voltage number of parallel paths = number of poles = number of brushes

Armature Windings - Wave Winding

p/2 coil connected in series between two adjacent commutator bars suitable for high voltage low current

number of parallel paths = 2 number of brushes positions = 2 or more number of brushes is increased in large machines to minimize the current density In brushes.

Armature Windings - Voltage

the voltage induced in a turn

et = 2 B( ) l m r
average value of the voltage induced in a turn

flux per pole

p et = 2 B( ) l m r = m

B( ) =

= 2 rl p

induced voltage in the armature winding

Np N m = Ka m Ea = et = a a
Ea independent of operation mode in generator: generated voltage in motor back emf

N number of turns in the armature winding a number of parallel paths Z total number of conductors =2N

machine constant

Np Ka = a

Zp Ka = 2 a

Armature Windings - Torque

the force on a conductor

the torque on a conductor

Ia f c = B( )lic = B( )l a Tc = f c r Ea = K a m

the average torque on a conductor

pI a Ia T c = B( ) l r = a 2 a

the total torque developed

N p T = 2 NT c = I a = K a I a a
power balance

machine constant

Np Ka = a
Ea I a = Ka m I a = T m

T = Ka I a

Ea = K a m

Magnetization
field mmf on d-axis armature mmf on q-axis no coupling (see later)

Magnetic core with infinite permeability at low values of flux (ampere-turns)

2 Fp 2R g

Fp Rg

Magnetization - Curve

2 Fp 2R g

Fp Rg

increased Fp increased saturation

induced voltage proportional to flux times speed

Classification of DC Machines
field and armature circuits can be connected in various ways wide variety of performance characteristic field pole can be exited by series and shunt windings series winding large current, shunt winding small current if both are used series winding on top of shunt winding also permanent magnet can be used (equivalent to a)

a - separately excited machine b - series machine c - shunt machine d - compound machine

Separately Excited DC generator

prime mover with constant speed armature connected to electrical load steady-state inductances ignored terminal characteristic (variation of voltage with load current) field winding

Vf = Rf I f
armature winding

Ea = Vt + I a Ra

Ea = K a m
operating point

Vt = I t RL Ia = It Vt = Ea Ra I a

VAR voltage drop due to armature reaction (see later)

Armature Reaction
no-load

armature field

flux density increases in one half of the pole and decreases in the other half of the pole saturation -> reduction of flux per pole

Armature Reaction

saturation effect -> flux per pole decreases the zero flux density region moves from the q-axis

Armature Reaction
Ea = Vt + I a Ra
armature reaction in equivalent field current

I f(eff) = I f(actual) I f(AR)

terminal characteristic

Vt = Ea Ra I a

Ea = K a m

Armature Reaction - Compensating Winding

Armature reaction distorts the flux density distribution, produces demagnetizing effect and shifts the zero flux density region from the d-axis. Poor commutation and sparking. much of the rotor mmf can be neutralized by using a compensating winding fitted on the main pole faces and connected in series with armature winding. expensive solution used only in large machines with abrupt changes in armature current (steel rolling mile)

Shunt Generator - Voltage Buildup

residual magnetism Ear If1Ea1If2 (Ra<<Rf) and field mmf aids residual magnetism saturation maximum armature voltage (point P) In reality voltage buildup following the magnetization curve Rf < Rfc (Rfc critical field circuit resistance) 3 conditions for voltave buildup: Residual magnetism Field mmf aids residual magnetism Rf < Rfc

Shunt Generator - Voltage - Current Characteristics

steady-state equations function of If

Ea = Vt + I a Ra Vt = I L RL

Ea = K a m Ia = If + IL

Vt = I f Rf = I f ( Rfw + Rfc )
procedure to get the terminal characteristic (no RA) magnetization curve + field resistance line

Vt = I f Rf

for a given If we get Vt and Ia plot Vt vs. Ia if It=0, Ia= If Vt0 Vp

Ea Vt Ia = Ra

voltage drops faster with armature current because voltage drop field current drop

Shunt Generator - Voltage - Current Characteristics

pq is proportional to Ia

Ea Vt Ia = Ra
qr represent armature reaction in equivalent field current

I f(eff) = I f(actual) I f(AR)

Compound DC Machines
shunt field winding provides the major portion of the mmf in the machine series winding compensates voltage drop due to RaIa and armature reaction

short-shunt

long-shunt

Vt = Ea I a Ra I t Rsr

Vt = Ea I a ( Ra + Rsr ) I t = Ia I f

I t = Ia I f

Vt If = Rfw + Rfc

cumulative compound machine fluxes aid each other differential compound machine fluxes oppose each other

Compound DC Machines
generated voltage

Ea = K a ( sh sr ) m
shunt and series mmf act on the same circuit

Feff = Fsh Fsr FAR

N f I f(eff) = N f I f N sr I sr N f I f(AR) N sr I f(eff) = I f I sr I f(AR) Nf

cumulative compound machine differential compound machine almost constant current

Series Generator

Ea = Vt + I a ( Ra + Rsr )
I t = Ia
terminal characteristic

Interpoles or Commutator Poles

armature current reversal is delayed due to coil inductance and reactance voltage ie. voltage induced in the moving coil by the quadratic flux. interpole is needed to compensate armature reaction. used with compensating winding in large machines

DC Motors Shunt Motor

generator motor

the field circuit is independent of the armature circuit because both circuit are fed from voltage source

Vt = I a Ra + Ea

I t = Ia + I f Ea = Ka m = Vt I a Ra
Armature current and speed depend on the mechanical load

DC Motors Power Flow and Efficiency

efficiency

Poutput Pinput

core losses are included in the rotational losses

Separately Excited DC Motor Torque Speed Characteristics

Ea = Ka m = Vt I a Ra T = Ka I a

Vt I a Ra Vt Ra T = = 2 K a K a (K a )

for constant flux and voltage good speed regulation armature reaction decreases the flux less speed drop speed control by armature voltage control field control armature resistance control

Separately Excited DC Motor Armature Voltage Control

rated field current constant Ra

m = K1Vt K 2T
constant voltage

constant torque

Ra = 0
in actual applications Ia is kept constant (needs closed-loop operation)

T = Ka I a

constant torque

Separately Excited DC Motor Field Control

Ra and Vt constant If variable (rheostat Rfc) magnetic linearity

Ka = K f I f

m =

Vt Ra T 2 K f I f (K f I f )
If = 0 m = infinity

constant torque constant power

no-load speed

Vt Kf If

constant flux

m = K 3 K 4T

Field control less expensive slow speed response sluggish

Separately Excited DC Motor Armature Resistance Control

Vt and If constant Ra = Ra + Rae variable

Vt Ra + Rae = T 2 Ka (Ka )

m = K 5 K6T
method used still in transit system vehicles low efficiency expensive resistance needed to carry Ia

Series Motor
magnetic linearity

Ka = Ksr I a Ea = Ksr I am
2 T = Ksr I a

Ea = Vt I a ( Ra + Rae + Rsr )
Vt Ra + Rsr + Rea Vt Ra + Rsr + Rea = = Ksr I a K sr K sr K sr T

large starting torque subway car, automobile starter, hoist, crane, blender speed control over a wide range

Starter
back emf is zero at start

Vt Ea Ia = Ra Ia
start

Vt = Ra

a variable external resistance is used to reduce the starting current

Vt Ea Ia = Ra + Rae

at normal operation the electromagnet holds the handle and the external resistance is zero

Torque Speed Characteristics