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    ABHP Exam Preparation Guide Part 1

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    RAD ZL Syepatay EXAMINATION PREPARATION GUIDE AMERICAN BOARD OF HEALTH PHYSICS REVISED JANUARY 1985 MEA, r os. Hee (1954). ‘Hlth Pisics Pereamon Press 1986, Vol. 12, pp. 173-207. Printed in Northern Kreland DEPOSITION AND RETENTION MODELS FOR INTERNAL DOSIMETRY OF THE HUMA RESPIRATORY TRACT* TASK GROLT ON LUNG DYNAMICS (Ueeved 26 Jal 1965) PREFACE ‘Tass report was prepared by the Task Group on Lung Dynarnies for Committee 11 of the Inter- national Radiological Protection Commission ‘The Task Group consisted of the following members: Dr. Davto V. Bates, Director. Respiratory Division. Joint Cardio-Respiratory Service. Roval Victoria Hospital, Montreal 2 Canada, Dr. Birxey R. Fisn, Health Physics Divi- sion. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Oak Ridge, Tennessee Professor Titopore F, Harcit, Industesal Health Engineer. University of Piusbureh, Graduate School of Publie Health, Pitt burgh. Pennsyvania Dr. Tuowas T, Mercer. Head. Depart- ment of Aciosol Physics, The Lovelace Foundation, Albuquerque. New Mexico. Dr. Pavt E. Moarow (Chairman), \ssoei- ate Professor, Radiation Biology and Phar- macology, University of Rochester Medical School, Rochester, New York The services of a special consultant on radon and its decay products, Dr. Dosatp Morxex Associate Professor. Department of Radiation Biology, University of Rochester Medical School. Rochester, New York, are gratefully acknowl- edged, as are the important contributions to the Task Group made by Dr. G. Parry Howe1ts (Belmont, Surrey), Dr. J. Ruspo (A.ERE. Harwell), Dr. Hatuoway (Oak Ridge) and Messrs. W.Dowss,L. Leactt,O.Raaztand Mrs, Luan Gauxwato of the University of Rochester +A report prepared for Commitice II of the International Commission on Radiolozical Protec tion, ana received by the Committee on 20 April 1965, 1. INTRODUCTION In 196, ICRP Committee I created a special Task Group for the purpe'e of reviewing, the so-called lung model," a scheme for con- puting dust deposition in and clearance from the human respiratory tract thereby providing. a basis for lung dosimetry and the setting of exposure limits The principal working assumption adopted by the Task Group at the outset was that the present lung model used by Committee II is arbitrary in some respects and inadequate in others: its principal virtue is simplicity. We attempted therelore, to improve the model in the first wo reards and to maintain the third quality as desirable The following items summarize the maj accomplishments of the Task Group and con- sutute the essence ol the recommendations made t9 Committee TI (DA duet deposition model was deveisped which utilizes snd depends upon dust sian pling data. ‘The model describes the dust deposited in terms of three anatomical compartments which have important fune- tional distinctions and radiobiologic impli- cations. The model considers, among other things, expected variations in minute venti laion associated with different work states The Task Group believes that the deposition ‘model is philosophically and scientifically sound and is subject to prompt impliment- auon. It will require minor adjusunents From time to time, but. ultimately, it should provide a basis for more efficient and direct hazard evaluation, (2) Adust clearance model is proposed in which the dust deposited in each respiratory com- partment is dealt with quanutauively, kinet- teally and by pathways. \n attempt has us 174 DEPOSITION AND RETENTION MODELS been made to classify many chemical com- pounds, for which there is no biological information, according to their tendeney to be retained in the respiratory tract: this permits the utilization of the clearance model under this cirewmnstance. Where appropri- ate biological data are available, these are to be utilized in the model. A tabulation of retention data taken from the literature is provided. The special problems of radon and its decay products are reviewed, including recent ex: perimental data revealing the rapid clear ance characteristics of the radon daughters, a discussion of the suitability of the proposed models, and the “free ion” controversy. (4) Normal respiratory values have been ol: ected os both anatomical and physiological bases. Human measurements were empha: sized and representative values for the more important parameters are given for children and male and female adults, Selected data will also appear in the Reference Man report of Committee IT now in preparation, 0° Major problems for the future include the creation of an improved classification oichemical substances and further information on the differ: fences in retention between single and multiple dust exposures, More detailed and quantitative clearance data are needed to lortily or modify existing clearance concepts. 11, DEPOSITION MODELS In Publication 2. Table 10, the deposition of dust in the respiratory tract is viewed as always amounting to 75 per cent o! the mast of the dust breathed. OF this 7 per cent, wo: thirds (50 per cent of that inspired) is deposited in the “upper respiratory passages” and one- third (25 per cent of that inspired) is classified as deposited... “in the lungs (lower respiratory passages)", This picture of dust deposition is complicated by the vagueness and ambiguity of the compartments. Table 9 of the Committee IT report lists the surface area of “the lungs” and separately. the surface area of the “upper res piratory tract, trachea and bronchi. [his adds to the contusion. However. on the basis of all the measurements given and the allusions made to the deposition and clearance models, it is inferred that the “upper respiratory tract pus sages” extend down to the level of the terminal bronchioles and the “lower respiratory pa: are synonymous with the parenchymatous areas of the lungs. ‘The literature dealing with dust deposition and retention is similarly confusing, ints use of terms. One of the first requirements, therefore, isa clearly defined compartmentation of the respiratory tract, one which serves a pur pose in differcntiating both deposition and clearance processes. We therclore recommend saet be described that the model respiratory (1) The nasopharynx, N-Pi—this begins with the anterior nares and extends through the anterior pharynx, back and down through the posterior pharynx (oral) to the level of the larynx or epiglottis. This com: partment corresponds to the established medical description of the upper respiratory tract. However, we regard this term un- important for the lung model Continuing caudally. the next compartment (P-B), consists of the crachea and the bron- chial tree down toand including the terminal bronchioles. Compartments 1 and 2 to- sgether constitute the anatomical dead space fof the respiratory tract. Also, tovether they can be considered as representing the entire cpithelial area of the respiratory tract whicls is ciliated and covered with mucus arisin vom two elements, goblet cells and seer tory glands. 3. We recommend the third compartment be entitled pulmonary \P,. This region cou sists of several structures, viz. respirator bronchioles, alveolar ducts, atria, alve and alveolar sacs. The exact names anc descriptions vary somewhat according different authors and sources.'=9 but in a ceases the region can be resarded as funetional area (exchange space) of 1h lungs. Ite surfuce consisis of non-ciiatec ‘moist epithelium with none of the seeretos elements found in the tracheobronchial 1 Compartments (T-B and 'P) together co: stitute what has been termed the lowe: respiratory tract, but this term serves + useful purpose in the proposee! models 2 The next requirement for the deposition mode duet pur ‘and mend ribec S with soul down to th minal 26 J spac rue TASK GROUP ON js the development of a method by which dust deposition can be quantitatively estimated for each of the tire compartments. ‘Ihe ask Group believes this can and should be dealt with by an entirely new approach in which the characteristics. particularly the aerodynamic propertics ofthe airborne dust are given proper recognition for the role they play in depo-ition processes. Moreover, increased cognizance is Fequired and has been given to the 1e-piratory tract as 2 dynamic system, responsive to the activity state of the individual The following assumptions are fundamental to this portion of the model development (1) Dusts must be weated as distributions. review of the literature points oue the pres alenee. importance and utility of the log normal distribution" "? dheretore, it will be presumed applicable lor all dusts. {2) The activity state of man allects deposition primarily by is action on ventilation, Lhe usual physiological adjustment to the de mands of an increased minute ventilation i= to inerease the tidal volume more than the respiratory requencs. In terms of pio= ducing the greatest change in depo ion throuzhout the espivators tract and thereby creating the most demanding situation. an increase in tidal volume at a constant respi atore frequency should therciore. be eon: idered. Studie on relvwvely sustained work states show ehanges in minute vosnmes of the order of 2: less weil sustained chances of 3 are possible‘*) Theretore. we hive applied three different venuiiatory: states 10 the compartinental model tspilied by tidal volumes of 730, 1450.and 2150 em? RTP, respectively. at a respitatory frequency of 5 eveles per min. The lowest tidal volume seems hizh if considered in terms of the usual basal or sedentary values. but these states presumably do not apply to active individuals and certainly not to industrial and laboratory workers, The 73!em? vidal volume. Is representative of a mild to moderate activity state (~2-t calf min energy expenditure (9) The aerodynamic properties of the dust. th physiology of respiration and the anatomy LUNG DYNAMICS 13 of the respitatory act, together, govern dust deposition.) These interrelation- ships have been sufficiently well stuslied demonstrated by experiments and supported by theoretical weatments. that dust deposi tion can be reasonably predicted in hoth qualitative and quantitative terms. This third assumption can be reduced to a simpler statement: sm anatomest model of the respiratory tact can provide a basts for a meaninzlit and reliable dust depo tion model. Reactions to this ascumption hhave olten been skeptical but we hetieve a ical selection of experimental data and theoretical treatments give a sufficiently Consistent picture to justify our position. The precent ung model is insensitive to the serodynamie-size distribution of radioactive particles. This shortcoming could be overcome to some extent by the use of “respirable dust uinplers. im which the usual dust-collecting device is preceded by asampler having collection, characteristics rouchly comparable co thow of the no-e. Samplers ol this type can provide an estimate of the concentration of toxic material ciated with particles that ean be expected! te penetrate at least to the wachea. However. the ‘rods namie-size distribution ot this material * function af the corresponding distributes « the inhaled particles: theretore, equal eoncenita- tons of “re pirable dust” do not neceatih present equal hazards, We p:opose that the evaluation of inhalation hazards be initiated by calculating the depos tunn pattern for any xiven acrosol with the aid of ‘curves which relate cleposition in the respiratory traet to some parameter of the aerosol disttibsi- tion such as a meclian aerodynamic diameter.” For practical reasons, calculauions eannot be carted out tor all possible breathing patterns or for all possible aerosols. However, estimates of dust deposition for the three breathing patterns decribed herein and fora wide variety of size dittibutionsshould be adequate for most hazard evaluation problems. In the field, the health physicist could determine the distribution of radioactive material as a funetion of aerody= namic diameter and obtain the appropriate Diameter ot 2 unit density sphere with the same setline velocity a8 the particle in question, 176 DEPOSITION AND RETENTION MODELS eposition pattern by interpolation of a set of standard curves. \ very similar iden was pro pored by Bersert and Haren in 1995, Nasopharsnecal deposition Laspattt calculated the deposition of particles in the nose during inhalation." He obtained values that were in reasonably gond agreement swith earlier experimental measurements by hist- selfand others. Partie” made an experimen- tal study of nasal deposition of snonodisjerse methylene blue particles and obtained the following relationship: x 062-7 0A Ios DAF where Wis the fraction of particles of acteds. namic diameter. Dy. whieh is depesites ix th nose duringan inhalation of F Iria. I: Fist same for both inhalation and exhalation, ce equation (1) can be put in terms © ot respiratory minute volume fT N= 0:475(— loc DEM 1 Laspantt and his co-worker medi a esa impactor to obtain their partiee ze 1ie« ments directly in t eters: therefore, their measureve deposition actually involved a d:s:0¥ sizes which they characters single parameter. the mass messi tae Their impactor data have been ren.otseu. fa more accurate method o: tsternserat 5. new mass median diameters to: € V7 ranges have been determined. In xo: er do not differ seriously from the oricina. va ‘The adjusted results have been w.ottes tt 1. together with PATrLe’s emipirica. cums i avoid a confusing amount of overiay, sane ¢ results have been omitted: however. wey tend to substantiate the empirics curve particularly” signiticant parent difference between hy ssc.9o:e 3 hygroscopic particles, presurab'oveat« appreciable changes in pattic.e sie to vee The empirical relationsinin renrese--ie equation (1) has been used to ca.ce.a2* te deposition. (The calewiauion :- later section.) Le was accursed ta, applied to both inhalation ane ex. : Vi. Fre. 1. Parrer’s ems real dats are rences = Tbe the straight be Tie eombols 2257 followin mean metintene bs L © elvcerol—I" 1 ran: & bismuth suo-essponae— 71 A. teveaictue: Sse total deposters is daz massnhare Vos givea © where Nand vsnitalation a> exo ano Pare tse seeuvely aciea: Tis yoime of the sellin te = results in iow: Shen a subjec: oo normal 32> moutir passage halatior where 7 rnouth i ‘when valueso been ea funeio muggest similar ¢ deposiue Howeve may be< - 2 smo = the relat P arin ~E Breather spb hal der an the ‘will be 2: wil not Ae he TASK GROUP ON mouth acts 28 filter just as the nove does. Tit assumed that the deposition, Mv of particles on cage through the mouth i the sme on it Fala as on exhalation then l-Ty Mail-524 (3, where Tyyis the total deposition during “normal mouth breathing and L is the total deposition when breathing through a tube. Using the values of Ty, and L given by Dexsis. values have been caleuiated for WV. Figure 2 shows Aas a function of log D.2F, where F is calculated from a minute volume of 10.7 L{min. These data Suggest that a useful empirical relationship, similar to that obtained by Partie for nasal deposition, may exist for mouth breathing, However, the possibility that the quantity, V/ may be quite sensitive to the degrce to which the mouth is opened. makes it inadvisable to apply the relationship shown in Fig. 2 to mouth breath ing in general. In other words. among mouth breathers, there will occasionally be an indivi- dual who will have a far greater tracheabron- chial deposition and far smaller N-P deposition than the model can cope with, We assume this will be an inirequent problem and in most eases will not affect pulmonary deposition Tracheobronchial and pulmonary deposition Many important studies of dust deposition in the lower respiratory tract have een mnae!!71"9 and these have added greatly to our comprehen sion of this vital topic, But generally, it has not Fro, 2. Deposition in mouth as a function of particle size and ilow rate caleulated from Dessis's results for breathing with and without tube in mouth LUNG DYNAMICS: W been possible to determine dircetly the depos tion of particles of different size in the human tracheobronchial and pulmonary regions Brows ¢f al. separated the expived air into two fractions and determined the concentration and CO; content of ech, assumed. in effect, that the CO: was a tr Indicating the degree of particle mixing lyewseen, tracheobronchial and pulmonary sir volumes and inferred deposition values for both rezions for several particlesizes. Witsox aml LaMen®! estimated the relative deposition of particles in the lower respiratory tract by mucwiring the gamma radiation trom the chest follawing inhalation of glycerol particles tagued! with *'Na, Laspant and his co-workers measured the concentration of particles in each of ive different iractions of expired air, but did not vse the data to calculate tracheobronchial and pulmonary depositions as sueh, Theoretical estimates of deposition require idealized models of lung anatonty anul of air low patterns. Calculations of this sort have been made by Fisprases™ and by Last. The former calculated the deposition of particles in various parts of the lung for that portion of the air en:ering the trachea which penicts ited «> the alveolar sacs. “The latter eatculated the aver-ail deposition for various parts of the twin as weil a the concentration of particles in exe 1 traction 6: expired air for whieh he had experssiessial ei, He concluded that there was no serious div crepancy between these theoretics: resis: and experimental data. ‘The theoretical calculations have tse advan= tage that they can be applied reas: to any respiratory pattern. ‘The expertie:. data by Brows «f al. are for a respirato's se ueney of 15 min“ and a tidal volume of a:s.: 700 em? Those of Witsox and LaMer are: a variety of respiratory rates at unspecified t.... vo.umes To get tracheobronchial and purns14°s depost- on lor a particular set of resp:rs:~-y naterns, theretore. 1 seemed reasonable to :-~ esieulated values provided they were not wath experimental results, wie could be made, The anatomical model propos. iy Fixp: zis x2) was used in making the vaicvlations although it is admittedly an us. vvaneated model. However, changes assumec = Laxalt Gostsreement i have no appreciable effect on calculated deposi _ The results of the calculations are shown in tion values. Moreover. this model has acumula- Table 1 and in Figs. 3-3. ‘The total deposition | tive volume down to the end of the terminal for 730 em tidal volume is shown in Fig. 0, to we | bronchioles of 133m? (including 30¢m? for gether with experimental points from the work of nasopharyngeal volume), a volume more in Brows et al., Vas Wigk and Pxrrerson and, keeping with the anatomical dead space as Dexxt. ‘Ihe measurements by Dissis are the determined by physiological measurements than average of twelve observations on the samne suly= are the corresponding values of more elaborate ject. They are the least equivocal with respect, models, to particle size data, since they represcnt meas- ‘The method of calculation was generally urements on spheres of known density. ‘The similar (0 that used by Finpeisex. However, the data for the other twa sets of experiments refer t0 estimation of deposition due 10 diffusion was particles of irrexular shape and the original size simplified by using the equation of Gorutry measurements have been adjusted for both and Kexxepy for laminar flow in tubes ©" denaty and shape factor t obtain the aero: Fespintory eyele of see duration was assumed, dynamic diameter. “The experiments by Vax j | i v8 DEPOSITION AND RETENTION MODELS i i ‘hich included a pause before expiration, but Wik and Parrixsos may have included mixed ‘i . one’ before insptation, “On the bass. of nose and mouth breathing H - Paeumotachographie data. the Iencth ol this The ealeulated values for pulmonary: deposi- A For was taken to be 9 per exw ofthe total tion are compared with the available experi Fopirator oyele or O2 see. The impusiony imental davai Tage, 7 and 8. In Fig. 7. he - portion ofthe cvcle was ausumed to bel 74 see averaxe rests oberved by Witsos and Laem a Bnd the expiratory portion, 200 sec!” ‘The fora satiety of respiratory requenccs in subjcet - Galeulations were carried out for volumes of breathing throush a tubeare compared with the a 500.em. 1900 em® and 2100 em? entering the ealelated depostion of paruies entering. the ie i trachea, The tracheobronchial and pulionaey trachea. the experimental data ave for iver! Gi dlportions obtained in this way were corrected which & a hygroscopte material. Witso% anc we ' for an additional Sem! of nasopharvngeal 1-Mt: assumed that the patile. crew unt Calume by mutiphing by the fir 1'—-\. theghecil content was 9 per ceo te tots r Tr 0jt, where Nis the fraction deposted mace. eoresponding to a relative hutsidile in the nose on inspiration and I" the adil about 32 per cent at 37-6. Iyerustrin ha a no particles. This i» rot an wntessonable a 9% prr ceatle) For that reason. the aats han | a penetrated most deeply into the pulriorars sponding. toa relative humidity of 3p ra a om She a Diameter ot sphere ia volume fol 068 020 gt a aa we : Te 00 suas “bae ue g 9307 0068 0027 yor vue? dust oe 5 0505 0585 0281 0204 0230 0.316 oe 7 eter | el] om oe 2 om ce tre) ose 1 : TS 0256 Gos! volt aon Boe OOS 5 Po ere ast oat 023 O22 0330 Po = oo oo 0069 0371 607 0735 ost 10 16 Th 0208 0035, Gor 030 dose oer Doe O° Pr 0.746 0.653. Fe 0209 0296 0.705 0195 00% 0 4 TASK GROUP ON LUNG DYN \MICS 79 Fic. 3. Denosition as a function of particle size for 15 respirations/min, 750 em? tidal volume In Fig. 8. the calculated pulmonary deposi- tions during nasal breathing are comp.red with Haren estimate based on the work of Exowx etal £9) The calculated curves der not appear to he seriously at odds with the available experimental data, particularly in view of the sinterential nature of tie latter and the uncertainties of many of the particlesizemeasurements. Ieseems justifiable. the:ciore. to use similar calculated curves for the other respiratory patterns which experimental data ate not available The lit F hysroceopts os doprsits All airborne particles will adsorb moistuse te a degree that depends chicily on the relative humidity and the physico-chemical nature of the article. If the particle is insoluble. or if the relauve humidity is below some triueal value for soluble particles. the adsorhed laver does not contribute significantly to particle size. Above the critical value of relauve humidity jor a 12) seROON Ae puare==, Fic. 4. Deposition as a function of particle size for 13 resprations/min, 1450 em tidal volume erorea oo ic. 5. Deposition as a funetion of particle size for 15 respirations)min, 2150 en? tidal volume solubie sub-tance, the partiele will grow to an. equilibrium diameter. D.. which exeeeds the dry particle dis De, by the Ector Din fy Mo(n—1— aay pot vA aw )y where pani», are the densities of the dry par- ticle and of the droplet of solution, respectively Mg is the molecular weight of water. Vz 1s that of the diy particle. w is the eliccuve numer of ion: pro«ivecd by dissolution ata solute molecule and Hs a relative hums expresed a a fraction The signiticance of the grow'h iti d veveter tle lor materials having larze vstues ef since the decrease in particle densit a. i: take: up seater tens to oflset the elivet a in creasing particle size on the acrodvainie cis Ihe :atie ot the aerodvname disme-er “) senor ret, Hotal deposition—nasal breathing. ccaleulated. 15 respeations/min, 750 em? Duxsis. [3.3 eespirationsfmin, 720 em? Brows ef al. 13 respirations min, 700 &— Vis Wye and Parrentos, 19 respira: Cionsfimin, 900 em 180 DEPOSITION AND RETENTION MODELS ‘Punnowany oéeosimion AERODY'A'NC DIAWETER Djs, of the droplet to that of the original dry particle, Dac. is given by CJ!" D, , fe)". where C, and C, are the slip factors for diame-ers D, and Dg, respectively. Equations 4) and (5) show that the effect of hygroseopicity on deposition will be less for particles of compounds having high molecular weights and larce densities. Many radioactive materials of industrial significance are of this sort, Particles of uranv! nitrate, for instance with a density of 28 jem! and a molecular cht of 502 will attain an equilibrium size at 99.5 per cent relative humidity, for which the ratio Dys/Dae will have a maximum value of 2.37, Since the site ofdeposition islesssigniticant for soluble materials than for insoluble, it is reasonable to use equations (4) and '5) to obtain correction factors to be applied to observed par- ticle size distributions, when the chemical com. position of the material is known, DaslDac Lass of particles from air entering the nose ‘The foregoing calculations of deposition refer to particles carried into the nose during inhala- tion. Actually, the inhaled air is delicient in particles having settling velocities of the same order of magnitude as the linear velocity of at centering the nose. This effeet ean be estimated Fic, 7. Pulmonary deposition of partiles entering trachea — ‘Theoretical, 13 respirations/min, 700 em? Vata of Witsos and LaNlrx, diameters 95 inhaled Dats uf Witsoxs and LaMeR, diameters at 99.9 per egnt relative lramidity 110. Pulmonary deposition for nasal breathing at 15 gespirationafmin, 750 env tidal volume —— Cateulated Hateh estimate based on work of Inova fiom Waxtox's equation for sampling with an inverted filter. Taking the cross-sectional area of each nostril as 0.73 e:n’, his equation becomes CC = 1 — 0.09 CIF, 6) where Cp is the concentration in ambient air of particles of terminal setling velocity 1°) C is the Corresponding concentration of air entering the nose, and Fis the mean flow rate in Lin during inhalation. For the region in which Stokes’ law applies. ie. Dg less than about 100 microns, Cy = 12.69 x 10D. 7, Figure 9 shows C/G) as a funetion of 2, for the flow patterns assumed above. The curves are best interpreted as applying to freshly or con- tinuously generated aerosols. Although there isa high deposition probability for particles 2100 diameter, it should be emphasized that such particles are extremely unstable, having sedi: mentation velocities in excess of 25 emysee- The foregoing discussion of dust deposition in the various respiratory compartments brings us to the task of amalgamating these size-deposition relationships into a generalizing form which will Girectly permit the prophetic use of dust sam- pling information. “To accomplish this, we must how wirn our attention to the aerosol as a diss tribution rather than considering particles © specific sizes. In Fig. 10 a log-normal distribu- tuon is depicted which indicates the principal par ib ete. pro: dis: by app diar bts ' sescronrweron Fe but fan The TASK GROUP ON go 4 _ oa, yore o2 eset 04° @ 180 160200" 240" 280 AERODUANIC OIAWETER Fis. 9. Ratio of concentration catering nese to ambient concentration asa function of seradvnamie diameter. parametric functions. As with all normal dis tributions, the median size (count, surfice, mass ete.) and the standard deviation define all of the properties ofthe distribution. In the log-normal distribution, arithmetic values are replaced by logarithms and a special nomenclature applies.) By conventional aerosol sampling methods, the count (or Irequency) median diameter or the mass median diameter is ‘obtainable along with the geometric standard Sve Foscri0N/ meno o ves zeep PARTICLE OIAYETER (u-CROR: Fic. 10. This representative log-normal distri- bution shows the postion of several parametric fanetions of interest to aerosol investigations ‘The values within parentheses are bated on an assumed count median diameter of 1.0 and geometric standard deviation of 2.0 (kindly furnished by O. Raase). LUNG DYN \MIcs 181 deviation, o, (ratio 841 per cent size to 50 per cent size). Furthermore. the measure- ment of one permits the calculation of the other and both can be expressed as aerodynamic equivalent diameters.) When the mass median aerodynamic diam- eters of various distributions. as represented cither by different geometric standard deviations (eq) oF diflerent count median aerodvnainie diameters (CMAD». ate plotted asainst the estimated massdepositionot theaerosoloecurring in cach re-piratory compartment, surprisingly Iiule variability is seen tsee Fig. II. For amass median aerodynamic diameter of 3.0 1. the pr dicted deposition in the nasopharynx at a 1450-cm? tidal volume varies beween 72 and 83 per cent (77 -£ 6 per cent) of the inspired air concentration for xeometric standard devi- tions between 12and 1.3, .\ similar constaney is predicted for the T-B and P compartments |. portion of the computer output giving similar values to those used in Fig. 11 is repro duced in Table 2, Each MMAD is produced by several combinations of CMAD and ¢.. Nove the constancy o! mass deposition values in each compartment jor cach case. With the excep:i0a oo 0510 3 3 oro acs roam pLNETEeY 2 Fic, 11, Each of the shaded areas (envelopes) indicates che variability of deposition for a given ‘mass median (aerodynamic) diameter in each compariment when the distribution parameter 4 saris from 1.2 10 4.5 and the tidal volume is 1450 ml 182 DEPOSITION AND RETENTION MODELS of a few highly improbable examples. ex. MMAD 0.02, CMAD 0.002 4, and MMAD. 200 x, CMAD 181 4, all of the values ean be seen 0 fit the Fig. 11 curves. These representa tive values and those of Fig. I are based on a 1450-ml tidal volume, cis important to emphasize that the curves in Fig, 11 indicate a relationship between the ‘mass aerodynamic diameter and the gravimetrie fraction of the inhaled dust which will be deposited in ‘each anatomical compartment. Within these limits (0.01-100.u), the MMAD serves to characterize the deposition probabilities of the entire distribution from which it emerges. The paruicle of average mass and other parametric tunetions of the dust distribution fail to produce such simple and cohesive relationships Since the amount of radioactivity carried by an individual particle of contaminated acrozal is not necessarily proportional to its mass, it is useful to generalize the relationship shown in Fig. 11 by interpreting the abscissa as the a:tictly median aerodynamic diameter (AMAD . Then the ordinate represents the correspondin: tion of inhaled activity that will be deposited in a given compartment. ‘The previous statements with respect to the mass distribution are equally valid for a_log-normal activity distribution, regardless of the relationship between particle size and activity The Fig. 1] curve pertain to a single respir- atory state, ie. 145tl-em? tidal volume at 13 respirations/imin, we now impose the variable of respiratory ventilation on the mean deposition ‘curves derived from the three envelopes ‘shaded areas indicating the variability, in Fig. LI. we ‘can demonstrate the effect of a 2150-em? tidal voluine and 750-cm? tidal volume, each at 13 Fespirationsfmin. This is shown in Fig. 12 for each of the three compartments and for the total respiratory tract (RT). Again, it is easy 10 imaxine the use of a mean curve, Le. the 1450+ ‘em? tidal volume curve, to represent all three respiratory states, ‘This implies that the minute volume will control the total amount of dust breathed but ordinarily will not alter the per: \ respiratory ey, breath-holding™ can make centage deposition very much. Table 2. Compurd dipastion of lg-narmal erorle MMAD MAD SIGN 00% ‘020 v.02 0.020 020 020 020 020 020 2.00 2.00 2.00 200 2.00 200 200 200 200.0 * Aerosol mass below 0.01 1 is presumed to experience an equat deposition the three compartments NP TH per cent of inspied dust oo 520" bio “00 oat 07a 2:38 49 5Ll 507 50.1 990) 335 B50 this is an estimated division reflecting the inereased deposition probabilities of vere small particles in the airways. ‘t Nasal-pharyngeal deposition is modified by non-isokinetie conditions exempli- fied by Fig. 9. Fic and? volun theo: phise oP deposi: must cc The deposit suggest -P ar graphic these 1s volume 14. De partme: ‘consider tent of ¢ tail of « (see Fig than 0.0 The e eter—de and 14 employes mass dis actors. dio s viele able sded vidal 15 2 for coral ‘30. hee dust per- rake TASK GROUT ON oleic om aro © 100 MEDIUM DIAMETER.MICRONS Fic. 12. Two ventilatory states, ie. “30 ml and 2130 mil tidal solumme ~il and ~32 1 rn Volumes, respectively. are used to indicate the order and direction of chance in compart ‘mental deposition whieh are induced by such phesiologieal fctors. Note the erosiexs+ in the curves at approximately UB y diameter AMAD deposition absolute for dusts of any sie. but we must consider this ciceumstance unlikely The last step in the development of the deposition model is to replot the combin.tion mean distribution —mean tespir ory perferm- ance curves on log-probabilits paper. This was suggested by the sigmoid appearance ot tae N-P and P curves and tenus to simpuly the graphic relationship. ‘The results obtained f these two compartments at a 1450-tl tidal volume or ~20 I/min are given in Figs. 13 and 14. Deposition in the tracheobronchial com partment can be adequately approximated by considering it constant. ie. approximately & per cent of the inspired dust. Tints neslects the lett tail of the curve where the AMAD = 0.05 (see Fig. 12,, but we believe this is reasonable since aerosol distibutions with AMAD's less than 0.05 4 are comparatively rare ‘The case of iilizing the aerodynamic diam eter—deposition relauonships given in Figs. 13 and 14 depends upon the sampling method employed, but most particle size sainplers or mass distribution samplers. eg. cascade im: actors, clutriators, conifuge, ete., can give a LUNG DYNAMICS es Hie. 13, Ihe deposition estimaze ior the naso. pvharvngeal compartment while breathing 3 & fnod-rate work rate. Dllerent aerosol dist tions are represented by the mass or act '¥ ‘median aerodynamic diameters 0.01 t0 ~10) starting point, somie more directl taan other: Ideally. af the curves lor aevodvnamic size-mass Gepaation were adopted as desien criteria tor samplers. elective sampling tor exch or all com= partments could be directly accomplished. The deposition curves produced by the fore: going deselopmient are admitteals. provocative. Among other things. they dramatize the signif icance of the nasal-pharynx as a deposition site one which funetions primarily during the inspir- ator phase. Much of the dust deposition usually assigned to the tracheobronchial region cccurs in the nasal-pharynx. One is also alerted to the Liet that any dust particle which is stable ‘enouch in air to be breathed probably around 100-200 4 maximum) down to about 10 « size, will be deposited in the nose quantitatively Deposition in the nasal sinuses is not believed. likely under normal circumstances. It is true that coughing or sneezing can cause the im- paction of contrast media and other materials st DEPOSITION AND RETENTION MODELS 1 @ 308070 80 PERCENT SEPOSITION Fro. 14. The deposition estimate for the pul- monary compartment while breathing at a moderate work rate, Different aerosol distei= butions are represented by the mass or activity ‘median aerodynamic diameters (0.01 10 ~10U} 8 9 into the sinuses (possibly the eustachian tubes) even after the material has already been de- posited on the mucosa of the posterior pharynx ‘or tracheobronchial tree.” Moreover, studies of air currents indieate conditions are more favorable for deposition in the sinus areas during expiration than inspiration, but since the particles which are subject to sedimentation and inertial impaction have been so effectively elim- inated from the inspired air before this can happen, it appears to be unimportant, When particle depesition docs eceur in the sinuses, it will be subject to rapid clearance as will be discussed in a subsequent section Deposition patterns within a particular res- piratory compartment have been demonstrated and are always to be expected. Evidence indi- cates that the pulmonary area is the most con- spicuous in this regard: ventilation within lobes and bewveen lungs is normally variable. On a microscopic scale a still further non-homogene- ity of deposition will exist. Vor example, within a given acinus, there may be more deposition within the respiratory bronchiolar and alveolar duet region than in the alveolar sacs, per se. We do not know how to deal with any problems of non-uniform distribution either as they occur at the time of deposition or subsequently de- velop. Deposition of gases, vapors radioactive nuclei cte...ean occur in relatively high local concentra: tions if they are associated. with particulate material and often they are. #39 ‘The relatio ships involved are usually unknown or unpre- dictable, but a dust sampler which is calibrated in aerodynamic terms ean indicate thedeposition potentiality of these adsorbed substances. An activity median aerodynamic diameter can be determined for a radioactive material in exactly the same way that an aerodynamic mass oF volume equivalent diameter is determined for a stable” aerosol. In special cases, where the activity distribution is not orderly, or the vector acrosol is distinctly other than log-normal, ete. the use of a selective sampler would be the best approach, “Electrically charged aerosols have been studied more often than realized as most aerosols consist of charged particles, particularly wher freshly generated. Usually, the charges. arc symmetrically produced so that the dust clou: haas litte or no net charge, but there are excep: ons.) Overt biological studies with charge aerosols ave fairly limited and as far as depositio: is concerned, there is at least one effect whic: may be of importance, eg. enhaneed nasa pharyngeal deposition, Charged particles 0 high mobility result from a few charges on sma’ particles (<0.I ye diameter) or many hundrec to thousands of charges on large particles (>1 1 diameter). Charging of large particles to suc! an extent is not likely to occur naturally and th: deposition probability of these particles is a ready high, In the case of smaller uncharge particles. deposition is practically nil in tl nasopharynx, but when these particles a charged, an increased deposition occurs whic may be on the external nares as well as with the nose, In human studies of nasal deposition. such Partie s, there is reason to suspect that the hi. depontion values found for small particles we. due to charging Although one direct eflect charging pulmonar “Insol sidered to only diffe: the wo ig factor wii use of eq these insta The pr can be de: namie din tse of prop only geo: the proble: by the use bulk densi ‘Althoust use of dust AMAD for may be an cannot be 10 pis sue Infreque sist_predor (0.01 p (3100 wa outside of Extrapolat ccomparatss However, though qua is prophesic high sedime exceed insp in the diseri alo footno: particles probabilities decreases, tion will dee m, The prese’ describes dus on whether t “insoluble”. 75 per cent at "ASK GROUP ON charging is to increase nasal-pharyn deposition fn important indirect effect is to diminish pulmonary deposition Tngoluble" and “soluble” dusts must be con- sidered together in matters of deposition. ‘The only difference of posible significance between the to isin their tendency to grow in size in the wwater-saturated air of the respiratory tract—a factor which has already been discussed. ‘The ase of equations (4) and (5) is advocated in these instances The problem of particle shape and density can be dealt with by the conversion to aerody~ namie dimensions: in practice this entails the tse of properly calibrated sampling instruments Hfonly geometric particlesize data are available. the problem can only be approximately solved by the use of shape factor corrections and the bulk density of the material Although the Task Group strongly urges the use of dust sampling for the determination of the AMAD for use in the deposition models, there ray be an occasional circumstance when this cannot be done. In this situation. a AMAD of 110 sis suggested as a standard aerosol Infrequently, aerosols will occur whieh con- sist predominantle of very small particles ($0.01 ye diameter) or very large particles (2100 a diameter): both ofthese situations lie outside of the model isee Figs. 15 and 4). Extrapolation: are possible for either of these comparatively rare and highly unstable aerosols. However. there are two points of eaution: al- though quantitative nasal-pharyngest deposition is prophesied for the very large particles, their high sedimentation velocities often approach oF exceed inspiratory air flow velocitics resulting in the discriminatory loses seen in Fig. 9. See also footnote to Table 2. Secondly, very small particles will undergo increasing deposition probabilities in the upper airways as their size decreases. i.e. as their diffusion coefficients in- crease. consequently, their pulmonary deposi- tion will decrease. See footnote to Table 2. I. CLEARANCE MODELS The present lung model used by the ICRP describes dust clearance in two ways depending fon whether the dust is classified as “soluble” oF “insoluble”. For readily “soluble” dusts, of the 75 per cent deposited, it is assumed two-thirds LUNG DYNAMICS 10 (or 50 per cent of that inspired) rapidly: passe into the gastointestinal tract and one-third (25 per cent) promptly enters the circulation, For “insoluble” dusts, of the 75 per cent de- posited. two-thirds is also rapidly translerred t the gastrointestinal tract, while one-sixth (12! per cent of that inspired) is assumed to Iv translerred to the gastrointestinal tract duriny the first dav and the remaining one-sixth experi ences a relatively prolonged retention with 120-dav biological half-time. ‘There are wo. exceptions viz, plitonium and thorium with half-time: of | and 4 vears, respectively. When ever actual retention data are available, their tse s advocated particularly when they disagre« with the clearance constants implicit in the model. ic. biological hall-imes of

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