Core T

Crop plants

Contents

1. Crop plant reproduction.

2. Crop adaptations. 3. Methods to improve crops.

Lesson objectives 1
Students should be able to: 1. explain the significance of the grains of cereal crops in the human diet.

2. compare the outcomes of self-pollination and cross-pollination in terms of genetic variations.

3. describe and explain the structural features of a named, wind-pollinated plant.

Crop plants
Definition: Plants that are cultivated for the purpose of harvesting its seeds, roots, leaves, etc. that are useful to humans. Many crop plants are grown as foods.

They may also be used for other purposes, e.g. as feeds (to livestock, etc.), biofuel, etc.

World distribution of crop plants

Many of these crop plants grown as staple foods (foods that are eaten regularly and become a dominant food part in the diet). cereal crops belongs to grass family harvest and eat the grains rice, eaten in many parts of eastern Asia.

 starchy stem or root vegetables e.g. yam or taro in New Guinea. e.g. potatoes in the US. starchy fruits dates in the Middle East. banana in the New Guinea. These staple foods are eaten mainly because of the carbohydrate (therefore, energy) content that they contain per unit mass.

Significance of cereal crops in the human diet

Cereal crops contain:

a lot of energy per unit mass (more than 1400 kJ per 100 g.
high carbohydrate (starch and sugar) content. relatively low fat content.

no cholesterol.

 high in dietary fibre. significant amount of protein (except essential amino acids, like those found in fish, eggs, etc). rich in vitamin B. the other vitamins (A, C, D, etc.) needs to be obtained from fresh fruits, leafy vegetables and dairy products. sufficient calcium. Cereal crops are also relatively cheaper for their high energy values.

Pollination

Pollination:
the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) from the anther (male reproductive organ) to the stigma (receptive structure of the female reproductive organ).

Self- and cross-pollination

Self-pollination:
pollination of a flower by pollen from the same flower or from another flower on the same plant. results in inbreeding (sexual reproduction between closely-related individuals).

Cross-pollination: pollination that occurs between diff. flowers of the same plant or from diff. plants belonging to the same species.

results in outbreeding (sexual reproduction between unrelated or distantly-related individuals).

Agents of pollination: 1. Animal. 2. Water.

3. Wind.
most cereal crops, e.g. Zea mays are wind-pollinated.

General structural features of a flower

The structural features of the flower exhibits different adaptations, depending on the type of the pollinating agent.

Wind-pollinated plants
Example: Zea mays (a.k.a. maize or corn). tall, fruiting grass. grows best in climates with long, hot summers (originally grown in Central and South America, but now become staple food in some regions of Africa, etc. now also grown to make biofuel). fruits in cobs.

Zea mays Fruits of maize in cob

each is from fertilisation of diff. ovules by diff. pollen grains. each is genetically different from the others.

Structural features of Zea mays

Zea mays have structural features that encourages cross-pollination to occur. Cross-pollination results in outbreeding, therefore enhancing genetic variation in the population.

Q: Tabulate the structural features of Zea mays and their respective functions that enables effective cross-pollination (and thus, outbreeding) to occur.

Structure

Functions

Anther dangling from enables pollen grain to be exposed filament. to the wind. pollen grains are very small and light. Stigma long and feathery. protrudes from the flower. easily carried by the wind to settle on the stigma of another plant which are further away.

enables the stigma to 'catch' the pollen grains.

Structure
Height tall and sturdy plant.

Functions
holds the male flowers high and upright for good exposure to the wind.

Separate male and female flowers male flower at the apex ('top') of plant. female flower at lower part of plant.

encourages cross-fertilisation to occur (lower likelihood for the male flowers to pollinate the female flowers of the same plant).

Advantages of outbreeding
1. Results in heterozygosity (possess diff. alleles of a gene). 2. Reduces the chance of offspring receiving 2 recessive alleles of the same gene, which may become harmful to the plant.
3. Avoids inbreeding depression (weak and strain dying out).

4. May confer hybrid vigour (strength and vigour found in many heterozygous organisms; usually stronger than the parents). 5. May result in genetic and phenotypic variation amongst offspring. 6. Variation increases likelihood of at least some individuals surviving in difficult conditions.

7. Variation allows adaptations to change in environment.

Lesson objectives 2

Students should be able to:

4. describe the structure of the fruit in maize and explain the function of the endosperm.

Fertilisation
Definition:

The fusion or union of the male and the female gametes during sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
In Zea mays, just like in other angiosperms (a.k.a. flowering plants), double fertilisation occurs. doesn't occur in gymnosperms.

Structure of Zea mays ovule

embryo sac
egg cell (n) synergids (n) polar nuclei (2n) antipodal cells (n)

integuments

Steps in double fertilisation of Zea mays: Once pollination has occurred, 1. Pollen tube grows through the style.

there are 3 haploid nuclei in a pollen grain:

1 pollen tube nucleus. 2 male gametes (initially a haploid generative cell that eventually divides into 2 haploid male gametes).

2. Pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle. *micropyle = small opening in the surface of a plant ovule. the pollen tube move towards the ovule by chemotaxis (response to chemical stimuli).

3. Pollen tube penetrates through the embryo sac. pollen tube nucleus cause disintegration of 1 of the synergid cells. 1 male gamete fuses with the egg cell becomes the embryo (2n). the other male gamete fuses with the polar nuclei (a.k.a. primary endosperm nucleus). forms the endosperm nucleus (3n). the remaining synergid and antipodal cells will eventually disintegrate.

So, double fertilisation is:

a process that occurs only in flowering plants (angiosperms) whereby 2 male gamete nuclei separately fuse with different nuclei in the embryo sac.

A male gamete nucleus fuses with the egg cell to form a 2n zygote which eventually becomes the embryo.
The other male gamete nucleus fuses with 2 polar nuclei to eventually form 3n endosperm.

Useful links (double fertilisation):

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bUjVHUf4d1I

http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp39/3902001.html

Seed and fruit development

Before fertilisation
Ovary: ovary wall
Ovule: micropyle integuments egg cell (n) polar nuclei (2n) antipodal cells (n) synergids (n)

After fertilisation
Fruit: fruit coat (pericarp)
Seed: micropyle seed coat (testa) embryo (2n) endosperm (3n) (degenerates) (degenerates)

Structural features of Zea mays fruit

*endosperm = tissue or part of a fruit that acts as a food store for developing embryo. Role of endosperm:

contains a lot of starch and protein for growth and development of embryo.
Other uses of endosperm (to human): important source of carbohydrate and protein in the human diet. to make flour, e.g. wheat flour. to make alcoholic beverages, e.g. beer (using barley endosperm).

Lesson objectives 3
Students should be able to:
5. explain how the anatomy and physiology of the leaves of C4 plants such as maize or sorghum are adapted for high rates of carbon fixation at high temperatures in terms of: (i) the high optimum temperatures of the enzymes involved, and (ii) the spatial separation of initial carbon fixation from the light-dependent stage.

C4 plants

Recall that in Calvin cycle in (light-independent reaction of) photosynthesis, RuBP (5C) + CO2 (1C) unstable intermediate (6C) 2 GP (3C). These plants are called C3 plants.

However, in maize the first molecule to be formed by combination with CO2 is oxaloacetate (4C). Therefore, maize is a C4 plant. Q: Why is the photosynthetic pathway different?

A: Rubisco catalyses the reaction of RuBP with O2 instead of with CO2 when: 1. temperature is high. 2. light intensity is high.
e.g. in Africa

Photorespiration takes place. Zea mays, sorghum and sugar cane are examples of C4 plants.

Photorespiration is a wastage of RuBP.

less RuBP will be available for photosynthesis, to make important molecules, e.g. starch, etc.
Q: How to avoid photorespiration from taking place? A: By separating RuBP and rubisco in plant cells from the air spaces (high O2 concentrations) by keeping them in bundle sheath cells.

Bundle sheath cells

 Bundle sheath cells prevent any direct contact between rubisco and RuBP with air. Bundle sheath cells are surrounded by mesophyll cells. the mesophyll cells carry out normal lightdependent reactions. CO2 absorbed by the mesophyll cells.

Mesophyll cells around the bundle sheath cells have PEP carboxylase enzymes. *PEP = phosphoenolpyruvate
1. PEP carboxylase catalyses the reaction btw. CO2 and PEP to form oxaloacetate. CO2 (1C)+ PEP (3C) oxaloacetate (4C)

2. Oxaloacetate (4C) converted to malate (4C). 3. Malate transported to bundle sheath cells. malate converted to pyruvate (3C) and releases CO2 normal Calvin cycle occurs

RuBP + CO2 unstable 6C intermediate 2x GP

pyruvate is transported back to mesophyll cells (regeneration of PEP).

Useful link (photorespiration):

http://www.wiley.com/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/photosynthesis/phot osynthesis.swf

More animations can be found on

http://www.learnerstv.com/animations.php

Important characteristic of C4 plant enzymes: higher optimum temperatures than C3 plant enzymes. e.g. PEP carboxylase has optimum temp. at 45 degrees celsius.

inactive at low temperatures.

Sorghum
grown in very hot and dry environment, e.g. India, East Africa, the USA, etc. Uses of sorghum: 1. food for people. 2. fodder for livestocks, e.g. dried hay, etc. 3. sweet syrups, etc.

Sorghum

Sorghum grains

 C4 plant, like maize. But sorghum is able to survive better in drier areas, i.e. more drought resistant than maize. Drought resistant sorghum is known as milo.

Summary of sorghum adaptations

Features
1. Roots

Adaptations
deep and widely spreading able to reach for deeper H2O in the soil. very thick and waxy cuticle prevent evaporation of H2O through the epidermis.

2. Leaves

diff. cell sizes at upper epidermis enables rolling up of leaves when H2O is deficient. --- prevent loss of H2O by transpiration. diff. photosynthetic pathway than C3 plant. prevent wastage of RuBP by photorespiration. more efficient photosynthesis. have enzymes with higher optimum temp. do not denature easily in very hot environment.

3. C4 plant

Rice (Oryza spp.)

Cultivated rice: 1. Oryza sativa a.k.a. Asian rice. grown in many parts of Asia. easy to genetically modify, esp. as model organism in cereal biology. 2. Oryza glaberrima a.k.a. African rice. grown in parts of Africa. more brittle & have lower yield than O. sativa. more tolerant to severe climatic conditions, iron toxicity, infertile soils, etc. than O. sativa.

Adaptations of rice for wet environments

Rice are usually grown in flooded plains or soil. Problems with flooded soils:

1. Water contains very low dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide. difficulty for gaseous exchange to occur. needed for aerobic respiration and photosynthesis.

Paddy field in Chieng Mai, Thailand

 more microorganisms in the flooded soils, so lowering the dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide further. Solutions: 1. Anaerobic respiration in parts submerged by water to provide energy. 2. Presence of aerenchyma in stems and roots (easier for oxygen and carbon dioxide to freely diffuse).

2. Presence of ethanol as a result of anaerobic respiration (recall Core L). ethanol is toxic.
Solutions:

1. Rice root cells produces alcohol dehydrogenase enzymes that can break down ethanol in the water.
2. Rice root cells also have higher tolerance to ethanol.

3. Partial submergence in water causes difficulty to photosynthesise. Solution: Rice produces a gas called ethylene a.k.a. ethene that stimulates the production of gibberellins. gibberellin stimulates cell division and cell elongation in rice stem. rice grow taller. *ethylene (an alkene) also stimulates ripening of fruits, e.g. bananas.

Crop improvement

Crops are improved in 2 ways:

1. selective breeding (recall Core P).

2. genetic engineering (recall Core R).

Hybridisation of wheat
Hybridisation: crossbreeding individuals from different species or different varieties. if diff species: usually produces infertile offspring.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum) was first cultivated app. 10,000 years ago in the socalled 'fertile crescent' in the Middle East. selective breeding was done then. more yield. --- shorter stem. --- larger or more grains per plant. more pest- and disease-resistant.

Development of wheat
2n = 14 n=7 (AA) 2n = 14 n=7 (BB)

(wild wheat)

2n = 14 n=7 (AB)

The hybrid is INFERTILE. the chromosomes cannot pair up to form bivalents during MEIOSIS. male and female gametes cannot be formed.

The hybrid from einkorn and wild goat grass is infertile. Wheat has not been formed yet. The hybrid has to become fertile first so that it can crossbreeding again to eventually form wheat (T. aestivum).

But how?

(Recall polyploidy Core P on sympatric speciation)

Polyploidy Caused by mutation that might have occurred during attempted meiosis or mitosis.

Inbreeding and hybridisation

Recall that maize is adapted to crosspollination. However, if maize is to be uncontrollably cross-bred, the grown maize will not be uniform, e.g. some producing lower yield than the others, less-pest-resistant, etc. too much variation between the maize.

If inbreeding is to be done, homozygosity btw the maize will increase. hybrid vigour decreases. inbreeding depression occurs over several generations (becomes weaker, etc.).

So, how to maintain heterozygosity, yet at the same time make the maize grow and produce yields uniformly?

Hybrid vigour in maize

Inbreeding depression in maize

1. Inbreeding done by crop breeders to make them homozygous for specific phenotypes. 2. Farmers can buy the seeds of the inbred maize plants depends on the maize phenotypes that they want. 3. Farmers can cross-breed these plants and grow them. the maize will produce uniform products with the desirable traits/phenotypes.

Production of golden rice

Like most cereal grains, rice lacks vitamin A, which is very important in the human diet.

Vitamin A:
found in carotene (yellow pigments found in oranges, etc.). in cereals, e.g. rice, vit. A is found in the aleurone layer but these are removed. endosperm do not have vit. A. So, how to produce rice that contains Vit. A?

 The vitamin A production gene is cut using restriction enzyme. 'Sticky ends' are formed.

 the same restriction enzyme is used to cut the vitamin A production gene. the DNA are joined together by ligase enzyme.

Plasmids inserted into bacteria by: 1. electroporation OR 2. chemical means, e.g. NACl solution.

Issues with golden rice production

There are unprecedented problems that may arise from GMOs, e.g. golden rice.

Main problem of vitamin A deficiency is undernutrition due to poverty. need to overcome this problem.
Nevertheless, golden rice can be fed to children with vitamin A deficiency while solving the problem of poverty.