Professional Documents
Culture Documents
RIG VEDA
Translator
Ralph T.H. Griffith
With collected commentaries and other help
Compiled by
Prof. M. M. Ninan
RIG VEDA
Translator
Ralph T.H. Griffith
RIG VEDA
Translator Ralph T.H. Griffith
THE FIRST BOOK
HYMN I. Agni.
1 I Laud Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice,
The hotar, lavishest of wealth.
2 Worthy is Agni to be praised by living as by ancient seers.
He shall bring. hitherward the Gods.
3 Through Agni man obtaineth wealth, yea, plenty waxing day by day,
Most rich in heroes, glorious.
4 Agni, the perfect sacrifice which thou encompassest about
Verily goeth to the Gods.
5 May Agni, sapient-minded Priest, truthful, most gloriously great,
The God, come hither with the Gods.
6 Whatever blessing, Agni, thou wilt grant unto thy worshipper,
That, Angiras, is indeed thy truth.
7 To thee, dispeller of the night, O Agni, day by day with prayer
Bringing thee reverence, we come
8 Ruler of sacrifices, guard of Law eternal, radiant One, I
ncreasing in thine own abode.
9 Be to us easy of approach, even as a father to his son:
Agni, be with us for our weal.
HYMN II. Vayu.
1 BEAUTIFUL Vayu, come, for thee these Soma drops have been prepared: Drink of them, hearken to our call.
2 Knowing the days, with Soma juice poured forth, the singers glorify
Thee, Vayu, with their hymns of praise.
3 Vayu, thy penetrating stream goes forth unto the worshipper,
Far-spreading for the Soma draught.
4 These, Indra-Vayu, have been shed; come for our offered dainties' sake:
The drops are yearning for you both.
5 Well do ye mark libations, ye Vayu and Indra, rich in spoil
So come ye swiftly hitherward.
6 Vayu and Indra, come to what the Soma. presser hath prepared:
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Translator
Ralph T.H. Griffith
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HYMN V. Agni.
1. HERALD and teacher was he born, a guardian for our patrons' help,
Earner by rites of noble wealth. That Strong One may we grasp and guide;
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HYMN I. Agni.
1. THOU, Agni, who wilt have the strong, hast made me the Soma's priest, to worship in assembly.
Thou shinest to the Gods, I set the pressstones. I toil; be joyful in thyself, O Agni.
2 East have we turned the rite; may the hymn aid it. With wood and worship shall they honour Agni.
From heaven the synods of the wise have learnt it: c'en for the quick and strong they seek advancement.
3 The Prudent, he whose will is pure, brought welfare, allied by birth to Heaven and Earth in kinship.
The Gods discovered in the midst of waters beautiful Agni with the Sisters' labour.
4 Him, Blessed One, the Seven strong Floods augmented, him white at birth and red when waxen mighty.
As mother mares run to their new-born you ling, so at his birth the Gods wondered at Agni.
5 Spreading with radiant limbs throughout the region, purging his power with wise purifications,
Robing himself in light, the life of waters, lie spreads abroad his high and perfect glories.
6 He sought heaven's Mighty Ones, the unconsuming, the unimpaired, not clothed and yet not naked.
Then they, ancient and young, who dwell together, Seven sounding Rivers, as one germ received him.
7 His piles, assuming every form, are scattered where flow sweet waters, at the spring of fatness;
There stood the milch-kine with full-laden udders, and both paired Mighty Mothers of the Wondrous.
8 Carefully cherished, Son of Strength, thou shoncst assuming lasting and refulgent beauties.
Full streams of fatness and sweet juice descended, there where the Mighty One grew strong by wisdom.
9 From birth he knew even his Father's bosom, he set his voices and his streams in motion;
Knew him who moved with blessed Friends in secret, with the young Dames of heaven. He stayed not hidden.
10 He nursed the Infant of the Sire and Maker: alone the Babe sucked many a teeming bosom.
Guard, for the Bright and Strong, the fellow-spouses friendly to men and bound to him in kinship.
11 The Mighty One increased in space unbounded; full many a glorious flood gave strength to Agni.
Friend of the house, within the lap of Order lay Agni, in the Sister Rivers' service.
12 As keen supporter where great waters gather, light-shedder whom the brood rejoice to look on;
He who begat, and will beget, the dawnlights, most manly, Child of Floods, is youthful Agni.
13 Him, varied in his form, the lovely Infant of floods and plants the blessed wood hath gendered.
Gods even, moved in spirit, came around him, and served him at his birth, the Strong, the Wondrous.
14 Like brilliant lightnings, mighty luminaries accompany the light-diffusing Agni,
Waxen, as 'twere in secret, in his dwelling, while in the boundless stall they milk out Amrta.
15 I sacrificing serve thee with oblations and crave with longing thy good-will and friendship.
Grant, with the Gods, thy grace to him who lauds thee, protect us with thy rays that guard the homestead.
16 May we, O Agni, thou who leadest wisely, thy followers and masters of all treasures,
Strong in the glory of our noble offspring, subdue the godless when they seek the battle.
17 Ensign of Gods hast thou become, O Agni, joy-giver, knower of all secret wisdom.
Friend of the homestead, thou hast lightened mortals: carborne thou goest to the Gods, fulfilling.
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Translator
Ralph T.H. Griffith
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HYMN I. Agni.
1, THEE Agni, have the Gods, ever of one accord, sent hither down, a God, appointed messenger, yea, with their
wisdom sent thee down.
The Immortal, O thou Holy One, mid mortal men, the God-devoted God, the wise, have they brought forth, brought
forth the omnipresent God-devoted Sage.
2 As such, O Agni, bring with favour to the Gods thy Brother Varuna who loveth sacrifice,
True to the Law, the Aditya who supporteth men, the King, supporter of mankind.
3 Do thou, O Friend, turn hither him who is our Friend, swift as a wheel, like two car-steeds in rapid course,
Wondrous! to us in rapid course.
O Agni, find thou grace for us with Varuna, with Maruts who illumine all.
Bless us, thou Radiant One, for seed and progeny, yea, bless us, O thou Wondrous God.
4 Do thou who knowest Varuna, O Agni, put far away from us the God's displeasure.
Best Sacrificer, brightest One, refulgent remove thou far from us all those who hate us.
5 Be thou, O Agni, nearest us with succour, our closest Friend while now this Morn is breaking.
Reconcile to us Varuna, be bounteous enjoy the gracious juice; be swift to hear us.
6 Excellent is the glance, of brightest splendour, which the auspicious God bestows on mortalsThe God's glance, longed-for even as the butter, pure, heated, of the cow, the milch-cow's bounty.
7 Three are those births, the true, the most exalted, eagerly longed-for, of the God, of Agni.
He came invested in the boundless region, pure, radiant, friendly, mightily resplendent.
8 This envoy joyeth in all seats of worship, borne on his golden car, sweet-tongued Invoker:
Lovely to look on, with red steeds, effulgent, like a feast rich in food, joyous for ever.
9 Allied by worship, let him give man knowledge: by an extended cord they lead him onward.
He stays, effectual in this mortal's dwelling, and the God wins a share in his possessions.
10 Let Agni -for he knows the way- conduct us to all that he enjoys of God-sent riches,
What all the Immortals have prepared with wisdom, Dyaus, Sire, Begetter, raining down true blessings.
11 In houses first he sprang into existence, at great heaven's base, and in this region's bosom;
Footless and headless, both his ends concealing, in his Bull's lair drawing himself together.
12 Wondrously first he rose aloft, defiant, in the Bull's lair, the homeof holy Order,
Longed-for, young, beautiful, and far-resplendent: and sevendear frieuds sprang up unto the Mighty.
13 Here did our human fathers take their places, fain to fulfil the sacred Law of worship.
Forth drave they, with loud call, Dawn's teeming Milch-kine bid in the mountainstable, in the cavern.
14 Splendid were they when they had rent the mountain: others, around, shall tell forth this their exploit.
They sang their song, prepared to free the cattle: they found the light; with holy hymns they worshipped.
15 Eager, with thought intent upon the booty, the men with their celestial speech threw open,
The solid mountain firm, compact, enclosing, confining Cows, the stable full of cattle.
16 The Milch-cow's earliest name they comprehended: they found the Mother's thrice-seven noblest titles.
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HYMN L. Brhaspati.
1. Him who with might hath propped earth's ends, who sitteth in threefold seat, Brhaspati, with thunder,
Him of the pleasant tongue have ancient sages, deep-thinking, holy singers, set before them.
2 Wild in their course, in well-marked wise rejoicing were they, Brhaspati, who pressed around us.
Preserve Brhaspati, the stall uninjured, this company's raining, ever-moving birthplace.
3 Brhaspati, from thy remotest distance have they sat down who love the law eternal.
For thee were dug wells springing from the mountain, which murmuring round about pour streams of sweetness.
4 Brhaspati, when first he had his being from mighty splendour in supremest heaven,
Strong, with his sevenfold mouth, with noise of thunder, with his seven rays, blew and dispersed the darkness.
5 With the loud-shouting band who sang his praises, with thunder, he destroyed obstructive Vala.
Brhaspati thundering drave forth the cattle, the lowing cows who make oblations ready.
6 Serve we with sacrifices, gifts, and homage even thus the Steer of all the Gods, the Father.
Brhaspati, may we be lords of riches, with noble progeny and store of heroes.
7 Surely that King by power and might heroic hath made him lord of all his foes' posses-ions,
Who cherishes Brhaspati well-tended, adorns and worships him as foremost sharer.
8 In his own house he dwells in peace and comfort: to him for ever holy food flows richly.
To him the people with free will pay homage-the King with whom the Brahman hatb precedence.
9 He, unopposed, is master of the riches.of his own subjects and of hostile people.
The Gods uphold that King with their protection who helps the Brahman when he seeks his favour.
10 Indra, Brhaspati, rainers of treasure, rejoicing at this sacrifice drink the Soma.
Let the abundant drops sink deep within you: vouchsafe us riches with full store of heroes.
11 Brhaspati and Indra, make us prosper may this be your benevolence to usward.
Assist our holy thoughts, wake up our spirit: weaken the hatred of our foe and rivals.
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RIG VEDA
Translator
Ralph T.H. Griffith
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HYMN I. Agni
1. Agni is wakened by the people's fuel to meet the Dawn who cometh like a milch-cow.
Like young trees shooting up on high their branches, his flames are rising to the vault of heaven.
2 For worship of the Gods the Priest was wakened: at morning gracious Agni hath arisen.
Kindled, his radiant might is made apparent, and the great Deity set free from darkness.
3 When he hath stirred the line of his attendants, with the pure milk pure Agni is anointed.
The strength-bestowing gift is then made ready, which spread in front, with tongues, erect, he drinketh.
4 The spirits of the pious turn together to Agni, as the eyes of all to Surya.
He, when both Dawns of different hues have borne him, springs up at daybreak as a strong white charger.
5 The noble One was born at days' beginning, laid red in colour mid the well-laid fuel.
Yielding in every house his seven rich treasures, Agni is seated, Priest most skilled in worship.
6 Agni hath sat him down, a Priest most skilful, on a sweet-smelling place, his Mother's bosom.
Young, faithful, sage, preeminent o'er many, kindled among the folk whom he sustaineth.
7 This Singer excellent at sacrifices, Agni the Priest, they glorify with homage.
Him who spread out both worlds by Law Eternal they balm with oil, strong Steed who never faileth.
8. He, worshipful House-Friend, in his home is worshipped, our own auspicious guest, lauded by sages.
That strength the Bull with thousand horns possesses. In might, O Agni, thou excellest others.
9 Thou quickly passest by all others, Agni, for him to whom thou hast appeared most lovely,
Wondrously fair, adorable, effulgent, the guest of men, the darling of the people.
10 To thee, Most Youthful God! to thee, O Agni from near and far the people bring their tribute.
Mark well the prayer of him who best extols thee. Great, high, auspicious, Agni, is thy shelter.
11 Ascend to-day thy splendid car, O Agni, in splendour, with the Holy Ones around it.
Knowing the paths by mid-air's spacious region bring hither Gods to feast on our oblation.
12 To him adorable, sage, strong and mighty we have sung forth our song of praise and homage.
Gavisthira hath raised with prayer to Agni this laud far-reaching, like gold light to heaven.
HYMN II. Agni.
1. THE youthful Mother keeps the Boy in secret pressed to her close, nor yields him to the Father.
But, when he lies upon the arm, the people see his unfading countenance before them.
2 What child is this thou carriest as handmaid, O Youthful One? The Consort-Queen hath bome him.
The Babe unborn increased through many autumns. I saw him born what time his Mother bare him.
3 I saw him from afar gold-toothed, bright-coloured, hurling his weapons from his habitation,
What time I gave him Amrta free from mixture. How can the Indraless, the hymnless harm me?
4 I saw him moving from the place he dwells in, even as with a herd, brilliantly shining.
These seized him not: he had been born already. They who were grey with age again grow youthful.
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Translator
Ralph T.H. Griffith
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Ralph T.H. Griffith
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Ralph T.H. Griffith
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HYMN I. Indra.
1. GLORIFY naught besides, O friends; so shall no sorrow trouble you.
Praise only mighty Indra when the juice is shed, and say your lauds repeatedly:
2 Even him, eternal, like a bull who rushes down, men's Conqueror, bounteous like a cow;
Him who is cause of both, of enmity and peace, to both sides most munificent.
3 Although these men in sundry ways invoke thee to obtain thine aid,
Be this our prayer, addressed, O Indra, unto thee, thine exaltation every day.
4 Those skilled in song, O Maghavan among these men o'ercome with might the foeman's songs.
Come hither, bring us strength in many a varied form most near that it may succour us.
5 O Caster of the Stone, I would not sell thee for a mighty price,
Not for a thousand, Thunderer! nor ten thousand, nor a hundred, Lord of countless wealth!
6 O Indra, thou art more to me than sire or niggard brother is.
Thou and my mother, O Good Lord, appear alike, to give me wealth abundantly.
7 Where art thou? Whither art thou gone? For many a place attracts thy mind.
Haste, Warrior, Fort-destroyer, Lord of battle's din, haste, holy songs have sounded forth.
8 Sing out the psalm to him who breaks down castles for his faithful friend,
Verses to bring the Thunderer to destroy the forts and sit on Kanva's sacred grass.
9 The Horses which are thine in tens, in hundreds, yea, in thousands thine,
Even those vigorous Steeds, fleet-footed in the course, with those come quickly near to us.
10 This day I call Sabardugiha who animates the holy song,
Indra the richly-yielding Milch-cow who provides unfailing food in ample stream.
11 When Sura wounded Etasa, with Vata's rolling winged car.
Indra bore Kutsa Arjuneya off, and mocked Gandharva. the unconquered One.
12 He without ligature, before making incision in the neck,
Closed up the wound again, most wealthy Maghavan, who maketh whole the injured part.
13 May we be never cast aside, and strangers, as it were, to thee.
We, Thunder-wielding Indra, count ourselves as trees rejected and unfit to bum.
14 O Vrtra-slayer, we were thought slow and unready for the fray.
Yet once in thy great bounty may we have delight, O Hero, after praising thee.
15 If he will listen to my laud, then may out Soma-drops that flow
Rapidly through the strainer gladden Indra, drops due to the Tugryas' Strengthener.
16 Come now unto the common laud of thee and of thy faithful friend.
So may our wealthy nobles' praise give joy to thee. Fain would I sing thine eulogy.
17 Press out the Soma with the stones, and in the waters wash it clean.
The men investing it with raiment made of milk shall milk it forth from out the stems.
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HYMN V. Indra.
1. As highest of the Maghavans, preeminent among the Bulls,
Best breaker-down of forts, kine-winner, Lord of wealth, we seek thee, Indra Maghavan.
2 Thou who subduedst Ayu, Kutsa, Atithigva, waxing daily in thy might,
As such, rousing thy power, we invocate thee now, thee Satakratu, Lord of Bays.
3 The pressing-stones shall pour for us the essence of the meath of all,
Drops that have been pressed out afar among the folk, and those that have been pressed near us.
4 Repel all enmities and keep thern far away: let all win treasure for their own.
Even among Sistas are the stalks that make thee glad, where thou with Soma satest thee.
5 Come, Indra, very near to us with aids of firmly-based resolve;
Come, most auspicious, with thy most auspicious help, good Kinsman, with good kinsmen, come!
6 Bless thou with progeny the chief of men, the lord of heroes, victor in the fray.
Aid with thy powers the men who sing thee lauds and keep their spirits ever pure and bright.
7 May we be such in battle as are surest to obtain thy grace:
With holy offerings and invocations of the Gods, we mean, that we may win the spoil.
8 Thine, Lord of Bays, am I. Prayer longeth for the spoil. Still with thy help I seek the fight.
So, at the raiders' head, I, craving steeds and kine, unite myself with thee alone.
HYMN VI. Indra.
1. INDRA, the poets with. their hymns extol this hero might of thine:
They strengthened, loud in song, thy power that droppeth oil. With hymns the Pauras came to thee.
2 Through piety they came to Indra for his aid, they whose libations give theejoy.
As thou with, Krsa and Samvarta hast rejoiced, so, Indra, be thou glad with us.
3 Agreeing in your spirit, all ye Deities, come nigh to us.
Vasus and Rudras shall come near to give us aid, and Maruts listen to our call.
4 May Pusan, Visnu, and Sarasvati befriend, and the Seven Streams, this call of mine:
May Waters, Wind, the Mountains, and the Forest-Lord, and Earth give ear unto my cry.
5 Indra, with thine own bounteous gift, most liberal of the Mighty Ones,
Be our boon benefactor, Vrtra-slayer, be our feast-companion for our weal.
6 Leader of heroes, Lord of battle, lead thou us to combat, thou Most Sapient One.
High fame is theirs who win by invocations, feasts and entertainment of the Gods.
7 Our hopes rest on the Faithful One: in Indra is the people's life.
O Maghavan, come nigh that thou mayst give us aid: make plenteous food stream forth for us.
8 Thee would we worship, Indra, with our songs of praise: O Satakratu, be thou ours.
Pour down upon Praskanva bounty vast and firm, exuberant, that shall never fail.
HYMN VII. Praskanva's Gift.
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Ralph T.H. Griffith
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RIG VEDA
Translator
Ralph T.H. Griffith
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APPENDIX II.
METRE.
Rhyme is not used in the Rgveda. The metres are regulated by the number of syllables in the stanza, which consists
generally of three or four Padas, measures, divisions, or quarter verses, with a distinctly marked interval at the end of
the second Pada, and so forming two hemistichs or semi-stanzas of equal or unequal length. These Padas most
usually contain eight or eleven or twelve syllables each; but occasionally they consist of fewer and sometimes of
more than these numbers. The Padas of a stanza are generally of equal length and of more or less corresponding
prosodial quantities: but sornetimes two ox more kinds of metre are employed in one stanza, and then the Padas vary
in quantity and length. As regards quantity, the first Syllables of the Pada are not subject to very strict laws, but the
last four are more regular, their measure being generally iambic in Padas of eight and of twelve syllables and trochaic
in those of eleven. In the printed text the first and second Padas form one line, and the third, or third and fourth, or
third, fourth, and fifth, complete the distich or stanza. This arrangement I have followed in my translation.
Subjoined, in alphabetical arrangement, are the names, with brief descriptions, of the metres used in the Hymns of
the Rgveda. The Index of Hymns will show the metre or metres employed in each Hymn.
Abhtisarini: a species of Trstup, in which two Padas contain twelve instead of eleven syllables.
Amstup or Anustubh: consisting of four Padas of eight syllables each, two Padas forming a line. This is the prevailing
form of metre in the Manava-dharma-sastra, the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Puranas.
Anustubgarbha: a metre of the Usnih class: the first Pada containing five syllables, and the three following Padas of
eight syllables each.
Anustup Pipilikamadhya: a species of Anustup, having the second Pada shorter than the first and third (8 syllables+
4+8+ 8).
Asti: consisting of four Padas of Sixteen syllables each, or sixty-four syllables in the stanza.
Astrapaikti: consisting of two Padas of eight syllables each, followed by two Padas of twelve syllables each.
Atidhrti: four Padas of nineteen syllables each, = 76 syllables.
Atijagati: four Padas of thirteen syllables each.
Atincrti: consisting of three Padas containing respectively seven, six, and seven syllables.
Atisakvari: four Padas of fifteen syllables each.
Atyasti: four Padas of seventeen syllables each.
Brhati: four Padas ( 8 + 8 + 12 + 8) containing 36 syllables in the stanza.
Caturvimsatika Dvipada: a Dvipada containing 24 syllables instead of 20.
Dhrti: consisting of seventy-two syllables in a stanza.
Dvipada Viraj: a species of Gayatri consisting of two Padas only (12+8 or 10+10 syllables); inadequately represented
in the translation by two decasyllabic iambic lines.
Ekapada Tristup: a Trstup consisting of a single Pada or quarter stanza.
Ekapada Viraj: a Viraj consisting of a single Pada.
Gayatri: the stanza usually consists of twenty-four syllables, variously arranged, but generally as a triplet of three
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631
A VEDIC READER
For Students
By Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1854-1930)
[1917]
Scanned at www.sacred-texts.com August 31, 2000.
INTRODUCTION
5. LANGUAGE.
The hymns of the RV. are composed in the earliest stage of that literary language of which the latest, or
Classical Sanskrit, was stereotyped by the grammar of Panini at the end of the fourth century B.C. It differs
from the latter about as much as Homeric from Attic Greek. It exhibits a much greater variety of forms than
Sanskrit does. Its case-forms both in nominal and pronominal inflexion are more numerous. It has more
participles and gerunds. It is, however, in verbal forms that its comparative richness is most apparent. Thus the
RV. very frequently uses the subjunctive, which as such has entirely died out in Sanskrit; it has twelve forms of
the infinitive, while only a single one of these has survived in Sanskrit. The language of the RV. also differs
from Sanskrit in its accent, which, like that of ancient Greek, is of a musical nature, depending on the pitch of
the voice, and is marked throughout the hymns. This accent has in Sanskrit been changed not only to a stress
accent, but has shifted its position as depending on quantity, and is no longer marked. The Vedic accent
occupies a very important position in Comparative Philology, while the Sanskrit accent, being secondary, has
no value of this kind.
The Sandhi of the RV. represents an earlier and a less conventional stage than that of Sanskrit. Thus the
insertion of a sibilant between final n and a hard palatal or dental is in the RV. restricted to cases where it is
historically justified; in Sanskrit it has become universal, being extended to cases where it has no justification.
After e and o in the RV. a is nearly always pronounced, while in Sanskrit it is invariably dropped. It may thus
be affirmed with certainty that no student can understand Sanskrit historically without knowing the language of
the RV.
6. METRE.
The hymns of the RV. are without exception metrical. They contain on the average ten stanzas, generally of
four verses or lines, but also of three and sometimes five. The line, which is called Pada, ('quarter') and forms
the metrical unit, usually consists of eight, eleven, or twelve syllables. A stanza is, as a rule, made up of lines of
the same type; but some of the rarer kinds of stanza are formed by combining lines of different length. There are
about fifteen metres, but only about seven of these are at all common. By far the most common are the Tristubh
(4 x 11 syllables), the Gayatri (3 x 8), and the Jagati (4 x 12), which together furnish two-thirds of the total
number of stanzas in the RV. The Vedic metres, which are the foundation of the Classical Sanskrit metres
except two, have a, quantitative rhythm in which short and long syllables alternate and, which is of a generally
iambic type. It is only the rhythm of the last four or five syllables (called the cadence) of the line that is rigidly
determined, and the lines of eleven and twelve syllables have a caesura as well. In their structure the Vedic
metres thus come half way between the metres of the Indo-Iranian period, in which, as the Avesta shows, the
principle is the number of syllables only, and) those of Classical Sanskrit, in which (except the sloka) the
quantity of every single syllable in the line is fixed. Usually a hymn of the Rigveda consists of stanzas in the
same metre throughout; a typical divergence from this rule is to mark the conclusion of a hymn with a stanza in
a different metre. Some hymns are strophic in their construction. The strophes in them consist either of three
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10. INTERPRETATION.
In dealing with the hymns of the RV. the important question arises, to what extent are we able to understand
their real sense, considering that they have come down to us as an isolated relic from the remotest period of
Indian literature? The reply, stated generally, is that, as a result of the labours of Vedic scholars, the meaning of
a considerable proportion of the RV. is clear, but of the remainder many hymns and a great many single stanzas
or passages are still obscure or unintelligible. This was already the case in the time of Yaska, the author of the
Nirukta, the oldest extant commentary (c. 500 B.C.) on about 600 detached stanzas of the RV.; for he quotes
one of his predecessors, Kautsa, as saying that the Vedic hymns we obscure, unmeaning, and mutually
contradictory.
In the earlier period of Vedic studies, commencing about the, middle of the nineteenth century, the traditional
method, which follows the great commentary of Sayana (fourteenth century A.D.), and is represented by the
translation of the RV., begun by H.H. Wilson in 1850, was considered adequate. It has since been proved that,
though the native Indian commentators are invaluable guides. in explaining the theological and ritual texts of
the Brahmanas and Satras, with the atmosphere of which they were familiar, they did not possess a continuous
tradition from the time when the Vedic hymns were composed. That the gap between the poets and the
interpreters even earlier than Yaska must have been considerable, is shown by the divergences of opinion
among his predecessors as quoted by him. Thus one of these, Aurnavabha, interprets nasatyau, an epithet of the
Asvins, as 'true, not false', another Agrayana, as 'leaders of truth' (satyasya pranetarau), while Yaska himself
thinks it may mean 'nose-born' (nasika-prabhavau)! Yaska, moreover, mentions several different schools of
interpretation, each of which explained difficulties in accordance with its own particular theory. Yaska's own
interpretations, which in all cases of doubt are based on etymology, are evidently often merely conjectural, for
he frequently gives several alternative explanations of a word. Thus he explains the epithet jata-vedas in as
many as five different ways. Yet he must have had more and better means of ascertaining the sense of various
obscure words than Sayana who lived nearly 2,000 years later. Sayana's interpretations, however, sometimes
differ from those of Yaska. Hence either Yaska is wrong or Sayana does not follow the tradition. Again, Sayana
often gives several inconsistent explanations of a word in interpreting the same passage or in commenting on
the same word in different passages. Thus asura, 'divine being', is variously rendered by him as 'expeller of
foes', 'giver of strength', 'giver of life', 'hurler away of what is undesired', 'giver of breath or water', 'thrower of
oblations, priest', 'taker away of breath', 'expeller of water, Parjanya', 'impeller', 'strong', 'wise', and 'rain-water'
or 'a water-discharging cloud'! In short it is clear from a careful examination of their comments that neither
Yaska nor Sayana possessed any certain knowledge about a large number of words in the RV. Hence their
interpretations can be treated as decisive only if they are borne out by probability, by the context, and by
parallel passages.
For the traditional method Roth, the founder of Vedic philology, substituted the critical method of interpreting
the difficult parts of the RV. from internal evidence by the minute comparison of all words parallel in form and
matter, while taking into consideration context, grammar, and etymology, without ignoring either the help
supplied by the historical study of the Vedic language in its connexion with Sanskrit or the outside evidence
derived from the Avesta and from Comparative Philology. In the application of his method Roth attached too
much weight to etymological considerations, while he undervalued the evidence of native tradition. On the
other hand, a reaction arose which, in emphasizing the purely Indian character of the Vedic hymns, connects the
interpretation of them too closely with the literature of the post-Vedic period and the much more advanced
civilization there described. It is important to note that the critical scholar has at his disposal not only all the
material that was open to the traditional interpreters, and to which he is moreover able to apply the comparative
and historical methods of research, but also possesses over and above many valuable aids that were unknown to
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AGNI
As the personification of the sacrificial fire, Agni is second in importance to Indra (ii. 12) only, being addressed
in at least 200 hymns. The anthropomorphism of his physical appearance is only rudimentary, and is connected
chiefly with the sacrificial aspect of fire. Thus he is butter-backed, flame-haired, and has a tawny beard, sharp
jaws, and golden teeth. Mention is often made of his tongue, with which the gods eat the oblation. With a
burning head he faces in all directions.
He is compared with various animals: he resembles a bull that bellows, and has horns which he sharpens; when
born he is often called a calf; he is kindled like a horse that brings the gods, and is yoked to convey the sacrifice
to them. He is also a divine bird; he is the eagle of the sky; as dwelling in the waters he is like a goose; he is
winged, and he takes possession of the wood as a bird perches on a tree.
Wood or ghee is his food, melted butter his beverage; and he is nourished three times a day. He is the mouth by
which the gods eat the sacrifice; and his flames are spoons with which he besprinkles the gods, but he is also
asked to consume the offerings himself. He is sometimes, though then nearly always with other gods, invited to
drink the Soma juice.
His brightness is much dwelt upon: he shines like the sun; his lustre is like the rays of the dawn and the sun, and
like the lightnings of the rain-cloud. He shines even at night, and dispels the darkness with his beams. On the
other hand, his path is black when he invades the forests and shaves the earth as a barber a beard. His flames are
like roaring waves, and his sound is like the thunder of heaven. His red smoke rises up to the firmament; like
the erector of a post he supports the sky with his smoke. 'Smoke-bannered' (dhuma-ketu) is his frequent and
exclusive epithet.
He has a shining, golden, lightning car, drawn by two or more ruddy and tawny steeds. He is a charioteer of the
sacrifice, and with his steeds he brings the gods on his car.
He is the child of Heaven (Dyus), and is often called the son of Heaven and Earth (i. 160). He is also the
offspring of the waters. The gods generated him as a light for the Aryan or for man, and placed him among men.
Indra is called Agni's twin brother, and is more closely associated with him than any other god.
The mythology of Agni, apart from his sacrificial activity, is mainly concerned with his various births, forms,
and abodes. Mention is often made of his daily production from the two kindling sticks (arnis), which are his
parents or his mothers. From the dry wood Agni is born living; as soon as born the child devours his parents. By
the ten maidens that produce him are meant the ten fingers of the kindler. Owing to the force required to kindle
Agni he is often called 'son of strength' (shasah sunh). Being produced every morning he is young; at the
same time no sacrificer is older than Agni, for he conducted the first sacrifice. Again, Agni's origin in the aerial
waters is often referred to: he is an embryo of the waters; he is kindled in the waters; he is a bull that has grown
in the lap of the waters. As the 'son of Waters' (ii. 35) he has become a separate deity. He is also sometimes
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SAVITR
This god is celebrated in eleven entire hymns and in many detached stanzas as well. He is pre-eminently a
golden deity: the epithets golden-eyed, golden-handed, and golden-tongued are peculiar to him. His car and its
pole are golden. It is drawn by two or more brown, white-footed horses. He has mighty golden splendour which
he diffuses, illuminating heaven, earth, and air. He raises aloft his strong golden arms, with which be arouses
and blesses all beings, and which extend to the ends of the earth. He moves in his golden car, seeing all
creatures, on a downward and an upward path. Shining with the rays of the sun, yellow-haired, Savitr raises up
his light continually from the east. His ancient paths in the air are dustless and easy to traverse, and on them he
protects his worshippers; for he conveys the departed spirit to where the righteous dwell. He removes evil
dreams, and makes men sinless; he drives away demons and sorcerers. He observes fixed laws; the waters and
the wind are subject to him. The other gods follow his lead; and no being can resist his will. In one stanza (iii.
62, 10) he is besought to stimulate the thoughts of worshippers who desire to think of the glory of god Savitr.
This is the celebrated Savitri stanza which has been a morning prayer in India for more than three thousand
years. Savitr is often distinguished from Surya (vii. 63), as when he is said to shine with the rays of the Sun, to
impel the sun, or to declare men sinless to the sun. But in other passages it is hardly possible to keep the two
deities apart.
Savitr is connected with the evening as well as the morning; for at his command night comes and he brings all
beings to rest.
The word Savitr is derived from the root su to stimulate, which is constantly and almost exclusively used with it
in such a way as to form a perpetual play on the name of the god. In nearly half its occurrences the name is
accompanied by dev god, when it means the 'Stimulator god'. He was thus originally a solar deity in the
capacity of the great stimulator of life and motion in the world.
MARTAS
This group of deities is prominent in the RV., thirty-three hymns being addressed to them alone, seven to them
with Indra, and one each to them with Agni and Pusan (vi. 54). They form a troop (gan, srdhas), being
mentioned in the plural only. Their number is thrice sixty or thrice seven. They are the sons of Rudra (ii. 33)
and of Prsni, who is a cow (probably representing the mottled storm-cloud). They are further said to have been
generated by Vayu, the god of Wind, in the wombs of heaven and they are called the sons of heaven; but they
are also spoken of as self-born. They are brothers equal in age and of one mind, having the same birthplace and
the same abode. They have grown on earth, in air, and in heaven, or dwell in the three heavens. The goddess
Rodasi is always mentioned in connexion with them; she stands beside them on their car, and thus seems to
have been regarded as their bride.
The brilliance of the Maruts is constantly referred to: they are golden, ruddy, shine like fires, and are selfluminous. They are very often associated with lightning: all the five compounds of vidyt in the RV. are almost
exclusively descriptive of them. Their lances represent lightning, as their epithet rsti-vidyut lightning-speared
shows. They also have golden axes. They are sometimes armed with bows and arrows, but this trait is probably
borrowed from their father Rudra. They wear garlands, golden mantles, golden ornaments, and golden helmets.
Armlets and anklets (khad) are peculiar to them. The cars on which they ride gleam with lightning, and are
drawn by steeds (generally feminine) that are ruddy or tawny, spotted, swift as thought. They are great and
mighty; young and unaging; dustless, fierce, terrible like lions, but also playful like children or calves.
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VISNU
This deity occupies a subordinate position in the RV., being celebrated in only five or six hymns. The only
anthropomorphic traits mentioned about him are the strides he takes, and the description of him as a youth vast
in body who is no longer a child. The central feature of his nature consists in his three steps, connected with
which are his exclusive epithets 'wide-going' (uru-gay) and 'wide-striding' (uru-kram). With these steps he
traverses the earth or the terrestrial spaces. Two of his steps are visible to men, but the third or highest is beyond
the flight of birds or mortal ken. His highest step is like an eye fixed in heaven; it shines brightly down. It is his
dear abode, where pious men and the gods rejoice. There can be no doubt that these three steps refer to the
course of the sun, and in all probability to its passage through the three divisions of the world: earth, air, and
heaven. Visnu sets in motion like a revolving wheel his ninety steeds (= days) with their four names (=
seasons), an allusion to the three hundred and sixty days of the solar year. Thus Visnu seems to. have been
originally a personification of the activity of the sun, the swiftly-moving luminary that with vast strides passes
through the whole universe. Visnu takes his steps for man's existence, to bestow the earth on him as a dwelling.
The most prominent secondary characteristic of Visnu is his friendship for Indra, with whom he is often allied
in the fight with Vrtra. In hymns addressed to Visnu alone, Indra is the only other deity incidentally associated
with him. One hymn (vi. 69) is dedicated to the two gods conjointly. Through the Vrtra myth the Maruts, lndra's
companions, are drawn into alliance with Visnu, who throughout one hymn (v. 87) is praised in combination
with them.
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DYVA-PRTHIV
Heaven and Earth are the most frequently named pair of deities in the RV. They are so closely associated that,
while they are invoked as a pair in six hymns, Dyus is never addressed alone in any hymn, and Prthiv in only
one of three stanzas. The dual compound Dyva-Prthiv, moreover, occurs much oftener than the name of
Dyus alone. Heaven and Earth are also mentioned as rdasi the two worlds more than 100 times. They are
parents, being often called pitra, matra, jnitri, besides being separately addressed as 'father' and 'mother'.
They have made and sustain all creatures; they are also the parents of the gods. At the same time they are in
different passages spoken of as themselves created by individual gods. One of them is a prolific bull, the other a
variegated cow, being both rich in seed. They never grow old. They are great and wide-extended; they are broad
and vast abodes. They grant food and wealth, or bestow great fame and dominion. Sometimes moral qualities
are attributed to them. They are wise and promote righteousness. As father and mother they guard beings, and
protect from disgrace and misfortune. They are sufficiently personified to be called leaders of the sacrifice and
to be conceived as seating themselves around the offering; but they never attained to a living personification or
importance in worship. These two deities are quite co-ordinate, while in most of the other pairs one of the two
greatly predominates.
INDRA
Indra is invoked alone in about one-fourth of the hymns of the RV., far more than are addressed to any other
deity; for he is the favourite national god of the Vedic people. He is more anthropomorphic on the physical side,
and more invested with mythological imagery, than any other member of the pantheon. He is primarily a god of
the thunderstorm who vanquishes the demons of drought or darkness, and sets free the waters or wing the light.
He is secondarily the god of battle who aids the victorious Aryan in overcoming his aboriginal foes.
His physical features, such as body and head, are often referred to after he has drunk Soma he agitates his jaws
and his beard; and his belly is many times mentioned in connexion with his great powers of drinking Soma.
Being tawny (hri) in colour, he is also tawny-haired and tawny-bearded. His arms are especially often referred
to because they wield the thunderbolt (vjra), which, mythologically representing the lightning stroke, is his
exclusive weapon. This bolt was fashioned for him by Tvastr, being made of iron (ayas), golden, tawny, sharp,
many-pointed, sometimes spoken of as a stone or rock. Several epithets, compounds or derivatives of vjra,
such as vjra-bahu bearing the bolt in his arm and vajrn wielder of the bolt are almost without exception
applied to him. Sometimes he is described as armed with bow and arrows; he also carries a hook (ankus).
Having a golden car, drawn by two tawny steeds (hri), he is a car-fighter (rathesth). Both his car and his
steeds were fashioned by the Rbhus, the divine artificers.
As Indra is more addicted to Soma than any of the other gods, the common epithet 'Soma-drinker' (Somap) is
characteristic of him. This beverage stimulates him to carry out his warlike deeds; thus for the slaughter of Vrtra
he is said to have drunk three lakes of Soma. One whole hymn (x. 119) is a monologue in which Indra,
intoxicated with Soma, boasts of his greatness and his might.
Indra is often spoken of as having been born, and two whole hymns deal with the subject of his birth. His father,
the same as Agni's, appears to be Dyaus; but the inference from other passages is that he is Tvastr, the artificer
among the gods. Agni is called Indra's twin brother, and Pusan (vi. 54) is also his brother. His wife, who is often
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RUDR
This god occupies a subordinate position in the RV., being celebrated in only three entire hymns, in part of
another, and in one conjointly with Soma. His hand, his arms, and his limbs are mentioned. He has beautiful lips
and wears braided hair. His colour is brown; his form is dazzling, for he shines like the radiant sun, like gold.
He is arrayed with golden ornaments, and wears a glorious necklace (nisk). He drives in a car. His weapons are
often referred to: he holds the thunderbolt in his arm, and discharges his lightning shaft from the sky; but he is
usually said to be armed with a bow and arrows, which are strong and swift.
Rudra is very often associated with the Maruts (i. 85). He is their father, and is said to have generated them
from the shining udder of the cow Prsni.
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APM NPAT
This deity is celebrated in one entire hymn (ii. 35), is invoked in two stanzas of a hymn to the Waters, and is
often mentioned incidentally elsewhere. Brilliant and youthful, he shines without fuel in the waters which
surround and nourish him. Clothed in lightning, be is golden in form, appearance, and colour. Standing in the
highest place, he always shines with undimmed splendour. Steeds, swift as thought, carry the Son of Waters. In
the last stanza of his hymn he is invoked as Agni and must be identified with him; Agni, moreover, in some
hymns addressed to him, is spoken of as Apam napat. But the two are also distinguished; for example, 'Agni,
accordant with the Son of Waters, confers victory over Vrtra'. The epithet asu-hman swiftly-speeding, applied
three times to Apam napat, in its only other occurrence refers to Agni. Hence Apam napat appears to represent
the lightning form of Agui which lurks in the eloud. For Agni, besides being directly called Apam napat, is also
termed the embryo (grbha) of the waters; and the third form of Agni is described as kindled in the waters.
This deity is not a creation of Indian mythology, but goes back to the Indo-Iranian period. For in the Avesta
Apam napat is a spirit of the waters, who lives in their depths, who is surrounded by females, who is often
invoked with them, who drives with swift steeds, and is said to have seized the brightness in the depth of the
ocean.
MITR
The association of Mitra with Varuna is so intimate that he is addressed alone in one hymn only (iii. 59). Owing
to the scantiness of the information supplied in that hymn his separate character appears somewhat indefirite.
Uttering his voice, he marshals men and watches the tillers with unwinking eye. He is the great Aditya who
marshals, yatayati, the people, and the epithet yatayj-jana arraying men together appears to be peculiarly his.
Savitr (i. 35) is identified with Mitra because of his laws, and Visnu (i. 154) takes his three steps by the laws of
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BRHASPTI
This god is addressed in eleven entire hymns, and in two others conjointly with Indra. He is also, but less
frequently, called Brahmanas pti, 'Lord of prayer', the doublets alternating in the same hymn. His physical
features are few: he is sharp-horned and blue-backed; golden-coloured and ruddy. He is armed with bow and
arrows, and wields a golden hatchet or an iron axe. He has a car, drawn by ruddy steeds, which slays the
goblins, bursts open the cow-stalls, and wins the light. Called the father of the gods, he is also said to have
blown forth their births like a blacksmith. Like Agni, he is both a domestic and a brahman. priest. He is the
generator of all prayers, and without him sacrifice does not succeed. His song goes to heaven, and he is
associated with singers. In several passages he is identified with Agni, from whom, however, he is much oftener
distinguished. He is often invoked with Indra, some of whose epithets, such as maghvan bountiful and vajrin
welder of the bolt he shares. He has thus been drawn into the Indra myth of the release of the cows.
Accompanied by his singing host he rends Vala with a roar, and drives out the cows. In to doing he dispels the
darkness and finds the light. As regards his relation to his worshippers, he is said to help and protect the pious
man, to prolong life, and to remove disease.
Brhaspti is a purely Indian deity. The double accent and the parallel name Brhmanas pti indicate that the first
member is the genitive of a noun brh, from the same root as brhman, and that the name thus means 'Lord of
prayer'.
He seems originally to have represented an aspect of Agni, as a divine priest, presiding over devotion, an aspect
which bad already attained an independent character by the beginning of the Rigvedic period. As the divine
brahman priest he seems to have been the prototype of Brahma, the chief of the later Hindu triad.
USS
The goddess of Dawn is addressed in about twenty hymns. The personification is but slight, the physical
phenomenon always being present to. the mind of the poet. Decked in gay attire like a dancer, clothed in light,
she appears in the east and unveils her charms. Rising resplendent as from a bath she comes with light, driving
away the darkness and removing the black robe of night. She is young, being born again and again, though
ancient. Shining with a uniform hue, she wastes away the life of mortals. She illumines the ends of the sky
when she awakes; she opens the gates of heaven; her radiant beams appear like herds of cattle. She drives away
evil dreams, evil spirits, and the hated darkness. She discloses the treasures concealed by darkness, and
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PARJNYA
This deity occupies quite a subordinate position, being celebrated in only three hymns. His name often means
'rain-cloud' in the literal sense but in most passages it represents the personification, the cloud then becoming an
udder, a pail, or a water-skin. Parjanya is frequently described as a bull that quickens the plants and the earth.
The shedding of rain is his most prominent characteristic. He flies around with a watery car, and loosens the
water-skin; he sheds rain-water as our divine (sara) father. In this activity he is associated with thunder and
lightning. He is in a special degree the producer and nourisher of vegetation. He also produces fertility in cows,
mares, and women. He is several times referred to as a father. By implication his wife is the Earth, and he is
once called the son of Dyaus.
PUSN
This god is celebrated in eight hymns, five of which occur in the sixth Mandala. His individuality is vague, and
his anthropomorphic traits are scanty. His foot and his right band are mentioned; he wears braided hair and a
beard. He carries a golden spear, an awl, and a goad. His car is drawn by goats instead of horses. His
characteristic food is gruel (karambh).
He sees all creatures clearly and at once. He is the wooer of his mother and the lover of his sister (Dawn), and
was given by the gods to the Sun-maiden Surya as a husband. He is connected with the marriage ceremonial in
the wedding hymn (x. 85). With his golden aerial ships Pusan acts as the messenger of Surya. He moves onward
observing the universe, and makes his abode in heaven. He is a guardian who knows and beholds all creatures.
As best of charioteers he drove downward the golden wheel of the sun. He traverses the distant path of heaven
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PAS
The Waters are addressed in four hymns, as well as in a few scattered verses. The personification is only
incipient, hardly extending beyond the notion of their being mothers, young wives, and goddesses -who bestow
boons and come to the sacrifice. They follow the path of the gods. Indra, armed with the bolt, dug out a channel
for them, and they never infringe his ordinances. They are celestial as well as terrestrial, and the sea is their
goal. They abide where the gods dwell, in the seat of Mitra-Varuna, beside the sun. King Varuna moves in their
midst, looking down on the truth and the falsehood of men. They are mothers and as such produce Agni. They
give their auspicious fluid like loving mothers. They are most motherly, the producers of all that is fixed and
that moves. They purify, carrying away defilement. They even cleanse from moral guilt, the sins of violence,
cursing, and lying. They also bestow remedies, health, wealth, strength, long life, and immortality. Their
blessing and aid are often implored, and they are invited to seat themselves on the sacrificial grass to receive the
offering of the Soma priest.
The Waters are several times associated with honey. They mix their milk with honey. Their wave, rich in honey,
became the drink of Indra, Whom it exhilarated and to whom it gave heroic strength. They are invoked to pour
the wave which is rich in honey, gladdens the gods, is the draught of Indra, and is produced in the sky. Here the
celestial Waters seem to be identified with the heavenly Soma, the beverage of Indra. Elsewhere the Waters
used in preparing the terrestrial Soma seem to be meant. When they appear bearing ghee, milk, and honey, they
are accordant with the priests that bring well-pressed Soma for Indra, Soma (viii. 48) delights in them like a
young man in lovely maidens; he approaches them as a lover; they are maidens who bow down before the
youth.
The deification of the Waters is pre-Vedic, for they are invoked as apo in the Avesta also.
MITR-VARUNA
This is the pair most frequently mentioned next to Heaven and Earth. The hymns in which they are conjointly
invoked are much more numerous than those in which they are separately addressed. As Mitra (iii. 59) is
distinguished by hardly any individual traits, the two together have practically the same attributes and functions
as Varuna alone. They are conceived as young. Their eye is the sun. Reaching out they drive with the rays of the
sun as with arms. They wear glistening garments. They mount their car in the highest heaven. Their abode is
golden and is located in heaven; it is great, very lofty, firm, with a thousand columns and a thousand doors.
They have spies that are wise and cannot be deceived. They are kings and universal monarchs. They are also
called Asuras, who wield dominion by means of may occult power, a term mainly connected with them. By
that power they send the dawns, make the sun traverse the sky, and obscure it with cloud and rain. They are
rulers and guardians of the whole world. They support heaven, and earth, and air.
They are lords of rivers, and they are the gods most frequently thought of and prayed to as bestowers of rain.
They have kine yielding refreshment, and streams flowing with honey. They control the rainy skies and the
653
SRYA
Some ten hymns are addressed to Surya. Since the name designates the, orb of the sun as well as the god, Surya
is the most concrete of the solar deities, his connexion with the luminary always being present to the mind of
the seers. The eye of Surya is several times mentioned; but Surya, himself is also often called the eye of Mitra
and Varuna, as well as of Agni and of the gods. He is far-seeing, all-seeing, the spy of the whole world; he
beholds all beings, and the good and bad deeds of mortals. He arouses men to perform their activities. He is the
soul or guardian of all that moves or is stationary. His car is drawn by one steed called etas, or by seven swift
mares called hrit bays.
The Dawn or Dawns reveal or produce Surya; he shines from the lap of the Dawns; but Dawn is also sometimes
Surya's wife. He also bears the metronymic Aditya or Aditeya, son of the goddess Aditi. His father is Dyaus or
Heaven. The gods raised him who had been hidden in the ocean, and they placed him in the sky; various
individual gods, too, are said to have produced Surya or raised him to heaven.
Surya is in various passages conceived as a bird traversing space; he is a ruddy bird that flies; or he is a flying
eagle. He is also called a mottled bull, or a white and brilliant steed brought by Dawn. Occasionally he is,
described as an inanimate object: he is a gem of the sky, or a variegated stone set in the midst of heaven. He is a
brilliant weapon (yudha) which Mitra-Varuna conceal with cloud and rain, or their felly (pav), or a brilliant
car placed by them in heaven. Surya is also sometimes spoken of as, a wheel (cakr), though otherwise the
wheel of Surya is mentioned. Surya shines for all the world, for men and gods. He dispels the darkness, which
he rolls up like a skin, or which his rays throw off like a skin into the waters. He measures the days and prolong
life. He drives away sickness, disease, and evil dreams. All creatures depend on him, and the epithet 'allcreating' (visv-karman) is once applied to him. By his greatness he is the divine priest (asury purhita) of the
gods. At his rising he is besought to declare men sinless to Mitra-Varuna and to other gods.
The name Srya is a derivative of svr light, and cognate with the Avesta hvare sun, which has swift horses and
is the eye of Ahura Mazda
ASVNA.
These two deities are the most prominent gods after Indra, Agni, and Soma, being invoked in more than fifty
entire hymns and in parts of several others. Though their name (asv-in horseman) is purely Indian, and though
they undoubtedly belong to the group of the deities of light, the phenomenon which they represent is uncertain,
because in all probability their origin is to be sought in a very early pre-Vedic age.
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655
VRUNA
Beside Indra (ii. 12) Varuna is the greatest of the gods of the RV., though the number of the hymns in which he
is celebrated alone (apart from Mitra) is small, numbering hardly a dozen.
His face, eye, arms, hands, and feet are mentioned. He moves his arms, walks, drives, sits, eats, and drinks. His
eye with which he observes mankind is the sun. He is far-sighted and thousand-eyed. He treads down wiles with
shining foot. He sits on the strewn grass at the sacrifice. He wears a golden mantle and puts on a shining robe.
His car, which is often mentioned, shines like the sun, and is drawn by well-yoked steeds. Varuna sits in his
mansions looking on all deeds. The Fathers behold him in the highest heaven. The spies of Varuna are
sometimes referred to: they sit down around him; they observe the two worlds; they stimulate prayer. By the
golden-winged messenger of Varuna the sun is meant. Varuna is often called a king, but especially a universal
monarch (samrj) The attribute of sovereignty (ksatr) and the term sura are predominantly applicable to him.
His divine dominion is often alluded to by the word may occult power; the epithet mayn crafty is accordingly
used chiefly of him.
Varuna is mainly lauded as upholder of physical and moral order. He is a great lord of the laws of nature. He
established heaven and earth, and by his law heaven and earth are held apart. He made the golden swing (the
sun) to shine in heaven; he has made a wide path for the sun; he placed fire in the waters, the sun in the sky,
Soma on the rock. The wind which resounds through the air is Varuna's breath. By his ordinances the moon
shining brightly moves at night, and the stars placed up on high are seen at night, but disappear by day. Thus
Varuna is lord of light both by day and by night. He is also a regulator of the waters. He caused the rivers to
flow; by his occult power they pour swiftly into the ocean without filling it. It is, however, with the aerial
waters that he is usually connected. Thus he makes the inverted cask (the cloud) to pour its waters on heaven,
earth, and air, and to moisten the ground.
Varuna's ordinances being constantly said to be fixed, he is pre-eminently called dhrtravrata whose laws are
established. The gods themselves follow his ordinances. His power is; so great that neither the birds as they fly
nor the rivers as they flow can reach the limits of his dominion. He embraces the universe, and the abodes of all
beings. He is all-knowing, and his omniscience is typical. He knows the flight of the birds in the sky, the path of
the ships in the ocean, the course of the far-travelling wind beholding all the secret things that have been or
shall be done, he witnesses men's truth and falsehood. No creature can even wink without his knowledge.
As a moral governor Varuna stands far above any other deity. His wrath is aroused by sin, the infringement of
his ordinances, which he severely punishes. The fetters (psas) with which he binds sinners are often
mentioned, and are characteristic of him. On the other hand, Varuna is gracious to the penitent. He removes sin
as if untying a rope. He releases even from the sin committed by men's fathers. He spares him who daily
transgresses his laws when a suppliant, and is gracious to those who have broken his laws by thoughtlessness.
There is in fact no hymn to Varuna in which the prayer for forgiveness of guilt does not occur. Varuna is on a
footing of friendship with his worshipper, who communes with him in his celestial abode, and sometimes sees
him with the mental eye. The righteous hope to behold in the next world Varuna and Yama, the two kings who
reign in bliss.
The original conception of Varuna seems to have been the encompassing sky. It has, however, become
obscured, because it dates from an earlier age. For it goes back to the Indo-Iranian period at least, since the
Ahura Mazda (the wise spirit) of the Avesta agrees with the Asura Varuna in character, though not in name. It
656
MANDUKAS
The ... hymn [vii. 103], intended as a spell to produce rain, is a panegyric of frogs, who are compared during the
drought to heated kettles, and are described as raising their voices together at the commencement of the rains
like Brahmin pupils repeating the lessons of their teacher.
VSVE DEVH
The comprehensive group called Vsve devh or All-Gods occupies an important position, for at least forty
entire hymns are addressed to them. It is an artificial sacrificial group intended to include all the gods in order
that none should be left out in laudations meant for the whole pantheon. The ... hymn [viii. 29] though
traditionally regarded as meant for the Vsve devh is a collection of riddles, in which each stanza describes a
deity by his characteristic marks, leaving his name to be guessed. The deities meant in the successive stanzas
are: 1. Soma, 2. Agni, 3. Tvastr, 4. Indra, 5. Rudra, 6. Pusan, 7. Visnu, 8. Asvins, 9. Mitra-Varuna, 10.
Angirases.
SMA
As the Soma sacrifice formed the centre of the ritual of the RV., the god Soma is one of the most prominent
deities. With rather more than 120 hymns (all those in Mandala ix, and about half a dozen in others) addressed
to him, becomes next to Agni (i. 1) in importance. The anthropomorphism of his character is less developed
than that of India or Varuna because the plant and its juice are constantly present to the mind of the poet. Soma
has terrible and sharp weapons, which he grasps in his hand; he wields a bow and a thousand-pointed shaft. He
has a car which is heavenly, drawn by a team like Vayu's. He is also said to ride on the same car as Indra. He is
the best of charioteers. In about half a dozen hymns he is associated with Indra, Agni, Pusan, and Rudra
respectively as a dual divinity. He is sometimes attended by the Maruts, the close allies of Indra. He comes to
the sacrifice and receives offerings on the sacred grass.
The Soma juice, which is intoxicating, is frequently termed mdhu or sweet draught, but oftenest called ndu the
bright drop. The colour Of Soma is brown (babhr), ruddy (arun), or more usually tawny (hri). The whole of
the ninth book consists of incantations chanted over the tangible Soma, while the stalks are being pounded by
stones, the juice passes through a woollen strainer, and flows into wooden vats, in which it is offered to the gods
on the litter of sacred grass (barhs). These processes are overlaid with confused and mystical imagery in
endless variation. The pressing stones with which the shoot (ams) is crushed are called dri or grvan. The
pressed juice as it passes through the filter of sheep's wool is usually called pvamana or punan flowing clear.
This purified (unmixed) Soma is sometimes called suddh pure, but much oftener sukr, or sci bright; it is
offered almost exclusively to Vayu or India. The filtered Soma flows into jars (kalsa) or vats (drna), where it
is mixed with water and also with milk, by which it is sweetened. The verb mrj cleanse is used with reference to
this addition of water and milk. Soma is spoken of as having three kinds of admixture (asr): milk (g), sour
milk (ddhi), and barley (yva). The admixture being alluded to as a garment or bright robe, Soma is described
as 'decked with beauty'. Soma is pressed three times a day: the Rbhus are invited to the evening pressing, Indra
to the midday one, which is his exclusively, while the morning libation is his first drink. The three abodes
(sadhstha) of Soma which are mentioned probably refer to three tubs used in the ritual.
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658
FUNERAL HYMNS
The RV. contains a group of five hymns (x. 14-18) concerned with death and the future life. From them we
learn that, though burial was also practised, cremation was the usual method of disposing of the dead, and was
the main source of the mythology relating to the future life. Agni conveys the corpse to the other world, the
Fathers, and the gods. He is besought to preserve the body intact and to burn the goat which is sacrificed as his
portion. During the process of cremation Agni and Soma are besought to heal any injury that bird, beast, ant, or
serpent may have inflicted on the body. The way to the heavenly world is a distant path on which Savitr (i. 35)
conducts and Pusan (vi. 54) protects the dead. Before the pyre is lighted, the wife of the dead man, having lain
beside him, arises, and his bow is taken from his hand. This indicates that in earlier times his widow and his
weapons were burnt with the body of the husband. Passing along by the path trodden by the Fathers, the spirit of
the dead man goes to the realm of light, and meets with the Fathers who revel with Yama in the highest heaven.
Here, uniting with a glorious body, he enters upon a life of bliss which is free from imperfections and bodily
frailties, in which all desires are fulfilled, and which is passed among the gods, especially in the presence of the
two kings Yama and Varuna.
PITRAS
Two hymns (x. 15 and 54) are addressed to the Pitaras or Fathers, the blessed dead who dwell in the third
heaven, the third or highest step of Visnu. The term as a rule applies to the early or first ancestors, who followed
the ancient paths, seers who made the paths by which the recent dead go to join them. Various groups of
ancestors are mentioned, such as the Angirases and Atharvans, the Bhrgus and Vasisthas, who are identical in
name with the priestly families associated by tradition with the composition of the Atharvaveda and of the
second and seventh Mandalas of the Rigveda. The Pitaras are classed as higher, lower, and middle, as earlier
and later, who though not always known to their descendants, are known to Agni. They revel with Yama and
feast with the gods. They are fond of Soma, and thirst for the libations prepared for them on earth, and eat the
offerings along with him. They come on the same car as Indra and the goods. Arriving in their thousands they
range themselves on the sacrificial grass to the south, and drink the pressed draught. They receive oblations as
their food. They are entreated to hear, intercede for, and protect their worshippers, and besought not to injure
their descendants for any sin humanly committed against them. They are invoked to give riches, children, and
long life to their sons, who desire to be in their good graces. The Vasisthas are once collectively implored to
help their descendants. Cosmical actions, like those of the gods, are sometimes attributed to the Fathers. Thus
they are said to have adorned the sky with stars, to have placed darkness in the night and light in the day; they
found the light and generated the dawn. The path trodden by the Fathers (pitryna) is different from that trodden
by the gods (devayna).
659
PRUSA
There are six or seven hymns dealing with the creation of the world as produced from some original material. In
the following one, the well-known Purusa-sukta or hymn of Man, the gods are the agents of creation, while the
material out of which the world is made is the body of a primaeval giant named Purusa. The act of creation is
here treated as a sacrifice in which Purusa is the victim, the parts when cut up becoming portions of the
universe. Both its language and its matter indicate that it is one of the very latest hymns of the Rigveda. It not
only presupposes a knowledge of the three oldest Vedas, to which it refers by name, but also, for the first and
only time in the Rigveda, mentions the four castes. The religious view is moreover different from that of the old
hymns, for it is pantheistic: 'Purusa is all this world, what has been and shall be'. It is, in fact, the starting-point
of the pantheistic philosophy of India.
RTRI
The goddess of night, under the name of Rtri is invoked in only one hymn (x. 127). She is the sister of Usas,
and like her is called a daughter of heaven. She is not conceived as the. dark, but as the bright starlit night.
Decked with all splendour she drives away the darkness. At her approach men, beasts, and birds go to rest. She
protects her worshippers from the wolf and the thief, guiding them to safety. Under the name of nkta n.,
combined with uss, Night appears as a dual divinity with Dawn in the form of Ussa-nkta and Nktossa,
occurring in some twenty scattered stanzas of the Rigveda.
HYMN OF CREATION
In the ... cosmogonic poem [x. 129] the origin of the world is explained the evolution of the existent (st) from
the non-existent (sat). Water thus came into being first; from it was evolved intelligence by heat. It is the
starting-point of the natural philosophy which developed into the Sankhya system.
YAM
Three hymns are addressed to Yama, the chief of the blessed dead. There is also another (x. 10), which consists
of a dialogue between him and his sister Yami. He is associated with Varuna, Brhaspati, and especially Agni,
the conductor of the dead, who is called his friend and his priest. He is not expressly designated a god, but only
a being who rules the dead. He is associated with the departed Fathers, especially the Angirases, with whom he
comes to the sacrifice to drink Soma.
Yama dwells in the remote recess of the sky. In his abode, which is the home of the gods, he is surrounded by
songs and the sound of the flute. Soma is pressed for Yama, ghee is offered to him, and he comes to seat
himself at the sacrifice. He is invoked to lead his worshippers to the gods, and to prolong life.
His father is Vivasvant and his mother Saranyu. In her dialogue with him Yami speaks of Yama as the 'only
mortal', and elsewhere he is said to have chosen death and abandoned his body. He departed to the other world,
having found out the path for many, to where the ancient Fathers passed away. Death is the path of Yama. His
foot-fetter (pdbisa) is spoken of as parallel to the bond of Varuna. The owl (luka) and the pigeon (kapta) are
mentioned as his messengers, but the two four-eyed, broad-nosed, brindled dogs, sons of Sarama (sarameyu)
are his regular emissaries. They guard the path along which the dead man hastens to join the Fathers who
660
VTA
This god, as Vta, the ordinary name of wind, is addressed in two short hymns. He is invoked in a more
concrete way than his doublet Vay, who is celebrated in one whole hymn and in parts of others. Vata's name is
frequently connected with forms of the root va, blow, from which it is derived. He is once associated with the
god of the rain-storm in the dual form of Vata-Parjany, while Vayu is often similarly linked with Indra as
ndra-Vay. Vata is the breath of the gods. Like Rudra he wafts healing and prolongs life; for he has the
treasure of immortality in his house. His activity is chiefly mentioned in connexion with the thunderstorm. He
produces ruddy lights and makes the dawns to shine. His swiftness often supplies a comparison for the speed of
the gods or of mythical steeds. His noise is also often mentioned.
The earliest accepted Gods were
Dyaush-pita (the sky father),
Prithivi mata ( the earth mother),
Vayu (the wind God),
Parjanya (the rain God),
Surya (the sun God),
Varuna (the God of oceans),
Agni (the fire God),
Indra (the war God),
Soma (the God of speech, deity of soma creeper),
Ushas (the Goddess of dawn),
Yama (the God of death),
Adityas (a group of deities, who are six in number in the Rig Veda, eight in most of the Brahmanas & twelve in
the Satapatha Brahmana,
Aswini (twin Deities),
Rudras (eight in number),
Vasus (eight in number),
Visvedevas ( ten in number).
Lord Vishnu, the second Trinity finds a secondary place in the Rig Veda.
661
is the chief deity of the Rigveda, and the god of weather and war, and Lord of Svargaloka (Heaven) .He rides a white
elephant called Airavata and wields the dazzling weapon of lightening called Vajrayudh.
Prone to drinking soma,
loses control over himself, prone to anger, mighty and
sensuous, and always concerned about his survival and status as the leader.
Agni 218
Soma 123 (most of them in the Soma Mandala) Haoma (in Avestan), from ProtoIndo-Iranian *sauma-, was a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians,
and the later Vedic and greater Persian cultures. It is frequently mentioned in the
Rigveda, which contains many hymns praising its energizing or intoxicating qualities.
In the Avesta, Haoma has an entire Yasht dedicated to it.
It is described as prepared by pressing juice from the stalks of a certain mountain
plant, which has been variously hypothesized to be a psychedelic mushroom,
cannabis, peganum harmala, or ephedra. In both Vedic and Zoroastrian tradition, the
drink is identified with the plant, and also personified as a divinity, the three forming a
religious or mythological unity. Soma represents the god of the Moon. He rides
through the sky in a chariot drawn by white horses. Soma was also the name of the elixir of immortality that only
the gods can drink.
The Moon was thought to be the storehouse of the elixir.
662
the Asvins 56 are divine twin horsemen in the Rigveda, sons of Saranya, a goddess of the dawn and wife of
either Surya or Vivasvat. They are Vedic gods symbolising the shining of sunrise and
sunset, appearing in the sky before the dawn in a golden chariot, bringing treasures to
men and averting misfortune and sickness. They can be compared with the Dioscuri
(the twins Castor and Pollux) of Greco-Roman mythology. The Twins or Twains who
are the equivalent of the Geminis, the Dioskouris.
They are the doctors of gods and are devas of Ayurvedic medicine. They are called
Nasatya (dual nsatyau "kind, helpful" in the Rigveda; later, Nasatya is the name of
one twin, while the other is called Dasra. By popular etymology, the name nsatya was
analysed as na+asatya "not untrue"="true".
Varuna 46
the Maruts 38
storm deities and sons of Rudra and Diti and attendants of Indra.
Maruts varies from two to sixty (three times sixty in RV 8.96.8. They
and aggressive, described as armed with golden weapons i.e.
thunderbolts, as having iron teeth and roaring like lions, as residing
riding in golden chariots drawn by ruddy horses.
Mitra is a Vedic god who stood for the sun, and was, with his brother Varuna, the
guardian of the cosmic order. He was the god of friendships and contracts,. Hewas
an important divinity of Indic culture, descended, together with the Zoroastrian
yazata Mithra, from a common Proto-Indo-Iranian deity *Mitra, a god of . guardian
of oaths and agreements. Mithra may also have been worshipped by the Mani.
663
The number of
are very violent
lightnings and
in the north, as
Ushas 21 "dawn",
Rbhus 11 meaning "clever, skilful", cognate to Latin labor, said of Indra, Agni and the Adityas in the Rigveda) are
three semi-divine beings of the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda, Rbhu, Vaja and Vibhvan, called collectively by the
name of their leader.
They are supposed to dwell in the solar sphere, and are the artists who formed the horses of Indra, the carriage of
the Ashvins, and the miraculous cow of Brihaspati; they made their parents young, and performed other wonderful
works; they are supposed to take their ease and remain idle for twelve days (the twelve intercalary days of the
winter solstice) every year in the house of the Sun (Agohya), after which they recommence working. When the
gods heard of their skill, they sent Agni to them with the one cup of their rival Tvashtar, the artificer of the gods,
bidding the Rbhus construct four cups from it; when they had successfully executed this task, the gods received
the Rbhus amongst themselves and allowed them to partake of their sacrifices.
They appear generally as accompanying Indra, especially at the evening sacrifice; in later mythology, Rbhu is a
son of Brahman.
Pushan 10
God of meeting. Puchan was responsible for marriages, journeys, roads, and the feeding of cattle. He was a
psychopomp, conducting souls to the other world. He protected travelers from bandits and wild beasts, and
protected men from being exploited by other men. He was a supportive guide, a "good" god, leading his
adherents towards rich pastures and wealth. He carried a golden lance, a symbol of activity.
Apris 9
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Brhaspati 8
Danavas.
Dyaus and Prithivi (Heaven and Earth) 6, plus 5.84 dedicated to Earth alone
Dyaus Pita is the Sky Father, husband of Prithvi and father of Agni and Indra
(RV 4.17.4).
His origins can be traced to the Proto-Indo-European sky god *Dyeus, who is also reflected as Greek
Zeus(accusative Da, genitive Dos; theos pater), Jupiter (from Latin Iovius pater, "father-god"; deus pater) in
Roman mythology, Div in Slavic mythology and Tyr in Norse mythology in Albanian (Zoti).
Sharing a fate similar to nordic Tyr's, already in the Rig Veda, Dyaus Pita is all but featureless, appearing in
hymns 1.89, 1.90, 1.164, 1.191 and 4.1 in simple invocations.
Apas (Waters) 6
Ap (p-) is the Vedic Sanskrit term for "water", in Classical Sanskrit occurring only in the plural, pas (sometimes reanalysed as a thematic singular, pa-), whence Hindi p. The term is from PIE *hap- "water" The Indo-Iranian word
survives also, as the Farsi word for water, Aab, e.g. in Punjab (from pacpas "five waters"). In archaic ablauting
contractions, the laryngeal of the PIE root remains visible in Vedic Sanskrit, e.g. pratpa- "against the current", from
*proti-hp-o-. The word has many cognates in archaic European toponyms (e.g. Mess-apia, perhaps also Avon).
Adityas 6 'dityas' are a group of solar deities, sons of Aditi and Kashyapa.
665
Vishnu 6 Viu involves the root vi, meaning "to settle, to enter", or also (in the Rigveda) "to pervade", and a
suffix nu, translating to approximately "the All-Pervading One".
Brahmanaspati 6
Rudra 5- Rudra ("Howler") is a Rigvedic god of the storm, the hunt, death, Nature and the Wind
Dadhikras 4
the Sarasvati River / Sarasvati 3
Yama
is a Lokapla and an Aditya. Yama, "Lord of Death" and "King of the Law of decay" Yaama
means evening. He is depicted with green or red skin, red clothes, and riding a water
buffalo. He holds a loop of rope in his left hand with which he pulls the soul from the corpse.
He is the son of Surya (Sun) and twin brother of Yami, or Yamuna, traditionally the first
human pair in the Vedas
Parjanya (Rain) 3 is the Vedic Sanskrit for "rain" or "raincloud". Personified, it is the deity of rain, often identified
with Indra, the "Bull" of the Rigveda, but also associated with Varuna as a deity of clouds and as punishing
sinners. Two hymns of the the Rigveda, 5.63 and 7.101, are dedicated to Parjanya.
Manyu 2 Manyu is also known as mainyu in the Zorastrian religion. In ancient Persian mythology, Spenta
Mainyu ("holy spirit") is the god of life and the personification of the good and the light. He is the twin brother of Angra
Mainyu (Ahriman), the god of darkness, with whom he fights an eternal battle.
Kapinjala (the Heathcock, a form of Indra) 2
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It also contains fragmentary references to possible historical events, notably the struggle between the early Vedic people
(known as Vedic Aryans, a subgroup of the Indo-Aryans) and their enemies, the Dasa.
Mandala 1 comprises 191 hymns. Hymn 1.1 is addressed to Agni, and his name is the first word of the Rigveda.
The remaining hymns are mainly addressed to Agni and Indra. Hymns 1.154 to 1.156 are addressed to Vishnu.
Mandala 2 comprises 43 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. It is chiefly attributed to the Rishi gtsamda
aunohotra.
Mandala 3 comprises 62 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. The verse 3.62.10 has great importance in Hinduism
as the Gayatri Mantra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vivmitra gthina.
Mandala 4 consists of 58 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to vmadeva
gautama.
667
Mandala 5 comprises 87 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, the twin-deity MitraVaruna and the Asvins. Two hymns each are dedicated to Ushas (the dawn) and to Savitar. Most hymns in this
book are attributed to the atri family.
Mandala 6 comprises 75 hymns, mainly to Agni and Indra. Most hymns in this book are attributed to the
brhaspatya family of Angirasas.
Mandala 7 comprises 104 hymns, to Agni, Indra, the Visvadevas, the Maruts, Mitra-Varuna, the Asvins, Ushas,
Indra-Varuna, Varuna, Vayu (the wind), two each to Sarasvati and Vishnu, and to others. Most hymns in this book
are attributed to vasiha maitravauri.
Mandala 8 comprises 103 hymns to different gods. Hymns 8.49 to 8.59 are the apocryphal valakhlya. Most
hymns in this book are attributed to the kva family.
Mandala 9 comprises 114 hymns, entirely devoted to Soma Pavamana, the plant of the sacred potion of the Vedic
religion.
Mandala 10 comprises 191 hymns, to Agni and other gods. It contains the Nadistuti sukta which is in praise of
rivers and is important for the reconstruction of the geography of the Vedic civilization and the Purusha sukta
which has significance in Hindu tradition. It also contains the Nasadiya sukta (10.129), probably the most
celebrated hymns in the west, which deals with creation.
Rishis
Each hymn of the Rigveda is traditionally attributed to a specific rishi, and the "family books" (2-7) are said to have been
composed by one family of rishis each. The main families, listed by the number of verses ascribed to them are:
Translations
The Rigveda was translated into English by Ralph T.H. Griffith in 1896. Partial English translations by Maurice Bloomfield
and William Dwight Whitney exist. Griffith's translation is good, considering its age, but it is no replacement for Geldner's
1951 translation (in German), the only independent scholarly translation so far. The later translations by Elizarenkova
depends heavily on Geldner, but Elizarenkova's translation (in Russian) is valuable in taking into account scholarly
literature up to 1990.
Hindu tradition
According to Indian tradition, the Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vysa, who formed the
Rigveda Samhita as we know it. According to the atapatha Brhmana, the number of syllables in the Rigveda is
432,000, equalling the number of muhurtas (1 day = 30 muhurtas) in forty years. This statement stresses the underlying
philosophy of the Vedic books that there is a connection (bandhu) between the astronomical, the physiological, and the
spiritual.
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have been preserved up to present times are those by Mdhava, Ska dasvmin and Ve katamdhava.
Dating and historical reconstruction
Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of the Swat and Cemetary H cultures are also indicated.
The Rigveda is far more archaic than any other Indo-Aryan text. For this reason, it was in the center of attention of
western scholarship from the times of Max Mller. The Rigveda records an early stage of Vedic religion, still closely tied to
the pre-Zoroastrian Persian religion. It is thought that Zoroastrianism and Vedic Hinduism evolved from an earlier common
religious Indo-Iranian culture.
The Rigveda's core is accepted to date to the late Bronze Age, making it the only example of Bronze Age literature with
an unbroken tradition. Its composition is usually dated to roughly between 17001100 BC[3]. The text in the following
centuries underwent pronunciation revisions and standardization (samhitapatha, padapatha). This redaction would have
been completed in about the 7th century BC[4]. Writing appears in India in ca. the 5th century BC in the form of the Brahmi
script, but texts of the length of the Rigveda were likely not written down before the Early Middle Ages, in the Gupta or
Siddham scripts, and while written manuscripts were used for teaching in medieval times, they played a minor role in the
preservation of knowledge because of their ephemereal nature (Indian manuscripts were on bark or palm leaves and
decomposed rapidly in the tropical climate) until the advent of the printing press in British India. The hymns were thus
preserved by oral tradition for up to a millennium from the time of their composition until the redaction of the Rigveda, and
the entire Rigveda was preserved in shakhas for another 2,500 years from the time of its redaction until the editio princeps
by Mller, a collective feat of memorization unparalleled in any other known society.
Puranic literature names Vidagdha as the author of the Pada-text.[5] Other scholars argue that Sthavira Sak of the
Aitareya Aranyaka is the padakara of the RV.[6] After their composition, the texts were preserved and codified by a vast
body of Vedic priesthood as the central philosophy of the Iron Age Vedic civilization.
The Rigveda describes a mobile, nomadic culture, with horse-drawn chariots and metal (bronze) weapons. According to
some scholars the geography described is consistent with that of the Punjab (Gandhara): Rivers flow north to south, the
mountains are relatively remote but still reachable (Soma is a plant found in the mountains, and it has to be purchased,
imported by merchants). Nevertheless, the hymns were certainly composed over a long period, with the oldest elements
possibly reaching back into Indo-Iranian times, or the early 2nd millennium BC. Thus there is some debate over whether
the boasts of the destruction of stone forts by the Vedic Aryans and particularly by Indra refer to cities of the Indus Valley
civilization or whether they hark back to clashes between the early Indo-Aryans with the BMAC (Bactria-Margiana
Archaeological Complex) culture centuries earlier, in what is now northern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan
(separated from the upper Indus by the Hindu Kush mountain range, and some 400 km distant). In any case, while it is
highly likely that the bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab, even if based on earlier poetic traditions, there is
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Wind; He is the Lord of all the Life-energies, Pra which represent the passions, feelings, emotions and
Ashvins:
The Lords of Bliss and Divine Physicians who render the human body free of disease so that it can accept the
divine Pra, the life-energy.
Mitra:
Varua:
The Master of Infinities who cannot tolerate restrictive thinking or actions. Only he can cut the three bonds
which restrict the three aspects of every human being - physical, vital and mental.
Sarasvati: The Goddess of inspiration
Ia:
Sarama:
Srya:
ashva:
Horse; stands for the vital energy which the devs can bestow.
adri:
pah:
Water; the divine energies flowing from the heights purifying all mankind.
nadi:
Rigveda is the oldest Veda. It comprises of 10 Mandals, 102 Suktas and containing 10,552 mantras. These mantras
are filed with good thoughts and they have the ability to inspire us greatly. The ultimate aim of all these mantras is to
purify the human mind through knowledge. Darkness is symbol of lack of knowledge or illusionary living, which makes us
devoid of justness and sagacity.
The Rigveda is divided into 2 parts(i) Mandal, Anuvak and Sukta
(ii) Ashtak, Adhgaya and Sukta
According to the first division, the Rigveda consist of 10 Mandalas. There are Suktas that comprise the Mandalas. In
every Sukta there are mantras or Richas. The quantity of Suktas is 1017 and the other additional Suktas account to 11. In
this way, the total number is unequal. There seem to be maximum Suktas in the 1st and 10th Mandala and there are very
few Suktas in the 2nd Mandala.
Mandala
Sukta
Number of Mantras
1
2
191
43
2006
429
671
62
58
617s
589
5
6
7
87
75
104
727
765
841
8
9
103
114
1716
1108
10
10
191
1028
1754
10,552
The Brahmanas stand second to the Vedas. The ultimate aim of these books is procedures of performing Yagya and
rituals. The Brahmanas are divided into 3 parts.
(i) Brahmana,
(ii) Aranyaka,
(iii) Upanishad
There are 2 Rigveda Brahmin texts i.e. Kausheetki and Aitereya. These Brahmana speak about the Soma and
Rajasuya Yagya.
The Aitereya and Kausheetki are the 2 Aranyakas of the Rigveda.
There are 5 texts of the Aitereya and each of these is known as Aranyaka. The 2nd and 3rd are independent
Upanishads. In the 2nd half of the last 4 paragraphs are counted as Vedanta texts that is why they are referred to Aitereya
Upanishads. There are 3 parts of the Kausheetki Aranyaka. The 2 parts of this Aranyaka are filled with rituals. The 3rd
part is referred to as Kausheetki Upanishad.
The Rig Veda contains many levels of myths, which can hence be interpreted in many ways - even the esoteric nature of
the hymns, for example, can have two, three or four or more actual meanings to them. Many are the levels of
understanding!
Generally, however, there are levels of interpretation under Four categories:1. Purana, Historic, which refers to the literal meaning of the texts, and also refers to some stories that are later
reproduced in the popular Puranas of latter times we have today.
2. Scientific - this has a three fold interpretation as Astrology, Astronomy and Ayurveda (Medicine), which also includes
mathematics, art and architecture etc.
3. Yogic or Vedantic, being Philosophical, or even pertaining to various practices in Yoga. This also includes mantra and
mantra-yoga, bhakti-yoga and other such interpretations, depending on the interpreter of the text, and their philosophical
bent.
4.Adhyatmic or esoteric, inner renderings, which refer to visions, inner yogic visions of the chakras, lokas, experiences of
bliss, visions of deities etc.
Hence, one verses itself, may have up to, say, 7-8 different renderings on various levels! The Vedic symbolism is
generally Threefold, Fivefold, Sevenfold, Thousand fold (meaning numerous). The text themselves can be classed as
basically Twofold, under which various headings come (noted above), as (a) Devic or Scientific and (b) Adhidaivic or
Spiritual.
In the earliest phase of Indo-European studies, Sanskrit was assumed to be very close to (if not identical with)
the Proto-Indo-European language. Its geographical location also fitted the then-dominant Biblical model of
human migration, according to which Europeans were descended from the tribe of Japhet, which was supposed
to have expanded from Mount Ararat after the Flood. Iran and northern India seemed to be likely early areas of
settlement for the Japhetites.
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Iranian Avesta
The language of the Gathas (the oldest part of the Avesta) is very similar to the language of the Rigveda, and
differ only in certain well defined phonetic changes. Beyond language, the Vedic universe is surprisingly
reflected in the Avestan universe. Both have a common divinity (Mitra:Mithra), and the roles of gods and
demons are reversed (deva:daeva), (asura:ahura). The sacrificing priest is called (hotr:zaotr) and in both
traditions, (soma:haoma) play an important role. This indicates a common origin of the Avestan and the Vedic.
The point of departure is the supreme position of Ahura Mazda, the uncreated god in the Avesta, in opposition
to the many gods in the Vedas.
Therefore the date of the Avesta could also indicate the date of the Rigveda. However, the date of the Gathas is
uncertain. The ancient Greeks dated Zarathustra (and thus the Gathas) to 6000 BCE or to the 6th century BCE.
Some scholars claim that the Gathas date to before 1100 BCE and could also be much older.[12]
The Avesta however, unlike the Rigveda, does speak of an Airyanem Vaejah, an external homeland of the
Avestan Aryas and of Zarathustra, generally considered to be somewhere between the Caucaus and South Asia.
The term Vaejah can be derived from the Vedic "vij" and would thus suggest the region of a fast-flowing river
(see Bryant 2001: 327). The location of Airyanem Vaejah is disputed. Some of the places that have been
suggested are the Hindukush and Afghanistan. The Avesta does also not seem to know the region north of the
Sir Darya (Jaxartes) or the western Iranian region. The lower Oxus region, south of the Aral Sea, seems to be an
outlying region for the Avestan people
Aryan Invasion and Fall of the Indus Empire
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Ash layers indicate widespread burning down of Indus cities by the Aryans.
Fractured skulls and mutilated skeletons display axe and sword marks due to widespread massacre of
the Indus inhabitants by Aryan invaders.
Caste System of Apartheid similar to US South arose when white Caucasoid Aryans crushed the
Semitic (`Pani' or Phoenician) & black Dravidian inhabitants. Shivaism is still the Dravidian religion
(Tamil"civa", red, angry), while Vaishnavism is the Indo-Aryan religion.
Discontinuity marks the Aryan invasion in all respects. Pottery, architecture, Aryan weapons (incl. the
horse & chariot) & Aryan settlements occur towards the end of the civilization atop the destroyed cities
with primitive fire altars and the new painted grey ware (PGW)
Flooding is indicated by the silt deposits and was caused by the deliberate destruction of the indus dam
and irrigation system by the Aryans.
Northern Dravidians (eg. the Brahui, Bhil and Gonds occupy isolated tracts of North and Central India
showing that the Dravidians were once spread over all of India.
Sanskrit Literature clearly records the Aryan invasion. Indra, chief of the Aryan gods, is repeatedly
referred to as "destroyer of cities" and exterminator of dasyus. In Tamil literature 1500 BC is the date of
the mythical destruction of Tamil civilisation; this coincides with the Aryan invasion. In addition
Sanskrit contains many loanwords of Dravidian origin. Shiva is one example (Tamil"civa"). Some
sounds are also of Dravidian
Astronomical Science used by the Vedic ritualists was taken from the Semito-Dravidian Indus valley
people as these were compiled during the Indus Valley and are not referred to in the Avesta or Rig Veda.
The conventional dates for the RV in modern scholarship place the RV between 1700 BC and 1000 BC. An
example of how these dates are constructed can be found on the Indology list. Some of the argument is
reproduced here.
How old is the Rig Veda? (Part I) By- Arun Gupta gives this summary
The model in which these dates are constructed is one in which the Aryans, speakers of Vedic Sanskrit or a
precursor language, entered India sometime after 1700 BC, that is, after the end of the urban period of the
Harappan culture. The Aryans entered India as invaders or as peaceful migrants. The Aryans brought along the
horse and the horse-drawn chariot, which gave them a military advantage over the original inhabitants, if they
were invaders; and items of high prestige if they were migrants. Either way the Aryans became the elite, and
were able to impose their language and religion on the people. They may have invented the castes to perpetuate
their hegemony. It was these people who composed the RV. The Mandalas of the RV can be arranged in an
order (believed to be chronological ) with a shift in the names of rivers and places from the older Mandalas to
the newer ones showing a movement of the Aryans from Afghanistan and Northwest India into Punjab and
ultimately into the Gangetic plains.
The culture which we glimpse in the RV does not know of iron, and so the RV can be no later than the
beginning of widespread use of iron in India (around 1000 BC to 900 BC). The RV can be no older than the
first Aryan-style chariots, first recorded around the Ural mountains on the Asia-Europe border around 2000 BC.
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5. Mind
7. Matter
Now this system which in the Purana is simple enough, is a good deal more intricate in the Veda. There
the three highest worlds are classed together as the triple divine Principle, -- for they dwell always
together in a Trinity; infinity is their scope, bliss is their foundation. They are supported by the vast
regions of the Truth whence a divine Light radiates out towards our mentality in the three heavenly
luminous worlds of Swar, the domain of Indra. Below is ranked the triple system in which we live.
We have the same cosmic gradations as in the Puranas but they are differently grouped, -- seven worlds
in principle, five in practice, three in their general groupings:
Pure Mind
Life-force
Matter
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The traditional virtues accorded highest value in the four epochs are
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
In the highest yuga, the great majority of the people can experience spirituality by direct intuitive
realization of truth. The veil between the material and the transcendent realms becomes almost transparent.
According to Natya Shastra, there is no Natya performances in the Krita Yuga because it is a period free
from any kind of unhappiness or misery. Satya Yuga is also called the Golden Age.
2.
Treta Yuga is the mental age, mental power is harnessed, men are in power, and inventions dissolve the
illusion of time. (Inventions are characteristic of both Dvapara and Treta yugas.)
3.
In Dwapara Yuga, science flourishes, people experience the spiritual in terms of subtle energies and
rational choices, inventions are abundant, particularly those that dissolve the illusion of distance (between
people and between things), and power is mostly in the hands of women. The end of this age is associated
with the death of Krishna, and the events described in the Mahabharata.
4.
In the lowest phase, Kali Yuga, most people are aware only of the physical aspect of existence, the
predominant emphasis of living is material survival, and power is mostly in the hands of men. People's
relationship with the spiritual is governed predominantly by superstition and by authority.
Temples, wars, and writing are hallmarks of Dvapara and Kali yugas. In the higher ages (Treta and Satya),
writing is unnecessary because people communicate directly by thought; temples are unnecessary because
people feel the omnipresence of God; wars are rare but they do occur; one such war is described in the
Ramayana.
The traditional timescale of the yugas is as follows:
1. Satya Yuga or Krita Yuga - 1,728,000 years
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Kali Yuga = 8640 years (one third of the precession or 4 astrological ages)
Dwapar Yuga (Two Kali Yuga) = 17,280 years (two thirds of the precession or 8 astrological ages)
Treta Yuga (Three Kali Yuga) = 25,920 years (one precession of the equinoxes)
Satya Yuga (Four Kali Yuga) = 34,560 years (one and a third of the precession of the equinoxes)
Norelli-Bachelet's teachings on the yuga, presented in her book "The Gnostic Circle" in 1972 are not widely
accepted by Modern Vedic scholars or astrologers.
The 24,000 Year Yuga Calendar - The Four Ages (Yugas)
The Calendar below reflects the Four Ages (Four Yugas) of spiritual development which man passes through. Today, in
the year 2004 AD we are currently in the upward or Rising Bronze Age and "moving" back towards God Awareness. For
example, by a quick study of the last 300 years of history, you will see the great advancements in knowledge and that of
human rights which man has been able to achieve. (Below the Calendar is an explanation of each Age).
`
11,500 BC is when the current 24,000 Year Cycle started and 12,500 AD is when it will end.
The 24,000 Year Calendar reflects how Human Consciousness "Falls and Rises" in 12,000 Year intervals. Since man was
created perfect, the first 12,000 Year Cycle started by Falling or Descending from God attunement. The interpretation of
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