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Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Aerial Laser Scanning

Claus Brenner with contributions from George Vosselman and George Sithole

Institute of Cartography and Geoinformatics University of Hannover, Appelstr. 9a, 30167 Hannover, Germany claus.brenner@ikg.uni-hannover.de www.ikg.uni-hannover.de

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Contents
Airborne laser scanning principles Errors and strip adjustment Filtering of ALS data Extraction and modelling

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Airborne laser scanning principles

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Basic components of an ALS system

DGPS Control & data recording INS

Laser Ranging unit Deflection unit

Ground
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Laser

Laser

Semiconductor lasers or Nd:YAG lasers pumped by semiconductor lasers Mostly Nd:YAG = neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet, Nd:Y3Al5O12 Emits at = 1064 nm (near infrared) Bathymetric scanners often use = 532 nm (green) obtained by frequency doubling Others: e.g. 810 nm (ScaLARS), 900 nm (FLI-MAP), 1540 nm (TopoSys) Properties exploited: high collimation, high optical power

Pulsed (time of flight ranging) or continuous wave (CW, sidetone ranging)

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Pulsed laser operation


Signal amplitude

Laser

tp

t trise

Typical characteristics:
Pulse width tp = 10 ns ( 3 m @ speed of light) Pulse rise time trise = 1 ns ( 30 cm @ speed of light) Peak power Ppeak = 2,000 W Energy per pulse E = Ppeak tp = 20 J Average power (@ pulse repetition rate F = 10 kHz) Pav = E F = 0.2 W

3m

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Ground

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Continuous laser operation


Modulation signal

Laser

Signal amplitude

Ground
Modulation signal

Characteristics (ScaLARS):
Signal amplitude

Two modulation frequencies fhigh = 10 MHz, flow = 1 MHz short = 30 m, long = 300 m Average power (continuous operation) Pav = 0.26 W
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Ambiguities (pulse)

Laser

Travelling time: h=R

ttravel =
Ground

2R c

Example: h = R = 1000 m ttravel = 6.7 s tp = 10 ns can be neglected Maximum pulse frequency (assuming no transmit / receive overlap):

AT

next pulse t ttravel tp t

AR

f max = 1 / ttravel =

c 2R

Example: h = R = 1000 m fmax = 150 kHz

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Ambiguities (CW)

Laser

Maximum unambiguous range determined by long : Ground

Rmax =
Example:

long
2

AT

long = 300 m Rmax = 150 m

t
AR

Range gating: Known height, possible range differences < 150 m Range tracking: If no steps > 150 m are present

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Scanning mechanisms & ground patterns


Oscillating mirror Rotating polygon Nutating mirror (Palmer scan) Fiber switch

Deflection unit

Laser

(same for receiving optics)

Z-shaped, sinusodial

Parallel lines

Elliptical

Parallel lines

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Polygon mirror example


25 cm @ 0.5 mrad beam divergence

Deflection unit

/2=20 h=500 m 0.08 70 cm 364 m


500 pulses / line

1 cos 2 i

Swath width

0.08 79 cm Repetition rate 50 kHz, average pulse rate 25 kHz

2h tan = 0.7 h = 364m 2

50 lines / s 83 cm v = 150 km/h

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Fiber switch details (TopoSys Falcon)


Laser

Deflection unit

To ground and back

Receiver
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Fiber scanner example


Fiber 128 ...

Deflection unit

/2=7 h=500 m 0.25h / 127 = 0.002 h 1m

Fiber 3 spot diameter 25 cm Fiber 2

Swath width

Fiber 1 630 lines/s 11 cm v = 252 km/h

2h tan = 0.25h = 123m 2

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Palmer scan
7 deg. nutating mirror 30 deg. nutating mirror (hypothetical)

Deflection unit

Scan pattern with forward motion of aircraft (7 deg. nutating mirror)

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Beam divergence
Laser beam widens with distance Beam divergence D, aperture diameter Theoretical limit by diffraction

2.44

Example: = 1064 nm, D = 10 cm 0.026 mrad

Typical values for ALS: = 0.3 2 mrad Ground spot diameter

DI

DI, diameter of illuminated area Ground


(not to scale)

= D + 2h tan( 2) 2h tan( 2) h

Example: = 1 mrad 1 m diameter @ h = 1 km flying height

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Power balance

Ar

4 - Power received:

Ar Pr = M M PT 2 R 2
1 - Power transmitted:

M 2 Ar = PT 2 R 2

PT
3 - Power reflected, assuming Lambertian surface:

PT = 2000 W Atmospheric transmission M = 0.8 Ar = 80 cm2 (Dr = 10 cm) R = 1 km Reflectivity = 0.5 Pr = 4 10-10 PT = 800 nW

M PT 2

2 - Power received: Ground

M PT

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Reflectivity
Reflectivity vs. material
MATERIAL Dimension lumber (pine, clean, dry) Snow White masonry Limestone, clay Deciduous trees Coniferous trees Carbonate sand (dry) Carbonate sand (wet) Beach sands, bare areas in desert Rough wood pallet (clean) Concrete, smooth Asphalt with pebbles Lava Black rubber tire wall REFLECTIVITY @ = 900 nm 94% 80-90% 85% up to 75% typ. 60% typ. 30% 57% 41% typ. 50% 25% 24% 17% 8% 2%
Source: www.riegl.co.at

Range vs. reflectivity

M 2 Ar Pr = PT 2 2 R
120

Range factor [%] *

100 80 60 40 20

20

40

60

80

100

Target reflectivity [%]

* Normalized to 100% @ 80% reflectivity

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Interaction with target

AT

t
AR

first pulse

last pulse

5m t tp Pulse width 10 ns 3 m @ speed of light h = 1.5 m pulses separable


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Interaction with target


AT

t
AR,1

t1

Detection accuracy 10-15% t of rise time 2-5 cm


AR,2

t2

7 ns Measured range will be an intermediate value (mixed echo)

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Interaction with target


... t

AR

t Large area, small reflectivity Small area, large reflectivity (same for sloped terrain)

Minimum detectable object size depends on reflectivity Measured range depends on distribution of reflectivity inside laser ground spot area

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Interaction with target

Canopy penetration gets worse with increasing scan angles

Specular reflection Water, wet surfaces, slate no return signal

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Pulse:
AT

Ranging
AT

CW:

Ranging unit

AR

t t t

AR

t t

Range

Range

R=

c t 2
c t 2 c 1 t rise 2 S/N

R=

1 short 2 2

Range resolution

Range resolution

R =

R =

short c 1 = 4 4 f high
short 1 4 S/N

Range accuracy

Range accuracy

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Ranging: Pulse vs. CW


In CW ranging, resolution and accuracy can be improved by using higher modulation frequencies Resolution: CW, short = 30 m (10 MHz), /2 = 1/16384 (14 bit) R = 0.9 mm ! Cf. required time resolution for pulse ranging: t = 2 R / c = 6.1 ps (164 GHz) !

Ranging unit

For the accuracy, S/N is important depends on transmitted power, e.g. Pulse Ppeak = 2000 W vs. CW Pav = 1 W R,CW / R, pulse = 85, achieved by 2000 x power [Wehr, Lohr 99] Pulse lasers with high power are available CW semiconductor lasers with Pav > 2 W, fhigh > 10 MHz scarce R, pulse typically 2-5 cm Does not apply to centimetre level measurement in the close range domain!
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Ranging: full waveform analysis


tree crown power line

Ranging unit

AR

bush

ground

First pulse t0
AR

Last pulse t1

t
Data recorder

1 GS/s t
Data recorder

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Ranging: full waveform analysis

Ranging unit

Source: Riegl, 2006

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Ranging: full waveform analysis

Ranging unit

Unlimited number of returns per shot Multiple target detection down 0.5 metres Surface roughness, slope Vegetation Discontinuities User-defined post-processing methods, no need for real time, neighbourhood analysis Riegl LMS-Q560, Litemapper 5600, Optech ALTM 3100, TopEye Mark II

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Examples of ALS

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Scanner examples
System Laser Altitude Range measurements Scan frequency Scan angle Pulse rate Beam divergence Beam pattern Optech ALTM 3100EA 1064 nm 80 3500 m up to 4 max. 70 Hz max. 25 max. 100 kHz 0.3 mrad oscillating, sawtooth Riegl LMS-Q560 near IR 30 1500 m full waveform max. 160 Hz max. 30 max. 100 kHz, 50 kHz @ 22.5 0.5 mrad rotating polygon, parallel TopoSys Falcon II 1540 nm 60 1600 m first and last max. 630 Hz 7 (fixed) 83 kHz 0.5 mrad fiber switch, parallel

Others: FLI-MAP (Fugro-Inpark), LiteMapper (IGI mbH), GeoMapper 3D (Laseroptronix), ALS series (Leica), TopEye MK II (TopEye AB)
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Optech ALTM 3100

All images taken from www.optech.ca

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Riegl LMS-Q560 / LMS-Q280i

(Scanner & data recorder only)

Images taken from www.riegl.co.at

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

IGI LiteMapper

(uses scanners from Riegl)


Images taken from www.litemapper.com Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

TopoSys

Falcon II, III (fiber)

Harrier (uses scanners from Riegl)


Images taken from www.toposys.de Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

FLI-MAP

FLI-MAP 400

All images taken from www.flimap.com

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Errors and strip adjustment

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Errors and strip adjustment


Error sources Geometrical error budget Strip adjustment

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Coordinate systems

tIRFECF tARFIRF
DGPS INS
Laser Ranging unit Deflection unit

Inertial reference frame Moving with aircraft

Aircraft/ scanner reference frame Moving with aircraft

Earth centered reference frame ECEF, WGS84


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Error sources

Laser measurement (range, angle: electronics aging & drift) DGPS (receiver, satellite constellation, ground reference constellation) INS (receiver: frequency, drift) Offset / alignment between GPS, INS, laser scanner Dynamic bend of IMU / scanner mounting plate Time synchronization and interpolation (GPS: 1-10/s, INS 200/s, turbulent flight) Transformation to local coordinate system

Basic geometric configuration

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Error budget (geometry)


Z X0, Y0, Z0 h

Y X X

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

due to error in

Error budget (geometry)


0 0 0 20.9 7.5 16.1 0 20.9 0 0 14 1.3 2.5 0 5.6 12.1 0 0 0 4 8 5 5 4 cm 0 0 0 8 0 8 0 0 0 8 0 0 R X0 Y0 Z0 Total 22.4 23.6 27.6 26.4 26.4 26.5 9.4 11.7 17.0
Total @h=1000

53.0 56.2 66.6 63.5 63.5 63.6 9.4 19.1 37.3

15 30 0

15 30 0

15 30

Assumptions: h = 400 m (except last col. h = 1000 m), = = =0, = = 0.03, = 0.04, = 0.02, R = 5 cm, X0 = Y0 = Z0 = 8 cm

0-5 5-10 10-15 15+

Source: [Baltsavias, 1999a]

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Error budget: conclusions


0 X 15 30 0 Y 15 30 0 Z 15 30 0 5.6 12.1 0 0 0 4 8 20.9 0 0 14 0 20.9 0 7.5 16.1 0 1.3 2.5 5 5 4 0 0 8 0 8 0 0 0 8 0 0 R X0 Y0 Z0 Total 22.4 23.6 27.6 26.4 26.4 26.5 9.4 11.7 17.0
Total @h=1000

53.0 56.2 66.6 63.5 63.5 63.6 9.4 19.1 37.3

Y slightly larger than X for small (due to error) changes for larger (due to error)
Source: [Baltsavias, 1999a]
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Error budget: conclusions


0 X 15 30 0 Y 15 30 0 Z 15 30 0 5.6 12.1 0 0 0 4 8 20.9 0 0 14 0 20.9 0 7.5 16.1 0 1.3 2.5 5 5 4 0 0 8 0 8 0 0 0 8 0 0 R X0 Y0 Z0 Total 22.4 23.6 27.6 26.4 26.4 26.5 9.4 11.7 17.0
Total @h=1000

53.0 56.2 66.6 63.5 63.5 63.6 9.4 19.1 37.3

R has only marginal influence on Z and almost no influence on X, Y.


Source: [Baltsavias, 1999a]
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Error budget: conclusions


0 X 15 30 0 Y 15 30 0 Z 15 30 0 5.6 12.1 0 0 0 4 8 20.9 0 0 14 0 20.9 0 7.5 16.1 0 1.3 2.5 5 5 4 0 0 8 0 8 0 0 0 8 0 0 R X0 Y0 Z0 Total 22.4 23.6 27.6 26.4 26.4 26.5 9.4 11.7 17.0
Total @h=1000

53.0 56.2 66.6 63.5 63.5 63.6 9.4 19.1 37.3

Z smaller than X, Y and less dependent on h Reason: R, Z0 dominate and are nearly independent of h Z mainly depends on Z0 (GPS!) (and R) for small

Source: [Baltsavias, 1999a]

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Error budget: conclusions


0 X 15 30 0 Y 15 30 0 Z 15 30 0 5.6 12.1 0 0 0 4 8 20.9 0 0 14 0 20.9 0 7.5 16.1 0 1.3 2.5 5 5 4 0 0 8 0 8 0 0 0 8 0 0 R X0 Y0 Z0 Total 22.4 23.6 27.6 26.4 26.4 X, Y 26.5 9.4 11.7 17.0
Total @h=1000

53.0 56.2 66.6 Z 63.5 63.5 63.6 9.4 19.1 37.3

Z given is too optimistic especially for sloped terrain, X, Y dominate


Source: [Baltsavias, 1999a]
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Counter measures

Constructional measures Highly stable mechanics, low drift in electronics, highly accurate time sync., internal reference measurement Calibration Factory calibration of laser scanner, GPS/INS alignment Flight specific measures Good satellite constellation, close reference station, little turbulence

Still systematic errors will remain, especially visible at strip overlaps strip adjustment

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Strip adjustment

Create a seamless data set by correcting for the systematic errors.

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Strip adjustment Analogy to independent model adjustment with selfcalibration parameters Modelling of shifts, drifts and other systematic errors Measurement of tie points Measurement of control points Adjust strips such that corresponding tie points are transformed to same terrain point misclosures at control points are minimal

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Strip adjustment
Independent strips with tie points Strips transformed to reference system

(ifp / J. Kilian)
(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Strip adjustment

1D strip adjustment 3D strip adjustment Measurement of corresponding points in height data ditches and ridges in height data edges in reflectance data

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

1D adjustment only correct the height mathematical model for control point in strip s

H = a s + bs X
as bs cs Xsc , Ysc

c Xs

)+ c (Y
s

c Ys

offset in height tilt in flight direction tilt across flight direction centre of strip s

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

1D adjustment mathematical model for tie point between strip s and strip t

H = a s + bs X
t t

( ) + c (Y ) a b (X X ) c (Y Y )
c Xs c t s c Ys c t t

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Problems unmodelled errors lead to large distortions case: range offset or scale error in the scanning angle possible solutions: more reference points cross strips
before adjustment

after adjustment

tilt offset

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

3D adjustment

Modelling systematic errors in terrain coordinates: Approximation by 1st and 2nd order polynomials. Modelling the effect of sensor errors on terrain coordinates. 3D adjustment requires estimation of 3D offsets between overlapping strips strips and reference data.

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

3D adjustment

Two approaches: Take height differences in suitable areas as observations (cf. area based matching) First extract corresponding features, then use those as observations (cf. feature based matching)

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Segmentation of overlaps

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

(Slide provided by George Vosselman)

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Offset estimation
Planimetric offsets may be estimated from sloped surfaces reflection data

Claus Brenner (Slide provided by George Vosselman) International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Offset estimation
Height differences only are not sufficient

flat roof

gable roof

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Measurement of tie points


Area based image matching Simple mathematical modelling Geometric transformation

X s = X t + X Ys = Yt + Y
Radiometric transformation

Z s ( X s , Ys ) = Z t ( X t , Yt ) + Z
(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Using ditches
Fitting of point clouds to ditch profile model No data interpolation Noisy free gradients Better accuracy estimates

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Eelde dataset
Point density 1 pts / 3 m2 Strip width 225 m

Claus Brenner (Slide provided by George Vosselman) International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Ditch measurements

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

(Slide provided by George Vosselman)

Pixel size 2m

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Point clouds

Original data

After fitting

Original data

After fitting
(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Using gable roofs


Point density 6 pts/m2 Strip width 90 m Measurements 6 ridge lines

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

(Slide provided by George Vosselman)

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Using gable roofs

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Pixel size 1 m

(Slide provided by George Vosselman)

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Using gable roofs

Next strip overlap Measurements 10 ridge lines

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Using gable roofs

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Point clouds
Original data After fitting

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Offset estimation in reflectance data


Reflection data is noisy peak reflection strength, no integration low reflectance strength in case of multiple heights within footprint footprint much smaller than point distance needs to be modelled

Long edges are preferred

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Conclusions offset estimation Offsets estimated in height and reflectance data will be biased when using standard image matching tools. Offset estimations in height data should use continuous surfaces only. Fitting models to height data avoids interpolation errors. Modelling edge response in reflectance data allows unbiased offset estimation, but requires long edges.

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

3D strip adjustment results Model: 3 shifts, 3 rotations, and 3 rotation drifts Sensor Point density Flying height Number of strips Number of tie points before adjustment after adjustment Relative improvement FLI-MAP 5-6 pts/m2 110 m 2 75 15.2 cm 9.7 cm 36% Optech 0.3 pts/m2 500 m 4 46 35.6 cm 20.3 cm 43%

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

3D strip adjustment results FLI-MAP before adjustment after adjustment relative improvement Optech ALTM before adjustment after adjustment relative improvement x 16.4 11.2 32% x 48.6 26.0 47% y 20.0 11.6 42% y 40.5 24.5 40% z 5.0 4.7 6% z 11.6 8.5 27%

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Conclusions strip adjustment


Many errors may occur. Strip adjustment in combination with error models can eliminate most systematic errors. Strip adjustment can be used for data correction or as a quality control tool. Remaining systematic errors may reveal errors that are difficult to model. New errors are still discovered.

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Filtering of ALS data

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Filtering Introduction
Digital elevation model (DEM), digital terrain model (DTM): Ground Digital surface model (DSM): top surface In open terrain, the separation surface between air and bare earth DEM is different from measured laser points due to very different reasons: Measurement errors of ALS system (position, orientation, range) Interaction with target (mixed points in vegetation) Interpretation (buildings are not part of the DEM by definition) Filtering: classification of points into terrain and off-terrain Basis for DTM generation, detection of topographic objects

dy dx

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Raster

TIN

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Filtering

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Filtering

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Filtering

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Filtering

(Source: George Vosselman)


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Filtering approaches

Basic approaches Mathematic morphology Progressive refinement Linear prediction Segmentation

Points / local neighbourhood vs. segments

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Filtering of ALS data


Introduction Morphologic operators and slope based filtering (Vosselman, 2000) Linear prediction and hierarchic robust interpolation (Kraus & Pfeifer 1998, Pfeifer et al. 2001) Progressive TIN densification (Axelsson, 2000) Segmentation based filtering (Sithole, Vosselman 2005) ISPRS filter test

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Morphologic operators and Slope based filtering

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Erosion, dilation, opening, closing


Erosion and dilation for binary images I Image, s two-dimensional structure element Erosion:

1 if (i, j ) s : I (r + i, c + j ) = 1 ( I s )(r , c) := 0 else


Dilation:

1 if (i, j ) s : I (r + i, c + j ) = 1 ( I + s )(r , c) := 0 else


Opening:

I o s := ( I s ) + s
Closing:

I s := ( I + s ) s
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Example: Opening (I)

I-s

I-s

I o s := ( I s ) + s

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Example: Opening (II)

I-s

I-s

I o s := ( I s ) + s

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Example: Opening (III)

I-s

I-s

I o s := ( I s ) + s

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Equivalent definitions using min and max


Erosion:

( I s )(r , c) := min I (r + i, c + j )
( i , j )s

1 if (i, j ) s : I (r + i, c + j ) = 1 ( I s )(r , c) := 0 else

Dilation:

( I + s )(r , c) := max I (r + i, c + j )
( i , j )s

Define kernel function k

0 (i, j ) s k (i, j ) := 1 else


Then, erosion and dilation are given by:

k(i) i

( I k )(r , c) := min[I (r + i, c + j ) k (i, j )]


(i , j )

( I + k )(r , c) := max[I (r + i, c + j ) + k (i, j )]


(i , j )
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Erosion using k(i,j)


I k
( I k )(r , c) := min[I (r + i, c + j ) k (i, j )]
(i , j )

k(i) i

I-k
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Morphological operators for grey scale images (here, DSM)

DSM
Erosion

k(i) i Dilation

DTM
Opening

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Original DSM
(opening)

11x11 m2

15x15 m2

21x21 m2

2 31x31 m Claus Brenner

International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Original DSM

(opening)

11x11 m2

15x15 m2

21x21 m2

2 31x31 m Claus Brenner

International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Original DSM

DTM obtained by opening

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Modification: dual rank filters


Minimum / maximum may be problematic if outliers are present Use of rank filters is more robust Rank function: returns the mth element of sorted values

Rm ({I1 , I 2 ,..., I n }) := ( Sort ({I1 , I 2 ,..., I n }))[m]


Then, erosion and dilation become

( I m k )(r , c) := Rm ({I (r + i, c + j ) k (i, j ) (i, j )}) ( I + m k )(r , c) := Rn +1 m ({I (r + i, c + j ) + k (i, j ) (i, j )})
Note: n = # zeros in k ,

1 , +1 +

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Modification: points, irregular data


Erosion (previously):

e(r , c) = ( I k )(r , c) = min (I (r + i, c + j ) k (i, j ) )


(i , j )

pi

pj

Now:

e( pi ) := min (h( p j ) k (xij , yij ) )


p j A

k (xij , yij )
Definition of the DEM:

DEM := p j h( p j ) e( p j )

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Slope based filtering (Vosselman, 2000)


e( pi ) := min (h( p j ) k (xij , yij ) )
p j A

k (xij , yij )
h

hmax (d )
Interpretation of k

k (x, y ) := hmax

( x

+ y 2 = hmax (d )

h1
d1 Points at distance d1 can be lower by h1 d

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Slope based kernel function


hmax (d )

DEM := p j h( p j ) e( p j )

Kernel function effectively suppresses slopes larger than its own slope
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Derivation of suitable kernel functions hmax


Idea 1: assume a maximum slope, e.g. 30%

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hmax (d ) := 0.3d
Since measurements are noisy, add confidence interval. Allow 5% of terrain points (with standard deviation ) may be rejected

hmax (d ) := 0.3d + 1.65 2

hmax (d )

d Arbitrary specification try to obtain from data

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Derivation of suitable kernel functions hmax


Idea 2: derive maximum height differences from data Training set with ground points only For each distance interval d, compute max(h) Also compute variance (of the maximum) for each d using cumulative probability distribution

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Fmax (h) = F (h) N

Idea 3: minimize classification errors Effect of type I and type II errors is the same search for h where

P( pi DEM h, d , p j DEM) = 0.5


Requires training set with ground points and unfiltered data of the same area

2
(Source: George Vosselman)

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Derivation of suitable kernel functions hmax


5m h

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d 0m 10 m

P( pi DEM h, d , p j DEM)
Black 0.0, white 1.0

-5 m
(Source: George Vosselman)
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Derivation of suitable kernel functions hmax


4
Allowed height difference (m)

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3
Maximum Probabilistic

0 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance between points (m)
(Source: George Vosselman)
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Example results

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

(Source: George Vosselman) Laser point density 5.6 points/m2. 2 m grid (top), 0.5 m grid (bottom). Maximum filter. Height difference of ditches: 0.5 m.

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Example results
(Source: George Vosselman) Perspective view. Laser point density 5.6 points/m2 (top), reduced to 1 point/16m2 (bottom)
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Linear prediction and Hierarchic robust interpolation

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Interpolation using a summation of kernel functions


z
2.5 2

1.5

(x1,z1)

?
(xn,zn)
1 2 3 4 5

0.5

-0.5

Given: Heights z at positions x:

z = ( z1
x = ( x1

z2 L zn )

x2 L xn )

Find an interpolating function:


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Interpolation using a summation of kernel functions


Idea: describe overall function as a sum of basis functions

f ( x ) = ki ( x)
i =1

Simpler: as a sum of identical basis functions k depending only on the distance x-xi multiplied by a factor mi

f ( x) = mi k ( x xi )
i =1

Example k(d)

k(d)

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

d
1 2

-2

-1

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Interpolation using a summation of kernel functions


Interpolation f has to pass through the given points

z j = f ( x j ) = mi k ( x j xi )
i =1

Written in matrix form

k ( x1 x2 ) k ( x1 xn ) z1 k (0) k (0) k ( x2 xn ) z2 k ( x2 x1 ) = M O M z k(x x ) k(x x ) L k (0) n n 1 2 n


Or, shorter

m1 m2 M m n

z = Km

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Interpolation using a summation of kernel functions


Solution (note: linear; exact solution)

m = K 1z
Function f

Or, shorter

m1 n m f ( x) = mi k ( x xi ) = (k ( x x1 ) k ( x x2 ) L k ( x xn ) ) 2 M i =1 m n f ( x) = k T K 1z

Note: x variable k depending on x K z fixed


1

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Example using triangular kernel function


2.5

2.5

1.5

1.5

0.5

0.5

1 -0.5

1 -0.5

x = (1, 2, 2.5, 3, 4 ) z = (1, 2, 1.75, 2, 0 )

m = K 1z = (1, 2.25, 0.5, 2.25, 0 )

2.5

f ( x)
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 -2 -1 1

1.5

k(d)

0.5

d
2
-0.5

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Example using Gaussian kernel function


2.5

1.5

1
0.5

-2

-4
1 -0.5 2 3 4 5

-6

x = (1, 2, 2.5, 3, 4 ) z = (1, 2, 1.75, 2, 0 )

m = K 1z = ( 0.29, 5.07, 6.49, 5.76, 1.53)

f ( x) k (d ) = e d
-2 -1

2.5

1.5

2
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 1
1

d
2

0.5

1 -0.5

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Statistical interpretation of Gaussian kernel function


Interpretation as covariance of laser points Pi , Pk having distance d

C ( Pi Pk ) := C (d ) = C (0) e

d c

C(0)

C(d)

Statistical surface description: close points have high covariance Need to determine C(0), c

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Determination of parameters of covariance function


After removal of trend (see later), zi coordinates contain measurement error ri systematic error si

zi = si + ri
Variance of zi :

Vzz

1 1 ( si si + 2 si ri + ri ri ) z z = i i n n 1 ( si si + ri ri ) = Vss + Vrr n

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Determination of parameters of covariance function


Determination of empirical covariances Cj Sort point pairs into buckets, according to their distance

d j d
Cj = 1 nj

Pi Pk

< d j + d
1 nj

In each bucket, determine empirical covariances

zi z k

s s

i k

Determine C(0)
2 C (0) = Vss = Vzz Vrr = Vzz Z

(using estimate Z of height error)

Determine cj for each bucket from

C j = C ( 0) e

dj cj

solve for c j

Determine c as weighted mean of cj


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Interpolation and filtering


After having determined Gaussian kernel function, interpolation is just as before:

f ( P ) = c T C 1z c T = C ( PP C ( PP2 ) L C ( PPn ) 1)

z T = ( z1

z2 L zn )

C (0) C(P C(P n) 1P 2) 1P C ( P2 P C (0) C ( P2 Pn ) 1) C = O M C ( P P ) C ( P P ) L C (0) n 1 n 2


What happens if we replace C by

Vzz Vss = C (0)


C(d) d

Vzz C(P C(P n) 1P 2) 1P C ( P2 P Vzz C ( P2 Pn ) 1) C = O M C(P P ) C(P P ) L Vzz n 1 n 2

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Interpolation and filtering


Note from earlier:
2 Vzz = Vss + Vrr = C (0) + Z

C = C + z2 I n
2.5

using C

2.5

using C

1.5

1.5

0.5

0.5

1 -0.5

5
-0.5

Interpolation and filtering: considers measurement errors Allows weighting of measurements using individual Vzz ,i
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Hierarchic robust interpolation


Kraus & Pfeifer 1998, Pfeifer et al. 2001 Before application, remove trend surface, e.g. by estimation of a low-degree polynomial After trend removal, 3 stages of refinement: Interpolation + filtering as just explained Robust interpolation compute weights for individual points (see next slides) Hierarchic robust interpolation if gross errors occur in large clusters compute data pyramid, use surfaces obtained in coarse level to accept points within tolerance band in higher resolution level

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Robust interpolation
2 Initial interpolation using unit weights i2 = 0

Outlier, probably vegetation Interpolation follows outlier

Result of interpolation + filtering

(Source: I.P.F. TU Vienna)

Trend surface
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Robust interpolation
Calculate filter values = oriented distance from surface to measured point Compute histogram of filter values Usually, asymmetric: many points above surface, few points below surface

(Source: I.P.F. TU Vienna)


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Robust interpolation
Use asymmetric weight function (a,b different for left & right branch)

pi =

1 + (a f i g )

, =
2 i

02
pi

a, b parameters, g shift determined from histogram Also remove points which are too far off the surface

cutoff

(Source: I.P.F. TU Vienna) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Robust interpolation

Initial interpolation

Refined interpolation

(Source: I.P.F. TU Vienna)

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Filter results in forested area

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

(Source: I.P.F. TU Vienna)

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Progressive TIN densification

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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TIN densification (Axelsson, 2000)


Start using sparse seed points lowest points in a large grid, based on largest structure, e.g. 50-100 m Densify iteratively from below calculate required thresholds from points currently included in the TIN add points to the TIN if they are within thresholds Threshold computation based on median values of surface normal angles and elevation differences. Uses histograms for computation of median.

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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TIN densification
Add one point at a time in each triangle facet Accept based on distance and angle threshold Special case for discontinuous surfaces (urban areas) threshold values easily exceeded use mirroring of point at closest point in TIN triangle to compute deviation

d mirror d

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Segmentation based filtering

Note: the slides of this section were provided by George Sithole / George Vosselman based on their talk Filtering of airborne laser scanner data based on segmented point clouds given at the laser scanning workshop 2005 in Enschede
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Filter design
Problem analysis Smooth surface assumption does not hold Lack of context information Filter as a local operator Point-wise filtering

New filter approach Use continuous surface instead of smooth surface Filter continuous segments of points instead of points

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Segment based filtering

Texture based image segmentation

Point cloud segmentation into continuous surfaces

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Profile segmentation

Delaunay Delaunay Triangulation Triangulation

Minimum Minimum Spanning Spanning Tree Tree

Proximity Proximity Thresholding Thresholding

Remove Remove Dangling Dangling Edges Edges

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Profile classification
Raised Raised

Lowered Lowered

Terraced Terraced

High High

Low Low

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Combining profiles to segments

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Combining profiles to segments

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Segment classification

Based on majority of segment profile classifications

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Bridge detection
Select all terrain profiles Analyse profile segment classifications

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Results in urban area


Segment based filtering

Type I error Type II error

Alg. 1 Alg. 2 Three other algorithms of the ISPRS filter test

Alg. 3

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Results in quarry
Segment based filtering

Type I error Type II error

Alg. 1

Alg. 2

Alg. 3

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Quantitative results
Urban sites (error %) Alg 1 Average 5.6 Median 4.3

Alg 2 7.0 6.7

Alg 3 14.0 12.2

New alg 6.0 4.3

Rural sites (error %) Alg 1 Average 3.6 Median 2.9

Alg 2 9.5 7.9

Alg 3 15.6 17.2

New alg 5.4 6.2

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Conclusions for segment based filtering Segment-based filtering preserves discontinuities allows filtering of large objects can be combined with other filtering methods could be extended with other attributes (shape, size, colour) Segmentation in areas with low vegetation remains difficult Bridges can be recognised in bare earth segment Segmentation results may support manual editing

Claus Brenner Slide provided by George Sithole, George Vosselman International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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ISPRS filter test

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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ISPRS filter test


Comparison of filter algorithms, 2002-2004 8 sites, 8 participants Qualitative and quantitative evaluation

All filters do well on smooth terrain with vegetation and buildings. All filters have problems with rough terrain and complex city landscapes. In general, filters that compare points to locally estimated surfaces performed best. The problems caused by the scene complexities were larger than those caused by the reduced point density. Research on segmentation, quality assessment and usage of additional knowledge sources is recommended. Full report on http://www.geo.tudelft.nl/frs/isprs/filtertest/
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Extraction and modelling


Claus Brenner with contributions from George Vosselman and Juha Hyypp

Institute of Cartography and Geoinformatics University of Hannover, Appelstr. 9a, 30167 Hannover, Germany claus.brenner@ikg.uni-hannover.de www.ikg.uni-hannover.de

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Example laser scan data


100

80

60

40

20

0 0 20 40 60 80 100

Data obtained by aerial laser scanning Example: approx. one measurement per m2 Regularized raster, mesh width 1m x 1m

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Example laser scan data

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Main applications

Derivation of DEMs Forest inventory Extraction of man-made objects Flood modelling Mapping of linear structures: dikes, roads, power line clearance Classification

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Extraction and modelling

Introduction Feature extraction Derivatives Local polynomial fit and curvature analysis Planar faces Region growing, scan line grouping, RANSAC, Hough transform More complex shapes see terrestrial scanning Building extraction Examples (data driven, model driven, integration of existing knowledge) Future developments: constraints & generalization

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Derivatives
f ( x)
DSM seen as a grayvalue image derivatives can be used to detect jumps in the DSM second derivatives may be used to detect discontinuities in slope Derivative masks from digital image processing can be used Note: derivative has metric interpretation

x
f ( x) x

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Derivatives: discrete operators


Derivative operator based on difference quotient
df f ( x + x ) f ( x ) ( x) dx x

mask: (1 1) even mask length, linear phase noise: = 2 f 1.4 f Derivative operator based on average difference quotient
df 1 f ( x ) f ( x x ) f ( x + x ) f ( x ) f ( x + x ) f ( x x ) ( x) + = dx 2 x x 2 x

mask: 1 2 (1 0 1) = 1 2 (1 1) (1 1) odd mask length, zero phase noise: = 1 f 0.7 f


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Derivatives

Original DSM f ( x, y )

2 2 f ( x, y ) + f ( x, y ) x y

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Derivatives

Original DSM f ( x, y )

2 2 f ( x, y ) + f ( x, y ) x y

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Morphological operations: opening

300

300

250

250

200

200

150

150

100

100

50

50

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Original DSM

DSM DTM

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Morphological operations: opening

DSM DTM Height > 5 m and footprint > 50 m2 Height > 5 m

Orthophoto

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Local estimation of polynomial functions


Derivatives (especially second derivatives) are sensitive to noise Standard smoothing masks are not motivated geometrically Idea: for each discrete point, determine locally a best approximating polynomial (u ) function f then, derivatives f ( x) and f ( x) can be obtained from the derivatives (u ) and f (u ) of f

(u ) f

f (1)

u
M K

0 1K M

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

U = { M , M + 1,K 0,1,K , M }

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Local estimation of polynomial functions


Scalar product

f , g := f (u ) g (u )
uU

Polynomial base functions up to second order

0 (u ) := 1 1 (u ) := u 2 (u ) := u 2

M ( M + 1) 3

Properties of base functions (orthogonality)

i , j = 0 i j 0 , 0 = 2 M + 1 =: p0 1 , 1 = 1 3 M ( M + 1)(2M + 1) =: p1 2 , 2 = K =: p2
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Local estimation of polynomial functions


Definition of normalized base functions

bi :=

pi

i , b j = ij

(Kronecker)

Second order approximation for functions of one variable

(u ) = a (u ) f i i
i =0 uU

with
trick: no need to invert since functions are orthogonal

ai := f , bi = f (u ) bi (u )

Second order approximation for functions in two variables

(u , v) = f aij :=

i + j 2

ij

i (u ) j (v)

with

( u , v )U 2
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

f (u , v) bi (u ) b j (v)

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Local estimation of polynomial functions


Derivatives:
(u, v) = a f 00 + a10u + a01v M ( M + 1) 2 M ( M + 1) + a20 u 2 + + a uv a 02 v 11 3 3

u v

(u , v) f (u, v) f

= a10 + a20 2u + a11 v = a01 + a02 2v + a11 u

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

f (0, 0) u f (0, 0) v 2 f (u, v) 2 u 2 f (u , v) u v 2 f (u , v) v 2

= a10 = a01 = 2a20 = a11 = 2a02

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Local estimation of polynomial functions


Example:
M = 3 U = {3,K ,3} , p0 = 7, p1 = 28, p2 = 84

1 f u 1 ( ) 7 u =3 3 1 a1 = f , b1 = f (u ) u 28 u =3 a0 = f , b0 = a2 = f , b2 =
u =3

f (u )

1 2 (u 4) 84

From this, the following convolution masks are obtained:


1 (1 1 1 1 1 1 1) 7 1 d1 = ( 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 ) 28 1 d2 = ( 5 0 3 4 3 0 5 ) 84 d0 =
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Local estimation of polynomial functions


Two-dimensional convolution masks are obtained as follows:
T Du = d 0 d1 T Duu = 2d 0 d2 T Dvv = 2d 2 d0

Dv = d1T d 0

Duv = d1T d1
E.g. the second partial derivative with respect to u:

5 5 5 2 2 T * , 2 5 f D f D d d = = uu uu 0 2 2 7 84 u 5 5 5

0 3 4 3 0 5 0 3 4 3 0 5 0 3 4 3 0 5 0 3 4 3 0 5 0 3 4 3 0 5 0 3 4 3 0 5 0 3 4 3 0 5

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Differential geometry

x v
U
p q
2 3

Regular parametrized surface:


x : 2 U 3 U open, x differentiable, dxq injective

Normal vector
N (q) = xu xv (q) xu xv

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Differential geometry First fundamental form in local coordinates


I = E (u ) 2 + 2 F u v + G (v) 2 E = xu , xu , F = xu , xv , G = xv , xv
Second fundamental form in local coordinates

II = e (u ) 2 + 2 f u v + g (v) 2 e = N , xuu , f = N , xuv , g = N , xvv


Gaussian curvature and mean curvature

N (q) =

xu xv (q) xu xv

eg f 2 K = 1 2 = EG F 2 1 eG 2 fF + gE H = ( 1 + 2 ) = 2 EG F 2

1 , 2 main curvatures
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Differential geometry
DSM is given as a graph z = f(u,v) From this, the following simplifications are obtained:
z = f (u , v) u 1 0 , x = 0 , x = 1 x(u , v) = v u v f (u , v) fu fv E = xu , xu = 1 + f u2 etc. fu 1 f N= 2 v ( fu + f v2 + 1)1 2 1 f e = N , xuu = 2 uu ( fu + f v2 + 1)1 2 K, H
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

etc.

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Surface types
Surfaces can be classified depending on the sign of K and H Both signs can be coded into a single number (KH sign map)

khs := 3 (1 + sgn H ) + 1 + sgn K


In practice, H=0 or K=0 will not be obtained, thus the following modified sign function is used:

1 x < sgn ( x) := 0 x 1 x >

sgn ( x)

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Surface types
khs K<0 K=0 K>0

H<0 0 H=0 3 H>0 6 7 8 4 1 Not possible 2

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Application: curvature type classification

Type 03
Simple discrete derivative operators
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Type 68

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Application: curvature type classification

Type 03
Local estimation of polynomial functions
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Type 68

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Region based segmentation


Region based segmentation: partitioning of a region into disjoint subregions subregions evaluate true with respect to a given predicate P () subregions are maximal More precisely:

1.

UR
i =1

=R

2. 1 i n : Ri is connected 3. i j : Ri R j = 4. P ( Ri ) = true 5. i j : P ( Ri R j ) = false, if Ri , R j are neighbors


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Region based segmentation

1 5 9

2 6

3 7

4 8

1 5 9

2 6

3 7

4 8

R1 = {1, 2,3, 4, 7,8,12} R2 = {5, 6,10,11,15,16} R3 = {9,13,14}

10 11 12

10 11 12

13 14 15 16

13 14 15 16

How can the desired subregions be obtained? E.g.: cluster analysis split-and-merge region growing

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Region growing

Start
1 2 6 3 7 4 8 1 5 9 2 6 3 7 4 8 1 5 9 2 6 3 7 4 8

Search for seed region Found? Y Grow region as long as possible N End

5 9

10 11 12

10 11 12

10 11 12

13 14 15 16

13 14 15 16

13 14 15 16

1 5 9

2 6

3 7

4 8

1 5 9

2 6

3 7

4 8

1 5 9

2 6

3 7

4 8

10 11 12

10 11 12

10 11 12

13 14 15 16

13 14 15 16

13 14 15 16

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Region growing
Predicates for digital surface models distance of points from an estimated plane
P : z = ax + by + c distance: d (i ) = axi + byi + c zi

normal vector orientation


cos = N i , ( a, b,1)
T

Disadvantages: the order of selection of seed regions affects the result iterative estimation of plane equation is time consuming Application: detection of planar regions in DSM, e.g. roof faces
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Region growing: examples

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Scanline grouping (Jiang & Bunke, 1992) Subdivide each line into segments (e.g. using DouglasPeucker) Build seed region using consecutive segments Grow seed region by adding segments Postprocess

y0+2 y0+1 y0
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Scanline grouping (Jiang & Bunke, 1992) Subdivide each line into segments (e.g. using DouglasPeucker) Build seed region using consecutive segments Grow seed region by adding segments Postprocess

y0+2 y0+1 y0
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Scanline grouping (Jiang & Bunke, 1992) Subdivide each line into segments (e.g. using DouglasPeucker) Build seed region using consecutive segments Grow seed region by adding segments Postprocess

y0+3 y0+2 y0+1 y0


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Scanline grouping (Jiang & Bunke, 1992) Subdivide each line into segments (e.g. using DouglasPeucker) Build seed region using consecutive segments Grow seed region by adding segments Postprocess

y0+3 y0+2 y0+1 y0


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Scanline grouping segmentation: examples

DSM (Stuttgart, 1m)

Segmentation

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Scanline grouping segmentation: examples

DSM (Stuttgart, 1m)

Segmentation

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

RANSAC (Random Sample Consensus, Fischler & Bolles 1981)


Algorithm: Select minimum number of observations randomly (e.g. 3 points for a plane, 2 points for a line) = random sample Compute parameters based on these observations Find out the number N of compatible observations = consensus Select solution which has largest N

There is a formula for minimum number of draws required Very powerful algorithm, easy to implement

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

RANSAC example: find linear segments


z

x z

x z

x
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

RANSAC example: find linear segments


z

x z

x z

x
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

RANSAC for planar segmentation

etc.

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Examples: region growing, RANSAC

Region growing

RANSAC

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Examples: region growing, RANSAC

RANSAC

Region growing

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Hough transform (PVC Hough, 1962)


6

(x0,y0)

cos N = sin

c
4 2

one specific line

1 2 3 4 5 6

x cos + y sin + c = 0
c = ( x0 cos + y0 sin ) = c( )
x
-2 -4

Hough space
-6

high count

4 2

1 -2 -4

x
-6

accumulator
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Hough transform
Can be used for any parameterized object: planes, cylinders, Higher dimensions may become impractical (space, time) Sometimes sequential Hough transforms of lower dimension are feasible Global 3D Hough transform may be problematic

(source: George Vosselman)


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Building Reconstruction

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

(Source: Sony press release)


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Non photorealistic rendering (NPR)

Source: Prof. Dllner, Computer Graphics Systems, Hasso-Plattner Institute, Potsdam


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Augmented reality car navigation

Source: press release, Siemens AG, 30.09.2005

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Engravings by Merian

Matthus Merian d. ., 1593-1650 Martin Zeiller Topographia, 1642ff., 30 Bd., 100 maps, 2150 views

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Partial tasks for building reconstruction


Raw data Result

building reconstruction

Detection

Structuring

Geometric Reconstruction

Semantic Attributation
Gebude {{ Gebude ID == 541 ID 541 Nutzungsart == Gewerblich Nutzungsart Gewerblich Gebude { Gebude { Stockwerke ==55 Stockwerke ID == 541 ID 541 Stellpltze == 22 Stellpltze Nutzungsart = Gewerblich Nutzungsart = Gewerblich Fassadenmaterial == {{ Gebude { Fassadenmaterial Gebude { Stockwerke ==55 Stockwerke F1 == KH315 ID == 541 F1 KH315 ID 541 Stellpltze == 22 Stellpltze F2 == KH221 Nutzungsart == Gewerblich F2 KH221 Nutzungsart Gewerblich Fassadenmaterial == {{ Fassadenmaterial F3 = KH315 Stockwerke ==55F3 = KH315 Stockwerke F1 == KH315 F1 KH315 F4 == EF951 Stellpltze == 22 F4 EF951 Stellpltze F2 == KH221 F2 } } KH221 Fassadenmaterial == {{ Fassadenmaterial F3 == KH315 F3 KH315 = { ffentlich F1 = KH315 ffentlich ={ F1 = KH315 F4 == EF951 F4 EF951 { {Artztpraxis, Link @3398472 } F2 = KH221 F2 } = KH221 Artztpraxis, Link @3398472 } } { Restaurant, Link @0274832 }} F3 == KH315 Restaurant, Link @0274832 F3 KH315 {= ffentlich {{ ffentlich = }} F4 == EF951 F4 EF951 { {Artztpraxis, Link @3398472 }} Link @3398472 } Artztpraxis, }} } {{ Restaurant, Link @0274832 } Restaurant, Gebude { { Link @0274832 } ffentlich = {{ ffentlich = } } Gebude ID = 542 { {Artztpraxis, Link @3398472 }} ID = 542 Link @3398472 } Artztpraxis, } Nutzungsart == Wohn {{ Restaurant, Link @0274832 }} Nutzungsart Wohn Restaurant, Link @0274832 Gebude { Gebude { Stockwerke ==22 }} Stockwerke ID = 542 ID = 542 Stellpltze == 00 }} Stellpltze Nutzungsart = Wohn Nutzungsart = Wohn } Gebude { Gebude { } Stockwerke ==22 Stockwerke ID == 542 ID 542 Stellpltze == 00 Stellpltze Nutzungsart == Wohn Nutzungsart Wohn }} Stockwerke ==22 Stockwerke Stellpltze == 00 Stellpltze }}

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Geometric building models


Building Model

Parametric

General

Primitive

Combined

Prismatic

Polyhedral

Ruled

Freeform

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Boundary representation vs. CSG

Topology hard

easy

Boundary representation (BREP)

Constructive solid geometry (CSG) Claus Brenner

International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Data driven reconstruction


Object contains straight edges Object contains rectangles Object is red

Original image Edge extraction Grouping into rectangles Filtering using spectral signature

Object has minimum size

Filtering using size, grouping

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Model driven reconstruction

Model database Original image


Explicit models

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Example: data driven

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Data driven approach Assumptions: Roof described by planar faces Height jump edges parallel or perpendicular to main building orientation

Steps: Plane detection Initial face outlining in TIN Reconstruction of building outline Reconstruction of roof face edges
(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Initial roof faces


Height data Connected components

Rough face outlines

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Reconstruction of roof outline

Union of faces

Approximation by straight lines main building direction minimum edge size most points inside building

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Reconstruction of face edges


Ridges and valleys Intersection of planes of adjacent roof faces Roof outline Intersection of planes with adjacent walls Height jumps inside roof surface Straight lines aligned to main building directions

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Reconstruction of 3D building Merging edges to faces Joining parallel edges Intersection of other edges Extraction of terrain height

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Example: model driven

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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Demo: ATOP

Claus Brenner Can be downloaded from: http://www.ikg.uni-hannover.de/3d-citymodels International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Integration of existing knowledge: Using existing 2D ground plans

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Using existing 2D ground plans

Solves detection problem Helps with structuring


Helps to select model in model driven approach (How?)

Helps with geometric reconstruction


Boundaries, orientations

Problems:
Inaccurate maps Outdated maps Reconstruction of structures for which no hint appears in the ground plan

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Idea 1: Canonical reconstruction of roof based on ground plan

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Roof construction

split event

Medial axis

Straight skeleton (canonical roof)

edge event

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Reconstruction based on canonical roof Build roof from straight skeleton, assuming equal slopes Project into plane (= hypothesise) Test for evidence using DSM (= test) Set planes for with no evidence upright Build skeleton again, using new slopes Fit to DSM strong dependency on ground plan, limited roof shapes 1997

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Different roofs raised on the same ground plan & same planes

(canonical roof)
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Idea 2: Subdivide ground plan into primitives

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Subdivision into primitives

4 2

3 1

3 4 2 1

3 4 2 4 2 1

Flat

Desk

Ridge

Hipped

Ground plan subdivision, selection of 3D-primitive, parameter estimation more complex roofs, but still strong dependency on ground plan
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Example results

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Idea 3: Subdivide ground plan at concave vertices (Vosselman)

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Decomposition of ground plans


Ground plan

Decompositions

Building primitives on partitions

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Combining maps with laser data


Processing steps: Detection of planar faces Initial 3D model (Model refinement)

Ground plan refinement Roof face reconstruction

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Detection of planar faces


3D Hough transform in each ground plan segment Growing and merging of initial planar faces

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Refinement of ground plan segmentation


One plane per segment Detection of intersection lines Detection of height jump lines Constrained to segment orientation Not near segment edge

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Reconstruction of roof face outlines


Best fitting plane per segment Merging of segments of same plane

(Slide provided by George Vosselman) Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Analysis

Starts from ground plan Ability to subdivide segments by planar segmentation (3D Hough transform) Ability to merge segments of the same plane less dependency on ground plan, stronger role of DSM

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Idea 4: Relate planar patches to ground plan using a grammar

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Determination of relevant regions

What criteria can be used? General criteria (Size, shape) Hints from ground plan
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Labelling of regions

Ground plan

c compatible l left r right p previous n next a opp. previous b opp. next

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Example for labels

{ r,n,a } {c}

{ l,p,b }

{c} { l,p,b } {c} { r,n,a } {c} {c} { l,p,b } { r,n,a } {c}

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Acceptance rules

Contained pattern <p+a+c+ c+b+n+> <p+ * n+> l+r+

Accepted pattern <p+a+ b+n+> <p+ and n+> l+r+

All remaining c+ are accepted


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Example

Aerial image

All regions of segmentation

Accepted regions

Roof built from accepted regions

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

EuroSDR test on building extraction

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Test Sites Senaatti Hermanni Espoonlahti Amiens

Senaatti

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Espoonlahti

Hermanni

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Hermanni, position accuracy


point deviations in plane IQRs of point deviations
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
IG N la se r+ ae ri a l IC C la N eb se r el +P ar tn er Aa lb or g +B Te ch ni k D re sd en FO Io ut li n es i ty St ut tg ar t yb er C D el ft FO I

CyberCity

Stuttgart

IGN

2m 0m -2 m
ICC laser+aerial Nebel+Partner C+B Technik

IQR Height IQR North IQR East


ICC laser

1 out

Aalborg

FOI outlines

Delft

Dresden

FOI

1 out

Aerial images, low autom.... Laser data, high autom.


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

IC C

(Slide provided by Juha Hyypp)

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Some Conclusions
Cybercity can be considered as a reference to others in terms of quality and detailness Fully automatic laser scanning gives 4 times higher errors than CC, but time spent is 5%, depends on pulse density, building size. Errors of laser-based results can be explained by non accurate determination of building outlines Laser good at height and roof inclination determination Aerial images good at building outline determination Integration of laser and aerial imagery optimal, techniques relative simple at this moment Some more complex laser models extremely good in quality Laser pulse density major factor to explain differences between test sites (within laser based models) Level of automation is a key factor to explain the difference of results.

Slide provided by Juha Hyypp Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Future developments

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Reconstruction Aspects Topological correctness Faces are correctly joined, no holes Geometric constraints Parallelism, rectangularity, surfaces having same slope, surfaces meeting in one point, Generalization Acquisition generalization: which objects / object parts are to be modeled LoD generalization: derive another model from a given one
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Geometric Constraints
CSG Primitives are constrained implicitly No implicit constraints across primitives Sometimes: "snap"

B-rep: Constraints have to be added explicitly

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Example constraint equations (2D)

ax + by + c = 0 a2 + b2 1 = 0 ax + by + c = 0
a1a2 + b1b2 = 0

( x1 x 2 ) 2 + ( y1 y 2 ) 2 d 2 = 0

ax + by + c = d
( x x0 ) 2 + ( y y 0 ) 2 r 2 = 0

a1b2 a 2 b1 = 0
Logic

a1a2 + b1b2 cos = 0 a1b2 a2b1 sin = 0


Metric

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Weak primitives
Fields External constraint equations

(xc,yc) h

Internal Constraint Equations

Points Lines
Two lines perpendicular

Internal representation

(x2,y2) (x3,y3) (x1,y1) (x0,y0)

Internal Constraint Equations

Points Lines
Point on line

Internal representation
Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Weak primitives demonstrator

Claus Brenner Can be downloaded from: http://www.ikg.uni-hannover.de/3d-citymodels International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Containers
Form hierarchy Objects are primitives they contain geometry or Objects are containers they contain other containers or primitives Implement layout functionality Linear, grid, irregular Container: Grid layout New: induced by formal grammar

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Generalization

CSG
Implicit generalization

B-rep:
Region sizes? Rules?

Generalization during capture


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Level of Detail (Definition according to Sig3D)

LoD 0
Regional No roofs
Texture, ortho photo, land use

LoD 1
City / Site Flat roofs
Block model

LoD 2
City / Site Roof type & orientation
Textured model, differentiated roofs, vegetation (trees)

LoD 3
City / Site Real roof shape
Architectural model, vegetation, street furniture

LoD 4
Interior Real roof shape
Walkable architectural models

>5m / >5m Pos./Height


See http://www.citygml.org/

5m / 5m

2m / 1m

0,5m / 0,5m

0,2m / 0,2m

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

In 2D: elementary generalization operations

s n +1 s n -1 s n -2 sn s n +2

gi

Monika Sester, ikg


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Elementary generalization operations


ik i1 m P P n P i0 P ... P P g0 g1 g k 1

or

Generalization chain Maximum representation: P n P Minimum representation: P m Number of polygon edges: i0 = n


mn

ik = m

Elementary generalization operations: g j


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Elementary generalization operations

P P P g 1
m ik
k 1

i k 1

n P P 1 ... 1 g g i0
k 2 0

or

Inverse generalization chain Pre-computed Can be used for progressive transmission 1 j Each g j is associated with a parameter Parameters j are decreasing (inverse chain)

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Continuous generalization demo

Claus Brenner Can be downloaded from: http://www.ikg.uni-hannover.de/3d-citymodels International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Generalization in 3D?

Original

Cut

Fill

Final step

Frank Thiemann, ikg


Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Generalization by incremental modelling

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Generalization by incremental modelling

+ +

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Conclusions
Methods available for the extraction of discontinuity and continuity Availability of 3D information makes relatively simple extraction processes possible Laser scanning good at heights and roof inclination Still no fully automatic extraction systems available
Problem: reliability Integration of ground plan information Automation will come in the form of small enhancements

New challenges
Interoperability requires rich descriptions Expression of relations (constraints) between objects Automatic generalization

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Literature
Wehr, A., Lohr, U. (1999): Airborne laser scanning an introduction and overview. ISPRSJ, Vol. 54, 68-82. Baltsavias, E. P. (1999a): Airborne laser scanning: basic relations and formulas. ISPRSJ, Vol. 54, 199-214. Baltsavias, E. P. (1999b): Airborne laser scanning: existing systems and firms and other resources. ISPRSJ, Vol. 54, 164-198. Hug, C., Ullrich, A., Grimm, A. (2004): Litemapper-5600 A waveform-Digitizing LIDAR Terrain and Vegetation Mapping System, Proc. ISPRS WG VIII/2, Freiburg, Germany, Oct. 3-6, 2004. IAPRS Vol. XXXVI, Part 8/W2. Vosselman, G. (2000): Slope based filtering of laser altimetry data, IAPRS Vol. 33 Part B3, 935-942. Kraus K., Pfeifer, N. (1998): Determination of terrain models in wooded areas with airborne laser scanner data. ISPRS JPRS Vol. 53, 193-203. Pfeiffer, N., Stadler, P., Briese, Chr. (2001): Derivation of digital terrain models in the SCOP++ environment, Proc. OEEPE Workshop on Airborne Laserscanning and Interferometric SAR for Digital Elevation Models, Stockholm, March 1-3. Axelsson, P. (2000): DEM generation from laser scanner data using adaptive TIN models, IAPRS Vol. 33 Part B4, 110-117. Sithole, G., Vosselman, G. (2005): Filtering of airborne laser scanner data based on segmented point clouds. Proc. ISPRS Workshop Laser scanning 2005, Enschede, IAPRS Vol. 36 Part 3/W19, 66-71.

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

Commission VI Special Interest Group Technology Transfer Caravan

Cited web material


Riegl LMS (2005): LMS-Q560 Airborne laser scanner for full waveform analysis. Preliminary data sheet, 23.09.2005. www.riegl.co.at. Optech (2006): ALTM 3100EA brochure. www.optech.ca/prodaltm.htm. Riegl LMS (2006): http://www.riegl.co.at/airborne_scannerss/airborne_scanners_literature_/downloads/advantages_of_echo_digitizati on_and_full_waveform_analysis.pdf. Last accessed 22.03.06.

For manufacturer (and other) link lists, see http://www.commission3.isprs.org/wg3/

Claus Brenner International Summer School Digital Recording and 3D Modeling, Aghios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece, 24-29 April 2006

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