Php ton hai ngi & Na nhm

(Nhc li cc khi nim c bn) PGS TS Trn an Th tdthu@fit.hcmus.edu.vn

Tm tt ni dung
Khi nim v v d v php ton Cc tnh cht kt hp, giao hon Phn t n v v tnh cht Na nhm V nhm Bi tp v n Thut ng v k hiu

nh ngha
Cho tp hp A . Php ton hai ngi (law of composition; binary operation) xc nh trn A, k hiu o, l mt nh x t A2 vo A: o: A2 A nh ca (x, y) A2 c vit l x o y. Cng ni l: Tp A c trang b php ton o v vit tt l (A, o). Vi n nguyn dng, mt php ton n ngi (n-ary operation) l mt nh x t An vo A.

V d 1
Trn tp hp s nguyn , nh ngha php ton x * y = x2 - 5y2. Ta c: 1 * 2 = 12 5 x 22 = -19 2 * 1 = 22 5 x 12 = -1 3 * 2 = 32 5 x 22 = 9 20 = -11 3 * (2 * 1) = 3 * (-1) = 32 5 x (-1)2 = 4 (3 * 2) * 1 = 4 * 1 = 42 5 x 12 = 11

Nhng tnh cht (c th c)

Php ton o xc nh trn tp A c gi l c tnh giao hon (commutative) nu: x, yA, x o y = y o x. c tnh kt hp (associative) nu: x, y, zA, x o (y o z) = (x o y) o z. c phn t n v (unit element) nu tn ti eA sao cho: xA, e o x = x o e = x.

Mnh : Xt php ton o xc nh trn tp A c tnh cht kt hp. Vic tnh ton biu thc gm n phn t a1, a2, , an khng ph thuc vo cch t du ngoc. V vy c th k hiu: a1 o a2 o o an ch kt qu chung .
V d. Vi bn phn t a, b, c, d a o (b o (c o d)) a o ((b o c) o d) (a o b) o (c o d) Kt qu nh nhau (a o (b o c)) o d ((a o b) o c) o d

Mnh :
Xt php ton o xc nh trn tp A . Phn t n v nu c th duy nht. Gi s c hai phn t n v e1 v e2. V e1 l phn t n v: e1 o e2 = e2 o e1 = e2. V e2 l phn t n v: e1 o e2 = e2 o e1 = e1. Do : e1 = e2 (v cng bng e1 o e2).

V d 2
Xt php ton x * y = x2 - 5y2 trn , ta c:
1 * 2 = -19 -1 = 2 * 1 (khng giao hon) 3 * (2 * 1) = 4 11 = (3 * 2) * 1 (khng kt hp)

Nu c phn t n v e th:
e * x = x * e = x vi mi x e2 5x2 = x = x2 5e2 vi mi x

iu ny khng tha mn (chng hn chn x=1 th e2 = 6 v 5e2 = 0 : mu thun).

Phn t n v mt bn
Php ton o xc nh trn tp A . Phn t e l n v tri (left unit) nu: xA, e o x = x. Phn t e l n v phi (right unit) nu: xA, x o e = x. V d: Php ton x * y = x2y vi x, y l s thc, c hai n v tri l 1 v -1, nhng khng c n v phi. Xem tnh cht tng qut

Tnh cht v cc phn t n v

Mnh : Nu php ton o trn tp A c n v tri e1 v n v phi e2 th e1=e2, v do php ton c phn t n v e =e1=e2. Chng minh
V e1 l n v tri: e1 o e2 = e2 ; V e2 l n v phi: e1 o e2 = e1 ; Do t e = e1 = e2 (v cng bng e1 o e2), ta c: e o x = x = x o e vi mi xA.

H qu: Nu mt php ton c 2 n v tri e1, e2 khc nhau (e1 e2 ) th s khng c n v phi (v do khng c n v).

K hiu v s lm dng k hiu

Ngi ta thng dng k hiu + cho mt php ton bt k c tnh giao hon (khng chc l php cng s thng thng).
V d: Php cng ma trn, php cng vector.

Nu php ton giao hon c k hiu l + th phn t n v (nu c) s c k hiu l 0 v gi l phn t khng (zero) hay phn t trung ha.
Ch phn bit vi s 0 ty theo ng cnh.

Php ton bt k cng c th c k hiu theo php nhn (dng du chm), lc x.y cng vit l xy. Lc , phn t n v (nu c) s c k hiu l 1.
Ch phn bit vi s 1 ty theo ng cnh.

Na nhm & V nhm Na nhm (semi-group): Tp hp c trang b php ton c tnh kt hp. V nhm (monoid): Na nhm c phn t n v. V nhm giao hon (commutative monoid):
Php ton c tnh kt hp; Php ton c tnh giao hon; Php ton c phn t n v.

V d 3. Chui k t
Xt tp hp ST gm cc chui k t ASCII vi php ton ghp chui (k hiu l &)
Php ghp chui c tnh kt hp; Php ghp chui khng c tnh giao hon; Phn t n v l chui rng (empty string).

Nh vy (ST, &) l mt v nhm (khng giao hon).

V d 4. Php ton trn tp hp

Xt tp hp X v P(X) l tp hp cc tp con ca X.
Cu trc (P(X), ) l mt v nhm giao hon vi phn t n v l tp . Cu trc (P(X), ) l mt v nhm giao hon vi phn t n v l tp X.

K hiu ly tha n hay gp n ln Gi s (A, o) l na nhm v aA, khi vic tnh ton a, a, , a (n ln) khng ph thuc cch t du ngoc.
Biu thc: a o a o o a (n ln) k hiu l an ; nu c phn t n v e th qui c l a0 = e. (mi php ton k hiu nhn u dng qui c ny). Vi php ton k hiu cng (+) th: a + a + + a (n ln) k hiu l na Qui c 0a = 0 khi php ton c phn t trung ha k hiu l 0. Tnh cht

Tnh cht
Na nhm A vi x, yA v m, n nguyn dng. Vi php ton k hiu nhn
Ta c tnh cht: xm+n = xm xn ; Nu php ton giao hon: (xy)n = xn yn.

Vi php ton k hiu cng

Ta c tnh cht: (m+n)x = mx + nx ; Nu php ton giao hon: n(x+y) = nx + ny.

(i vi v nhm th m, n c th bng 0).

Bi tp v n
Bi tp l thuyt
Ni dung: cc tnh ton, chng minh trn giy minh ha v cng c kin thc l thuyt. Lm trc, s sa v tho lun trn lp. (Xem danh sch cc bi tp.)

Bi tp lp trnh
Tnh ton lin quan php ton khng kt hp. Kim tra tnh cht ca php ton. (Suy ngh trc v tng, s giao c t chi tit.)

Cc thut ng chnh
Set: tp hp; empty set: tp rng; Element: phn t; Map, mapping, function: nh x; Injective map: n nh (into); Surjective map: ton nh (onto); Bijective map: song nh; Law of composition, binary operation: php ton; Unit element: phn t n v; Semi-group: na nhm; Monoid: v nhm;