GAS DYNAMICS Notes PDF

LECTURE NOTES ON GAS DYNAMICS
Joseph M. Powers Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering University of Notre Dame Notre Dame, Indiana 46556-5637 USA updated 31 March 2012, 10:29pm
CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
Contents
Preface 1 Introduction 1.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Motivating examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Re-entry ows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1.1 Bow shock wave . . . . . . . 1.2.1.2 Rarefaction (expansion) wave 1.2.1.3 Momentum boundary layer . 1.2.1.4 Thermal boundary layer . . . 1.2.1.5 Vibrational relaxation eects 1.2.1.6 Dissociation eects . . . . . . 1.2.2 Rocket nozzle ows . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Jet engine inlets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 15 15 15 16 17 17 17 20 21 22 22 22 22 22 22 23 24
2 Governing equations 2.1 Mathematical preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Vectors and tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Gradient, divergence, and material derivatives 2.1.3 Conservative and non-conservative forms . . . 2.1.3.1 Conservative form . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3.2 Non-conservative form . . . . . . . . 2.2 Summary of full set of compressible viscous equations 2.3 Conservation axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Conservation of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1.1 Nonconservative form . . . . . . . . 2.3.1.2 Conservative form . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1.3 Incompressible form . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Conservation of linear momenta . . . . . . . . 2.3.2.1 Nonconservative form . . . . . . . . 2.3.2.2 Conservative form . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Conservation of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4 2.3.3.1 Nonconservative form . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3.2 Mechanical energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3.3 Conservative form . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3.4 Energy equation in terms of entropy . . . 2.3.4 Entropy inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Constitutive relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Stress-strain rate relationship for Newtonian uids . 2.4.2 Fouriers law for heat conduction . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Variable rst coecient of viscosity, . . . . . . . . 2.4.3.1 Typical values of for air and water . . . 2.4.3.2 Common models for . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.4 Variable second coecient of viscosity, . . . . . . 2.4.5 Variable thermal conductivity, k . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.5.1 Typical values of k for air and water . . . 2.4.5.2 Common models for k . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.6 Thermal equation of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.6.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.6.2 Typical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.7 Caloric equation of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.7.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.7.2 Typical models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Special cases of governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 One-dimensional equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Euler equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.3 Incompressible Navier-Stokes equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 25 25 26 26 29 29 33 34 34 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 36 36 36 37 37 37 38 38 39 39 40 44 45 47 53 55 61 62 63 63 65 72 73
2.4
2.5
3 Thermodynamics review 3.1 Preliminary mathematical concepts . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Summary of thermodynamic concepts . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Maxwell relations and secondary properties . . . . . . 3.3.1 Internal energy from thermal equation of state 3.3.2 Sound speed from thermal equation of state . 3.4 Canonical equations of state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Isentropic relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 One-dimensional compressible ow 4.1 Generalized one-dimensional equations 4.1.1 Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.4 Inuence coecients . . . . . . 4.2 Flow with area change . . . . . . . . .
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CONTENTS 4.2.1 Isentropic Mach number relations . . . . . 4.2.2 Sonic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Eect of area change . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Choking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal shock waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Rayleigh line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Hugoniot curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Solution procedure for general equations of 4.3.5 Calorically perfect ideal gas solutions . . . 4.3.6 Acoustic limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.7 Non-ideal gas solutions . . . . . . . . . . . Flow with area change and normal shocks . . . . 4.4.1 Converging nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Converging-diverging nozzle . . . . . . . . Flow with frictionFanno ow . . . . . . . . . . . Flow with heat transferRayleigh ow . . . . . . Numerical solution of the shock tube problem . . 4.7.1 One-step techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.2 Lax-Friedrichs technique . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.3 Lax-Wendro technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 73 81 82 84 87 88 89 89 91 91 102 103 107 107 108 111 117 122 122 123 123 125 126 126 126 126 127 138 141 145 145 146 146 147 147 148 152 153 153
4.3
4.4
4.5 4.6 4.7
5 Steady supersonic two-dimensional ow 5.1 Two-dimensional equations . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Conservative form . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Non-conservative form . . . . . . . 5.2 Mach waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Oblique shock waves . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Small disturbance theory . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Centered Prandtl-Meyer rarefaction . . . . 5.6 Wave interactions and reections . . . . . 5.6.1 Oblique shock reected from a wall 5.6.2 Oblique shock intersection . . . . . 5.6.3 Shock strengthening . . . . . . . . 5.6.4 Shock weakening . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Supersonic ow over airfoils . . . . . . . . 5.7.1 Flat plate at angle of attack . . . . 5.7.2 Diamond-shaped airfoil . . . . . . . 5.7.3 General curved airfoil . . . . . . . . 5.7.4 Transonic transition . . . . . . . .
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6 6 Linear ow analysis 6.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Subsonic ow . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Prandtl-Glauret rule . 6.2.2 Flow over wavy wall . 6.3 Supersonic ow . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 DAlemberts solution 6.3.2 Flow over wavy wall .
CONTENTS 155 155 155 156 156 156 156 156 157 157 158 161 161 162 162 163 163 163
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7 Viscous ow 7.1 Governing equations . . . . . . . . 7.2 Couette ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Suddenly accelerated at plate . . . 7.3.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Velocity prole . . . . . . . 7.4 Starting transient for plane Couette 7.5 Blasius boundary layer . . . . . . . 7.5.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . 7.5.2 Wall shear stress . . . . . .
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8 Acoustics 165 8.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 8.2 Planar waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 8.3 Spherical waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Preface
These are a set of class notes for a gas dynamics/viscous ow course taught to juniors in Aerospace Engineering at the University of Notre Dame during the mid 1990s. The course builds upon foundations laid in an earlier course where the emphasis was on subsonic ideal ows. Consequently, it is expected that the student has some familiarity with many concepts such as material derivatives, control volume analysis, derivation of governing equations, etc. Additionally, rst courses in thermodynamics and dierential equations are probably necessary. Even a casual reader will nd gaps, errors, and inconsistencies. The author welcomes comments and corrections. It is also noted that these notes have been inuenced by a variety of standard references, which are sporadically and incompletely noted in the text. Some of the key references which were important in the development of these notes are the texts of Shapiro, Liepmann and Roshko, Anderson, Courant and Friedrichs, Hughes and Brighton, White, Sonntag and Van Wylen, and Zucrow and Homan. At this stage, if anyone outside Notre Dame nds these useful, they are free to make copies. Full information on the course is found at http://www.nd.edu/powers/ame.30332 . Joseph M. Powers powers@nd.edu http://www.nd.edu/powers Notre Dame, Indiana; USA = $ CC BY: 31 March 2012
The content of this book is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0.
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Introduction
Suggested Reading: Anderson, Chapter 1: pp. 1-31
1.1
Denitions
The topic of this course is the aerodynamics of compressible and viscous ow. Where does aerodynamics rest in the taxonomy of mechanics? Aerodynamicsa branch of dynamics that deals with the motion of air and other gaseous uids and with the forces acting on bodies in motion relative to such uids (e.g. airplanes) We can say that aerodynamics is a subset of () uid dynamics since air is but one type of uid, uid mechanics since dynamics is part of mechanics, mechanics since uid mechanics is one class of mechanics. Mechanicsa branch of physical science that deals with forces and the motion of bodies traditionally broken into: kinematicsstudy of motion without regard to causality dynamics (kinetics)study of forces which give rise to motion Examples of other subsets of mechanics: 9
10 solid mechanics quantum mechanics celestial mechanics relativistic mechanics quantum-electrodynamics (QED) magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD) Recall the denition of a uid:
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Fluida material which moves when a shear force is applied. Recall that solids can, after a small displacement, relax to an equilibrium conguration when a shear force is applied. Recall also that both liquids and gases are uids The motion of both liquids and gases can be aected by compressibility and shear forces. While shear forces are important for both types of uids, the inuence of compressibility in gases is generally more signicant. The thrust of this class will be to understand how to model the eects of compressibility and shear forces and how this impacts the design of aerospace vehicles.
1.2
Motivating examples
The following two examples serve to illustrate why knowledge of compressibility and shear eects is critical.
1.2.1
Re-entry ows
A range of phenomena are present in the re-entry of a vehicle into the atmosphere. This is an example of an external ow. See Figure 1.1. 1.2.1.1 Bow shock wave
suddenly raises density, temperature and pressure of shocked air; consider normal shock in ideal air o = 1.16 kg/m3 s = 6.64 kg/m3 (over ve times as dense!!)
To = 300 K Ts = 6, 100 K (hot as the suns surface !!)

1.2. MOTIVATING EXAMPLES
11
far-field acoustic wave
rarefaction waves
viscous and thermal boundary layers Oblique Shock Wave
Ambient Air
Normal Shock Wave
Figure 1.1: Fluid mechanics phenomena in re-entry Po = 1.0 atm Ps = 116.5 atm (tremendous force change!!)
sudden transfer of energy from kinetic (ordered) to thermal (random) introduces inviscid entropy/vorticity layer into post-shocked ow normal shock standing o leading edge conical oblique shock away from leading edge acoustic wave in far eld 1.2.1.2 Rarefaction (expansion) wave
lowers density, temperature, and pressure of air continuously and signicantly interactions with bow shock weaken bow shock 1.2.1.3 Momentum boundary layer
occurs in thin layer near surface where velocity relaxes from freestream to zero to satisfy the no-slip condition necessary to predict viscous drag forces on body
12 1.2.1.4 Thermal boundary layer
as uid decelerates in momentum boundary layer kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy temperature rises can be signicant (> 1, 000 K ) 1.2.1.5 Vibrational relaxation eects
energy partitioned into vibrational modes in addition to translational lowers temperature that would otherwise be realized important for air above 800 K unimportant for monatomic gases 1.2.1.6 Dissociation eects
eect which happens when multi-atomic molecules split into constituent atoms O2 totally dissociated into O near 4, 000 K N2 totally dissociated into N near 9, 000 K For T > 9, 000 K , ionized plasmas begin to form Vibrational relaxation, dissociation, and ionization can be accounted for to some extent by introducing a temperature-dependent specic heat cv (T )
1.2.2
Rocket nozzle ows
The same essential ingredients are present in ows through rocket nozzles. This is an example of an internal ow, see Figure 1.2
viscous and thermal boundary layers burning solid rocket fuel
burning solid rocket fuel possible normal shock
Figure 1.2: Fluid mechanics phenomena in rocket nozzles Some features:

1.2. MOTIVATING EXAMPLES well-modelled as one-dimensional ow
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large thrust relies on subsonic to supersonic transition in a converging-diverging nozzle away from design conditions normal shocks can exist in nozzle viscous and thermal boundary layers must be accounted for in design
1.2.3
Jet engine inlets
The same applies for the internal ow inside a jet engine, see Figure 1.3
viscous and thermal boundary layers oblique shock
compressor inlet
combustor
turbine
exhaust
Figure 1.3: Fluid mechanics phenomena in jet engine inlet
14
Chapter 2 Governing equations

Suggested Reading: Hughes and Brighton, Chapter 3: pp. 44-64 Liepmann and Roshko, Chapter 7: pp. 178-190, Chapter 13: pp. 305-313, 332-338 Anderson, Chapter 2: pp. 32-44; Chapter 6: pp. 186-205 The equations which govern a wide variety of these ows are the compressible NavierStokes equations. In general they are quite complicated and require numerical solution. We will only consider small subsets of these equations in practice, but it is instructive to see them in full glory at the outset.
2.1
Mathematical preliminaries
A few concepts which may be new or need re-emphasis are introduced here.
2.1.1
Vectors and tensors
One way to think of vectors and tensors is as follows: rst order tensor: vector, associates a scalar with any direction in space, column matrix second order tensor: tensor-associates a vector with any direction in space, twodimensional matrix third order tensor-associates a second order tensor with any direction in space, threedimensional matrix fourth order tensor-... 15
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CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS
Here a vector, denoted by boldface, denotes a quantity which can be decomposed as a sum of scalars multiplying orthogonal basis vectors, i.e.: v = ui + v j + w k (2.1)
2.1.2
Gradient, divergence, and material derivatives
The del operator, , is as follows: i +j +k x y z (2.2)
Recall the denition of the material derivative also known as the substantial or total derivative: d +v dt t where Example 2.1
Does v = v = v? v=u v= +v +w x y z u v w + + x y z
x u y u z v x v y v z w x w y w z
(2.3)
(2.4) (2.5)
So, no.
v =
(2.6)
Here the quantity v is an example of a second order tensor. Also v v div v div v v grad v grad (2.7) (2.8) (2.9) (2.10)
2.1. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES
17
2.1.3
Conservative and non-conservative forms
If hi is a column vector of N variables, e.g. hi = [h1 , h2 , h3 , ...hN ]T , and fi (hi ) gi (hi ) are a column vectors of N functions of the variables hi , and all variables are functions of x and t, hi = hi (x, t), fi (hi (x, t)), gi (hi (x, t)) then a system of partial dierential equations is in conservative form i the system can be written as follows: hi + (fi (hi )) = gi (hi ) x x A system not in this form is in non-conservative form
(2.11)
2.1.3.1
Conservative form
Advantages naturally arises from control volume derivation of governing equations clearly exposes groups of terms which are conserved easily integrated in certain special cases most natural form for deriving normal shock jump equations the method of choice for numerical simulations Disadvantages lengthy not commonly used dicult to see how individual variables change 2.1.3.2 Non-conservative form
Advantages compact commonly used can see how individual variables change Disadvantages often dicult to use to get solutions to problems
18
CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS gives rise to articial instabilities if used in numerical simulation
Example 2.2
Kinematic wave equation The kinematic wave equation in non-conservative form is u u +u =0 t x
(2.12)
This equation has the same mathematical form as inviscid equations of gas dynamics which give rise to discontinuous shock waves. Thus understanding the solution of this simple equation is very useful in understanding equations with more physical signicance. Since u u x =
x u2 2
the kinematic wave equation in conservative form is as follows: u + t x u2 2
=0
(2.13)
Here hi = u, fi =
u2 2 , gi
= 0.
t
Consider the special case of a steady state be integrated!
0. Then the conservative form of the equation can
d u2 =0 dx 2 u2 u2 = o 2 2 u = uo
(2.14) (2.15) (2.16)
Now u = uo satises the equation and so does u = uo . These are both smooth solutions. In addition, combinations also satisfy, e.g. u = uo , x < 0; u = uo , x 0. This is a discontinuous solution. Also note the solution is not unique. This is a consequence of the u u x non-linearity. This is an example of a type of shock wave. Which solution is achieved generally depends on terms we have neglected, especially unsteady terms.
Example 2.3
Burgers equation Burgers equation in non-conservative form is u u 2u +u = 2 t x x CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
(2.17)
2.1. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES
19
This equation has the same mathematical form as viscous equations of gas dynamics which give rise to spatially smeared shock waves. Place this in conservative form: u u u +u =0 t x x x u u2 u =0 + t x 2 x x u u2 u =0 + t x 2 x (2.18) (2.19) (2.20)
x
Here, this equation is not strictly in conservative form as it still involves derivatives inside the operator. Consider the special case of a steady state be integrated!
t
0. Then the conservative form of the equation can =0 (2.21)
du d u2 dx 2 dx Let u uo as x (consequently
u x
0 as x ) and u(0) = 0 so (2.22) (2.23) (2.24) (2.25) (2.26) (2.27) (2.28) (2.29) (2.30) (2.31)
u2 du u2 = o 2 dx 2 1 2 du 2 u uo = dx 2 dx du = u2 u2 2 o dx du = 2 u2 2 ou 1 x 1 u tanh = +C uo uo 2 uo u(x) = uo tanh x + Cuo 2 u(0) = 0 = uo tanh (Cuo ) C=0 uo u(x) = uo tanh x 2 lim u(x) = uo
x x
lim u(x) = uo
Note same behavior in far eld as kinematic wave equation zone thickness 0 as 0 continuous adjustment from uo to uo in a zone of thickness inviscid shock is limiting case of viscously resolved shock
2 uo
Figure 2.1 gives a plot of the solution to both the kinematic wave equation and Burgers equation.
20
u uo

u uo
x -uo -uo
Kinematic Wave Equation Solution Discontinuous Shock Wave
Burgers Equation Solution Smeared Shock Wave Shock Thickness ~ 2 / uo
Figure 2.1: Solutions to the kinematic wave equation and Burgers equation
2.2
Summary of full set of compressible viscous equations
A complete set of equations is given below. These are the compressible Navier-Stokes equations for an isotropic Newtonian uid with variable properties d + v = 0 dt dv = P + + g dt de = q P v + :v dt = v + v T + ( v ) I q = k T = (, T ) = (, T ) k = k (, T ) P = P (, T ) e = e (, T ) [1] [3] [1] [6] [3] [1] [1] [1] [1] [1] (2.32) (2.33) (2.34) (2.35) (2.36) (2.37) (2.38) (2.39) (2.40) (2.41)
The numbers in brackets indicate the number of equations. Here the unknowns are density kg/m3 (scalar-1 variable) vvelocity m/s (vector- 3 variables) P pressure N/m2 (scalar- 1 variable) einternal energy J/kg (scalar- 1 variable)
2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS T temperature K (scalar - 1 variable) viscous stress N/m2 (symmetric tensor - 6 variables) qheat ux vectorW/m2 (vector - 3 variables) rst coecient of viscosity Ns/m2 (scalar - 1 variable) second coecient of viscosity Ns/m2 (scalar - 1 variable) k thermal conductivity W/(m2 K ) (scalar - 1 variable)
21
Here g is the constant gravitational acceleration and I is the identity matrix. Total19 variables Points of the exercise 19 equations; 19 unknowns conservation axiomspostulates (rst three equations) constitutive relationsmaterial dependent (remaining equations) review of vector notation and operations Exercise: Determine the three Cartesian components of for a) a compressible Newtonian uid, and b) an incompressible Newtonian uid, in which v = 0. This system of equations must be consistent with the second law of thermodynamics. Dening the entropy s by the Gibbs relation: 1 ds de d 1 T = +P dt dt dt T ds = de + P d the second law states: (2.42) (2.43)
ds q (2.44) dt T In practice, this places some simple restrictions on the constitutive relations. It will be sometimes useful to write this in terms of the specic volume, v 1/. This can be confused with the y component of velocity but should be clear in context.
2.3
Conservation axioms
Conservation principles are axioms of mechanics and represent statements that cannot be proved. In that they provide predictions which are consistent with empirical observations, they are useful.
22
2.3.1
Conservation of mass
This principle states that in a material volume (a volume which always encompasses the same uid particles), the mass is constant. 2.3.1.1 Nonconservative form (2.45)
d + v = 0 dt This can be expanded using the denition of the material derivative to form +u +v +w + t x y x 2.3.1.2 Conservative form u v w + + x y z =0
(2.46)
Using the product rule gives (u) (v ) (w ) + + + =0 t x y z (2.47)
The equation essentially says that the net accumulation of mass within a control volume is attributable to the net ux of mass in and out of the control volume. In Gibbs notation this is + (v) = 0 (2.48) t 2.3.1.3 Incompressible form
I the uid is dened to be incompressible, d/dt 0, the consequence is v = 0, or u v w + + =0 x y z (2.49) (2.50)
As this course is mainly concerned with compressible ow, this will not be often used.
2.3.2
Conservation of linear momenta

F
This is really Newtons Second Law of Motion ma = 2.3.2.1
Nonconservative form dv = P + + g dt
(2.51)
: mass/volume
2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS

dv : dt
23
acceleration
P, : surface forces/volume g: body force/volume Example 2.4

Expand the term =
x y z
xx yx zx
xy yy zy
+ xz x xx + yz = x xy zz xz +
x
y yx y yy y yz
+ + +
z zx z zy z zz
(2.52)
This is a vector equation as there are three components of momenta. Lets consider the x momentum equation for example. P xx yx zx du = + + + + gx dt x x y z (2.53)
Now expand the material derivative: u u u u P xx yx zx + u + v + w = + + + + gx t x y z x x y z (2.54)
Equivalent equations exist for y and z linear momentum: 2.3.2.2 v v v v P xy yy zy + u + v + w = + + + + gy t x y z y x y z (2.55) (2.56)
w w w P xz yz zz w + u + v + w = + + + + gz t x y z z x y z Conservative form
Multiply the mass conservation principle by u so that it has the same units as the momentum equation and add to the x momentum equation: u + (u) (v ) (w ) +u +u +u =0 t x y z (2.57) (2.58)
u u u P xx yx zx u + u + v + w = + + + + gx t x y z x x y z
24 Using the product rule, this yields:
(u) (uu) (vu) (wu) P xx yx zx + + + = + + + + gx t x y z x x y z The extension to y and z momenta is straightforward: P xy yy zy (v ) (uv ) (vv ) (wv) + + + = + + + + gy t x y z y x y z
(2.59)
(2.60)
(w) (uw) (vw) (ww ) P xz yz zz + + + = + + + + gz (2.61) t x y z z x y z In vector form this is written as follows: (v) + (vv) = P + + g (2.62) t As with the mass equation, the time derivative can be interpreted as the accumulation of linear momenta within a control volume and the divergence term can be interpreted as the ux of linear momenta into the control volume. The accumulation and ux terms are balanced by forces, both surface and body.
2.3.3
Conservation of energy
This principle really is the rst law of thermodynamics, which states the change in internal energy of a body is equal to the heat added to the body minus the work done by the body; here includes both internal energy and kinetic energy and is written for an extensive The E system: = V e + 1 v v E (2.64) 2 2.3.3.1 Nonconservative form 2 E 1 = Q12 W12 E (2.63)
The equation we started with (which is in non-conservative form) de = q P v + :v (2.65) dt is simply a careful expression of the simple idea de = dq dw with attention paid to sign conventions, etc. : change in internal energy /volume de dt q: net heat transfer into uid/volume P v: net work done by uid due to pressure force/volume (force deformation) : v: net work done by uid due to viscous force/volume (force deformation)
2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS 2.3.3.2 Mechanical energy
25
Taking the dot product of the velocity v with the linear momentum principle yields the mechanical energy equation (here expressed in conservative form): 1 (v v ) + t 2 1 v (v v) 2 = v P + v ( ) + v g (2.66)
This can be interpreted as saying the kinetic energy (or mechanical energy) changes due to motion in the direction of a force imbalance v P v ( )
motion in the direction of a body force Exercise: Add the product of the mass equation and u2 /2 to the product of u and the one dimensional linear momentum equation: u u u + u t x =u P xx + + gx x x (2.67)
to form the conservative form of the one-dimensional mechanical energy equation: t 2.3.3.3 1 2 u 2 + 1 3 u x 2 = u P xx +u + ugx x x (2.68)
Conservative form
When we multiply the mass equation by e, we get e (u) (v ) (w ) +e +e +e =0 t x y z (2.69)
Adding this to the nonconservative energy equation gives (e) + (ve) = q P v + :v t (2.70)
Adding to this the mechanical energy equation gives the conservative form of the energy equation: 1 e+ vv t 2 1 e+ vv t 2 1 + v e + v v 2 = q (P v) + ( v) (2.71)
which is often written as 1 P + v e + v v + 2 = q + ( v) (2.72)
26 2.3.3.4
CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS Energy equation in terms of entropy
Recall the Gibbs relation which denes entropy s: T so also from the conservation of mass v = 1 d dt (2.75) ds de d = +P dt dt dt 1 = de P d dt 2 dt (2.73)
ds P d de = T + dt dt dt
(2.74)
Substitute into nonconservative energy equation: T Solve for entropy change: Two eects change entropy: heat transfer viscous work Note the work of the pressure force does not change entropy; it is reversible work. If there are no viscous and heat transfer eects, there is no mechanism for entropy change; ds/dt = 0; the ow is isentropic. ds P d P d + = q + + : v dt dt dt ds 1 1 = q + : v dt T T (2.76)
(2.77)
2.3.4
Entropy inequality
q T 1 q q 2 T T T
The rst law can be used to reduce the second law to a very simple form. Starting with so Substitute into the rst law: ds q 1 q 2 T + : v = dt T T T (2.80) = (2.78)
q q 1 2 T q = T T T
(2.79)
2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS Recall the second law of thermodynamics: ds q dt T
27
(2.81)
Substituting the rst law into the second law thus yields: q 1 T + : v 0 2 T T (2.82)
Our constitutive theory for q and must be constructed to be constructed so as not to violate the second law.
28
Exercise: Beginning with the unsteady, two-dimensional, compressible Navier-Stokes equations with no body force in conservative form (below), show all steps necessary to reduce these to the following non-conservative form. Conservative form + (u) + (v ) = 0 t x y (u) + (uu + P xx ) + (uv yx ) = 0 t x y (v ) + (vu xy ) + (vv + P yy ) = 0 t x y 1 2 e+ u + v2 t 2 1 2 P u e + u + v2 + (uxx + vxy ) + qx + x 2 1 2 P + v e + (uyx + vyy ) + qy = 0 u + v2 + y 2 Non-conservative form + +u +v t x y u P u u = +u +v t x y x P v v v = +u +v t x y y u v + x y xx + + x xy + + x =0 yx y yy y
e e e +u +v t x y qx qy = + x y u v P + x y u v u v +xx + xy + yx + yy x x y y
2.4. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS
29
2.4
Constitutive relations
These are determined from experiments and provide sometimes good and sometimes crude models for microstructurally based phenomena.
2.4.1
Stress-strain rate relationship for Newtonian uids
Perform the experiment described in Figure 2.2.

Force = F Velocity = U h
Figure 2.2: Schematic of experiment to determine stress-strain-rate relationship The following results are obtained, Figure 2.3:
F h1 h2 h3 F A4 A3 A2
h4
A1
U h4 > h3 > h2 > h1
U A4 > A3 > A2 > A1
Figure 2.3: Force (N ) vs. velocity (m/s) Note for constant plate velocity U small gap width h gives large force F large cross-sectional area A gives large force F When scaled by h and A, for a single uid, the curve collapses to a single curve, Figure 2.4:
u . y
The viscosity is dened as the ratio of the applied stress yx = F/A to the strain rate
30
F/A 1
U/h
Figure 2.4: Stress (N/m2 ) vs. strain rate (1/s)
yx
u y
(2.83)
Here the rst subscript indicates the face on which the force is acting, here the y face. The second subscript indicates the direction in which the force takes, here the x direction. In general viscous stress is a tensor quantity. In full detail it is as follows:
u x v x w x
This is simply an expanded form of that written originally: = v + v T + ( v ) I
u
x
= +
+ u x + u y + u z
w z
u y v y w y
v + x + v y + v z
u z v z w z
v y
+ w x + w y w + z 0 0
u x
0
u x
0 0
v y
w z
v y
w z
(2.84)
(2.85)
Here is the second coecient of viscosity. It is irrelevant in incompressible ows and notoriously dicult to measure in compressible ows. It has been the source of controversy for over 150 years. Commonly, and only for convenience, people take Stokes Assumption: 2 (2.86) 3 It can be shown that this results in the mean mechanical stress being equivalent to the thermodynamic pressure.
2.4. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS It can also be shown that the second law is satised if 0 Example 2.5
Couette Flow
31
and
2 3
(2.87)
Use the linear momentum principle and the constitutive theory to show the velocity prole between two plates is linear. The lower plate at y = 0 is stationary; the upper plate at y = h is moving at velocity U . Assume v = u(y )i + 0j + 0k. Assume there is no imposed pressure gradient or body force. Assume constant viscosity . Since u = u(y ), v = 0, w = 0, there is no uid acceleration. u u u u +u +v +w =0+0+0+0=0 t x y z Since no pressure gradient or body force the linear momentum principle is simply 0= With the Newtonian uid 0= With constant and u = u(y ) we have: Integrating we nd u = Ay + B Use the boundary conditions at y = 0 and y = h to give A and B : A = 0, so u(y ) = B= U y h U h (2.93) (2.92) d2 u =0 dx2 (2.91) y yx y u y (2.89) (2.88)
(2.90)
(2.94)
Example 2.6
Poiseuille Flow Consider ow between a slot separated by two plates, the lower at y = 0, the upper at y = h, both plates stationary. The ow is driven by a pressure dierence. At x = 0, P = Po ; at x = L, P = P1 . The uid has constant viscosity . Assuming the ow is steady, there is no body force, pressure varies only with x, and that the velocity is only in the x direction and only a function of y ; i.e. v = u(y) i, nd the velocity prole u(y ) parameterized by Po , P1 , h, and . CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
32

As before there is no acceleration and the x momentum equation reduces to: 0= First lets nd the pressure eld; take /x: 0= changing order of dierentiation: 2P 2u + x2 x y 2 2P 2 u 0= 2 + 2 x y x 2 d2 P P 0= 2 = 2 x dx dP =A dx P = Ax + B P (0) = Po (2.96) (2.97) (2.98) (2.99) (2.100) (2.101) (2.102) (2.103) (2.104) (2.105) (2.106) (2.107) (2.108) (2.109) (2.110) (2.111) (2.112) (2.113) 2u P + 2 x y (2.95)
apply boundary conditions :
P (L) = P1 x P (x) = Po + (P1 Po ) L (P1 Po ) dP = so dx L d2 u (P1 Po ) + 2 substitute into momentum: 0= L dy 2 (P1 Po ) d u = dy 2 L (P1 Po ) du = y + C1 dy L (P1 Po ) 2 u(y ) = y + C1 y + C2 2L boundary conditions: u(0) = 0 = C2 (P1 Po ) 2 u(h) = 0 = h + C1 h + 0 2L (P1 Po ) C1 = h 2L (P1 Po ) 2 y yh u(y ) = 2L (P1 Po ) du = (2y h) wall shear: dy 2L (P1 Po ) du = h wall = dy y=0 2L
Exercise: Consider ow between a slot separated by two plates, the lower at y = 0, the upper at y = h, with the bottom plate stationary and the upper plate moving at velocity
2.4. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS
33
U . The ow is driven by a pressure dierence and the motion of the upper plate. At x = 0, P = Po ; at x = L, P = P1 . The uid has constant viscosity . Assuming the ow is steady, there is no body force, pressure varies only with x, and that the velocity is only in the x direction and only a function of y ; i.e. v = u(y )i, a) nd the velocity prole u(y ) parameterized by Po , P1 , h, U and ; b) Find U such that there is no net mass ux between the plates.
2.4.2
Fouriers law for heat conduction
It is observed in experiment that heat moves from regions of high temperature to low temperature Perform the experiment described in Figure 2.5.
x T A L q To
T > To
Figure 2.5: Schematic of experiment to determine thermal conductivity The following results are obtained, Figure 2.6:
Q t3 t2 t1 Q A3 A2 A1 Q L1 L2 L1
T t3 > t2 > t1 A3 > A2 > A1
T L3 > L2 > L1
Figure 2.6: Heat transferred (J ) vs. temperature (K ) Note for constant temperature of the high temperature reservoir T large time of heat transfer t gives large heat transfer Q large cross-sectional area A gives large heat transfer Q small length L gives large heat transfer Q When scaled by L, t, and A, for a single uid, the curve collapses to a single curve, Figure 2.7:
34
Q/(A t)
k 1
T/L
Figure 2.7: heat ux vs. temperature gradient The thermal conductivity is dened as the ratio of the ux of heat transfer qx Q/(At) to the temperature gradient T T /L. x k so qx T x T x (2.114)
qx = k or in vector notation:
(2.115) (2.116)
q = k T
Note with this form, the contribution from heat transfer to the entropy production is guaranteed positive if k 0. k T T 1 + : v 0 2 T T (2.117)
2.4.3
Variable rst coecient of viscosity,
In general the rst coecient of viscosity is a thermodynamic property which is a strong function of temperature and a weak function of pressure. 2.4.3.1 Typical values of for air and water
air at 300 K, 1 atm : 18.46 106 (Ns)/m2 air at 400 K, 1 atm : 23.01 106 (Ns)/m2 liquid water at 300 K, 1 atm : 855 106 (Ns)/m2
2.4. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS liquid water at 400 K, 1 atm : 217 106 (Ns)/m2 viscosity of air an order of magnitude less than water
T T
35
Note
> 0 for air, and gases in general < 0 for water, and liquids in general Common models for
2.4.3.2
constant property: = o kinetic theory estimate for high temperature gas: (T ) = o empirical data
T To
2.4.4
Variable second coecient of viscosity,
Very little data for any material exists for the second coecient of viscosity. It only plays a role in compressible viscous ows, which are typically very high speed. Some estimates:
2 , may be correct for monatomic gases Stokes hypothesis: = 3
may be inferred from attenuation rates of sound waves perhaps may be inferred from shock wave thicknesses
2.4.5
Variable thermal conductivity, k
In general thermal conductivity k is a thermodynamic property which is a strong function of temperature and a weak function of pressure. 2.4.5.1 Typical values of k for air and water
air at 300 K, 1 atm : 26.3 103 W/(mK ) air at 400 K, 1 atm : 33.8 103 W/(mK ) liquid water at 300 K, 1 atm : 613 103 W/(mK ) Note liquid water at 400 K, 1 atm : 688 103 W/(mK ) (the liquid here is supersaturated) conductivity of air is one order of magnitude less than water
k T k T
> 0 for air, and gases in general > 0 for water in this range, generalization dicult
36 2.4.5.2 Common models for k
constant property: k = ko kinetic theory estimate for high temperature gas: k (T ) = ko empirical data Exercise: Consider one-dimensional steady heat conduction in a uid at rest. At x = 0 m at constant heat ux is applied qx = 10 W/m2 . At x = 1 m, the temperature is held constant at 300 K . Find T (y ), T (0) and qx (1) for liquid water with k = 613 103 W/(mK ) air with k = 26.3 103 W/(mK ) air with k = 26.3 103
T 300 T To
W/(mK )
2.4.6
2.4.6.1
Thermal equation of state

Description
determined in static experiments gives P as a function of and T 2.4.6.2 Typical models
ideal gas: P = RT rst virial: P = RT (1 + b1 ) general virial: P = RT (1 + b1 + b2 2 + ...) van der Waals: P = RT (1/ b)1 a2
2.4.7
2.4.7.1
Caloric equation of state

Description
determined in experiments gives e as function of and T in general arbitrary constant appears must also be thermodynamically consistent via relation to be discussed later:
2.5. SPECIAL CASES OF GOVERNING EQUATIONS 1 2 P T
37
de = cv (T ) dT
(2.118)
With knowledge of cv (T ) and P (, T ), the above can be integrated to nd e. 2.4.7.2 Typical models
consistent with ideal gas: constant specic heat: e(T ) = cvo (T To ) + eo temperature dependent specic heat: e(T ) = consistent with rst virial: e(T ) =
T To T To
)d T + eo c v (T
)d T + eo c v (T
T To
consistent with van der Waals: e(, T ) =
)d T + a ( o ) + eo c v (T
2.5
Special cases of governing equations
The governing equations are often expressed in more simple forms in common limits. Some are listed here.
2.5.1
One-dimensional equations
Most of the mystery of vector notation is removed in the one-dimensional limit where v = w = 0, y = z = 0; additionally we adopt Stokes assumption = (2/3): u + +u =0 t x x P 4 u = + gx + x x 3 x T k x u 4 u P + x 3 x = (, T ) k = k (, T ) P = P (, T ) e = e (, T )
2
(2.119) (2.120) (2.121) (2.122) (2.123) (2.124) (2.125)
u u +u t x = x
e e +u t x
note: 7 equations, 7 unknowns: (, u, P, e, T, , k )

38
2.5.2
Euler equations
d + v = 0 dt dv = P dt de d 1 = P dt dt e = e (P, )
When viscous stresses and heat conduction neglected, the Euler equations are obtained. (2.126) (2.127) (2.128) (2.129)
Note: 6 equations, 6 unknowns (, u, v, w, P, e) body force neglected-usually unimportant in this limit easy to show this is isentropic ow; energy change is all due to reversible P dv work Exercise: Write the one-dimensional Euler equations in a) non-conservative form, b) conservative form. Show all steps which lead from one form to the other.
2.5.3
Incompressible Navier-Stokes equations
If we take, , k, , cp to be constant for an ideal gas and neglect viscous dissipation which is usually small in such cases: dv = P + 2 v dt dT = k 2 T cp dt v =0 (2.130) (2.131) (2.132)
Note: 5 equations, 5 unknowns: (u, v, w, P, T ) mass and momentum uncoupled from energy energy coupled to mass and momentum detailed explanation required for use of cp
Chapter 3 Thermodynamics review

Suggested Reading: Liepmann and Roshko, Chapter 1: pp. 1-24, 34-38 Shapiro, Chapter 2: pp. 23-44 Anderson, Chapter 1: pp. 12-25 As we have seen from the previous chapter, the subject of thermodynamics is a subset of the topic of viscous compressible ows. It is almost always necessary to consider the thermodynamics as part of a larger coupled system in design. This is in contrast to incompressible aerodynamics which can determine forces independent of the thermodynamics.
3.1
If
Preliminary mathematical concepts

z = z (x, y ) (3.1) dy
x
then dz = which is of the form
z x
dx +
y
z y
(3.2)
dz = Mdx + Ndy Now M z = y y x z N = x x y N M = y x
(3.3)
(3.4) (3.5) (3.6)
thus
so the implication is that if we are given dz, M, N , we can form z only if the above holds. 39
40
CHAPTER 3. THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW
3.2
Summary of thermodynamic concepts

extensive: proportional to systems mass, upper case variable E, S, H intensive: independent of systems mass, lower case variable e, s, h, (exceptions T, P )
property: characterizes the thermodynamics state of the system
equations of state: relate properties Any intensive thermodynamic property can be expressed as a function of at most two other intensive thermodynamic properties (for simple systems) P = RT : thermal equation of state for ideal gas c= P : sound speed for calorically perfect ideal gas
= Q W rst law: dE second law: dS Q/T process: moving from one state to another, in general with accompanying heat transfer and work cycle: process which returns to initial state reversible work: w12 =
2 1
P dv
2 1
reversible heat transfer: q12 =
T ds
Figure 3.1 gives a sketch of an isothermal thermodynamic process going from state 1 to state 2. The gure shows a variety of planes, P v , T s, P T , and v T . For ideal gases, 1) isotherms are hyperbolas in the P v plane: P = (RT )/v , 2) isochores are straight lines in the P T plane: P = (R/v )T , with large v giving a small slope, and 3) isobars are straight lines in the v T plane: v = (RT )/P , with large P giving a small slope. The area under the curve in the P v plane gives the work. The area under the curve in the T s plane gives the heat transfer. The energy change is given by the dierence in the heat transfer and the work. The isochores in the T s plane are non-trivial. For a calorically perfect ideal gas, they are given by exponential curves. Figure 3.2 gives a sketch of a thermodynamic cycle. Here we only sketch the P v and T s planes, though others could be included. Since it is a cyclic process, there is no net energy change for the cycle and the cyclic work equals the cyclic heat transfer. The enclosed area in the P v plane, i.e. the net work, equals the enclosed area in the T s plane, i.e. the net heat transfer. The sketch has the cycle working in the direction which corresponds to an engine. A reversal of the direction would correspond to a refrigerator.
3.2. SUMMARY OF THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS
41
T
v1
P1 T1 = T2 P2 v1
2
v2
T1 = T2 v2 w12= 1 P dv v e 2- e 1= q 12- w12 v v2 v2 P1 s1

2
s2
q12= 1 T ds P2
P P1
v1
P2 T1 = T 2
v1 T1 = T 2 T
Figure 3.1: Sketch of isothermal thermodynamic process
Example 3.1
Consider the following isobaric process for air, modelled as a calorically perfect ideal gas, from state 1 to state 2. P1 = 100 kP a, T1 = 300 K , T2 = 400 K . Since the process is isobaric P = 100 kP a describes a straight line in P v and P T planes and P2 = P1 = 100 kP a. Since ideal gas, v T plane: v= R P T straight lines! (3.7)
v1 = RT1 /P1 =
(287 J/kg/K ) (300 K ) = 0.861 m3 /kg 100, 000 P a (287 J/kg/K ) (400 K ) v2 = RT2 /P2 = = 1.148 m3 /kg 100, 000 P a
(3.8) (3.9)
Since calorically perfect: de = cv dT

e1 T1
(3.10) (3.11) (3.12) (3.13) (3.14)
de = cv
e2 T2
dT
= (716.5 J/kg/K ) (400 K 300 K ) = 71, 650 J/kg
e2 e1 = cv (T2 T1 )
42
v q cycle = wcycle
Figure 3.2: Sketch of thermodynamic cycle

also T ds = de + P dv T ds = cv dT + P dv R RT dv = dT 2 dP P P RT T ds = cv dT + RdT dP P dP dT R ds = (cv + R) T P dP dT R ds = (cv + cp cv ) T P dP dT R ds = cp T P T2 s2 P2 dT dP ds = cp R T P T1 s1 P1 P2 T2 R ln s2 s1 = cp ln T1 P1 T P s so = cp ln R ln To Po RT : v= P (3.15) (3.16) (3.17) (3.18) (3.19) (3.20) (3.21) (3.22) (3.23) (3.24)
from ideal gas :
since P = constant: T2 s2 s1 = cp ln T1 400 K = (1003.5 J/kg/K ) ln 300 K = 288.7 J/kg/K

v2 v2
(3.25) (3.26) (3.27) (3.28)
w12 =
v1
P dv = P
v1
dv
(3.29) (3.30)
= P (v2 v1 ) CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
3.2. SUMMARY OF THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS

= (100, 000 P a)(1.148 m3 /kg 0.861 m3 /kg ) = 29, 600 J/kg Now de = q w
43
(3.31) (3.32)
(3.33) (3.34) (3.35) (3.36) (3.37)
q12
q12 = 71, 650 J/kg + 29, 600 J/kg q12 = 101, 250 J/kg
q = de + w = (e2 e1 ) + w12
Now in this process the gas is heated from 300 K to 400 K . We would expect at a minimum that the surroundings were at 400 K . Lets check for second law satisfaction. q12 ? Tsurr 101, 250 J/kg 288.7 J/kg/K ? 400 K 288.7 J/kg/K 253.1 J/kg/K yes s2 s1 (3.38) (3.39) (3.40)
T
v1
P1= P2 = 100 kPa
T2 T1 s1 q12= 1 T ds
2
v2
T2 T1 = 300 K v1
2
v2 w12= 1 P dv
v e 2- e 1= q 12- w12 v v2
P1= P2 = 100 kPa
s2
v1
P1= P2 = 100 kPa
v2 v1
T1
T2
T1
T2
Figure 3.3: Sketch for isobaric example problem
44
3.3
Recall
Maxwell relations and secondary properties

de = T ds P d 1 (3.41)
Since v 1/ we get Now we assume e = e(s, v ),
de = T ds P dv de = e s ds +
v
(3.42)
e v
dv
s
(3.43)
Thus T = and T v =
s
e s
P =
e v
(3.44)
s
2e vs
P s
2e sv
(3.45)
Thus we get a Maxwell relation: T v Dene the following properties: enthalpy: h e + pv Helmholtz free energy: a e T s Gibbs free energy: g h T s Now with these denitions it is easy to form dierential relations using the Gibbs relation as a root. h = e + Pv dh = de + P dv + vdP de = dh P dv vdP substitute into Gibbs: de = T ds P dv dh P dv vdP = T ds P dv dh = T ds + vdP
P s
(3.46)
v
(3.47) (3.48) (3.49) (3.50) (3.51) (3.52)
3.3. MAXWELL RELATIONS AND SECONDARY PROPERTIES
45
So s and P are natural variables for h. Through a very similar process we get the following relationships: h s =T
P
a = P v T g =v P T T P =
s
h =v P s a = s T v g = s T P s v v T
e T v h T P
(3.53) (3.54) (3.55) s P
v s
P T
=
v
(3.56)
T
The following thermodynamic properties are also useful and have formal denitions: specic heat at constant volume: cv ratio of specic heats: cp /cv sound speed: c
P s v P s
specic heat at constant pressure: cp
1 adiabatic compressibility: s v
Generic problem: given P = P (T, v ), nd other properties
adiabatic bulk modulus: Bs v
P v s
3.3.1
Internal energy from thermal equation of state

e = e(T, v ) e e de = dT + dv T v v T e de = cv dT + dv v T (3.57) (3.58) (3.59)
Find the internal energy e(T, v ) for a general material.
Now from Gibbs, de = T ds P dv ds de =T P dv dv e s =T P v T v T (3.60) (3.61) (3.62)
46 Substitute from Maxwell relation, e v so
=T
T
P T
P P T P T P P P dv dv dv
(3.63)
de = cv dT + T
e T
(3.64) (3.65) (3.66)
de =
eo To T
)d T + c v (T )d T + c v (T
v vo v vo
e(T, v ) = eo +
To
P T T
Example 3.2
Ideal gas Find a general expression for e(T, v ) if P (T, v ) = Proceed as follows: P T T P T P = = R/v
v
RT v
(3.67)
(3.68) (3.69) (3.70)
RT P v v RT RT =0 = v v
T
Thus e is e(T ) = eo +
To
)dT cv (T
(3.71)
We also nd
T
h = e + P v = eo +
To T
)dT + Pv cv (T )dT + RT cv (T
(3.72) (3.73) (3.74) (3.75)
h(T, v ) = eo +
To
cp (T, v ) = I cv is a constant then
h T
= cv (T ) + R = cp (T )
P
R = cp (T ) cv (T ) e(T ) = eo + cv (T To ) R = cp cv
(3.76) (3.77) (3.78)
h(T ) = (eo + Po vo ) + cp (T To )
47
Example 3.3
van der Waals gas Find a general expression for e(T, v ) if P (T, v ) = Proceed as before: P T T P T P = =
v
RT a v b v2 R vb
(3.79)
(3.80) (3.81) (3.82)
RT P vb v RT a a RT = 2 = 2 vb vb v v Thus e is
T v vo
e(T, v ) = eo +
To T
)dT + cv (T
a dv v 2
(3.83) (3.84)
= eo +
To
)dT +a cv (T
1 1 vo v
We also nd
T
h = e + P v = eo +
To T
)dT +a cv (T 1 1 vo v
1 1 vo v +
+ Pv
(3.85) (3.86) (3.87)
h(T, v ) = eo +
To
)dT +a cv (T
RT v a vb v
3.3.2
Sound speed from thermal equation of state
Find the sound speed c(T, v ) for a general material. c= c2 = P P (3.88)

s
(3.89)
s
48 Use Gibbs relation
T ds = de + P dv Substitute earlier relation for de T ds = cv dT + T P T

v
(3.90) (3.91)
dv + P dv dv
v
(3.92) (3.93) (3.94)
P T T P T ds = cv dT 2 T T ds = cv dT + T Since P = P (T, v ), P = P (T, ) dP = P T dT +
P
P
d
T T
(3.95)
dT = Thus substituting for dT T ds = cv cv P T dP

P
dP
d (3.96)
P T
P T
so grouping terms in dP and d we get T ds = SO if ds 0 we obtain P =

s
T P 2 T
(3.97)
dP cv cv
T P T
T P d 2 T
2
(3.98)
1 P cv T
T P T
P = So c(T, ) = P
T + cv 2
T P 2 T P T
(3.99)
(3.100)
T + cv 2
P T
(3.101)
3.3. MAXWELL RELATIONS AND SECONDARY PROPERTIES Exercises: Liepmann and Roshko, 1.3 and 1.4, p. 383. Example 3.4
Ideal gas Find the sound speed if P (T, ) = RT The necessary partials are P so c(T, ) = RT + = = = = RT RT T 2 (R) cv 2 RT + RT 1+ 1+ R2 T cv R cv = RT
T
49
(3.102)
P T
= R
(3.103)
(3.104) (3.105) (3.106) (3.107) (3.108) (3.109)
cP cv cv
cv + cP cv cv = RT
Sound speed depends on temperature alone for the calorically perfect ideal gas.
Example 3.5
Virial gas Find the sound speed if P (T, ) = RT (1 + b1 ) The necessary partials are P = RT + 2b1 RT
T
(3.110)
P T
= R (1 + b1 )
(3.111)
50
so c(T, ) =
RT + 2b1 RT + = RT
T (R (1 + b1 ))2 cv 2 R (1 + b1 )2 cv
(3.112) (3.113)
1 + 2b1 +
Sound speed depends on both temperature and density.
Example 3.6
Thermodynamic process with a van der Waals Gas A van der Waals gas with R = 200 J/kg/K a = 150 P a m6 /kg 2 b = 0.001 m3 /kg cv = [350 + 0.2(T 300K )] J/kg/K (3.114) (3.115) (3.116) (3.117)
begins at T1 = 300 K , P1 = 1 105 P a. It is isothermally compressed to state 2 where P2 = 1 106 P a. It is then isochorically heated to state 3 where T3 = 1, 000 K . Find w13 , q13 , and s3 s1 . Assume the surroundings are at 1, 000 K . Recall P = so at state 1 100, 000 = or expanding 0.15 + 150v 60, 100v 2 + 100, 000v 3 = 0 Cubic equationthree solutions: v1 = 0.598 m3 /kg v1 = 0.00125 0.0097i m3 /kg not physical v1 = 0.00125 + 0.0097i m3 /kg Now at state 2 we know P2 and T2 so we can determine v2 1, 000, 000 = 150 200 300 2 v2 0.001 v2 (3.124) (3.121) (3.122) (3.123) (3.120) 200 300 150 2 v1 0.001 v1 (3.119) a RT v b v2 (3.118)
not physical
The physical solution is v2 = 0.0585 m3 /kg . Now at state 3 we know v3 = v2 and T3 . Determine P3 : P3 = 150 200 1, 000 = 3, 478, 261 43, 831 = 3, 434, 430 P a 0.0585 0.001 0.05852 (3.125)

Now w13 = w12 + w23 =
2 1
51
P dv +
3 2
P dv =
2 1
P dv since 2 3 is at constant volume. So

v2 v1 v2
w13 = = RT1
v1
1 1 v2 v1 0.0585 0.001 1 1 = 200 300 ln + 150 0.598 0.001 0.0585 0.598 = 140, 408 + 2, 313 = 138, 095 J/kg = 138 kJ/kg = RT1 ln v2 b v1 b +a The gas is compressed, so the work is negative. Since e is a state property:
T3
RT a dv v b v2 v2 dv dv a 2 vb v1 v
(3.126) (3.127) (3.128) (3.129) (3.130) (3.131)
e3 e1 = Now
cv (T )dT + a
T1
1 1 v1 v3
(3.132)
1 cv = 350 + 0.2(T 300) = 290 + T 5 so

T3
(3.133)
e3 e1 =
T1
1 290 + T 5
dT + a
1 1 v1 v3
(3.134) (3.135) (3.136) (3.137) (3.138)
1 1 1 2 2 +a T3 T1 10 v1 v3 1 1 1 290 (1, 000 300) + 1, 0002 3002 + 150 10 0.598 0.0585 = 203, 000 + 91, 000 2, 313 = 291, 687 J/kg = 292 kJ/kg = 290 (T3 T1 ) + Now from the rst law e3 e1 = q13 w13
(3.139) (3.140) (3.141) (3.142)
q13 = e3 e1 + w13 q13 = 292 138 q13 = 154 kJ/kg
The heat transfer is positive as heat was added to the system. Now nd the entropy change. Manipulate the Gibbs equation: T ds = de + P dv 1 P ds = de + dv T T a 1 P cv (T )dT + 2 dv + dv ds = T v T (3.143) (3.144) (3.145)
52
ds =

a RT 1 a 1 cv (T )dT + 2 dv + dv T v T v b v2 cv (T ) R ds = dT + dv T vb T3 cv (T ) v3 b s3 s1 = dT + R ln T v1 b T1
1,000
(3.146) (3.147) (3.148) (3.149) (3.150) (3.151) (3.152)
v3 b v1 b 300 1, 000 1 0.0585 0.001 = 290 ln + (1, 000 300) + 200 ln 300 5 0.598 0.001 = 349 + 140 468 J kJ = 21 = 0.021 kg K kg K = 290 1 + T 5 dT + R ln Is the second law satised for each portion of the process? First look at 1 2 e2 e1 = q12 w12
T2
(3.153) (3.154) (3.155) (3.156)
q12 = e2 e1 + w12 +a 1 1 v2 v1
q12 =
T1
cv (T )dT + a
1 1 v1 v2
+ RT1 ln
v2 b v1 b
Since T1 = T2 and canceling the terms in a we get q12 = RT1 ln Since isothermal v2 b v1 b 0.0585 0.001 = 200 ln 0.598 0.001 J = 468.0 kg K s2 s1 = R ln Entropy drops because heat was transferred out of the system. Check the second law. Note that in this portion of the process in which the heat is transferred out of the system, that the surroundings must have Tsurr 300 K . For this portion of the process let us take Tsurr = 300 K . s2 s1 468.0 J kg K q12 ? T J 140, 408 kg (3.161) (3.162) (3.163) (3.158) (3.159) (3.160) v2 b v1 b = 200 300 ln 0.0585 0.001 0.598 0.001 = 140, 408 J kg (3.157)
300 K J J 468.0 ok 468.0 kg K kg K CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
3.4. CANONICAL EQUATIONS OF STATE

Next look at 2 3
T3
53
q23 = e3 e2 + w23 cv (T )dT + a 1 1 v2 v3

v3
(3.164) (3.165) (3.166) (3.167)
q23 =
T2
+
v2 T3
P dv cv (T )dT
T2
since isochoric
1000
q23 = 290 + T 5
=
300
dT = 294, 000
J K
Now look at the entropy change for the isochoric process:

T3
s3 s2 =
T3
T2
cv (T ) dT T dT
(3.168) (3.169) (3.170)
=
T2
290 1 + T 5
= 290 ln
1, 000 1 J + (1, 000 300) = 489 300 5 kg K
Entropy rises because heat transferred into system. In order to transfer heat into the system we must have a dierent thermal reservoir. This one must have Tsurr 1000 K . Assume here that the heat transfer was from a reservoir held at 1, 000 K to assess the inuence of the second law. q23 ? (3.171) s3 s2 T J 294, 000 kg J (3.172) 489 kg K 1, 000 K J J 489 294 ok (3.173) kg K kg K
3.4
Canonical equations of state
If we have a single equation of state in a special canonical form, we can form both thermal and caloric equations. Since de = T ds P dv dh = T ds + vdP it is suggested that the form e = e(s, v ) h = h(s, P ) (3.176) (3.177)
(3.174) (3.175)
54 is useful. Example 3.7

Canonical Form If
h(s, P ) = Kcp P R/cp exp
s cp
+ (ho cp To )
(3.178)
derive both thermal and caloric state equations P (v, T ) and e(v, T ). Now for our material h s h P Now since h =T s P h =v P s we have s cp s v = KRP R/cp 1 exp cp T = KP R/cp exp Dividing one by the other gives T P = v R RT P = v Substituting our expression for T into our canonical equation for h we also get h = cp T + (ho cp To ) which is useful in itself. Substituting in for T and To h = cp Using h e + P v we get e + P v = cp Po vo Pv R R + eo + Po vo (3.190) P v Po vo R R + ho (3.189) (3.187) (3.188) (3.185) (3.186) (3.183) (3.184) (3.181) (3.182)
s
s c p P s = KRP R/cp1 exp cp = KP R/cp exp
(3.179) (3.180)
h = cp (T To ) + ho
3.5. ISENTROPIC RELATIONS

so e= cp cp 1 Pv 1 Po vo + eo R R cp e= 1 (P v Po vo ) + eo R cp e= 1 (RT RTo ) + eo R e = ( cp R ) ( T T o ) + e o e = [cp (cp cv )] (T To ) + eo e = cv ( T T o ) + e o
55
(3.191) (3.192) (3.193) (3.194) (3.195) (3.196)
So one canonical equation gives us all the information we need! Oftentimes, it is dicult to do a single experiment to get the canonical form.
Exercise: For a calorically perfect ideal gas, write the Helmholtz free energy and Gibbs free energy in canonical form, i.e. what is a(T, v ), g (P, T )?
3.5
Isentropic relations
Of particular importance in thermodynamics in general and compressible ow in particular are relations that describe an isentropic process, s = constant. Recall the second law. ds If the process is reversible, ds = If the process is adiabatic q 0 so ds = 0 (3.199) q T q T (3.197)
(3.198)
So an isentropic process is both adiabatic and reversible. We know from the rst law written in terms of entropy that this implies that q0 0 In this case the Gibbs relation and the rst law reduce to the same expression: de = P dv That is the energy change is all due to reversible pressure volume work. We would like to develop an expression between two variables for an isentropic process. With knowledge of P (T, v )
(3.200) (3.201)
(3.202)
56 form e(T, v ) eliminate T to form e(P, v )
take derivative and substitute into Gibbs/First Law e P e P

v
dP +
v
dP +
e dv = P dv v P e + P dv = 0 v P
(3.203) (3.204)
Integration of this equation gives a relationship between P and v . Example 3.8

Calorically Perfect Ideal Gas Find the relationship for a calorically perfect ideal gas which undergoes an isentropic process. Ideal Gas: P v = RT Calorically Perfect: e = cv T + e o Thus e = cv 1 cv Pv P v + eo = + eo = P v + eo R cP cv 1 1 e v = P v 1 e 1 = P v P 1 so substituting into our developed relationship gives 1 vdP + 1 1 P + P dv = 0 1 vdP + P dv = 0 dP dv = P v v P = ln ln Po vo P vo ln = ln Po v vo P = Po v P v = Po vo = constant (3.210) (3.211) (3.212) (3.213) (3.214) (3.215) (3.216) (3.206) (3.207) (3.205)
Thus the necessary derivatives are
(3.208) (3.209)

also using the thermal state equation P = Po
RT v RTo vo
57
vo T vo = To v v = P Po
(3.217) (3.218)
vo T = To v Find the work in a process from v1 to v2
w12 =
2 = Po vo = Po vo
P dv
v2
(3.219) (3.220) (3.221)
Po vo 1 v 1 v1 1 2 P2 v2 P1 v1 = 1
v 1
v1 1
dv v
v2 v1
(3.222) (3.223)
Also de = q w = 0 w so P2 v2 P1 v1 e2 e1 = 1 (3.224) (3.225)
Figure 3.4 gives a sketch for the calorically perfect ideal gas undergoing an isentropic expansion in various planes. Example 3.9
Virial Gas Find the relationship between P and v for a virial gas with constant cv which undergoes an isentropic process. Virial Gas: P = RT vb
(3.226)
This is van der Waals with a = 0 and cv constant so:
e = cv T + e o Thus e = cv P (v b) + eo R
(3.227)
(3.228)
58
T
v1
P1 T1 T1 P2 v1 w12= 1 P dv P v1 P1 v2 P2 T2 T1 T T2 T1 v2 v1
2
v2
T2 s1 = s2 q12= 1 T ds P2
2
T2 v2 v e 2- e 1= q 12- w12 v s
P1
Figure 3.4: Sketch of isentropic expansion process

Thus the necessary derivatives are e P cv (v b) R cv e = P v P R = (3.229) (3.230)
so substituting into our developed relationship gives cv cv (v b) dP + P + P dv = 0 R R R P dv = 0 (v b) dP + 1 + cv R with 1+ cv dP + P =0 dv vb dP exp dv + exp dv P =0 vb dv vb vb dP exp ln (v b) + exp ln (v b) P =0 dv vb dP + (v b) P =0 (v b) dv vb d (v b) P =0 dv CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers. (3.231) (3.232) (3.233) (3.234) (3.235) (3.236) (3.237) (3.238)

(v b) P = (vo b) Po P = Po vo b vb

59
(3.239) (3.240)
Exercise: Find the relationship between T and v for a virial gas in an isentropic process. Exercise: Find an expression for the work done by a van der Waals gas in an isentropic process.
J , b = 0.002 m with constant specic Exercise: A virial gas, m = 3 kg with R = 290 kgK kg kJ heat cv = 0.700 kg K is initially at P = 1.2 bar and T = 320 K . It undergoes a two step process: 1 2 is an isochoric compression to 500 kP a; 2 3 is an isentropic expansion to 300 kP a. Find the total work W13 in units of J , the total heat transfer Q13 in units of J , and the change in entropy S3 S1 in units of J/K . Include a sketch, roughly to scale, of the total process in the P v and T s planes.
3
60
Chapter 4 One-dimensional compressible ow

White, Chapter 9: pp. 511-559, Liepmann and Roshko, Chapter 2: pp. 39-65, Hughes and Brighton, Chapter 7: pp. 178-185, Shapiro, Vol. 1, Chapters 4-8: pp. 73-262, This chapter will discuss one-dimensional ow of a compressible uid. Notation can pose problems, and many common ones are in use. Here a new convention will be adopted. In this chapter velocity in the x-direction will be denoted as u, specic internal energy, denoted in previous chapters by u, will here be e, total internal energy, denoted in previous chapters by U , will here be E . The following topics will be covered: development of generalized one-dimensional ow equations, isentropic ow with area change, ow with normal shock waves, ow with friction (Fanno ow), ow with heat transfer (Rayleigh ow), ow in a shock tube. Assume for this chapter: The ow is uni-directional in the x direction with u = 0 and with the y and z components of the velocity vector both zero: v 0, w 0 61
62
CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW Spatial gradients are admitted in x, but not in y or z :
x
= 0,
0,
0.
Friction and heat transfer will not be modelled rigorously. Instead, they will be modelled in a fashion which captures the relevant physics and retains analytic tractability.
4.1
Generalized one-dimensional equations
Flow with area change is illustrated by the following sketch of a control volume:. See Figure 4.1.
1 u1 A1 P1 e1
x1 q x 2 - x1 = x
w x2 Perimeter = L
2 u2 A2 P2 e2
Figure 4.1: Control volume sketch
For this problem adopt the following conventions surface 1 and 2 are open and allow uxes of mass, momentum, and energy surface w is a closed wall; no mass ux through the wall external heat ux qw (Energy/Area/Time: parameter
W ) m2
through the wall allowed-qw known xed
diusive, longitudinal heat transfer ignored, qx = 0 wall shear w (Force/Area:

N ) m2
allowedw known, xed parameter
diusive viscous stress not allowed xx = 0 cross-sectional area a known xed function: A(x)
4.1. GENERALIZED ONE-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS
63
4.1.1
Mass
Take the overbar notation to indicate a volume averaged quantity. The amount of mass in a control volume after a time increment t is equal to the original amount of mass plus that which came in minus that which left: x A
t+t
x + 1 A1 (u1 t) 2 A2 (u2 t) = A t A
(4.1)
Rearrange and divide by xt: A

t+t t
2 A2 u2 1 A1 u1 =0 x
(4.2) (4.3)
Taking the limit as t 0, x 0: (A) + (Au) = 0 t x If steady d (Au) = 0 dx dA du d + A = 0 Au + u dx dx dx 1 d 1 dA 1 du + + = 0 dx A dx u dx Integrate from x1 to x2 :

x2 x1
(4.4)
(4.5) (4.6) (4.7)
d (Au)dx = dx
2
x2
0dx
x1
(4.8) (4.9) (4.10) (4.11)
d (Au) = 0
1
2 u2 A2 1 u1 A1 = 0 2 u2 A2 = 1 u1 A1 m = C1
4.1.2
Momentum
Newtons Second Law says the time rate of change of linear momentum of a body equals the sum of the forces acting on the body. In the x direction this is roughly as follows: d (mu) = Fx dt (4.12)
64
CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
In discrete form this would be mu|t+t mu|t = Fx t mu|t+t = mu|t + Fx t (4.13) (4.14)
For a control volume containing uid, one must also account for the momentum which enters and leaves the control volume. The amount of momentum in a control volume after a time increment t is equal to the original amount of momentum plus that which came in minus that which left plus that introduced by the forces acting on the control volume. pressure force at surface 1 pushes uid pressure force at surface 2 restrains uid force due to the reaction of the wall to the pressure force pushes uid if area change positive force due to the reaction of the wall to the shear force restrains uid x u A x u A
t+t
+ (1 A1 (u1 t)) u1 (2 A2 (u2 t)) u2 + (P1 A1 ) t (P2 A2 ) t (A2 A1 ) t + P x t w L Rearrange and divide by xt: u A
t+t
u A
2 2 A2 u2 2 1 A1 u1 x P2 A2 P1 A1 A2 A1 w L = +P x x
In the limit x 0, t 0 one gets A Au2 = (P A) + P (Au) + w L t x x x In steady state: d Au2 dx = d dA (P A) + P w L dx dx (4.16) (4.15)
4.1. GENERALIZED ONE-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS Au d dA dP dA du + u (Au) = P A +P w L dx dx dx dx dx dP L du = w u dx dx A L udu + dP = w dx A 1 L du + dP = w dx u m 2 L u + dP = w dx d 2 A
65 (4.17) (4.18) (4.19) (4.20) (4.21)
Wall shear lowers the combination of pressure and dynamic head. If no wall shear: dP = d u2 2 (4.22)
Increase in velocity magnitude decreases the pressure. If no area change dA = 0 and no friction w 0: u add u mass
du dP + = 0 dx dx d u (u) = 0 dx
(4.23) (4.24) (4.25) (4.26)
d u2 + P = 0 dx u2 + P = o u2 o + Po = C2
4.1.3
Energy
The rst law of thermodynamics states that the change of total energy of a body equals the heat transferred to the body minus the work done by the body: E2 E1 = Q W E2 = E1 + Q W (4.27) (4.28)
So for the control volume this becomes the following when one also accounts for the energy ux in and out of the control volume in addition to the work and heat transfer: u 2 u 2 x e x e + A + = A 2 t+t 2 t u2 u2 +1 A1 (u1 t) e1 + 1 2 A2 (u2 t) e2 + 2 2 2 +qw Lx t + (P1 A1 ) (u1 t) (P2 A2 ) (u2 t)
66 Note:
mean pressure times area dierence does no work because acting on stationary boundary work done by shear force not included1 Rearrange and divide by tx: e A +
u 2 2 t+t
e A +
u 2 2
t P2 2 u2 1 2 P1 1
t 2 A2 u2 e2 +
u2 2 2
1 A1 u1 e1 + x
= qw L
In dierential form as x 0, t 0 u2 A e + t 2 +
u2 P Au e + + x 2
= qw L
In steady state: d u2 P Au e + + dx 2 2 2 u u d P P d e+ + e+ + + (Au) Au dx 2 2 dx u2 P d e+ + u dx 2 de du 1 dP P d u +u + 2 dx dx dx dx subtract product of momentum and velocity du dP u2 +u dx dx de P u d u dx dx P d de 2 dx dx

1
= qw L = qw L = qw L A qw L = A
(4.29) (4.30) (4.31) (4.32) (4.33)
w Lu A qw L w Lu = + A A (qw + w u) L = m
(4.34) (4.35) (4.36)
In neglecting work done by the wall shear force, I have taken an approach which is nearly universal, but fundamentally dicult to defend. At this stage of the development of these notes, I am not ready to enter into a grand battle with all established authors and probably confuse the student; consequently, results for ow with friction will be consistent with those of other sources. The argument typically used to justify this is that the real uid satises no-slip at the boundary; thus, the wall shear actually does no work. However, one can easily argue that within the context of the one-dimensional model which has been posed that the shear force behaves as an external force which reduces the uids mechanical energy. Moreover, it is possible to show that neglect of this term results in the loss of frame invariance, a serious defect indeed. To model x ( ut) in the energy equation. the work of the wall shear, one would include the term w L CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
4.1. GENERALIZED ONE-DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS Since e = e(P, ) de = de = dx so e e dP P d (qw + w u) L d + 2 = P dx dx m P dx P e dP P 2 d (qw + w u) L + = e e dx dx m P P P

e
67
e e
d +
P
e P
dP
(4.37) (4.38)
e d + dx P
dP dx
(4.39)
(4.40)
Now it can be shown that
c2 = so
P e P
P 2
(4.41)
dP d (qw + w u) L c2 = e dx dx m P dP (qw + w u) L d c2 = e dx dx uA P
(4.42) (4.43)
Special case of ow with no heat transfer qw 0. Area change allowed!, wall friction allowed! (see earlier footnote): u d u2 P e+ = 0 + dx 2 u2 Po u2 P + = eo + o + = C3 e+ 2 2 o u2 u2 = ho + o = C3 h+ 2 2 (4.44) (4.45) (4.46)
Example 4.1
Adiabatic Flow of Argon2
2
adopted from Whites 9.1, p. 583 CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
68

Given: Argon, = 5 3 , ows adiabatically through a duct. At section 1, P1 = 200 psia, T1 = 500 F, u1 = 250 fst . At section 2 P2 = 40 psia, u2 = 1, 100 fst . Find: T2 in F and s2 s1 in
Btu lbm R f t lbf lbmR , cp
Assume: Ar is a calorically perfect ideal gas, tables give R = 38.68 Analysis: First get the units into shape: T1 = 500 + 460 f t lbf lbm f t Btu 779 32.17 0.1253 lbm R Btu lbf s2 f t lbf lbm f t R = 38.68 32.17 lbm R lbf s2 f t lbf 1 Btu R = 38.68 lbm R 779 f t lbf
= 0.1253
Btu lbmR
= 960 R ft s2 R f t2 = 1, 244 2 s R Btu = 0.04965 lbm R = 3, 140

2
(4.47) (4.48) (4.49) (4.50)
cp =
Now consider an energy balance: u2 2 2 u2 cp T 2 + h o + 2 2 h2 + T2 T2 = 960 R + 1 1 2 3, 140 250 ft s

2
= = = =
h1 +
u2 1 2 u2 1 2
(4.51) (4.52) (4.53) (4.54) (4.55)
cp T 1 + h o + T1 +
1 u2 u2 2 2 cp 1
f t2 s2 R
1, 100
ft s
777 R 317 F
T2 = 777 460 =
The ow sped up; temperature went down. Thermal energy was converted into kinetic energy Calculate the entropy change. For the calorically perfect ideal gas: s2 s1 = = = cp ln T2 P2 R ln T1 P1 777 R Btu ln 0.1253 lbm R 960 R (4.56) 0.04965 Btu lbm R Btu ln lbm R 40 psia 200 psia (4.57) (4.58)
0.0265 (.0799) = 0.0534
Entropy change positive. Since adiabatic, there must have been irreversible friction which gave rise to this.
Example 4.2
Adiabatic Flow of Steam3
3
adopted from Whites 9.2, p. 583
69
Same problem now with steam Given: Steam ows adiabatically through a duct. At section 1, P1 = 200 psia, T1 = 500F, u1 = 250 fst . At section 2 P2 = 40 psia, u2 = 1, 100 fst . Find: T2 in F and s2 s1 in
Btu lbm R
Analysis: Use steam tables for property values. Energy balance: h2 + u2 2 2 h2 h2 h2 u2 1 2 1 2 u u2 = h1 + 2 2 1 Btu 1 1 Btu = 1269 + lbm 2 779 f t lbf = h1 + = 1, 246 Btu lbm
Btu lbm
(4.59) (4.60) 1 lbf s2 32.17 lbm f t 250 ft s

2
1, 100
ft s
(4.61) (4.62)
Interpolate steam tables at P2 = 40 psia, h2 = h2 = 1, 246 T2 s2 Tables give s1 = 1.6239

Btu lbm R
and nd (4.63) (4.64)
= =
420 F Btu 1.7720 lbm R
so the entropy change is Btu lbm R (4.65)
s2 s1 = 1.7720 1.6239 = 0.148
Example 4.3
Flow of Air with Heat Addition Given: Air initially at P1 = 100 kP a, T1 = 300 K , u1 = 10 m s ows in a duct of length 100 m. The duct has a constant circular cross sectional area of A = 0.02 m2 and is isobarically heated with a constant heat ux qw along the entire surface of the duct. At the end of the duct the ow has P2 = 100 kP a, T2 = 500 K Find: the mass ow rate m , the wall heat ux qw and the entropy change s2 s1 ; check for satisfaction of the second law. Assume: Calorically perfect ideal gas, R = 0.287 Analysis: CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
kJ kg K ,
cp = 1.0035
kJ kg K
70
Geometry:
A = r L = 2r = 2 A Get the mass ux. P1 P1 1 = RT1 = = = =
r2 A 2 (0.02 m2 ) = 0.501 m
(4.66) (4.67) (4.68)
1 RT1 100 kP a 0.287

kJ kg K
(4.69) (4.70) (4.71) (300 K )
= So m = 1 u1 A1 = Get the ow variables at state 2: 2 = P2 RT2 1.161 kg m3
1.161
kg m3
10
m s
0.02 m2 = 0.2322
kg s
(4.72)
= 0.287 = 0.6969
100 kP a
kJ kg K
(4.73) (4.74) (4.75) (4.76) (4.77)
(500 K )
kg m3
2 u2 A2 1 u1 A1 u2 = 2 A2 1.161 =
kg m3
= = =
1 u1 A1 1 u 1 2 16.67 m s
10
kg m3
m s
0.6969
Now consider the energy equation: u u2 P d e+ + dx 2 d u2 h+ dx 2

L
= = = = = =
qw L A qw L m qw L dx m 0 qw LL m qw LL m u2 m u2 cp ( T 2 T 1 ) + 2 1 LL 2 2
L
(4.78) (4.79) (4.80) (4.81) (4.82) (4.83) (4.84)
u2 d h+ 2 0 dx u2 h2 + 2 h1 2 u2 cp (T2 T1 ) + 2 2
dx u2 1 2 u2 1 2 qw

Substituting the numbers, one nds, qw qw qw qw = = = = 0.2322 kg s (100 m) (0.501 m) kg m2 s kg 0.004635 2 m s W 930 2 m 0.004635 1, 003.5 16.67 J (500 K 300 K ) + kg K 2 m2 s2 J kg
m 2 s
71
10
m 2 s
(4.85) (4.86) (4.87) (4.88)
J 88.9 kg J 200, 700 88.9 kg 200, 700
Heat ux positive, denoting heat into the air. Now nd the entropy change. s2 s1 s2 s1 = = cp ln T2 T1 R ln J kg K P2 P1 500 K ln 300 K (4.89) 287 J kg K ln 100 kP a 100 kP a (4.90) (4.91)
1, 003.5 512.6
s2 s1 = 512.6 0 =
J kg K
Is the second law satised? Assume the heat transfer takes place from a reservoir held at 500 K . The reservoir would have to be at least at 500 K in order to bring the uid to its nal state of 500 K . It could be greater than 500 K and still satisfy the second law. S2 S1 2 S 1 S Q12 T Q12 T 12 Q T qw Atot T qw LL T qw LL mT 930 s J m2 (100 m) (0.501 m) 0.2322 401.3 J kg K
kg s
(4.92) (4.93) (4.94) (4.95) (4.96) (4.97) (4.98) (4.99)
m (s2 s1 ) m (s2 s1 ) m (s2 s1 ) s2 s1 512.6 512.6 J kg K J kg K
(500 K )
72
4.1.4
Inuence coecients
d du u dA + = dx dx A dx w L du dP = u + dx dx A dP d ( q + w u) L w c2 = e dx dx uA P u
Now, uncouple these equations. First, summarize: (4.100) (4.101) (4.102)
In matrix form this is
Use Cramers Rule to solve for the derivatives. First calculate the determinant of the coefcient matrix: u ((u)(1) (1)(0)) (0)(1) (c2 )(1) = u2 c2 Implementing Cramers Rule: d = dx du = dx dP dx Simplify d 1 = dx A 1 du = dx A dP dx Note:
dA L w + u u A dx A (qw +w u)L e uA P |
u 0 c2
d u dA A dx 0 dx w L = u 1 du (q +Au)L dx w w dP 0 1 uA e | dx
P
(4.103)
(4.104)
(u 2 c 2 )
dA L c2 u + u w u A dx A
(4.105)
(u 2
c2 )
(qw +w u)L e uA P |
(4.106)
dA L uc2 u c2 w + u2 A dx A
(u 2
c2 )
(qw +w u)L e u P |
(qw +w u)L e uA P |
(4.107)
+ w L + u2 dA dx (u 2 c2 u dA uw L dx c2 )
(4.108)
1 = A
+ c2 w L + c2 u2 dA dx (u 2 c2 )
(u 2 c 2 )
(qw +w u)L e P |
(4.109)
(qw +w u)Lu e P |
(4.110)
4.2. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE a system of coupled non-linear ordinary dierential equations in standard form for dynamic system analysis: valid for general equations of state singular when velocity sonic u = c
du dx
73
= f (u)
4.2
Flow with area change
This section will consider ow with area change with an emphasis on isentropic ow. Some problems will involve non-isentropic ow but a detailed discussion of such ows will be delayed.
4.2.1
Isentropic Mach number relations
Take special case of w = 0 qw = 0 calorically perfect ideal gas (CPIG) Then d (uA) = 0 dx d u2 + P dx u2 P d e+ + dx 2 Integrate the energy equation with h = e + P/ h+ u2 u2 = ho + o 2 2 (4.114) = 0 = 0 (4.111) (4.112) (4.113)
If one denes the o condition to be a condition of rest, then uo 0. This is a stagnation condition. So u2 = ho 2 u2 (h ho ) + = 0 2 h+ (4.115) (4.116)
74 Since CPIG,
cp (T To ) +
u2 = 0 2 u2 = 0 T To + 2 cp To u2 1 + = 0 T 2 cp T
(4.117) (4.118) (4.119)
Now note that cp = cp so 1 To 1 u2 + = 0 T 2 RT To 1 u2 = 1+ T 2 RT (4.121) (4.122) cp cv R cp cp cv = = cp cp cv cv c v 1 1 (4.120)
Recall the sound speed and Mach number for a CPIG: c2 = RT if P = RT, e = cv T + eo u 2 M2 c (4.123) (4.124)
thus, To 1 2 = 1+ M T 2 1 2 T = 1+ M To 2 Now if the ow is isentropic one has T = To Thus = o P = Po 1 2 1+ M 2 1 2 1+ M 2

1 1
(4.125)
1
(4.126)
P Po
(4.127)
(4.128) (4.129)
4.2. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE For air = 7/5 so T = To = o P = Po 1 1 + M2 5 1 1 + M2 5 1 1 + M2 5

1
75
(4.130) (4.131) (4.132)
5 2
7 2
Figures 4.2, 4.3 4.4 show the variation of T , and P with M 2 for isentropic ow. Other thermodynamic properties can be determined from these, e.g. sound speed: c = co
T(K) 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 2 4 6 8 10 M2
RT = RTo
T = To
1 2 1+ M 2
1/2
(4.133)
calorically perfect ideal gas R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K) = 7/5 stagnation temperature = 300 K
Figure 4.2: Static temperature versus Mach number squared

P(bar) 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 M2
calorically perfect ideal gas R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K) = 7/5 stagnation pressure = 1 bar
10
Figure 4.3: Static pressure versus Mach number squared Example 4.4
Airplane problem CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
76
(kg/m3)
1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 2 4 6 8 10 M2
calorically perfect ideal gas R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K) = 7/5 stagnation density = 1.16 kg/m3
Figure 4.4: Static density versus Mach number squared

Given: An airplane is ying into still air at u = 200 m/s. The ambient air is at 288 K and 101.3 kP a. Find: Temperature, pressure, and density at nose of airplane Assume: Steady isentropic ow of CPIG Analysis: In the steady wave frame, the ambient conditions are static while the nose conditions are stagnation. M= u u = = c RT 200 m/s
7 5 J 287 kgK 288 K
= 0.588
(4.134)
so To 1 1 + M2 , 5 1 = (288 K ) 1 + 0.5882 , 5 = 307.9 K = T 1 = 1 + M2 5 =

5 2
(4.135) (4.136) (4.137) (4.138)
101.3 kP a kJ 288 K 0.287 kgK 1 1 + M2 5

7 2
1 1 + 0.5882 5
5 2
(4.139) (4.140)
= 1.45 kg/m3 Po = P ,
7 2
(4.141) (4.142) (4.143)
1 = (101.3 kP a) 1 + 0.5882 5 = 128 kP a
Note the temperature, pressure, and density all rise in the isentropic process. In this wave frame, the kinetic energy of the ow is being converted isentropically to thermal energy.
4.2. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE
77
Example 4.5
Pressure measurement in compressible ows4 See Figure 4.5.
Air at 100 F z Static State "1"

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Mercury
Stagnation State "o"
8 inches
Figure 4.5: Compressible pitot tube sketch
Given: Air at u = 750
ft s ,
Mercury manometer which reads a change in height of 8 inches.
Find: Static pressure of air in psia Assume: Ideal gas behavior for air Analysis: First consider the manometer which is governed by uid statics. In uid statics, there is no motion, thus there are no viscous forces or uid inertia; one thus has a balance between surface and body forces. Consider the linear momentum equation: dv dt 0 dP dz P1 Po P1 Po P1 Po Po P1 Po
4
= = = = = = = =
P + Hg g + P + Hg g Hg gz Hg gz (z1 zo ) 845.9 lbm 1 lbf s f t3 32.2 f t lbm lbf 563.9 2 ft lbf 563.9 2 ft lbf P1 + 563.9 2 ft
2
(4.144) (4.145) (4.146) (4.147) 32.2 ft (0 in (8 in)) s2 1 ft 12 in (4.148) (4.149) (4.150) (4.151)
adopted from White, 9.26, p. 584 CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
78

Now calculate the local Mach number T1 = 100 + 460 = 560 R u1 M1 = RT1 M1 M1 = = 0.646 750 (1.4) 1, 717
ft s f t2 s2 R
(4.152) (4.153) (4.154) (560 R) (4.155)
Isentropic ow relations relate stagnation to static properties, so for air Po Po Po = = = 1 2 P1 1 + M1 5 P1 1 + 1.324P1

3.5
(4.156)
3.5
1 2 (0.646) 5
(4.157) (4.158)
Substituting from the measured pressure dierence P1 + 563.9 lbf f t2 = = = = =

2
1.324P1 563.9 563.9 lbf f t2

lbf f t2
(4.159) (4.160) (4.161) (4.162) (4.163) (4.164) (4.165)
0.324P1 P1 P1 Po = (1.324) 1, 740 P1 = Po = 1, 740 2, 304 lbf f t2 lbf f t2 lbf f t2
0.324 lbf 1, 740 2 ft lbf 2, 304 2 ft 12.1 psia 16.0 psia
1 ft 12 in 1 ft 12 in
=
2
What might one estimate if one did not account for compressibility eects? Assume one had the same static pressure and calculate what velocity one would predict. First calculate the static density. 1 1 1 = = = P1 RT1 1, 740 1, 717 0.05827
f t2 s2 R lbf f t2
(4.166) 32.2 f t lbm lbf s2 (4.167) (4.168)
(560 R)
lbm f t3

One would then use an incompressible Bernoulli equation: Po + (0) 2
2
79
= =
P1 +
1 u 2 1 2
(4.169) (4.170)
u1
2 (Po P1 ) 1 2 563.9
lbf f t2 lbm f t3
u1 u1
= =
0.05827 789.4 ft s
32.2
f t lbm lbf s2
(4.171) (4.172)
So the relative error in using the incompressible approximation would be Error = 789.4 750 = 5.3% 750 (4.173)
Example 4.6
Adiabatic Duct Flow5 Given: Air owing adiabatically through a duct. At section 1, u1 = 400 35 psia. Downstream u2 = 1, 100 fst , P2 = 18 psia.
o2 Find: M2 , umax , P Po1
ft s , T1
= 200 F, P1 =
Assume: Calorically perfect ideal gas, steady, one-dimensional ow Analysis: Some preliminaries: T1 = 200 + 460 = lbm f t 32.17 = lbf s2 lbm f t 32.17 = lbf s2 660 R ft s2 R f t2 1, 716 2 s R 6, 015
2
(4.174) (4.175) (4.176) (4.177)
cp =
0.240
Btu lbm R R=
f t lbf Btu f t lbf 53.34 lbm R 779
Energy conservation gives stagnation conditions at state 1 h1 +

5
u2 1 2
= ho1
(4.178)
80

cp T 1 + u2 1 2 T o1 = cp T o 1 = T1 + u2 1 2 cp 400 T o1 T o1 = 660 R + = 673 R
ft s 2
(4.179) (4.180)
2 6, 015
f t2 s2 R
(4.181) (4.182)
Note since in adiabatic ow ho is a constant, ho2 = ho1 and since ideal gas To2 = To1 So T o2 T2 = = 673 R T o2 u2 2 2 cp 1, 100 T2 T2 Calculate the Mach numbers: c1 c1 = 1.4 1, 716 M1 = f t2 s2 R = RT1 1, 259 0.318 RT2 1, 173 0.938 ft s ft s (4.187) (4.188) (4.189) (4.190) (4.191) (4.192) = = 673 R 572 R 2 6, 015
ft s 2
(4.183) (4.184)
f t2 s2 R
(4.185) (4.186)
(660 R) = = =
400 fst u1 = c1 1, 259 fst c2 f t2 s2 R
c2 =
1.4 1, 716 M2 =
(572 R) =
ft s ft s
1, 100 u2 = c2 1, 173
Since for CPIG air one has P Po Po Po1 Po2 1 = (35 psia) 1 + 0.3182 5
7 2
= = = P
1 1 + M2 5
7 2
(4.193)
7 2
1 1 + M2 5
(4.194) (4.195) (4.196) (4.197)
37.54 psia 31.74 psia 0.845
2 1 = (18 psia) 1 + 0.9382 5 31.74 psia Po2 = Po1 37.54 psia
= =
81
Stagnation pressure drop indicates that friction was present. If one computed an entropy change one would see an increase in entropy. The maximum velocity is found by converting all the thermal energy to kinetic energy. Taking zero thermal energy to correspond to absolute zero (despite the fact that air would not be a gas at this point) one could estimate ho cp T o umax umax = 2 6, 015 f t2 s2 R = = = u2 max 2 u2 max 2 2 cp T o ft s (4.198) (4.199) (4.200) (4.201)
(673 R) = 2, 845
4.2.2
Sonic properties
Let * denote a property at the sonic state M 2 1 T = To = o P = Po c = co 1+ 1 2 1 2

1
= = = =
2 +1 2 +1 2 +1
1 1
(4.202) (4.203) (4.204) (4.205) (4.206)
1 2 1+ 1 2 1 2 1+ 1 2 1+ 1 2 1 2
1 1
1/2
u = c = If air = 7/5 and T To o P Po c co
RT =
2 +1 2 RTo +1
= 0.8333 = 0.6339 = 0.5283 = 0.9123
(4.207) (4.208) (4.209) (4.210)
82
4.2.3
Eect of area change
Inuence of mass equation must be considered. So far only looked at energy has been examined. In the isentropic limit the mass, momentum, and energy equation for a CPIG reduce to d du dA + + = 0 u A udu + dP = 0 dP d = P Substitute energy then mass into momentum: udu + udu + du + P P P d = 0 = 0 = 0 = = = = = P dA uA P/ dA u2 A 1 dA M2 A dA A 1 dA M2 1 A (4.214) (4.215) (4.216) (4.217) (4.218) (4.219) (4.220) (4.221) (4.211) (4.212) (4.213)
du dA u A 1 1 2 du dA u uA P/ du 1 u2 du P/ 1 u u2 1 du 1 2 u M du M2 1 u du u
Figure 4.6 gives show the performance of a uid in a variable area duct. It is noted that equation singular when M 2 = 1 if M 2 = 1, one needs dA = 0 area minimum necessary to transition from subsonic to supersonic ow!! can be shown area maximum not relevant Consider A at a sonic state. From the mass equation: uA = u A
(4.222)

Consider u > 0 Subsonic Diffuser Subsonic Nozzle
83
dA > 0, M < 1 so du < 0, flow slows down dp > 0
dA < 0, M <1 so du > 0, flow speeds up dp < 0
Supersonic Nozzle
Supersonic Diffuser
dA > 0, M >1 so du > 0, flow speeds up dp < 0
dA < 0, M > 1 so du < 0, flow slows down dp > 0
Figure 4.6: Behavior of uid in sub- and supersonic nozzles and diusers uA = c A A 1 = c , A u 1 RT , = u RT RT = RT u = T 1 , T M o T To 1 = o To T M (4.223) (4.224) (4.225) (4.226) (4.227) (4.228)
Substitute from earlier-developed relations and get: 1 A = A M 2 +1 1 2 1+ M 2

1 +1 2 1
(4.229)
Figure 4.7 shows the performance of a uid in a variable area duct. Note:
84
A/A* 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0.5
calorically perfect ideal gas R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K) = 7/5
1.5
2.5
Figure 4.7: Area versus Mach number for a calorically perfect ideal gas
A A
has a minimum value of 1 at M = 1

A A
For each
A A
> 1, there exist two values of M
as M 0 or M
4.2.4
Choking
Consider mass ow rate variation with pressure dierence small pressure dierence gives small velocity, small mass ow as pressure dierence grows, velocity and mass ow rate grow velocity is limited to sonic at a particular duct location this provides fundamental restriction on mass ow rate can be proven rigorously that sonic condition gives maximum mass ow rate
m max = u A if ideal gas: = o = o = o 2 +1 2 +1 2 +1
(4.230)
1 1
2 RTo A +1 2 +1
1/2
(4.231) (4.232) (4.233)
1 1
RTo A
1 +1 2 1
RTo A
A ow which has a maximum mass ow rate is known as choked ow. Flows will choke at area minima in a duct.
85
Example 4.7
Isentropic area change problem with choking6 Given: Air with stagnation conditions Po = 200 kP a To = 500 K ows through a throat to an exit Mach number of 2.5. The desired mass ow is 3.0 kg/s, Find: a) throat area, b) exit pressure, c) exit temperature, d) exit velocity, and e) exit area. Assume: CPIG, isentropic ow, = 7/5 200 kP a Po = = 1.394 kg/m3 RTo (0.287 kJ/kg ) (500 K ) Since it necessarily ows through a sonic throat: o =
2 1 2 RTo A +1 m max 1 +1 2 1 2 RTo +1 1 +1
Analysis:
(4.234)
m max A
= =
(4.235) (4.236)
o =
3 kg/s 1.394
kg m3
,
J kg K
(4.237)
(0.5787)
1.4 287
(500 K ) (4.238)
0.008297 m2
Since Me is known, use the isentropic relations to nd other exit conditions. Pe = = = Te = = = Note e = = =
6
Po
1 2 1+ Me 2
,
3.5
(4.239) , (4.240) (4.241)
1 (200 kP a) 1 + 2.52 5 11.71 kP a To 1 + 1 2 Me 2

1
,
1
(4.242) , (4.243) (4.244)
1 (500 K ) 1 + 2.52 5 222.2 K Pe , RTe 11.71 kP a 0.287 0.1834

kJ kgK
(4.245) , (4.246) (4.247)
(222.2 K )
kg m3
adopted from White, Fluid Mechanics McGraw-Hill: New York, 1986, p. 529, Ex. 9.5 CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
86

Now the exit velocity is simply u e = M e ce = M e Now determine the exit area: A = = A Me 2 +1 1 2 1+ Me 2 5 6 1 1 + 2.52 5
1 +1 2 1
RTe = 2.5 1.4 287
J kg K
(222.2 K ) = 747.0
m s
(4.248)
(4.249)
3
0.008297 m2 2.5
(4.250) (4.251)
= 70.0219 m2
Example 4.8
Discharge Problem7 Given: Air in tank, Po = 700 kP a, To = 20 C , V = 1.5 m3 . Throat area in converging nozzle of 0.65 cm2 , exhausting to 1 atm environment Find: Time for pressure in tank to decrease to 500 kP a. Assume: CPIG, stagnation temperature constant (so small heat transfer to tank in time of operation) Analysis: First, To = 20 + 273 = 293 K Now check for choked ow! At the initial state Patm 101.3 kP a = = 0.145 Po 700 kP a (4.252)
But for air P Po = 0.5283, so the ow must be choked at the exit and the mass ow is restricted. (Further expansion takes place outside the nozzle)
For choked ow one has m e = = = =

7
2 +1
1 +1 2 1
RToA 2 +1 Po
1 +1 2 1
(4.253) (4.254) J kg K (293 K ) 0.65 cm2 1 m 100 cm

2
Po RTo
RTo A 0.5787 1.4 287
287
J kg K
(4.255) (4.256)
(293 K )
1.5348 107 Po
from White, 9.33,35
4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES

Now mass conservation gives d mcv dt = m e m e m e RTo m e V 287 = = =
J kg K
87
(4.257) (4.258) (4.259) (4.260) (293 K ) 1.5348 107 Po (4.261) (4.262) (4.263)
d (o V ) = dt Po d V = dt RTo dPo = dt dPo dt dPo dt Po
1.5 m3
0.008604Po A exp (0.008604t)
Use initial value of Po to x the constant A so Po = 700 exp (0.008604t) When does Po = 500 kP a? 500 = 700 exp (0.008604t) ln 500 = 0.008604t 700 1 500 t= ln = 39.1 s 0.008604 700 (4.265) (4.266) (4.264)
4.3
Normal shock waves
This section will develop relations for normal shock waves in uids with general equations of state. It will be specialized to calorically perfect ideal gases to illustrate the general features of the waves. Assumptions for this section one-dimensional ow steady ow no area change viscous eects and wall friction do not have time to inuence ow heat conduction and wall heat transfer do not have time to inuence ow
88
vp = v2 v = v2 P2 2
v=0 P1 1
u2 P2 2
u=-D P1 1
Laboratory Frame x* u = v - D; x = x* - D t; v=u+D x* = x + D t x
Steady Frame
Figure 4.8: Normal shock sketch The piston problem as sketched in Figure 4.8 will be considered. Physical problem: Drive piston with known velocity vp into uid at rest (v1 = 0) with known properties, P1 , 1 in the x laboratory frame Determine disturbance speed D Determine disturbance properties v2 , P2 , 2 in this frame of reference unsteady problem Transformed Problem: use Galilean transformation x = x Dt, u = v D to transform to the frame in which the wave is at rest, therefore rending the problem steady in this frame solve as though D is known to get downstream 2 conditions: u2 (D ), P2(D ), ... invert to solve for D as function of u2 , the transformed piston velocity: D (u2) back transform to get all variables as function of v2 , the laboratory piston velocity: D (v2 ), P2 (v2 ), 2 (v2 ), ...
4.3.1
Governing equations
Under these assumptions the conservation principles in conservative form and equation of state are in the steady frame as follows: d (u) = 0 dx d u2 + P dx
(4.267) (4.268)
= 0
4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES d u2 u h + dx 2
89 = 0 h = h(P, ) (4.269) (4.270)
Upstream conditions are = 1 , P = P1 , u = D . With knowledge of the equation of state, one gets h = h1 . Integrating the equations from upstream to state 2 gives: 2 u2 + P2 u2 h2 + 2 2 h2 = 1 D = 1 D 2 + P1 D2 = h1 + 2 = h(P2 , 2 ) (4.271) (4.272) (4.273) (4.274)
2 u2 2
4.3.2
Rayleigh line
Work on the momentum equation: P2 = P1 + 1 D 2 2 u2 2 2 2 2 2 D u P2 = P1 + 1 2 2 1 2 (4.275) (4.276)
1 2 2 2 Since mass gives 2 2 u2 = 1 D one gets an equation for the Rayleigh Line, a line in (P, ) space:
2 P2 = P1 + 2 1D
1 1 1 2
(4.277)
Note: Rayleigh line passes through ambient state Rayleigh line has negative slope magnitude of slope proportional to square of wave speed independent of state and energy equations
4.3.3
Hugoniot curve
Operate on the energy equation, using both mass and momentum to eliminate velocity. First eliminate u2 via the mass equation:
90
h2 + h2 + D2 h2 h1 + 2 h2 h1 + h2 h1 + D2 2 1 2 1 2
D2 u2 2 = h1 + 2 2 2 1 D D2 = h1 + 2 2
2
(4.278) (4.279) (4.280) (4.281) (4.282)
= 0 = 0 = 0
2 D 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 (1 2 ) (1 + 2 ) 2 2
Now use the Rayleigh line to eliminate D 2 : D 2 = (P2 P1 ) D

2
1 2 1
1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 1
(4.283) (4.284) (4.285)
D2
1 = (P2 P1 ) 2 1 1 = (P2 P1 ) 2 1 1 2 1
so the energy equation becomes h2 h1 + 1 (P 2 P 1 ) 2 1 2 (1 2 ) (1 + 2 ) 2 1 2 2 1 1 + 2 1 h2 h1 (P2 P1 ) 2 1 2 1 1 1 h2 h1 (P2 P1 ) + 2 2 1 = 0 = 0 = 0 (4.286) (4.287) (4.288) (4.289) Solving nally for the enthalpy dierence, one nds h2 h1 = (P2 P1 ) This equation is the Hugoniot equation. enthalpy change equals pressure dierence times mean volume independent of wave speed D and velocity u2 independent of equation of state
1 2
1 1 + 2 1
(4.290)
91
4.3.4
Solution procedure for general equations of state
The shocked state can be determined by the following procedure: specify and equation of state h(P, ) substitute the equation of state into the Hugoniot to get a second relation between P2 and 2 . use the Rayleigh line to eliminate P2 in the Hugoniot so that the Hugoniot is a single equation in 2 solve for 2 as functions of 1 and D back substitute to solve for P2 , u2 , h2 , T2 as functions of 1 and D invert to nd D as function of 1 state and u2 back transform to laboratory frame to get D as function of 1 state and piston velocity v2 = vp
4.3.5
Calorically perfect ideal gas solutions
Follow this procedure for the special case of a calorically perfect ideal gas. h = cp (T To ) + ho P = RT so h = cp Po P + ho R Ro cp P Po h = + ho R o P Po cp + ho h = cp cv o P Po + ho h = 1 o 1 P1 Po 1 o (4.293) (4.294) (4.295) (4.296) (4.291) (4.292)
Evaluate at states 1 and 2 and substitute into Hugoniot: 1 P2 Po 2 o + ho + ho = (P2 P1 ) 1 2 1 1 + 2 1
92
CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW P2 P1 1 1 1 (P 2 P 1 ) + 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 P1 1 2 22 21 1 1 22 21 1 +1 1 1 +1 1 P1 P2 2 ( 1) 2 21 2 ( 1) 1 22 +1 1 +1 1 1 1 P2 P1 1 2 1 1 1 2
= 0 = 0 = 0 = 0
+1 1 P1 +1 1 1 1 1 2
P2
P2 =
1 a hyperbola in (P, ) space
1 2 1 1
1 2
1 2
1 1 +1 1
causes P2 , note = = 1.4, 2 6 for innite pressure
as
1 , P2 P1 , note negative pressure, not physical here +1
The Rayleigh line and Hugoniot curves are sketched in Figure 4.9.
P (kPa)
500
shocked state P2
400
excluded zone slope of Rayleigh line < 0 Rayleigh line, slope ~ D from mass and momentum
2
excluded 300 zone, 1/ < 1/min

200
initial state
100
Hugoniot, from energy excluded zone, 2nd law violation
P1
-(-1) P1 +1
1/2 1/1
1/ (kg/m3 )
excluded zone, negative pressure
1/min = (-1) 1 (+1) 1
Figure 4.9: Rayleigh line and Hugoniot curve. Note: intersections of the two curves are solutions to the equations the ambient state 1 is one solution
4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES the other solution 2 is known as the shock solution shock solution has higher pressure and higher density higher wave speed implies higher pressure and higher density a minimum wavespeed exists occurs when Rayleigh line tangent to Hugoniot occurs for very small pressure changes corresponds to a sonic wave speed disturbances are acoustic if pressure increases, can be shown entropy increases
93
if pressure decreases (wave speed less than sonic), entropy decreases; this is nonphysical Substitute Rayleigh line into Hugoniot to get single equation for 2 P1 +
2 2 1D
1 1 1 2
+1 1 1 P1 +1 11 1 2
1 2 1 1
(4.297)
This equation is quadratic in 12 and factorizable. Use computer algebra to solve and get two solutions, one ambient 12 = 11 and one shocked solution: 1 1 1 = 2 1 + 1 1+ 2 P1 2 ( 1) D 1 (4.298)
The shocked density 2 is plotted against wave speed D for CPIG air in Figure 4.10. Note density solution allows allows all wave speeds 0 < D < plot range, however, is c1 < D < Rayleigh line and Hugoniot show D c1 solution for D = D (vp ), to be shown, rigorously shows D c1 strong shock limit: D 2 , 2
1 acoustic limit: D 2 P , 2 1 1
+1 1
non-physical limit: D 2 0, 2 0
94

strong shock limit calorically perfect ideal air = 7/5 R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K)
2 (kg/m3) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 500
exact solution
D (m/s) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
D = Dmin = c1
Figure 4.10: Shock density vs. shock wave speed for calorically perfect ideal air. Back substitute into Rayleigh line and mass conservation to solve for the shocked pressure and the uid velocity in the shocked wave frame: P2 = u2 2 1 1 D 2 P1 +1 +1 2 P1 1 1+ = D 2 +1 ( 1) D 1 (4.299) (4.300)
The shocked pressure P2 is plotted against wave speed D for CPIG air in Figure 4.11 including both the exact solution and the solution in the strong shock limit. Note for these parameters, the results are indistinguishable.
P2 (Pa) 8.x 10 6.x 10 4.x 10 2.x 10 6 6 6 6
ambient = 100000 Pa
exact solution and strong shock limit
calorically perfect ideal air = 7/5 R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K)
500
D (m/s) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
D = Dmin = c1
Figure 4.11: Shock pressure vs. shock wave speed for calorically perfect ideal air. The shocked wave frame uid particle velocity u2 is plotted against wave speed D for CPIG air in Figure 4.12.

u2 (m/s) 500 -100 -200 -300 -400 -500 1000 1500 2000 2500 D (m/s) 3000
95
strong shock limit exact solution u1 = - c1 D = Dmin = c1
Figure 4.12: Shock wave frame uid particle velocity vs. shock wave speed for calorically perfect ideal air.
2 The shocked wave frame uid particle velocity M2 = D for CPIG air in Figure 4.13. 2 u2 2 P2
is plotted against wave speed
M2 2 1 0.8
exact solution
strong shock limit
0.6 0.4 0.2 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 D (m/s) 3000
D = Dmin = c1 M2 2 = 1
Figure 4.13: Mach number squared of shocked uid particle vs. shock wave speed for calorically perfect ideal air.
2 Exercise: For the conditions shown in the plot of M2 vs. D do the detailed calculations to demonstrate the plot is correct.
Note in the steady frame that The Mach number of the undisturbed ow is (and must be) > 1: supersonic The Mach number of the shocked ow is (and must be) < 1: subsonic
96
CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW Transform back to the laboratory frame u = v D : v2 D = D v2 2 1 P1 1+ 2 +1 ( 1) D 1 2 P1 1 1+ = DD +1 ( 1) D 2 1 (4.301) (4.302)
Manipulate the above equation and solve the resulting quadratic equation for D and get
2
D=
+1 v2 4
P1 2 +1 + v2 1 4
(4.303)
Now if v2 > 0, one expects D > 0 so take positive root, also set velocity equal piston velocity v2 = vp +1 vp + D= 4 Note: acoustic limit: as vp 0, D c1 ; the shock speed approaches the sound speed strong shock limit: as vp , D
+1 vp 2
P1 +1 2 + vp 1 4
(4.304)
The shock speed D is plotted against piston velocity vp for CPIG air in Figure 4.14. Both the exact solution and strong shock limit are shown.
D (m/s) 1200 1000 800
exact solution
calorically perfect ideal air = 7/5 R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K) strong shock limit
acoustic limit, D c1
600 400 200 200 400 600 800
v (m/s ) 1000 p
Figure 4.14: Shock speed vs. piston velocity for calorically perfect ideal air. If the Mach number of the shock is dened as D c1
Ms
(4.305)
4.3. NORMAL SHOCK WAVES one gets Ms = + 1 vp + 4 RT1 1+

2 vp +1 RT1 4 2
97
(4.306)
The shock Mach number Ms is plotted against piston velocity vp for CPIG air in Figure 4.15. Both the exact solution and strong shock limit are shown.
Ms 3.5 3 2.5 2
exact solution
calorically perfect ideal air = 7/5 R = 0.287 kJ/(kg K) strong shock limit
acoustic limit, Ms 1
1.5 1 0.5 200 400 600 800
vp (m/s) 1000
Figure 4.15: Shock Mach number vs. piston velocity for calorically perfect ideal air
Example 4.9
Normal shock problem8 Given: Air owing through normal shock. Upstream u1 = 600 m/s, To1 = 500 K , Po1 = 700 kP a. Find: Downstream conditions M2 , u2 , T2 , P2 , Po2 and s2 s1 . Assume: calorically perfect ideal gas Analysis: First get all local unshocked conditions. T o1 T1 T1 = = = = c1 = = =
8
T1 +
u2 1 2 cp u2 1 2 cp 2
m 2 s 1004.5 kgJ K
(4.307) (4.308) 600 , (4.309) (4.310) (4.311) J kg K (320.81 K ), (4.312) (4.313)
T o1
500 K 320.81 K RT1 ,
1.4 287 359.0 m s
98
M1

= = = P1 = = = 1 = = = A1 A1 = = = u1 , c1 600 m s , 359.0 m s 1.671 1 2 Po1 1 + M1 5 (700 kP a) 1 +
3.5
(4.314) (4.315) (4.316) , 1 2 (1.671) 5

3.5
(4.317) , (4.318) (4.319) (4.320) , (4.321) (4.322)
148.1 kP a P1 , RT1 148.1 kP a 0.287 1.609 1 M1 1 1.671 1.311

kJ kg K
(320.81 K )
kg m3 2 +1 1+ 1 2 M1 2
1 +1 2 1
(4.323)
1 1.4+1 2 1.41
2 1.4 + 1
1.4 1 1+ 1.6712 2
(4.324) (4.325)
Now in this case it is fortunate because the incoming velocity D = 600 m s is known. Note that the shock density only depends on D2 , so one can be a little sloppy here with sign. Solve for the shocked state: 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 + 1 1 1.609 0.2890 1 0.2890 3.461
kg m3
= = =
1+
2 P1 ( 1) D2 1 1+ 2 (1.4) (1.4 1) 600

m 2 s
(4.326) 148, 100 P a 1.609

kg m3
1.4 1 1.4 + 1
(4.327) (4.328)
m3 kg
m3 kg
= =
(4.329) (4.330)
kg m3
Now a variety of equations can be used to determine the remaining state variables. Mass gives u2 : 2 u 2 u2 = 1 u 1 1 u 1 , = 2 1.609 =
kg m3
(4.331) (4.332) 600

kg m3 m s
3.461
(4.333)

= 278.9 Momentum gives P2 P2 + 2 u2 2 P2 P2 = = = P1 + 1 u2 1 P1 + 1 u 2 1 kg 148, 100 P a + 1.609 3 m 458 kP a 2 u 2 2 m 600 s
2
99
m . s (4.334)
(4.335) (4.336) kg 3.461 3 m m 278.9 s

2
(4.337) (4.338)
P2 = 458, 125 P a =
Remaining assorted variables are straightforward: T2 = = P2 2 R 458, 125 P a 3.461 c2 = =

kg m3
(4.339) , (4.340) (4.341) (4.342) J kg K (461.2 K ), (4.343) (4.344) (4.345)

m s m s
287
J kg K
= 461.2 K RT2 , 1.4 287 m s
= 430.5 M2 u2 = , c2 278.9 = 430.5 = 0.648
(4.346) (4.347) (4.348) (4.349) (4.350) (4.351)

3.5
T o2
1 2 , = T2 1 + M2 5 1 = 461.2 K 1 + 0.6482 5 = 500 K unchanged as required 1 2 = P2 1 + M2 5

3.5
Po2
s2 s1
1 = 458 kP a 1 + 0.6482 5 = 607.4 kP a dropped from unshocked state P2 T2 R ln = cp ln T1 P1 J J 461.2 K 458 kP a = 1004.5 287 ln ln kg K 320.81 K kg K 148.1 kP a = 364.6 324.0, J = 40.6 kg K = 1 M2 2 +1 1 2 1+ M2 2
1 +1 2 1
(4.352) (4.353) (4.354) (4.355) (4.356) (4.357) (4.358)
A2 A2
100

1 2 = 0.648 1.4 + 1 = 1.966. Since A2 = A1 = A, A2 A2 =
A A1 A A2
1.4 1 1+ 0.6482 2
1 1.4+1 2 1.41
(4.359) (4.360)
1.311 = 0.667 1.966
(4.361)
Note the entropy increased despite not including any entropy-generating mechanisms in this model. Why? First, the dierential equations themselves required the assumption of continuous dierentiable functions. Our shock violates this. When one returns to the more fundamental control volume forms, it can be shown that the entropy-generating mechanism returns. From a continuum point of view, one can also show that the neglected terms, that momentum and energy diusion, actually give rise to a smeared shock. These mechanisms generate just enough entropy to satisfy the entropy jump which was just calculated. Just as with Burgers equation and the kinematic wave equation, the jumps are the same, diusion simply gives a wave thickness.
Example 4.10
Piston Problem Given: A piston moving at vp = 1, 000 m s is driven into Helium which is at rest in the ambient state at a pressure of P1 = 10 kP a, T1 = 50 K . Find: The shock speed and post shock state. Assume: Helium is calorically perfect and ideal Analysis: For Helium, R cp = 1.667 J = 2077 kg K R = , 1 1.667 2, 077 = (4.362) (4.363) (4.364)
J kg K
1.667 1 J = 5, 192.5 . kg K Ambient density 1 = = P1 , RT1 10, 000 P a 2, 077 CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
J kg K
(4.365) (4.366)
(4.367) , (4.368)
(50 K )

= c1 = = = 0.0963 kg m3 RT1 , 1.667 2, 077 416.0 m s
2
101
(4.369) (4.370) J kg K (50 K ), (4.371) (4.372)
Now the wave speed D one gets from D = +1 vp + 4 +1 P1 2 + vp 1 4 (4.373)

2
= =
1.667 + 1 m 1, 000 + 4 s
1.667 (10, 000 P a) m + 1, 000 kg s 0.0963 m 3
1.667 + 1 4
(4.374) (4.375) (4.376)
666.7 + 785.8, m = 1, 452.5 s Strong shock limit is appropriate here as a quick check: D P2 = = = = 2 u 2 = 2 (v2 D) = 2 = +1 m 1.667 + 1 1, 000 vp = 2 2 s 1 2 1 D 2 P1 +1 +1 kg 2 0.0963 3 1.667 + 1 m 152, 377 2, 500, 149, 877 P a = 150 kP a 1 u 1 1 (v1 D) 1 (0 D) 1 D vp D 0.0963 = 1, 333.3 m s
(4.377) (4.378)
1, 452.5
m s
1.667 1 (10, 000 P a) 1.667 + 1
(4.379) (4.380) (4.381) (4.382) (4.383) (4.384) (4.385)
2 (vp D) =
= = T2 = = =
1, 452.5 1, 000 kg 0.309 3 m P2 2 R 149, 877 P a 0.309

kg m3
kg m3 m s
1, 452.5
m s
m s
(4.386) (4.387) (4.388)
2, 077
J kg K
(4.389) (4.390)
233.5 K
102
4.3.6
Acoustic limit
Consider that state 2 is a small perturbation of state 1 so that 2 = 1 + u2 = u1 + u1 P2 = P1 + P Substituting into the normal shock equations, one gets (1 + ) (u1 + u) = 1 u1 (1 + ) (u1 + u)2 + (P1 + P ) = 1 u1 2 + P1 P1 + P 1 P1 1 2 + (u1 + u)2 = + u1 1 1 + 2 1 1 2 Expanding, one gets 1 u1 + u 1 () + 1 (u) + () (u) = 1 u1 2 + 21 u1 (u) + u1 () + 1 (u) + 2u1 (u) () + () (u)2 + (P1 + P ) = 1 u12 + P1 1 P1 1 P1 u1 2 + 2u1 (u) + (u)2 + P 2 + ... + 1 1 1 1 2 P1 1 2 = + u1 1 1 2
2
(4.391) (4.392) (4.393)
(4.394) (4.395) (4.396)
1 u1
Subtracting the base state and eliminating products of small quantities yields u1 () + 1 (u) = 0 21 u1 (u) + u1 2 () + P = 0 1 P1 P 2 + u1 (u) = 0 1 1 1 In matrix form this is u1 u1 2 1 21 u1 u1 0 1
1 1 1
(4.397) (4.398) (4.399)
P1 2 1
As the right hand side is zero, the determinant must be zero and there must be a linear dependency of the solution. First check the determinant:
0 u = 0 P 0
(4.400)
103
u1
2 u1 2 u1 u1 1 + 1 1 1 1 2 1 u1 u1 2 + (2 ( 1)) 1 1
P1 2 1 P1 1 P1 u1 2 ( + 1) u1 2 + 1 P1 u1 2 = 1
= 0 = 0 = 0 = c2 1
(4.401) (4.402) (4.403) (4.404)
So the velocity is necessarily sonic for a small disturbance! Take u to be known and solve a resulting 2 2 system: u1 1 Solving yields = 1 u
P1 1
0
P1 2 1 1 1 1
1 u u1 u
(4.405)
(4.406)
P = 1
P1 u 1
(4.407)
4.3.7
Non-ideal gas solutions
Non-ideal eects are important near the critical point for strong shocks Some other points: qualitative trends the same as for ideal gases analysis is much more algebraically complicated extraneous solutions often arise which must be discarded
104
Example 4.11
Shock in van der Waals gas Given: Shock wave D = 500 Find: Shocked state Assume: van der Waals equation of state accurately models gas behavior, specic heat constant. Analysis: First, some data for N2 are needed. At P1 = 2 M P a, N2 has a boiling point of 115.5 K , so the material is in the gas phase but very near the vapor dome. R = 296.8 kgJ K , cv = 744.8 kgJ K , Tc = 126.2 K , Pc = 3, 390, 000 P a. Since the material is near the vapor dome, the van der Waals equation may give a good rst correction for non-ideal eects. P P P = = = a RT v b v2 RT a2 1 b (4.408) (4.409) (4.410)
m s
propagating into N2 at rest at T1 = 125 K , P1 = 2 M P a.
RT a2 1 b
As derived earlier, the corresponding caloric equation of state is

T
e(T, v ) = eo +
To
)dT +a cv (T
1 1 vo v
(4.411)
Taking cv constant and exchanging v for gives e(T, ) = eo + cv (T To ) + a (o ) Eliminating T in favor of P then gives e(P, ) = eo + cv and in terms of h = e + P/: h(P, ) = eo + cv P + a2 (1 b) To R + a (o ) + P (4.414) P + a2 (1 b) To R + a (o ) (4.413) (4.412)
and h2 h1 allows cancellation of the o state so that h 2 h 1 = cv P2 + a2 P1 + a2 2 (1 b2 ) 1 (1 b1 ) 2 R 1 R a (2 1 ) + P2 P1 2 1 (4.415)
105
The constants a and b are xed so that an isotherm passing through the critical point, P = Pc , T = 2P = 0 A standard analysis9 yields Tc , passes through with P v T = 0 and v 2
T
a =
2 27 R2 Tc , 64 Pc J 27 296.8 kg K (126.2 K ) , 64 3, 390, 000 P a P a m6 174.6 kg 2 RTc , 8Pc 2 2
(4.416)
= = b = = = Find the ambient density. 2, 000, 000 P a =
(4.417) (4.418) (4.419) (4.420) (4.421)
296.8
J kg K
(126.2 K ) ,
8 (3, 390, 000 P a) m3 0.00138 kg
1 296.8
J kg K
(125 K )
m3 kg
1 0.00138 Three solutions (from computer algebra): 1 1 1 = = = 69.0926 kg m3
174.6
P a m6 kg 2
2 1
(4.422)
physical non-physical non-physical
(4.423) (4.424) (4.425)
kg m3 kg (327.773 + 112.702 i) 3 m (327.773 + 112.702 i)
kg Tabular data from experiments gives 1 = 71.28 m 3 , error = (71.28 69.09)/71.28 = 3%, so it seems the rst root is the physical root. Note that the van der Waals prediction is a signicant improvement over kg 2,000,000 P1 = 296 the ideal gas law which gives 1 = RT .8125 = 53.91 m3 , error = (71.28 53.91)/71.28 = 21.4%! 1 Even with this improvement there are much better (and more complicated!) equations of state for materials near the vapor dome.
Now use the Rayleigh line and Hugoniot equations to solve for the shocked density: P2 cv P1 + a2 P2 + a2 1 (1 b1 ) 2 (1 b2 ) 2 R 1 R
9
2 P1 + 2 1D
1 1 1 2
a (2 1 ) + 1 2 (P2 P1 )
P2 P1 2 1 1 1 + 2 1 = 0
Sonntag and Van Wylen, 1991, Introduction to Thermodynamics: Classical and Statistical, John Wiley: New York, p. 392. CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
106

Plugging in all the numbers into a computer algebra program yields the following solutions for 2 : 2 2 2 2 = = = = kg m3 kg 69.0926 3 m 195.309 shocked solution inert solution non-physical solution non-physical solution (4.426) (4.427) (4.428) (4.429)
kg m3 kg (85.74 657.9 i) 3 m (85.74 + 657.9 i)
The Rayleigh line then gives the pressure: kg m3

2
P2 P2
= =
2, 000, 000 P a + 69.0926
500
m s
1 69.0926
kg m3
1 195.309
kg m3
(4.430) (4.431)
13, 162, 593 P a = 13.2 M P a
The state equation gives the temperature. T2 = P2 + a2 2 (1 b2 ) 2 R 13, 162, 593 P a + 174.6 = 195.3 = 249.8 K
P a m6 kg2
(4.432) 195.3
kg m3 kg m3 2
1 0.00138
J kg K
m3 kg
195.3
kg m3
(4.433) (4.434)
296.8
Note the temperature is still quite low relative to standard atmospheric conditions; it is unlikely at these low temperatures that any eects due to vibrational relaxation or dissociation will be important. Our assumption of constant specic heat is probably pretty good. The mass equation gives the shocked particle velocity: 2 u 2 u2 = 1 u 1 1 u 1 = 2 69.0926 =
kg m3
(4.435) (4.436) 500

kg m3 m s
195.3 m = 176.89 s
(4.437) (4.438)
An ideal gas approximation (N2 = 1.4) would have yielded 1 2 1 2 2 relative error = = 1 1 1 + 1 1 53.91 1+ 2 P1 ( 1) D2 1 1+ 2 (1.4) (1.4 1) 500
m 2 s
(4.439) 2, 000, 000 P a kg 53.91 m 3 (4.440) (4.441) (4.442)
kg m3
1.4 1 1.4 + 1
= 158.65 =
kg ideal gas approximation m3 195.3 158.65 = 18.8% 195.3
4.4. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE AND NORMAL SHOCKS

The Rayleigh line then gives the pressure: kg m3
2
107
P2 P2 relative error
= = =
2, 000, 000 P a + 53.91
500
m s
1 53.91
kg m3
1 158.65
kg m3
(4.443) (4.444) (4.445)
10, 897, 783 P a = 10.90 M P a 13.2 10.9 = 17.4% 13.2
4.4
Flow with area change and normal shocks
This section will consider ow from a reservoir with the uid at stagnation conditions to a constant pressure environment. The pressure of the environment is commonly known as the back pressure: Pb . Generic problem: Given A(x), stagnation conditions and Pb , nd the pressure, temperature, density at all points in the duct and the mass ow rate.
4.4.1
Converging nozzle
A converging nozzle operating at several dierent values of Pb is sketched in Figure 4.16. The ow through the duct can be solved using the following procedure check if Pb P if so, set Pe = Pb determine Me from isentropic ow relations determine A from
A A
relation
A A
at any point in the ow where A is known, compute nd local M Note:
and then invert
A A
relation to
These ows are subsonic throughout and correspond to points a and b in Figure 4.16. If Pb = P then the ow is sonic at the exit and just choked. This corresponds to point c in Figure 4.16. If Pb < P , then the ow chokes, is sonic at the exit, and continues to expand outside of the nozzle. This corresponds to points d and e in Figure 4.16.
108

. . m/mmax e 1
Pb Po Pe
c b a
0 P(x)/Po 1
p*/p o
pb/p o
P*/Po
a--subsonic exit b--subsonic exit c--sonic exit d--choked, external expansion e--choked, external expansion x xe
Figure 4.16: Converging nozzle sketch
4.4.2
Converging-diverging nozzle
A converging-diverging nozzle operating at several dierent values of Pb is sketched in Figure 4.17. The ow through the duct can be solved using the a very similar following procedure set At = A with this assumption, calculate
Ae A A A
determine Mesub , Mesup , both supersonic and subsonic, from
relation
determine Pesub , Pesup, from Mesub , Mesup ; these are the supersonic and subsonic design pressures if Pb > Pesub , the ow is subsonic throughout and the throat is not sonic. Use same procedure as for converging duct: Determine Me by setting Pe = Pb and using isentropic relations if Pesub > Pb > Pesup , the procedure is complicated estimate the pressure with a normal shock at the end of the duct, Pesh If Pb Pesh , there is a normal shock inside the duct If Pb < Pesh , the duct ow is shockless, and there may be compression outside the duct
4.4. FLOW WITH AREA CHANGE AND NORMAL SHOCKS

Pb
109
Po
Pt
Pe possible normal shock
P(x)/Po 1
a--subsonic exit b--subsonic exit c--subsonic design d--shock in duct
P*/Po sonic throat
e-shock at end of duct f--external compression g--supersonic design
x xt . . m/mmax hg f e 1 xe
h--external expansion
c b a
P*/Po
1 Pb / P o
Figure 4.17: Converging-diverging nozzle sketch if Pesup = Pb the ow is at supersonic design conditions and the ow is shockless if Pb < Pesup, the ow in the duct is isentropic and there is expansion outside the duct
Example 4.12
Nozzle Problem10 Given: Air at To = 600 K owing through converging-diverging nozzle. At = 1 cm2 , Ae = 3 cm2 , kg m = 148.5 hr . Pitot tube at exit plane gives Poe = 200 kP a, Pe = 191.5 kP a.
10
110

Find: exit velocity, location of possible normal shock in duct, Mach number just upstream of normal shock Assume: Air is calorically perfect and ideal Analysis: kg hr kg = 0.04125 hr 3600 s s
m = 148.5
(4.446)
Now if there is no shock, the stagnation pressure would be constant in the duct; one can use the choked ow formula to compare to the actual mass ow rate: Po m e= RTo = 200, 000 P a 287
J kg K
2 +1
1 +1 2 1
RTo A 1m 100 cm
2
(4.447) (4.448)
(600 K )
2 1.4 + 1
1 1.4+1 2 1.41
1.4 287
J kg K
(600 K ) 1 cm2
= 200, 000 165 109 = 0.033
kg s
(4.449)
Now the actual mass ow is higher than this, so the stagnation pressure upstream must also be higher; therefore, there must be a shock in the duct which lowers the stagnation pressure. Use this equation to determine what the upstream stagnation pressure must be. 0.04125 kg kg 1 = Po1 165 109 s s Pa Po1 = 250 kP a (4.450) (4.451)
So 200 kP a Po2 = = 0.800 Po1 250 kP a (4.452)
The ow conditions could be deduced from this; one can also utilize the normal shock tables for air. These are valid only for a calorically perfect ideal air. Interpolating this table yields M1 1.83 M2 0.61 (4.453) (4.454)
The area ratio is determined from the isentropic ow tables. Recall that A changes through a shock, so in this case one wants to use conditions upstream of the shock. From the tables at M1 = 1.83 A1 = 1.4723 so, one nds A A1 = 1.4723 1 cm2 = 1.4723 cm2 (4.455)
Get the exit velocity. Even if there is a shock, the stagnation temperature is constant; thus, one has from energy conservation: CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
4.5. FLOW WITH FRICTIONFANNO FLOW
111
he +
u2 e 2 ue
= ho = = = 2 (ho he ) 2cp (To Te ) 2 cp T o 1 2 cp T o 1 Te To Pe Poe

1
(4.456) (4.457) (4.458) (4.459)
(4.460) 191.5 kP a 200 kP a

1.41 1.4
J 2 1004.5 kg K m s
(600 K ) 1
(4.461) (4.462)
= 121.9
4.5
Flow with frictionFanno ow
Wall friction is typically considered by modelling the wall shear as a constant. Wall friction is usually correlated with what is known as the Darcy friction factor: f , where f 8w u2 (4.463)
Now in practice f is related to the local ow Reynolds number based on pipe diameter D : ReD ReD and roughness of the duct
, D
uD
(4.464)
where is the average surface roughness. f = f ReD , D (4.465)
For steady laminar duct ow, the friction factor is independent of . It turns out the Poiseuille ow solution gives the friction factor, which turns out to be f= 64 ReD (4.466)
112
If the ow is steady and turbulent, the friction factor is described by the following empirical formula known as the Colebrook equation: 1 f 1/2 = 2.0 log10 /D 2.51 + 3.7 ReD f 1/2 (4.467)
Often one needs to iterate to nd f for turbulent ows. Alternatively, one can use the Moody chart to estimate f . This is simply a graphical representation of the Colebrook formula. Most uid texts will contain a Moody chart. While in principle f varies with a host of variables, in practice in a particular problem, it is often estimated as a constant. To get a grasp on the eects of wall friction, consider a special case of generalized onedimensional ow: steady one-dimensional adiabatic constant area duct Darcy friction model calorically perfect ideal gas Our equations from the section on inuence coecients d 1 = dx A 1 du = dx A dP dx reduce to
1 1 + e w L d P | = dx A (u 2 c2 ) 1 1 + e du uw L P | = dx A (u 2 c 2 )
+ w L + u2 dA dx c2 u dA uw L dx (u 2 c 2 )
(qw +w u)L e u P |
(4.468)
1 A
+ c2 w L + c2 u2 dA dx (u 2 c2 )
(u 2 c 2 )
(qw +w u)L e P |
(4.469)
(qw +w u)Lu e P |
(4.470)
(4.471) (4.472)
dP dx
w L 2 2 A (u c )
c2 +
u2 e P |
(4.473)
4.5. FLOW WITH FRICTIONFANNO FLOW Now for a circular duct L = 2r A = r 2 L 2r 2 4 = 2 = = A r r D For a calorically perfect ideal gas e = e P e P 1 1
e P
113
(4.474) (4.475) (4.476)
1 P 1 1 1 = 1 = 1 1
(4.477) (4.478) (4.479) (4.480) (4.481)
1+
e P
= 1 =
So making these substitutions yields d 4w = 2 dx D (u c2 ) 4uw du = 2 dx D (u c2 ) dP 4w c2 + u2 ( 1) = dx D (u 2 c 2 ) Substituting for w gives f u2 d = 2 dx 2 D (u c2 ) f u2 u du = 2 dx 2 D (u c2 ) dP f u2 c2 + u2 ( 1) = dx 2D (u 2 c2 ) Rearranging to place in terms of M 2 gives f M 2 d = 2 dx 2D (M 1) (4.488) (4.485) (4.486) (4.487) (4.482) (4.483) (4.484)
114
CHAPTER 4. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOW du f M 2u = dx 2D (M 2 1) f u2 1 + M 2 ( 1) dP = dx 2D (M 2 1)
(4.489) (4.490)
Now with the denition of M 2 for the calorically perfect ideal gas, one gets u2 P u2 d 2u du u2 dP + P dx P dx P 2 dx u2 f M 2 f M 2u u2 f u2 1 + M 2 ( 1) 2u + P 2D (M 2 1) P 2D (M 2 1) P 2 2D (M 2 1) fM4 2f M 4 f M 4 1 + M 2 ( 1) 2D (M 2 1) 2D (M 2 1) 2D (M 2 1) f M 4 1 2 1 M 2 ( 1) 2D (M 2 1) 1 f M 4 2 1 + M D (1 M 2 ) 2 (1 M 2 ) dM 2 1 (M 2 )2 1 + M 2 2 dx D
M2 = dM 2 = dx = = = =
So rearranging gives =f (4.491)
Integrate this expression from x = 0 to x = L where L is dened as the length at which the ow becomes sonic, so M 2 = 1 at x = L .
1 M2
2 2 dM 1M 2 M
2
2 1+M
=
0
1 2
dx D
(4.492)
An analytic solution for this integral is 1 M2 1 + (1 + ) M 2 f L + ln = M 2 2 2 + M 2 ( 1) D Example 4.13

Flow in a duct with friction11
11
(4.493)
from White, 9.82, p. 589
4.5. FLOW WITH FRICTIONFANNO FLOW

Given: Air owing in pipe D = 1 in, L = 20 f t, P1 = 40 psia, u1 = 200 Find: Exit pressure P2 , m
ft s ,
115
T1 = 520 R.
Assume: calorically perfect ideal gas, Darcy friction factor models wall shear, constant viscosity Analysis: First get the mass ow rate. P1 RT1 40 1 1 m = = 0.2077
lbf in2
(4.494) 144
in2 f t2
53.34
f t lbf lbm R
(4.495) (4.496) (4.497)
(520 R)
lbm f t3 = 1 u1 A1 , = 1 u 1 = 0.2077 = 0.2266 D 2

2
(4.498) 200 ft s 1 in 1 f t 2 12 in
2
lbm f t3 lbm s
(4.499) (4.500)
Now compute the friction factor. First for cast iron pipes, one has surface roughness = 0.00085 f t, so 0.00085 f t 12 in = = 0.0102 D 1 in 1 ft so
(4.501)
lbf s f t2
The Reynolds number is needed, which involves the viscosity. For air at 520 R, 4.08 107 1 u 1 D = 0.2077
lbm f t3
200
lbf s f t2
ReD =
ft s
1 12
ft = 263, 739 (4.502)
4.08 107
32.17
lbm f t lbf s2
Since ReD >> 2, 300, the ow is turbulent and one needs to use the Colebrook formula to estimate the Darcy friction factor: 1 f 1/2 /D 2.51 + 3.7 ReD f 1/2 0.0102 2.51 + 3.7 263, 739f 1/2
= 2.0 log10 = 2.0 log10
(4.503) (4.504)
Now reading the Moody chart gives f = 0.04. A numerical trial and error solution of the Colebrook equation gives f = 0.0384 (4.505) CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
116
Now nd M1 . M1
= =
u1 , RT1 200 1.4 53.34

f t lbf lbm R ft s lbm f t lbf s2
(4.506) , (520 R) (4.508) (4.507)
32.17
= 0.1789 Now f L1 D = = = L1 = =
2 2 1+ 1 M1 (1 + ) M1 + ln 2 2 ( 1) M1 2 2 + M1 2 1 + 1.4 1 0.1789 (1 + 1.4) 0.17892 + ln 2 (1.4) 2 + 0.17892 (1.4 1) 1.4 (0.1789)2
(4.509) (4.510) (4.511) (4.512) (4.513)
18.804 1 ft 18.804 12 , 0.0384 40.81 f t
so at a distance 40.81 f t from station 1, the ow will go sonic. It is needed to nd M2 at a station 20 f t from station 1. So L2 f L2 D = = = = 9.589 = Iterative solution gives M2 = 0.237925 Since energy conservation holds in this ow u2 2 2 u2 T2 + 2 2 cp h2 + u2 T2 + 2 2 cp u2 2 2 cp M 2 RT2 T2 + 2 2 cp T2 + = = u2 1 2 u2 T1 + 1 2 cp h1 + 200 = 520 R +
ft s 2
20.81 f t 0.0384 (20.81 f t) , 1 12 f t 9.589 2 2 1 + 1.4 (1 + 1.4) M2 1 M2 + ln 2 2 (1.4 1) 1.4M2 2 (1.4) 2 + M2
40.81 f t 20 f t,
(4.514) (4.515) (4.516) (4.517) (4.518)
(4.519)
(4.520) (4.521)
2 6, 015 = = 523.33 R 523.33 R
f t2 s2 R
(4.522)
(4.523) (4.524)
4.6. FLOW WITH HEAT TRANSFERRAYLEIGH FLOW

T2 1 + ( 1) 2 M2 2 T2 = = = = u2 = = = 2 u 2 2 = = = = P2 = = = s2 s1 = = = 523.33 R 523.33 R 1+
( 1) 2 2 M2
117
(4.525) (4.526) (4.527) (4.528) (4.529)
523.33 R 1+ 517.47 R M2
(1.41) 0.2379252 2
RT2 , f t2 s2 R (517.47 R)
0.237925 1.4 1, 715 265.2 1 u 1 u1 1 , u2 0.2077 0.1566 2 RT2 , lbm f t3 ft s
(4.530) (4.531) (4.532) (4.533)
ft s 265.2 fst
200
(4.534) (4.535) (4.536) (4.537) (4.538) (4.539) (4.540) (4.541)
lbm f t3
f t lbf f t2 lbm (517.47 R) 53.34 0.1566 3 ft lbm R 144 in2 30.02 psia T2 P2 cp ln R ln T1 P1 f t2 517.47 R 30.02 psia f t2 6, 015 2 ln ln 1, 715 2 s R 520 R s R 40 psia f t2 462.9 2 s R
4.6
Flow with heat transferRayleigh ow
Flow with heat transfer is commonly known as Rayleigh ow. To isolate the eect of heat transfer, the following assumptions will be adopted: constant area duct no wall friction calorically perfect ideal gas
118
Consequences of heat addition: stagnation temperature changes heating drives both subsonic and supersonic ows towards sonic states cooling drives both subsonic and supersonic ows away from sonic state heating increases To , decreases Po , both subsonic and supersonic cooling decreases To , increases Po , both subsonic and supersonic The governing equations are 2 u2 = 1 u1 + P2 = 1 D 2 + P1 u2 u2 = 1 u1 A h1 + 1 2 u2A h2 + 2 2 2 P Po h = 1 o 2 u2 2 (4.542) (4.543) + qw LL + ho (4.544) (4.545)
Note that these are a more general case of the equations for a normal shock. One could get equivalents of Rayleigh lines and Hugoniots. The Rayleigh line would be the same as the equations are the same; the Hugoniot would be modied because of the heat transfer term. If one denes the heat transfer per unit mass of ow q in terms of the wall heat ux qw : qw LL 1 u1 A
q the energy equation becomes h2 + u2 2 2 ho2 q q cp
(4.546)
= h1 +
= To2 To1
u2 1 +q 2 = ho1 + q = ho2 ho1
(4.547) (4.548) (4.549) (4.550)
With lots of eort very similar to that used for the normal shock equations, expressions can be developed relating the 2 state to the 1 state. If one takes the nal 2 state to be sonic 2 and the initial 1 state to be unsubscripted, it is found for the calorically perfect ideal gas that
119
( + 1) M 2 (2 + ( 1) M 2 ) To = To (1 + M 2 )2 Example 4.14
Heat Addition Problem12 Given: Fuel air mixture enters combustion chamber at u1 = 250 mixture releases 400 Btu lbm
ft s ,
(4.551)
P1 = 20 psia, T1 = 70 F . The
Find: Exit properties u2 , P2 , T2 , heat addition to cause ow to go sonic at exit Assume: Fuel air mixture behaves just like calorically perfect ideal air Analysis: Initial state T1 c1 = = = = = M1 = = = 1 = = = T o1 = = = Po1
12
70 + 460, 530 R RT1 , 1.4 1, 716 1, 128.4 u1 , c1 250 ft s f t2 s2 R (530 R),
(4.552) (4.553) (4.554) (4.555) (4.556) (4.557)
ft s ft s
1, 128.4 0.2216 P1 , RT1 20

lbf in2
(4.558) (4.559) (4.560)
32.17
lbm f t2 lbf s2
2
144
in2 f t2
t (530 R) 1, 716 sf 2 R
(4.561) (4.562) (4.563) (4.564) (4.565) (4.566)
lbm f t3 1 2 , T1 1 + M1 5 1 (530 R) 1 + 0.22162 , 5 535.2 R 0.1019 1 2 P1 1 + M1 5

3.5
adopted from White, pp. 557-558 CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
120

1 (20 psia) 1 + 0.22162 5 20.70 psia
3.5
= =
(4.567) (4.568)
Now calculate To , the stagnation temperature corresponding to sonic ow T o1 T o T o1 T o T o = = = = = =

2 2 2 + ( 1) M1 ( + 1) M1 2) (1 + M1 2
(4.569) , (4.570) (4.571) (4.572) (4.573) (4.574)
(1.4 + 1) 0.22162 0.2084 T o1 , 0.2084 535.2 R , 0.2084 2568.3 R
(1 + (1.4) (0.22162))
2 + (1.4 1) 0.22162
2
Now calculate the eect of heat addition: q = = T o2 = = = T o2 T o T o2 T o = = = 400 Btu lbm 779 f t2 s2 f t lbf Btu 32.17 lbm f t lbf s2 , (4.575) (4.576) (4.577)
f t2 s2
10.024 106 T o1 + q , cp
535.2 +
10.024 106 6, 015
f t2 s2 R
(4.578) (4.579) (4.580) (4.581)
2, 201.7 R 2, 201.7 R , 2, 563.3 R 0.8573 ( +

2 1) M2 2) (1 + M2
2 + (
2
2 1) M2
(4.582) (4.583)
0.8573 =
2 2 2 + (1.4 1) M2 (1.4 + 1) M2 2) (1 + 1.4M2 2
Computer algebra gives four solutions. For a continuous variation of M , choose the positive subsonic branch. Other branches do have physical meaning. relevant branch M2 M2 M2 M2 Calculate other variables at state 2: T2 = 1 2 T o2 1 + M 2 5
1
= = = =
0.6380 0.6380 1.710 1.710
(4.584) (4.585) (4.586) (4.587)
(4.588)

1 0.63802 5
1
121
= = c2 = = = u2 = = = 2 u 2 2 = = = = P2 = = =
(2, 201.7 R) 1 + 2, 036 R RT2 , 1.4 1, 716 2, 211.6 M 2 c2 , ft s f t2 s2 R
(4.589) (4.590) (4.591)
(2, 036 R),
(4.592) (4.593) (4.594)
ft (0.6380) 2, 211.6 s ft 1, 411 s 1 u 1 u1 1 , u2 0.1019 0.01806 2 RT2 lbm 0.01806 3 ft 13.62 psia lbm f t3 lbm f t3 250
(4.595) (4.596) (4.597) (4.598) , (4.599) (4.600) (4.601)
ft s 1, 411 fst
f t2 1, 716 2 s R
1 lbf s2 32.17 lbm f t
f t2 , (2, 036 R) 144 in2
(4.602) (4.603)
Is momentum satised?
2 P2 + 2 u2 2 = P1 + 1 u1
13.62 =
lbf in2 20 lbf in2
144 in2 f t2
+ 0.01806
lbm f t3 lbm f t3
1, 411 250
ft s ft s
1 lbf s2 32.17 lbm f t
144 in2 f t2
+ 0.1019
1 lbf s2 32.17 lbm f t lbf lbf 3, 078.97 2 = 3077.97 2 close! ft ft
Entropy Change s2 s1 = cp ln = = = = P2 T2 R ln T1 P1 2 ft f t2 2, 036 R 6, 015 2 ln 1, 716 2 ln s R 530 R s R 8, 095.38 (659.28) , f t2 8, 754.66 2 s R 1 Btu 1 lbf s2 f t2 8, 754.66 2 s R 779 f t lbf 32.17 lbm f t (4.604) 13.62 psia 20 psia (4.605) (4.606) (4.607) (4.608)
122

= 0.3493 Second Law s2 s1 Btu lbm R Btu 0.3493 lbm R 0.3493 maximum heat release qmax = cp ( T o T o 1 ) f t2 (2, 568.3 R 535.2 R) = 6, 015 2 s R Btu = 488 lbm (4.613) 1 Btu 779 f t lbf 1 lbf s 32.17 lbm f t
2
Btu lbm R q T 400 Btu lbm 2, 036 R Btu lbm R yes!
(4.609)
(4.610) (4.611) (4.612)
0.1965
(4.614) (4.615)
qmax
4.7
Numerical solution of the shock tube problem
A detailed development is given in lecture for the numerical solution to the Riemann or shock tube problem. The equations are rst posed in the general conservative form: q + (f (q)) = 0. t x (4.616)
Here q and f vector functions of length N = 3; further f is itself a function of q. The equations are discretized so that q(x, t) qn i, f (q(x, t)) f (qn i ). (4.617) (4.618)
4.7.1
One-step techniques
A brief discussion of nite dierence techniques is given in lecture. The most tempting technique is a rst order forward dierence in time, central dierence in space technique which yields the nite dierence relation: t n f (qn i+1 ) f (qi1 ) . 2x Unfortunately this method is unstable.
+1 qn = qn i i
(4.619)
4.7. NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF THE SHOCK TUBE PROBLEM
123
4.7.2
Lax-Friedrichs technique
1 n t n qi1 + qn f (qn i+1 i+1 ) f (qi1 ) . 2 2x
A robustly stable rst order method is found int the Lax-Friedrichs method.
+1 qn = i
(4.620)
4.7.3
Lax-Wendro technique
The two-step Lax-Wendro discretization is as follows at a given time step estimate q at the i + 1/2 cell interface: qn i+1/2 = 1 n q + qn i+1 , 2 i
n+1/2
(4.621)
use central dierencing (about i + 1/2) to step forward t/2 so that qi+1/2 can be estimated: qi+1/2 = qn i+1/2
n+1/2
t/2 n f (qn i+1 ) f (qi ) . x
(4.622)
use central dierencing (about i) to step forward t, evaluating f at the i 1/2 and n + 1/2 steps:
+1 qn = qn i i
t n+1/2 n+1/2 f (qi+1/2 ) f (qi1/2 ) . x
(4.623)
124
Chapter 5 Steady supersonic two-dimensional ow

Suggested Reading: Liepmann and Roshko, Chapter 4: pp. 84-123 Hughes and Brighton, Chapter 8: pp. 208-230 Shapiro, Chapters 9-16: pp. 265-609 White, Chapter 9: pp. 559-581 This chapter will discuss two-dimensional ow of a compressible uid. The following topics will be covered: presentation of isentropic two-dimensional ow equations oblique shocks Prandtl-Meyer rarefactions ow over an airfoil Assume for this chapter:
t
0; steady ow
w 0, z 0; two-dimensional ow
no viscous stress or heat conduction, so isentropic except through shocks calorically perfect ideal gas 125
126
CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
5.1
Two-dimensional equations
With the assumptions of above the following equations govern the ow away from shock discontinuities:
5.1.1
Conservative form
(u) + (v ) = 0 x y u2 + P + (uv ) = 0 x y v 2 + P = 0 (vu) + x y 1 2 P + v e + =0 u + v2 + y 2 1 P e= + eo 1 (5.1) (5.2) (5.3) (5.4) (5.5)
1 2 P u e + u + v2 + x 2
5.1.2
Non-conservative form
u x u u +v u x y v v u +v x y u e e +P +v u x y x u + +v x y v =0 y P + =0 x P + =0 y v =0 + y 1 P e= + eo 1 + (5.6) (5.7) (5.8) (5.9) (5.10)
5.2
Mach waves
Mach waves are small acoustic disturbances in a ow eld. Recall that small disturbances propagate at the ambient sound speed. Lets consider a small sphere moving at u1 through a uid with ambient sound speed co . u1 < co , subsonic ow, sphere does not catch acoustic waves u1 = co , sonic ow, upstream ow always unaware of sphere
5.3. OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES u1 > co , supersonic ow, larger region still unaware of sphere
127
Consider that in time t, the sphere will move u1 t and the wave will propagate will be felt by a circle with radius co t, see Figure 5.1
co t u1 < co subsonic flow u1 = co sonic flow co t
u1 t u1 t zone of silence co t u1 > co supersonic flow Mach wave = arcsin (1/M1)
u1 t
Figure 5.1: Acoustic disturbance sketch From the geometry, co t 1 co = = u1 t u1 M1 1 = arcsin M1
sin =
(5.11) (5.12)
5.3
Oblique shock waves
An oblique shock is a shock which is not normal to the incoming ow eld. It can be shown that in the limiting case as the oblique shock strength goes to zero, the oblique shock wave becomes a Mach wave, as described in the previous section. Oblique waves can be understood by considering the following problem.
128 Given:
a straight wedge inclined at angle to the horizontal a freestream ow parallel to the horizontal with known velocity v = u1 i + 0 j known freestream pressure and density of P1 and 1 steady ow of a calorically perfect ideal gas (this can be relaxed and one can still nd oblique shocks) Find: angle of shock inclination Similar to the piston problem, the oblique shock problem is easiest analyzed if we instead consider as known They are best modeled in a two-dimensional coordinate system with axes parallel and perpendicular to the shock, see Figure 5.2, so that x=x sin + y cos y = x cos + y sin u=u sin + v cos v = u cos + v sin (5.13) (5.14) (5.15) (5.16) as unknown downstream pressure and density P2 , 2
Consequently, in this coordinate system, the freestream is two-dimensional. It is easily shown that the equations of motion are invariant under a rotation of axes, so that (u ) + (v ) = 0 x y u 2 + P + (u v ) = 0 x y v 2 + P = 0 (v u ) + x y 1 2 P + v e+ u +v 2 + =0 y 2 1 P e= + eo 1 (5.17) (5.18) (5.19) (5.20) (5.21)
1 2 P u e+ u +v 2 + x 2
To analyze oblique shocks, we make one additional assumption

5.3. OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES

oblique shock wave /v tan = u 1 1 ~ v1 1 unshocked freestream (supersonic) y x ~ x wedge u1 ~ u2 ~ u1 ~ v2 tan () = u2 / v2 ~ u ~ v2 P2 2 shocked flow ~ y
129
P1
Figure 5.2: Oblique Shock Schematic

y
=0
Note however that, contrary to one-dimensional ow we will not enforce v = 0, so v =0 Consequently, all variables are a function of x at most and equations reduce to d (u ) = 0 dx d u 2 + P = 0 dx d (v u ) = 0 dx 1 2 P d u e+ u +v 2 + =0 dx 2 1 P e= + eo 1 Integrate and apply freestream conditions
x
d . dx
The governing
(5.22) (5.23) (5.24) (5.25) (5.26)
130
2 u 2 e2 +
1 2 P2 2 u 2 + v 2 + 2 2
= 1 u 1
2 u 2 = 1 u 1 2 + P2 = 1 u 1 + P1 2 v 2 u 2 = 1 v 1 u 1 1 2 P1 2 e1 + u 1 + v 1 + 2 1 1 P + eo e= 1 2 u 2 2
(5.27) (5.28) (5.29) (5.30) (5.31)
Now using the mass equation, the y momentum equation reduces to
v 2 = v 1 Using this result and the mass a state equations gives
(5.32)
2 u 2 = 1 u 1 2 + P2 = 1 u 1 + P1 1 P1 1 2 P1 1 P2 1 2 P2 + u = + u + + 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 u 2 2
(5.33) (5.34) (5.35)
These are exactly the equations which describe a normal shock jump. All our old results apply in this coordinate system with the additional stipulation that the component of velocity tangent to the shock is constant. Recall our solution for one-dimensional shocks in a calorically perfect ideal gas: 1 1 1 = 2 1 + 1 For this problem D = u 1 so 1 2 1 1 P1 1+ = 2 2 1 + 1 ( 1) u 1 1 With the freestream Mach number normal to the wave dened as u 2 1 1 P 1 (5.37) 2 P1 2 ( 1) D 1
1+
(5.36)
2 M1 n
(5.38)
5.3. OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES we get 1 1 = 2 +1 and since from mass

1 2
131
1+
2 2 ( 1) M1 n
(5.39)
u 2 u 1
u 2 1 2 = 1+ 2 u 1 +1 ( 1) M1 n Now for our geometry u 1 v 1 u 2 u 2 tan ( ) = = v 2 v 1 tan ( ) u 2 = so u 1 tan tan = thus 1 tan ( ) = tan +1 Now note that
2 2 2 M1 n = M1 sin
(5.40)
(5.41) (5.42) (5.43)
1+
2 2 ( 1) M1 n
(5.44)
(5.45)
so 2 2 ( 1) M1 sin2 2 ( 1) M1 sin2 + 2 2 ( 1) M1 sin2 2 ( 1) M1 sin2 + 2 tan ( ) = tan 2 ( + 1) M1 sin2 2 tan tan ( 1) M1 sin2 + 2 = tan 2 1 + tan tan ( + 1) M1 sin2 tan tan = + tan tan tan = tan (1 + tan ) tan tan = 1 + tan 1+ tan ( ) 1 = tan +1 tan ( ) 1 = tan +1 (5.46) (5.47) (5.48) (5.49) (5.50) (5.51) (5.52)
132
With a little more algebra and trigonometry this reduces to tan = 2cot
2 M1 sin2 1 2 M1 ( + cos 2 ) + 2
(5.53)
Given M1 , and , this equation can be solved to nd the wedge angle. It can be inverted to form an equation cubic in sin to solve explicitly for . Figure 5.3 gives a plot of oblique shock angle versus wedge angle .
90 strong branch (post-shock subsonic) expanded view of plane 75 1 = 2 2nd law violation 60 maximum wedge angle for attached oblique shock -40 30 1 = 2 1 = 3 1 = 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 weak branch (post shock supersonic, primarily) -20 -25 2nd Law Violation 50 1= 3 1 = 20 40
25
-50
= 7/5
-75
Figure 5.3: Shock angle versus wedge angle Note the following features: for a given < max , there exist two s lower is weak solution
1 lim0 = arcsin M , a Mach wave relevant branch for most external ows, matches in far-eld to acoustic wave, can exist in internal ows 2 + v2 2 > 1 for nearly all 0 < total Mach number primarily supersonic, M2 = u c2 2 < max u 2 2 normal Mach number subsonic, M2 n = c2 < 1
2
5.3. OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES higher is the strong solution lim0 = , a normal shock wave 2 relevant branch for some internal ows 2 total Mach number completely subsonic, M2 =
2 normal Mach number subsonic, M2 n = u 2 c2 2
133
u 2 + v2 c2 2
< 1 for all 0 < < max
<1
for > max , no solution exists; shock becomes detached Consider xed , increasing freestream Mach number M1 , see Figure 5.4 0 < M1 < 1, subsonic incoming ow, no shocks continuous pressure variation 1 < M1 < M1a , supersonic incoming ow, detached curved oblique shock M1a < M1 < , supersonic incoming ow, attached straight oblique shock as M1 , Consider xed supersonic freestream Mach number M1 , increasing , see Figure 5.5 0, Mach wave, negligible disturbance small , small , small pressure, density rise large , curved detached shock, large pressure and density rise
medium , medium , moderate pressure and density rise
Example 5.1
Oblique Shock Example Given: Air owing over a wedge, = 20 , P1 = 100 kP a, T1 = 300 K , M1 = 3.0 Find: Shock angle and downstream pressure and temperature P2 , T2 . Assume: calorically perfect ideal gas Analysis: First some preliminaries: c1 = RT1 = m s m m = 1, 041.6 u1 = M1 c1 = (3.0) 347.2 s s 100, 000 P a kg P1 = = 1.1614 3 1 = RT1 m 287 kgJ K (300 K ) (1.4) 287 (300 K ) = 347.2 J kg K (5.54) (5.55) (5.56)
134

continuous pressure variation
shock approaching wedge from infinity
detached oblique shock
M1 < 1 subsonic, shockless flow
M1 ~ 1 slightly supersonic flow
1 < M1 < M1a moderately supersonic flow
attached oblique shock
attached oblique shock at limiting wave angle min
M1a < M1 <
M1 ->
Figure 5.4: Shock wave patterns as incoming Mach number varied

Now nd the wave angle: tan = 2cot tan 20 = 2cot
2 M1 sin2 1 2 ( + cos 2 ) + 2 M1
(5.57) (5.58) (5.59)
3.02 (1.4
3.02 sin2 1 + cos 2 ) + 2
Three solutions: weak oblique shock; common strong oblique shock; rare second law violating rarefaction shock 1. Weak Oblique Shock = 37.76 = 82.15 = 9.91 (5.60) (5.61) (5.62)
m m sin 37.76 = 637.83 s s m m cos 37.76 = 823.47 v 1 = u1 cos = 1, 041.6 s s 637.83 m u 1 s = 1.837 = M1n = c1 347.2 m s u 1 = u1 sin = 1, 041.6 1 1 = 2 +1 CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers. 1+ 2 2 ( 1) M1 n
(5.63) (5.64) (5.65) (5.66)

M1 xed, supersonic, P1, 1 xed
135
M1
M1
M1
M1
Mach wave small disturbance
attached shocks moderate disturbances
detached shock large disturbance
Figure 5.5: Shock wave patterns as wedge angle varied
1.1614 2
kg m3
1.4 1 1.4 + 1
1+
2 (1.4 1) 1.8372
= 0.413594
(5.67) (5.68) (5.69) (5.70) (5.71) (5.72) (5.73) (5.74) (5.75) (5.76) (5.77) (5.78) (5.79) (5.80) (5.81)
2 =
kg 1.1614 m kg 3 = 2.8081 3 0.41359 m 2 u 2 = 1 u 1 m s
m s m v 2 = v 1 = 823.47 s u2 = u 2 sin + v 2 cos v2 = u 2 cos + v 2 sin m m m u2 = 263.80 sin 37.76 + 823.47 cos 37.76 = 812.56 s s s m m m cos 37.76 + 823.47 sin 37.76 = 295.70 v2 = 263.80 s s s v2 check on wedge angle = arctan u2 m 295.70 s = 19.997 = arctan 812.56 m s u 2 = = 263.80 P2 = P1 + 1 u 2 2 1 2 u 2 kg m 2 m 2 kg P2 = 100, 000 P a + 1.1614 3 637.83 263.80 2.8081 3 m s m s P2 = 377, 072 P a P2 377, 072 P a = 467.88 K T2 = = kg 2 R 287 kgJ K 2.8081 m 3 c2 = RT2 = (1.4) 287 J kg K (467.88 K ) = 433.58 m s
kg 1.1614 m 637.83 3 1 u 1 = kg 2 2.8081 m 3
(5.82)
136

M2n =
2 u2 2 + v2 = c2
263.8 m u 2 s = 0.608 = c2 433.58 m s + 295.7

m s m 2 s
(5.83)
M2 =
812.56
m 2 s
433.58
= 1.994
(5.84) (5.85) (5.86) (5.87)
1, 004.5
J kg K
T2 P2 R ln T1 P1 467.88 K 377, 072 P a J ln ln 287 300 K kg K 100, 000 P a J s2 s1 = 65.50 kg K s2 s1 = cp ln
2. Strong Oblique Shock
u 1 = u1 sin = 1, 041.6
m m sin 82.15 = 1, 031.84 s s m m v 1 = u1 cos = 1, 041.6 cos 82.15 = 142.26 s s 1, 031.84 m u 1 s = 2.972 M1n = = c1 347.2 m s 1 1 = 2 +1 1+ 2 2 ( 1) M1 n = 0.26102
(5.88) (5.89) (5.90) (5.91) (5.92) (5.93) (5.94) (5.95) (5.96) (5.97) (5.98) (5.99) (5.100) (5.101) (5.102) (5.103) (5.104) (5.105)
1.1614 2
kg m3
1.4 1 1.4 + 1
1+
2 (1.4 1) 2.9722
2 =
kg 1.1614 m kg 3 = 4.4495 3 0.26102 m 2 u 2 = 1 u 1 m s
m s m v 2 = v 1 = 142.26 s u2 = u 2 sin + v 2 cos v2 = u 2 cos + v 2 sin m m m sin 82.15 + 142.26 cos 82.15 = 286.24 u2 = 269.33 s s s m m m v2 = 269.33 cos 82.15 + 142.26 sin 82.15 = 104.14 s s s v2 check on wedge angle = arctan u2 104.14 m s = arctan = 19.99 286.24 m s = 269.33 kg P2 = 100, 000 P a + 1.1614 3 m P2 = P1 + 1 u 2 2 1 2 u 2 m 2 m 2 kg 1, 031.84 269.33 4.4495 3 s m s P2 = 1, 013, 775 P a
kg 1.1614 m 1, 031.84 3 1 u 1 u 2 = = kg 2 4.4495 m 3

T2 = P2 1, 013, 775 P a = kg 2 R 287 kgJ K 4.4495 m 3 (1.4) 287 J kg K M2n =
2 u2 2 + v2 = c2
137
= 793.86 K m s (5.106)
c2 =
RT2 =
(793.86 K ) = 564.78 269.33 u 2 = c2 564.78 + 104.14

m s m s m s
(5.107) (5.108)
= 0.477
M2 =
286.24
m 2 s
m 2 s
564.78
= 0.539
(5.109) (5.110) (5.111) (5.112)
1, 004.5
J kg K
P2 T2 R ln T1 P1 793.86 K 1, 013, 775 P a J ln ln 287 300 K kg K 100, 000 P a J s2 s1 = 312.86 kg K s2 s1 = cp ln
3. Rarefaction Shock
m m sin (9.91) = 179.26 s s m m cos (9.91 ) = 1, 026.06 v 1 = u1 cos = 1, 041.6 s s 179.26 m u 1 s = 0.5163 = M1n = c1 347.2 m s u 1 = u1 sin = 1, 041.6 1 1 = 2 +1 1.1614 2
kg m3
(5.113) (5.114) (5.115) (5.116) (5.117) (5.118) (5.119) (5.120) (5.121) (5.122) (5.123) (5.124) (5.125) (5.126) (5.127)
1+
2 2 ( 1) M1 n
2
1.4 1 1.4 + 1
1+
2 (1.4 1) (0.5163) 2 =
= 3.2928
kg 1.1614 m kg 3 = 0.3527 3 3.2928 m 2 u 2 = 1 u 1
u 2 =
1 u 1 = 2
1.1614
kg m3
179.26
kg m3
0.3527
m s m v 2 = v 1 = 1, 026.06 s u2 = u 2 sin + v 2 cos = 590.27
m s
v2 = u 2 cos + v 2 sin m m m u2 = 590.27 sin (9.91 ) + 1, 026.06 cos (9.91 ) = 1, 112.34 s s s m m m cos (9.91 ) + 1, 026.06 sin (9.91 ) = 404.88 v2 = 590.27 s s s v2 check on wedge angle = arctan u2 404.88 m s = 20.00 = arctan 1, 112.34 m s
138

P2 = P1 + 1 u 2 2 1 2 u 2 kg m 2 m 2 kg P2 = 100, 000 P a + 1.1614 3 179.26 590.27 0.3527 3 m s m s P2 = 14, 433 P a 14, 433 P a P2 = T2 = = 142.59 K kg 2 R 0.3527 m 287 kgJ K 3 c2 = RT2 = (1.4) 287 J kg K (142.59 K ) = 239.36 m s (5.128) (5.129) (5.130) (5.131)
(5.132) (5.133)
M2n =
2 u2 2 + v2 = c2
590.27 m u 2 s = 2.47 = c2 239.36 m s

m 2 s
M2 =
1, 112.34
+ 404.88
m s
m 2 s
239.36
= 4.95
(5.134) (5.135) (5.136) (5.137)
1, 004.5
J kg K
P2 T2 R ln T1 P1 142.59 K 14, 433 P a J ln ln 287 300 K kg K 100, 000 P a J s2 s1 = 191.5 kg K s2 s1 = cp ln
5.4
Small disturbance theory
By taking a Taylor series expansion of the relationship between and about = 0, for xed M1 and it can be shown that 1
2 M1 1 4 +1 M1 2 2 4 (M1 1)
tan =
<< 1
(5.138)
Note that when = 0 that

2 M1 1 1 tan2 = 2 M1 1 2 2 1 sin sin = 2 = 2 2 cos M1 1 1 sin
2 sin2 M1 = 1 1 M 1 sin2 2 1
tan =
(5.139) (5.140) (5.141) (5.142)
5.4. SMALL DISTURBANCE THEORY sin = = arcsin 1 M1 1 M1
139 (5.143) (5.144)
After a good deal of algebra and trigonometry, it can also be shown that the pressure change, change in velocity magnitude, w , and change in entropy for ow over a thin wedge is
2 M1 P2 P1 = 2 P1 M1 1 w2 w1 = 2 w1 M1 1 s2 s1 3 s1
(5.145) (5.146) (5.147)
In terms of changes,
2 M1 P = 2 P1 M1 1 w = 2 w1 M1 1 s 3 s1
(5.148) (5.149) (5.150)
Note that a small positive gives rise to an increase in pressure a decrease in velocity magnitude a very small change in entropy Figure 5.6 shows the pattern of waves that one obtains when subjecting a ow to a series of small turns and the pattern that evolves as the turning radius is shrunk. compression waves converge expansion waves diverge convergence of compression waves leads to region of rapid entropy riseshock formation divergence of pressure waves leads to no shock formation in expansion This has an analog in one-dimensional unsteady ow. Consider a piston with an initial velocity of zero accelerating into a tube
140

Wave convergence; Shock Formation; Breakdown of Isentropic Assumption Isentropic Compression
Isentropic Expansion Wave divergence; No shock formation
Oblique Shock
Prandtl-Meyer Expansion
Figure 5.6: Wave pattern and streamlines for ows undergoing a series of small turns and for sudden turns lead compression wave travels at sound speed lead wave increases temperature (and sound speed) of disturbed ow each successive acoustic wave travels faster than lead wave eventually acoustic waves catch and form a shock Consider a piston with zero initial velocity which decelerates lead expansion wave travels at sound speed lead wave decreases temperature (and sound speed) of disturbed ow each successive acoustic wave travels slow than lead wave no shock formation A schematic for these one-dimensional unsteady ows is shown in Figure 5.7
5.5. CENTERED PRANDTL-MEYER RAREFACTION

t t shock
141
accelerating piston path
slow, acoustic lead wave
decelerating piston path
P1, 1
P1, 1
suddenly accelerated piston path shock locus
suddenly decelerated piston path
Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan x
Figure 5.7: Schematic of compression and expansion waves for one-dimensional unsteady piston-driven ow
5.5
Centered Prandtl-Meyer rarefaction
If we let 0, the entropy changes become negligibly small relative to pressure and velocity changes, and the ow is isentropic. The relations can be replaced by dierential relations: M 2 dP = d P M2 1 d dw = w M2 1 ds 0 s
(5.151) (5.152) (5.153)
142
Recall now that for adiabatic ow 1 2 To =1+ M T 2 RTo 1 2 =1+ M RT 2 1 2 c2 o =1+ M 2 c 2 1 1 2 2 c = co 1 + M 2 co dc = 2 1 2 1+ M 2

3 2
(5.154) (5.155) (5.156) (5.157) (5.158) (5.159)
( 1) MdM
1 MdM dc = 2 1 2 c 1+ 2 M
Also w = cM dw = cdM + Mdc dM dc dw = + w M c 1 MdM dw dM 2 = 1 w M M2 1 + 2 dw 1 dM = 1 2 w 1+ 2 M M d 1 dM = 1 1 + 2 M2 M M2 1 M2 1 dM d = 1 M 1 + M2 2 (5.160) (5.161) (5.162) (5.163) (5.164) (5.165) (5.166)
Now positive corresponds to compression and negative corresponds to expansion. Lets dene so positive gives and expansion. + o d = d Now integrate the expression d = M2 1 dM 1 M 1 + M2 2 (5.169) (5.167) (5.168)
5.5. CENTERED PRANDTL-MEYER RAREFACTION Let = 0 correspond to M = 1. This eectively selects o +1 tan1 1 1 (M 2 1) tan1 M 2 1 +1
143
(M ) =
(5.170)
The function (M ) is called the Prandtl-Meyer function. It is plotted in Figure 5.8. Many texts tabulate the Prandtl-Meyer function. For a known turning angle, one can nd the Mach number. As the ow is entirely isentropic, all other ow variables can be obtained through the isentropic relations. Note: As M ,
2 +1 1
1 , corresponds to vacuum conditions
given , one can calculate M isentropic relations give P , , T , etc. Prandtl-Meyer function tabulated in many texts
()
120
max = 130.5
100
80
60
= 7/5
10 20 30 40 M
Figure 5.8: Prandtl-Meyer function
Example 5.2
Centered Expansion Given: Calorically perfect, ideal air with P1 = 100 kP a, T1 = 300 K , u1 = 500 a 30 expansion corner. Find: Fluid properties after the expansion Analysis: CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
m s ,
turned through
144
1 =
P1 kg 100 kP a = 1.1614 3 = J RT1 m 0.287 kg K (300 K ) 1.4 287 J kg K (300 K ) = 347.2 m s
(5.171)
c1 =
RT1 =
(5.172) (5.173) (5.174) (5.175) (5.176) (5.177)
M1 =
500 m u1 s = 1.4401 = c1 347.2 m s 1 2 M1 2 = 424.43 K

1
To = T1 1 + To = 300 K 1+ 1 1.44012 5
Po = P1 Po = 100 kP a 1+ 1 1.44012 5
1 2 1+ M1 2
3.5
= 336.828 kP a
Now calculate the Prandtl-Meyer function for the freestream: (M1 ) = (M1 ) = +1 tan1 1 1 2 1) tan1 (M1 +1
21 M1
(5.178) (5.179) (5.180) (5.181)
1.4 + 1 tan1 1.4 1
1.4 1 (1.44012 1) tan1 1.44012 1 1.4 + 1 (M1 ) = 0.177138 rad 180 = 10.1493 (M1 ) = 0.177138 rad rad
The interpretation here is that an initially sonic ow would have had to had turned 10.1493 to achieve a Mach number of M1 = 1.4401. Now add on the actual turning: (M2 ) = (M1 ) + 30 (M2 ) = 10.1493 + 30 = 40.1493 rad (M2 ) = 40.1493 = 0.700737 rad 180 A trial and error solution gives the M2 which corresponds to (M2 ) = 0.700737 rad: 1.4 + 1 tan1 1.4 1 1.4 1 21 2 1) tan1 M2 (M2 1.4 + 1 M2 = 2.54431 T2 = To 1 + T2 = 424.43 K CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers. 1+ 1 2.543312 5 1 2 M2 2
1 1
(5.182) (5.183) (5.184)
0.700737 rad =
(5.185) (5.186) (5.187) (5.188)
= 189.4 K
5.6. WAVE INTERACTIONS AND REFLECTIONS

1 2 M2 2
3.5
1
145
P2 = Po 1 + P2 = 336.828 kP a 2 = 1+ 1 2.543312 5 18.43 kP a

J kg K
(5.189) (5.190) (5.191)
= 18.43 kP a = 0.3390 kg m3
P2 = RT2 0.287 1.4 287
(189.4 K )
c2 =
RT2 =
J kg K
(189.4 K ) = 275.87 m s
w2 = M2 c2 = 2.54431 275.87
m s m = 701.89 s
(5.192) (5.193)
5.6
Wave interactions and reections
Shocks and rarefactions can intersect and reect in a variety of ways.
5.6.1
Oblique shock reected from a wall
An oblique shock which reects from a wall is represented in Figure 5.9.
1 1
2 2
P2 P1
P3 interior streamline pressure field P3
P1
wall pressure
Figure 5.9: Reection of an oblique shock from a wall Note:

146
analysis just that of two oblique shocks ow always turns to be parallel to wall angle of incidence not equal angle of reection due to non-linear eects interior pressure prole has two steps wall pressure prole has single step P2 > 2P1 , that is the pressure is higher than that obtained in the acoustic limit
5.6.2
Oblique shock intersection
Two oblique shocks intersect as sketched in Figure 5.10
2 1 3
Figure 5.10: Interaction of two oblique shocks Note: ow always turns to be parallel to wall when shocks intersect, ow turns again to be parallel to itself
5.6.3
Shock strengthening
A ow turned by a corner through an oblique shock can be strengthened by a second turn as sketched in Figure 5.11 Note: three new waves generated
5.7. SUPERSONIC FLOW OVER AIRFOILS
147
slip
c fa re ra
stre
am
Figure 5.11: Shock Strengthening Sketch strengthened shock slipstream in which pressures match, velocity directions match, but velocity magnitudes dier weak rarefaction wave
tio n
5.6.4
Shock weakening
A ow turned by a corner through an oblique shock can be weakened by a second turn as sketched in Figure 5.12
Figure 5.12: Shock Weakening Sketch
5.7
Supersonic ow over airfoils
The standard problem in ow over an airfoil is to determine the lift and the drag. While in actual design it is the magnitude of the lift force FL , and drag force FD , that is most crucial,
148
there exists dimensionless numbers the lift coecient CL and the drag coecient CD which give good relative measures of airfoil performance. FL 1 u2 A 2 1 1 FD 1 u2 A 2 1 1
CL CD
(5.194) (5.195)
Though this is the traditional formula, it is probably not the best for interpreting how the forces vary when ight speed is varied. This is because when u1 , ight speed is varied both numerator and denominator change. To remedy this, we can instead scale by the ambient sound speed to dene a dimensionless lift force F L and dimensionless drag force F D : FL 1 c2 1A FD F D 1 c2 1A F L (5.196) (5.197)
5.7.1
Flat plate at angle of attack
The simplest problem is that of a at plate at angle of attack o . A schematic is illustrated in Figure 5.13. Note:
ge ed g n di tion lea efac rar
P1 T1 M1
far field Mach wave
P2 P2' slipstream
Figure 5.13: Supersonic Flow over a Flat Plate ow over the top is turned through an isentropic rarefaction to P2
ed g in ad k l e hoc s ge
far field Mach wave

ow over the bottom is turned through an oblique shock to P2 Since P2 > P2 , there is both lift and drag forces!
149
both a shock and rarefaction are attached to the trailing edge to turn the ow to the horizontal the ow regions are separated by a slipstream in which pressure and velocity directions match
FL = (P2 P2 ) A cos o , CL = FD = (P2 P2 ) A sin o , CD =
P (P 2 2 ) cos o 1 u2 2 1 1
P (P 2 2 ) sin o 1 u2 2 1 1
the drag here is known as wave drag or induced drag other components of drag, skin friction drag and thickness drag are zero due to inviscid limit and zero thickness limit In the small disturbance limit P = P1
P2 = P1 + 2 M1 2 M1 1 2 P1 M1
(5.198) (5.199) (5.200) (5.201) (5.202) (5.203) (5.204) (5.205) (5.206)
o 2 M1 1 2 P1 M1 P2 = P1 + (o ) 2 M1 1 2 2P1 M1 o P2 P2 = 2 M1 1 u2 2P1 1 P2 P2 = o P1 2 M1 1 1 2 P2 P2 = 1 u2 1 o 2 M1 1 2 1 u2 FL = 1 o A cos o 2 M1 1 2 FL = 1 u2 1 o A(1) 2 M1 1 4o CL = 2 M1 1
150
CHAPTER 5. STEADY SUPERSONIC TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW FD = 2

2 M1
1 u2 1 o A sin o 2 1
2 1 u2 1 o A 2 4 o 2 M1 1 2 2 M1 o 2 M1 1 2 2 2 M1 o
(5.207) (5.208) (5.209) (5.210) (5.211) (5.212) (5.213)
FD =
2 M1
CD = F L = F D = FL = 1 c2 1A FD = 1 c2 1A
High Mach number limit: High Mach number limit:
2 M1 1 F L = 2M1 o 2 F D = 2M1 o
Dimensionless lift and drag are plotted versus Mach number in Figure 5.14 Example 5.3
Lift and Drag on an Inclined Flat Plate Given: Flat plate, of chord length 2 m, depth 10 m inclined at 20 to the horizontal in a freestream of M1 = 3, P1 = 100 kP a, T1 = 300 K . Find: Lift and drag forces on the plate. Analysis: First some preliminaries: c1 = RT1 = m s m m = 1, 041.6 u1 = M1 c1 = (3.0) 347.2 s s P1 kg 100, 000 P a 1 = = 1.1614 3 = RT1 m 287 kgJ K (300 K ) (1.4) 287 J kg K (300 K ) = 347.2 Po = P1 1 + Po = 100 kP a 1+ 1 2 3 5
3.5
(5.214) (5.215) (5.216)
1 2 M1 2
(5.217) (5.218)
= 367.327 kP a
In a previous example, we found the oblique shock state under identical conditions:
P2 = 377, 072 P a
(5.219)
Now consider the rarefaction. CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

F* = F / 1 c A
L 2 L 1.75 1.5 1.25 1 0.75 0.5 0.25 0 2 4 6 Invalid Region Dimensionless Lift Force Flat Plate at Small Angle of Attack 2 1
151
= 5
8
10
M1
D 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
F* = F / c 2 A
D 1 1 Dimensionless Drag Force Flat Plate at Small Angle of Attack
Invalid Region
= 5
0 2 4 6 8
10
M1
Figure 5.14: Dimensionless Lift and Drag versus Incoming Mach Number for Flat Plate at Small Angle of Attack
(M1 ) = (M1 ) = 1.4 + 1 tan1 1.4 1
1.4 1 2 (3 1) tan1 1.4 + 1
+1 tan1 1
1 2 1) tan1 ( M1 +1
21 M1
(5.220) (5.221) (5.222) (5.223) (5.224) (5.225) (5.226) (5.227)
32 1 = 0.8691 rad = 49.7973
(M2 ) = (M1 ) + 20 (M2 ) = 49.7973 + 20 = 69.7973 1.4 + 1 tan1 1.4 1 1.4 1 2 1) tan1 21 M2 ( M2 1.4 + 1 M2 = 4.3209 P2 = Po 1 + P2 = 367.327 kP a 1+ 1 4.32092 5 1 2 M2 2
3.5
1
69.7973 = 1.218 rad =
= 1.591 kP a
152

FL = (P2 P2 ) A cos o
(5.228) (5.229) (5.230) (5.231) (5.232) (5.233) (5.234) (5.235) (5.236) (5.237) (5.238) (5.239) (5.240) (5.241)
FL = (377, 072 P a 1, 591 P a) (10 m) (2 m) cos 20 FL = 7, 142, 073 N FL 7, 142, 073 N CL = 1 = 2 2 1 1.1614 kg 1, 041.6 m (10 m) (2 m) 2 1 u 1 A 3
2 m s
CD
FD = (377, 072 P a 1, 591 P a) (10 m) (2 m) sin 20 FD = 2, 320, 600 N FD 2, 320, 600 N = 1 = 2 2 1 1, 041.6 m (10 m) (2 m) 1.1614 kg 2 1 u 1 A 3
2 m s
CL = 0.5668 FD = (P2 P2 ) A sin o
Compare with thin airfoil theory: CL =
CL
thin
thin
CD
thin
rad 4 (20 ) 180 32 1
rad 4 (20 ) 180 = 0.4936 32 1 42 o CD thin = 21 M1 2
CD = 0.1842 4o = 21 M1
= 0.1723
5.7.2
Diamond-shaped airfoil
The simplest supersonic airfoil with camber for analysis purposes is the diamond shaped airfoil as sketched in Figure 5.15. The sketch shows the airfoil at zero angle of attack. The upper half of the wedge is inclined at angle to the horizontal In this case there will be no lift but there will be drag. Note the following features: sudden turn through lead oblique shock turn through isentropic Prandtl-Meyer rarefaction nal turn through oblique shock attached to trailing edge far eld limit: acoustic (Mach) waves Thin airfoil limit CL Thin airfoil limit CD
thin
= 42
M 1 1
2
, same as for at plate! , same as for at plate!
thin
= 42
M 1 1
153
far field Mach waves
P1 T1 M1
lead oblique shock
P2 2
P3
P4
trailing oblique shock
Prandtl-Meyer rarefaction
Figure 5.15: Supersonic Flow over a Diamond-Shaped Airfoil
5.7.3
General curved airfoil
A general airfoil with camber is sketched in Figure 5.16. The sketch shows the airfoil at zero angle of attack. In this case there will be no lift but there will be drag. Note the following features: lead oblique shock lead shock weakened by series of non-centered rarefaction waves shock at trailing edge, also weakened by non-centered rarefaction waves far eld: acoustic (Mach) waves
5.7.4
Transonic transition
Transonic ow exists whenever there is a continuous transition from subsonic to supersonic ow. One example of a transonic ow is sketched in Figure 5.171 which shows an accelerating airfoil. Note:
adopted from Bryson, A. E., An Experimental Investigation of Transonic Flow Past Two-Dimensional Wedge and Circular-Arc Sections Using a Mach-Zehnder Interferometer, NACA Tech. Note 2560, 1951. CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.
1
154
Figure 5.16: Supersonic Flow over a Curved Airfoil
Sonic Locus Shock M<1 M>1 1 = 0.852 M<1
Sonic Locus Shock M<1 1 = 0.892 M>1 M<1
M>1
Shock M>1
Shock M>1
Shock M>1 M<1 M>1 M<1
M<1 Sonic Locus
1 = 1.207
1 = 1.315
1 = 1.465
Figure 5.17: Transition from Subsonic to Transonic to Supersonic Flow for high subsonic Mach number a bubble of supersonic ow appears smooth transition from subsonic to supersonic shock transition from supersonic to subsonic as Mach number increases, supersonic bubble expands for slightly supersonic Mach number, new shock approaches from far eld as supersonic Mach number increases, shock from far eld approaches leading edge and supersonic bubble disappears challenging problems, not easily solved till 1960s!
Chapter 6 Linear ow analysis

see Anderson, Chapter 9 In this section we consider ows which are steady, two-dimensional, irrotational, isentropic, calorically perfect, and ideal. The analysis is extensible to other cases.
6.1
Formulation
In lecture a detailed discussion is given in which the linearized velocity potential equation is obtained: 2 2 2 + 2 = 0. (6.1) 1 M x2 y
6.2
Subsonic ow
Here we consider ows in which the Mach number is subsonic, but not negligibly small. 155
156
CHAPTER 6. LINEAR FLOW ANALYSIS
6.2.1
Prandtl-Glauret rule
A discussion is given where it is shown that the pressure coecient on a supersonic airfoil can be determined in terms of the pressure coecient known from subsonic theory: cp = cpo . 2 1 M (6.2)
6.2.2
Flow over wavy wall
The technique of separation of variables is used to show the subsonic ow over a wavy wall can be written in terms of the velocity potential as (x, y ) = U h sin 2 1 M 2x l exp 2
2 y 1 M l
(6.3)
6.3
6.3.1
Supersonic ow
DAlemberts solution
The DAlembert solution for the wave equation is shown for supersonic ows: (x, y ) = f x +
2 1y + g x M 2 1y . M
(6.4)
6.3.2
Flow over wavy wall
The solution for ow over a wavy wall is given in detail in lecture.
Chapter 7 Viscous ow
This chapter will focus on problems in which viscous stress plays an important role in determining the motion of the uid. The topic in general is quite broad; to gain understanding of the fundamental physics, we will restrict our attention to the following limits: incompressible uid isotropic Newtonian uid with constant properties at most two-dimensional unsteady ow The chapter will consider the governing equations and then solve a few representative problems.
7.1
Governing equations
This section considers the governing equations for the conditions specied for this chapter. In dimensional non-conservative form, the governing equations are as follows: u v + =0 x y u u u P 2u 2u + u + v = + + t x y x x2 y 2 v v P 2v 2v v + u + v = + + t x y y x2 y 2 P 2T T T P P 2T T = +k +u +v +u +v + t x y t x y x2 y 2 +2 u x
2
cp
1 + 2
u v + y x
v y
157
158
CHAPTER 7. VISCOUS FLOW
An argument could be made to eliminate the viscous dissipation term and the pressure derivatives in the energy equation. The argument is subtle and based on the low Mach number limit which corresponds to incompressibility.
7.2
Couette ow
Consider a channel ow driven by plate motion See Figure 7.1

T = T0
y=h
P 0
y
P 0
y=0 x=0
T = T0
Figure 7.1: Sketch for Couette ow The mechanics of such a ow can be described by stripping away many extraneous terms from the governing equations. Take fully developed velocity and temperature proles: steady ow
t u x
0,
T x
constant pressure eld P (x, y, t) = Po constant temperature channel walls T (x, 0, t) = T (x, h, t) = To Since fully developed mass gives: v =0 y v (x, y ) = f (x)
(7.1) (7.2)
and since in order to prevent mass owing through the wall boundaries, v (x, 0) = v (x, h) = 0, thus
7.2. COUETTE FLOW
159
v (x, y ) = 0 Since
u x
(7.3)
= 0, u = 0 and t
T x
= 0, T = 0, we have at most, t u = u (y ) T = T (y ) (7.4) (7.5)
The y momentum equation has no information and x momentum and energy reduce to the following: d2 u dy 2 2 du d2 T 0=k 2 + dy dy 0= The x momentum equation is thus d2 u =0 dy 2 du = C1 dy u (y ) = C 1 y + C 2 Now applying u(0) = 0 and u(h) = U to x C1 and C2 we get u (y ) = U Shear stress: u y U = h y h (7.11) (7.6) (7.7)
(7.8) (7.9) (7.10)
yx = yx The energy equation becomes
(7.12) (7.13)
d2 T = 2 dy k
du dy
(7.14)
160
CHAPTER 7. VISCOUS FLOW d2 T U2 = dy 2 k h2 2 dT U = y + C1 dy k h2 1 U2 2 y + C1 y + C2 T (y ) = 2 k h2
(7.15) (7.16) (7.17)
Now T (0) = To and T (h) = To . This xes the constants, so 1 2 U 2k y y h h

2
T (y ) =
+ To
(7.18)
In dimensionless form this becomes T To 1 cp U 2 = To 2 k cp To P r Ec T To = To 2 Prandtl Number: cp Pr = k

k cp
y y h h y y h h
(7.19) (7.20) (7.21) (7.22)
momentum dif f usivity = thermal dif f usivity Ec kinetic energy U2 = cp To thermal energy
Eckert Number: Now
dT 1 U2 = (h 2 y ) dy 2 k h2 dT 1 U2 qy = k = 2 (2y h) dy 2 h U 2 qy (0) = 2h Note: at lower wall, heat ux into wall; heat generated in uid conducted to wall wall heat ux magnitude independent of thermal conductivity higher plate velocity, higher wall heat ux higher viscosity, higher wall heat ux thinner gap, higher wall heat ux
(7.23) (7.24) (7.25)
7.3. SUDDENLY ACCELERATED FLAT PLATE Also since Tmax occurs at y =

h 2
161
Tmax = Note:
1 2 U + To 8k
(7.26)
high viscosity, high maximum temperature high plate velocity, high maximum temperature low thermal conductivity, high maximum temperature Dimensionless wall heat ux given by the Nusselt number: qy (0)
k T y
Nu
qy (0)y k T =2
(7.27) (7.28)
Nu =
U 2 h 2h 2 1 2 k8 kU
7.3
Suddenly accelerated at plate
The problem of pulling a plate suddenly in a uid which is initially at rest is often known as Stokes First Problem or Rayleighs problem.
7.3.1
Formulation
Consider a channel ow driven by a suddenly accelerated plate. See Figure 7.2 Initially, t<0 uid at rest plate at rest For t 0 plate pulled at constant velocity U Assume: constant pressure P (x, y, t) = Po fully developed ow
u x
= 0, T =0 x
162
u(, t) = 0 T(, t) = T0 , , P 0
u (y, 0) = 0 T(y, t) = T0
u = u (y, t)
( t / )
1/2
u(0,t) = U T(0, t) = T0
Figure 7.2: Sketch for Stokes First Problem Again from mass we deduce that v (x, y, t) = 0. The x momentum equation reduces to u 2u = 2 t y The initial and boundary conditions are u(y, 0) = 0 u(0, t) = U u(, t) = 0 (7.30) (7.31) (7.32)
(7.29)
7.3.2
Velocity prole
2 u =1 Uo
y/ t 0
This problem is solved in detail in lecture. The solution for the velocity eld is shown to be exp s2 ds (7.33)
7.4
Starting transient for plane Couette ow
The starting transient problem for plane Couette ow can be formulated as u 2u = 2 t y u(h, t) = 0.
(7.34) (7.35)
u(y, 0) = 0,
u(0, t) = Uo ,
In class a detailed solution is presented via the technique of separation of variables. The solution is
7.5. BLASIUS BOUNDARY LAYER
163
u y 2 =1 Uo h
n=1
1 exp n
n2 2 t h2
sin
ny h
(7.36)
7.5
Blasius boundary layer
The problem of ow over a at plate in the absence of pressure gradient is formulated and solved using the classical approach of Blasius.
7.5.1
Formulation
After suitable scaling and denition of similarity variables, discussed in detail in class, the following third order non-linear ordinary dierential equation is obtained: 1 d2 f d3 f + f = 0, d 3 2 d 2 df d = 0,
=0
(7.37) (7.38)
df d
= 1,
f |=0 = 0.
This equation is solved numerically as a homework problem.
7.5.2
Wall shear stress

0.664 Cf = , Rex
The solution is used to obtain the classical formulae for skin friction coecient: (7.39)
and drag coecient:
1.328 . CD = ReL
(7.40)
164
Chapter 8 Acoustics
This chapter outlines the brief introduction to acoustics given in class in somewhat more detail.
8.1
Formulation
We reduce the Euler equations for isentropic ow to the following equations where quantities with a hat are understood to be small perturbations about the ambient state, denoted with a subscript of o. = 0 + o v t v = 0 +P o t = c2 P o . (8.1) (8.2) (8.3)
and employing further manipulation allows the Introducing the velocity potential = v equation to be written as the wave equation: 2 2 = c2 o . 2 t The pressure, velocity, and density are then obtained from = o , P t = , v = o c2 . o t 165 (8.5) (8.6) (8.7) (8.4)
166
CHAPTER 8. ACOUSTICS
8.2
Planar waves
= f (x + co t) + g (x co t), = o co f (x + co t) + o co g (x co t), P u = f (x + co t) + g (x co t), (8.8) (8.9) (8.10) (8.11)
The DAlembert solution for planar waves is shown in class to be
8.3
Spherical waves
1 1 f (r + co t) + g (r co t), r r o co o co P = f (r + co t) + g (r co t), r r 1 1 f (r + co t) + g (r co t), u = r r =
The DAlembert solution for spherical waves is shown in class to be (8.12) (8.13) (8.14) (8.15)

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LECTURE NOTES ON GAS DYNAMICS

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

4.5 4.6 4.7

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

To = 300 K Ts = 6, 100 K (hot as the suns surface !!)

1.2. MOTIVATING EXAMPLES

far-field acoustic wave

viscous and thermal boundary layers Oblique Shock Wave

Normal Shock Wave

12 1.2.1.4 Thermal boundary layer

Rocket nozzle ows

burning solid rocket fuel possible normal shock

Figure 1.2: Fluid mechanics phenomena in rocket nozzles Some features:

1.2. MOTIVATING EXAMPLES well-modelled as one-dimensional ow

Jet engine inlets

Figure 1.3: Fluid mechanics phenomena in jet engine inlet

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

Chapter 2 Governing equations

Vectors and tensors

CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Gradient, divergence, and material derivatives

The del operator, , is as follows: i +j +k x y z (2.2)

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

2.1. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES

Conservative and non-conservative forms

the kinematic wave equation in conservative form is as follows: u + t x u2 2

Consider the special case of a steady state be integrated!

0. Then the conservative form of the equation can

(2.14) (2.15) (2.16)

2.1. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES

0. Then the conservative form of the equation can =0 (2.21)

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Kinematic Wave Equation Solution Discontinuous Shock Wave

Burgers Equation Solution Smeared Shock Wave Shock Thickness ~ 2 / uo

Summary of full set of compressible viscous equations

CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Using the product rule gives (u) (v ) (w ) + + + =0 t x y z (2.47)

I the uid is dened to be incompressible, d/dt 0, the consequence is v = 0, or u v w + + =0 x y z (2.49) (2.50)

Conservation of linear momenta

This is really Newtons Second Law of Motion ma = 2.3.2.1

2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS

P, : surface forces/volume g: body force/volume Example 2.4

Now expand the material derivative: u u u u P xx yx zx + u + v + w = + + + + gx t x y z x x y z (2.54)

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

24 Using the product rule, this yields:

CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS 2.3.3.2 Mechanical energy

When we multiply the mass equation by e, we get e (u) (v ) (w ) +e +e +e =0 t x y z (2.69)

which is often written as 1 P + v e + v v + 2 = q + ( v) (2.72)

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS Energy equation in terms of entropy

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

2.3. CONSERVATION AXIOMS Recall the second law of thermodynamics: ds q dt T

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

CHAPTER 2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS

CC BY-NC-ND. 31 March 2012, J. M. Powers.

2.4. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS

Stress-strain rate relationship for Newtonian uids

Perform the experiment described in Figure 2.2.