A

2008 10
(2010 4 )


1
1.1
1.2
1.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
1.3.1 . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 . . . . . . . .
1.3.5

2
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 . .
2.2.2 Taylor . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 . . . .
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 [] . . . . . .
2.4 . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 (chain rule)
2.4.2 (Leibniz rule) . .
2.4.3 . . . . . . . .
2.5 . .
2.5.1 x . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3 . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1 AM . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.3 . . . . . . .
2.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii

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1
1
1
3
3
4
4
4
6

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7
7
8
8
11
13
15
20
21
23
23
24
25
25
25
26
27
29
29
30
31
32

iv
2.7.1 . . . . . . . .
2.7.2
2.7.3 . . .
2.8 Fourier . . . . . . . .

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3 Fourier
3.1 Fourier . . . .
3.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Fourier . . . .
3.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Fourier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Dirac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Kronecker Dirac . . . . . . .
3.5.2 . . . . . . . . .
3.5.3 Fourier . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.4 Fourier . . . . . . . .
3.5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.3
4
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 . . . .
4.2 . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 .
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1
4.3.2 . . . . . . .
4.3.3 Fourier . . . .
4.4 . . .

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32
33
34
36

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38
38
38
40
41
41
42
43
45
45
46
47
48
49
49
53
55
57
58
58
58
59
59

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62
62
63
64
65
66
66
67
69
72

r = ix + jy + kz,
f (r) = f (x, y, z),

=i
+j
+k
= grad = ,
r
x
y
z
2

2
2
2
2
=

=
4
=
+
+
,
r 2
r r
x2 y 2 z 2
df (r) = f (r + dr) f (r) = gradf (r) dr = f (r) dr =
dV = d3 r = dx dy dz

( = d ),

i=

1,

()

z = x + iy = r ei ,
z = x iy = r ei ,
|z| =

x2 + y 2 = r,

arg z = tan1

y
= ,
x

Re z = x,

()

Im z = y,

()

()
()
()

f (r)
dr,
r

vi

E
,
Z

,
I

O
o

,
X

a
b
g
d
e
z
e
th
i
k
l
m
n
x
o
p
r
s
t
u, y
ph
ch
ps
o

alpha
beta
gamma
delta
epsilon
zeta
eta
theta
iota
kappa
lambda
mu
nu
xi
omicron
pi
rho
sigma
tau
upsilon
phi
chi
psi
omega

vii
()

viii
()

() ()
http://kscalar.kj.yamagata-u.ac.jp/~endo/greek/zeta_xi.html

 1
1.1

1.1 ei

i
e = 1

ei = cos + i sin
z = x + iy |z| =

|ei | =

(1.1.1)

x2 + y 2

cos2 + sin2 = 1

ei 1

1.2

1.2 z z 2 = |z|2

(
) 1.2

or z

z = x + iy

; 2

0
z, z (modulus) r = |z|, r0 = |z 0 |
(argument) = arg z, 0 = arg z 0
z z 0

|z z 0 | = |z| |z 0 |,

arg(z z 0 ) = arg(z) + arg(z 0 )

z = x + iy

i (arg i = /2 = 90 ) 90
i i = i2 = 1
1 = 180 90

1.3
1.3.1

|z| = 1
z
= arg z z
z = z 1 z z = f ()

f () f (0 ) = f ( + 0 )
0 + 0

f (0) = 1
f ()

z = f () = ec

c
z = ec
() 1 0
2 z z = 1 z = 1
2 2 1 z = 1 ( = 0)
1
= 0 () i

dec
= c = i,
d =0
c = i 1 z

z = ei

ei

ei = cos + i sin

()

1.3.2

1
z r (= |z|), (= arg z) z
r (> 0) r ei
z

z = rei

()

1.3.3

|ei | = 1

ei
(ei(+) = ei ei
)
i

ei

1.3.4

1.3 z =

3 ei/6 |z|

1.4 x f (x) = eikx k

|f (x)|
1.5 z = i
1.6 z = 1 + i
1.7 z = 1 + i z 12
1.8 z 7 = 1
1.9 z 7 = 1 7 0 = 1, 1 2 , . . . , 6

1 + 1 + 2 + + 6 = 0,

1.10 z 11 = 1 11 0 = 1, 1 2 , . . . , 10

1 + 1 + 2 + + 10 = 0,

1.11 z z = |z|2
z
z

1.12 z = ea+ib a, b
1.13 z = ea+ib
a, b
1.14 z = ei 0 z
1.15 z = ei 0 z
1.16 z = ei 0 3/2 z

1.17 z = 2ei 0 2 z
1.18 0 2 z

(1) z = 1 + ei

(2) z = i + ei

(3) z = 1 + i + ei

(4) z = 1 + i +

2 ei

1.19 0 2
(
)
(
)

i
z1 = 1 +
e
z2 = 2 +
ie2i
2

1.20 () 0 2

4
z=
ei
3 + cos
1.21 ()

i
e
2
z2 = e+i
z1 =

( > 0)
( < < )

1.22 () z2
e

1.3.5

( )2
1.23 ei = e2i
cos, sin

( )3
1.24 ei = e3i
cos, sin

1.25 ei(+) = ei ei cos, sin

1.26 sin , cos

1.27

+
+
,
2
2
+
=

2
2

ei + ei ,

ei ei

 2
2.1

2.1 x = 0 x Taylor x 3

(1) ex
(2) (1 + x)

2.2 ()

dy
(1)
=y
dx

d2 y
(2)
= 2 y ( > 0)
2
dx
2

2.3 y = Aex d2 y/dx2 A

2.4 x (i.e. x )

x10 , x10 , x1/100 , 1, ex , ex , ln x.

2.5 y = f (x) y = f (x) cos 6x

y = f (x)

3
2

2.6

eax dx. (a > 0)

2

5
2

e d =
2

2.7 f (x) [a, b] [a, b] N xn

xn = a + (b a)n/N (n = 0, 1, , N )f (x) [a, b]

lim

f (xn ),

n=1

N
1
lim
f (xn ),
N N
n=1

lim

f (xn )(b a),

n=1

N
1
lim
f (xn )(b a).
N N
n=1

2.8 x-y (r, )

(x = r cos , y = r sin .)

2.9 x-y-z (r, , )

(x = r sin cos , y = r sin sin , z = r cos .)

2.2
2.2.1

Taylor

2.10 1.012 3
2.11 1.013 3

1.012
1.012 = (1 + 0.01)2
= 1 + 2 0.01 + 0.012
= 1 + 0.02 + 0.0001
= 1.0201
1.01 3
4 1.02

0.01 2

1.01 3 3

1.013 = (1 + 0.01)3
= 1 + 3 0.01 + 3 0.012 + 0.013
+ 1 + 3 0.01
= 1.03
3 0.01 2 3
4

1.013 = (1 + 0.01)3
= 1 + 3 0.01 + 3 0.012 + 0.013
+ 1 + 3 0.01 + 3 0.012
= 1.0303
0.01
x f (x) x
x

f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 +

(2.2.1)

f (x) x =
0.01 x2 = 0.001, x3 = 0.000001 x

1.01

f (x) = 1/(1 + x) x
(2.2.1) f (x) f (x)(1 + x) = 1

1 = (c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + )(1 + x)
= c 0 + c 1 x + c 2 x2 + c 3 x3 +
+ c 0 x + c 1 x2 + c 2 x3 + c 3 x4 +
= c0 + (c1 + c0 )x + (c2 + c1 )x2 + (c3 + c2 )x3 +

10
cn

c0 = 1, c1 + c0 = 0, c2 + c1 = 0, c3 + c2 = 0,

c0 = 1, c1 = c0 = 1, c2 = c1 = 1, c3 = c2 = 1,

1
= 1 x + x 2 x3 + .
1+x

(2.2.2)

x = 0.01

1
= 1 0.01 + 0.012 0.013 +
1.01
+ 1 0.01 + 0.012
= 0.0901

2.12 1 + x
ex e

(
)n
1
e = lim 1 +
.
(2.2.3)
n
n
x > 0

)nx
1
e = lim 1 +
n
n
(
x )N
= lim 1 +
.
N
N
x

N = nx N
(
x )N
N x
N (N 1) ( x )2 N (N 1)(N 2) ( x )3
1+
=1+
+
+
+
N
1! N(
2!
N(
N
)
) ( 3! )
1 1 2
1
2 1 3
=1+x+ 1
x + 1
x +
1
N 2!
N
N 3!
N

ex = 1 + x +

1 2 1 3
x + x +
2!
3!

x > 0 x 0
2.13 e0.1 3

(2.2.4)

2.2.2

11

Taylor

1/(1 + x) ex
Taylor

f (x) x = a Taylor

f (x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x a) +

=

f (n) (a)
n=0

n!

f 00 (a)
f 000 (a)
(x a)2 +
(x a)3 +
2!
3!

(2.2.5)

(x a)n ,

a = 0

f (x) = f (0) + f 0 (0)x +

=

f (n) (0)
n=0

n!

f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3

x +
x +
2!
3!

(2.2.6)

xn .

Taylor
x

f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 +

(2.2.7)

() cn

(2.2.7) x = 0
f (0) = c0 .

(2.2.7)
f 0 (x) = c1 + 2c2 x + 3c3 x2 +

(2.2.8)

x = 0
f 0 (0) = c1 .
(2.2.8)

f 00 (x) = 2c2 + 3 2c3 x + 4 3c4 x2 +

x = 0
f 00 (0) = 2c2 .
(2.2.9) x = 0

f 000 (0) = 3 2 c3 .

(2.2.9)

12

f (n) (0) = n! cn ,

f (n) (0)
n!
(2.2.7) (2.2.6) .
f (x) = ex f (n) (x) = ex f (n) (0) = 1.
cn =

ex = 1 + x +

1 2 1 3
x + x +
2!
3!

1 n
=
x
n!
n=0

(2.2.10)

(2.2.4)

(1 + x) ()
( 1) 2 ( 1)( 2) 3
(1 + x) = 1 + x +
x +
x +
2!
3!
( )

n
=
x .
n
n=0
n
( )

( 1)( 2) ( n + 1)
=
n
n!

(2.2.11)

(2.2.12)

= m m Cn

Taylor

()
()

1 00
1
f (0) + f 000 (0) + ,
2!
3!
1 00
1
0
f (x) = f (x) + f (x)x + f (x)x2 + f 000 (x)x3 + .
2!
3!
f (x) = f (0) + f 0 (0) +

2.14 1
2.15 2

2.2.3

13

2.16 x = 0

(1 + x)2
2.17 x = 0

(1 + x)3
2.18 x = 0

(1 + x)4
2.19 x = 0

(1 + x)1/2
2.20 x = 0

(1 + x)1/2
2.21 x = 0

(1 x)1/2
2.22 (1 x2 )1/2 x = 0

2.23 m v E

mc2
E=
1 v 2 /c2
c v c E
(v 2 /c2 )
2.24 f (x) = (1 x)1 f (0), f 0 (0), f 00 (0), f 000 (0),

2.25 (1 x)1 x = 0 Taylor

2.26 (1 x)1 x

14
2.27

n1

xk =

k=0

1 xn
1x

|x| < 1 n 2.25

2.26
2.28 f (x) = ln(1 x) f (0), f 0 (0), f 00 (0), f 000 (0),

2.29 2.28 ln(1 x) x = 0

2.30 2.27 x 2.29

2.31 ex f (x) = ex x = 0

1
1
x = 0 g(t) =

2
1+x
1+t
1
f (x) =
Taylor
1 + x2

2.32 f (x) =

(
2.33
)

x
F x F = f (x)
a x = a F = 0 f (a) = 0 F = f (x)
x = a Taylor

F = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x a) +
= f 0 (a)(x a) +

f 00 (a)
(x a)2 +
2

f 00 (a)
(x a)2 + ,
2

(x a)
(x a) (x a)

F + f 0 (a)(x a).
k = f 0 (a)

2.3

15

2.34 x

(2x 1)2 = 4x2 4x + 1,

4x2 4x + 1 = 2,

(x + 1)(x 1) + 1 = 4x2 .

3x 9 = 0,
x x

dy
= F (x, y),
dx
y = y(x) F (x, y)
y

y = f (x)

df (x)
= F (x, f (x)),
dx
x ()f (x)

(or )
(or )

x2 = 6

1 x2 + 0 x 6 = 0

16

x=

02 4 1 (6)
= 6
21

x = 6

ax2 + bx + c = 0,
(a 6= 0)
b
c
x2 + x + = 0
a
a
(
)2
b
b2
c

x+
2 + =0
2a
4a
a
(
)2
b
b2 4ac

x+
=
()
2a
4a2

b2 4ac
b
x+
=
()
2a
2a

b2 4ac
b
b b2 4ac
x=
=
.
2a
2a
2a

() () x2 = A x = A

x2 = 6 x = 6

2
x = 6
2.2 (1)
dy
=y
dx
(y = ex )
dex /dx = ex
y = Aex (A:
)

x
y = e + A
dy/dx = d(ex + A)/dx = ex = ex + A A = y A 6= y

17

(
)

dy
= dx
y

dy
= dx
y
ln |y| = x + C

|y| = eC+x
y = C 0 ex

C 0 = eC

x2 = 6

dy/y = ln y
d ln y/dy = 1/y dex /dx = ex

dy
= 2xy + x + 6y + 3
dx

dy
= x(2y + 1) + 3(2y + 1)
dx
= (x + 3)(2y + 1)

dy
= (x + 3)dx
2y + 1
1
1
(C : )
log |2y + 1| = (x + 3)2 + C
2
2
2
2y + 1 = e2C e(x+3)
1
2
y = Ae(x+3)
(A = e2C /2)
2

18

()

2 3
5

2.35 R, a

[] R l a/l = /2
a=l

= 2R
= R.
2
2

2.36 2log2 5

[] x x = 2log2 5 . log2
log2 x = log2 2log2 5 = log2 5 log2 2 = log2 5
log2 x = 5, 2log2 5 = 5
2.37
a < b 2a < 2b

[]
2a 2b
a b
2a 2b log2 2a log2 2b a log2 2 b log2 2 a b.
log2 x (x > 0)
2.2 (2)

d2 y
= 2 y
dx2

19

x t y x

d2 x
= 2 x
dt2
m k = m 2

d2 x
m 2 = kx
dt
k
m
(sin cos )
x = sin t 2 = k/m = 2
x = sin t
y = sin x cos

y = A sin x + B cos x,

(A, B : )

y = A sin(x + ),

(A, : )

y = Aeix + Beix .
(A, B : )

()

x
y = e
2 = 2 , = i
y = eix

2.38

d2 y
= 2 y.
dx2

( > 0)

2.39 y = e2x y = 2ex

y = ex + 2
d2 y
dy
3 + 2y = 0.
2
dx
dx

20

2.40

m
F = mgz z = 0 z
g
()

2.3.1

[]

dy
= 0 y = A (A = const.)
dx
,
dy
d2 y
=0
= A (A = const.)
2
dx
dx
y = Ax + B (B = const.)
.

u(x, y)

u(x, y)
= 0 u(x, y) = f (y),
x

(f (y)y )

2 u(x, y)
u(x, y)
=0
= f (y), (f (y)y )
2
x
x
u(x, y) = f (y)x + g(y). (g(y)y )

2 1

21

2 1
3 2
2.41 u(x, t) = f (x vt)

u
u
+v
= 0,
t
x

(v = const.)

f
2.42 u(x, t) = f (x vt) + g(x + vt)
2
2u
2 u
=
v
,
t2
x2

(v = const.)

f , g

2.3.2

[]

dy
= F (x, y),
dx
f (x)
df (x)
= F (x, f (x)),
dx

x ()

f 0 (xn ) +

f (xn+1 ) f (xn )
.
x

xn x x = xn+1 xn
a < x < b N n
xn

xn = a +

a = x0 x1 x2 x3

ba
n = a + n x.
N

xn xn+1

(n = 0, 1, , N )

xN 1 xN = b

22

N x = (b a)/N

f (xn+1 ) f (xn )
+ F (xn , f (xn )),
x

f (xn+1 ) + f (xn ) + F (xn , f (xn )) x

x = xn f (xn )
x = xn+1 f (xn+1 ) x = x0 f (x0 )
f (x1 ), f (x2 ) f (xn )
x = x0 f (x0 )

(
)
d2 y
dy
= F x, y,
.
dx2
dx
f (x)

f 00 (x) = F (x, f (x), f 0 (x))

x

f 00 (xn ) +

f 0 (xn+1 ) f 0 (xn )
f (xn+2 ) 2f (xn+1 ) + f (xn )
+
.
x
x2

(
f (xn+2 ) + 2f (xn+1 ) f (xn ) + F

f (xn+1 f (xn )
xn , f (xn ),
x

)
(x)2 ,

2 x = xn xn+1 f (xn ), f (xn+1 )

xn+2 f (xn+2 ) x = x0 , x1 f (x0 ), f (x1 )
f (x2 ) f (x2 ) f (x1 )
f (x3 )

f (xn ) f (x0 ), f (x1 )

f (x0 )
0
f (x1 ) f (x0 ) f (x0 ) = [f (x1 ) f (x0 )]/x

23

u
u
=
.
x
y
x y u = u(x, y)
f (x, y)
f (x, y)
f (x, y)
=
x
y
x x

f
f (xn+1 , y) f (xn , y)
(xn , y) +
.
x
x

(x = xn+1 xn )

f (xn+1 , y) + f (xn , y) +

f (xn , y)
x
y

x = x0 f (x0 , y) g(y): y
f (xn , y) f (x0 , y) y
f (x0 , y)/y f (x0 , y)
f (x1 , y) f (x1 , y) y
f (x1 , y) f (x1 , y)/y f (x2 , y)
n f (xn , y) x = x0
f (x0 , y) = g(y)

2.4
2.4.1

(chain rule)

y = f (x), z = g(y)

dz
dz dy
=
,
dx
dy dx

(2.4.1)

(
)
{ (
)}0
= g 0 f (x) f 0 (x),
g f (x)

ef (x)

}0

= f 0 (x) ef (x) ,

(2.4.2)

24
{ln f (x)}0 =

f 0 (x)
.
f (x)

y = f (x), z = g(y), u = h(z)

du
du dz dy
=

,
dx
dz dy dx

{ ( (
( (
))}0
)) (
)
h g f (x)
= h0 g f (x) g 0 f (x) f 0 (x).

2.43

d f (x)
e
= f 0 (x) ef (x)
dx
2.44

[
]
[
]
d
exp g(x)2 = 2g(x) g 0 (x) exp g(x)2
dx
2.45 x

[
]4
2 sin3 (5x + 1) + 7
2.46 x

2.4.2

{ ( 2 )}
ln sin ex

(Leibniz rule)

{f (x)g(x)}0 = f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x),

(2.4.3)

{f (x)g(x)}00 = f 00 (x)g(x) + 2f 0 (x)g 0 (x) + f (x)g 00 (x).

(2.4.4)

000

2.47 {f (x)g(x)}
00

2.48 {f (x)g(x)h(x)}
{
}00
2.49 ef (x)
{
}00
2
2.50 e2x +x+1

2.4.3

25

y = f 1 (x) x = f (y).
dy
1
1
= dx = 0 .
dx
f (y)
dy

2.51 ln x ex (ln x)0 = 1/x

(ex )0 = ex
2.52 x y dy/dx
(1) y = tan1 x
(2) y = sin1 x
(3) y = cos1 x

2.5

2.5.1

x > 0 a a > 0 xa

dxa
= axa1 > 0.
dx

(a > 0, x > 0)

a a < 0 xa a > 0
a xa

a < 0 a (i.e. ) xa

a, b

x a < b xa < xb
x100 x10 x1/100 x1/10

x0 = 1

26

2.5.2

ex x 1 x

ex x
ex

ex
2

ex ex ee ,

as x

2.53
A

1000

A
1000 1
2 2 2 4

1 2
A 1

(1) 234 A

(2) n
(3) 11A 1
(210 = 1024 1 103 )
1

x10 10 ex 10 ex
x10 < ex (x )
rn 1
2

1 + r + r2 + r3 + + rn1 =
r1

27

(4) 21A 1
(220 = 210 210 )
(5) 4 351A
1

(6) A
2.54 9 9 81
1 1 2 2 3
4

21 41 61 81

kg

210 = 1024 103 220 = 210 210 106 . 10kg 50

1 1000 6 1024 kg
2.55 B 18.9 10

4 8 40 80
(1.1894 2.0)

2.5.3

ln x (= loge x) > 0 x

ln x x+0
y = ex x
y x = ln y y
x

ex ln x
ln x

ln x ln x1/100 =

1
ln x ln ln x ,
100

as x

28

2.56 x1/10000 x > 0

2.57 x

x2 , ex , (x2 + 1)ex , 1, 0.
2

2.58 x (ln 2 + 0.693, ln 10 +

2.30)
ex , ex2 , 2x , 10x .
2.59 x ex , ex , xx (x = eln x )
2

2.60 20cm 1cm ()

() 10cm
10cm
10cm
2
10cm
5cm 15cm
15cm

(
)
1
15cm = 10cm + 5cm = 1 +
10cm
2
3 2 3
3 3
2 1 10cm 2
10cm 13
(
)
10cm
1 1
15cm +
= 1+ +
10cm
3
2 3

1 : 1

3
1

2m
m

10cm

10cm 1/2
10cm 1/3

2 : 1

29

1m
( m) 5m 6m

n
n
1 1
1
1
1 + + + +
dx = ln n
2 3
n
1 x

e10 2.2 104 , e50 5.2 1021 , e60 1.1 1026 ,

1 1016 m, 130 1028 m

2.6
2.6.1

AM

2.5 y = f (x) cos 6x cos 6x

f (x)
AM f (x)

y=A

y = A cos 6x

2
y = A

y = f (x)

y = f (x) cos 6x

y = f (x)

f (x)

30

cos 6x = 1, 0
y = f (x) . x .
2.61

y=

x2

1
cos 4x.
+ 22

2.62

y=

sin 10x
.
x

x = 0 1/x
x 0 sin x/x 1

2.63 y = cos 10x + cos 8x

+
(cos + cos = 2 cos
cos
)
2
2

2.6.2

y = xex
2
2
x ex = 1/ex
2
x y = xex 0 y = 0 (x = 0), y ()
(x < 0 y < 0x > 0 y > 0)

y
2

y=x
y=e

x2

O
y = xex

2.64 y = (x 1)ex
2

2.65 y = (x2 1)ex

2

2.66 y = x(x2 1)ex

2

31

2.67 y = x(x2 1)(x2 4)ex

2

2.68 y = xex
2.69 y = (x2 1)ex
2.70 y =

1
+ x (x > 0) .
x

2.71 y =

1
+ x2 (x > 0)
x2

2.6.3

y = f (x) x f 0 (x)
y = f (x) y = f 0 (x)

2.72 y = f (x) f = f 0 (x)

y
y = f (x)
y

y = 12 x

y = f (x)
x

(a) (b)

y
y

y = f (x)
O

y = f (x)
x
O

(c) (d)

32

2.7

2.7.1

f (x) [a, b] [a, b] N

xn xn = a + (b a)n/N (n = 0, 1, , N )
x = xn+1 xn = (b a)/N

f (x)dx = lim

f (xn ) x.

(2.7.1)

n=1

x dx,
x () dx ()

[]
{ b
}2
b
2
{f (x)} dx =
f (x) dx .
a

a2 + b2 + c2 + = (a + b + c + )2

2.73 2.6
(
)a

(
)a
( )a
x2
x2
ax2
e
dx =
e
dx =
e
dx =
.

2.7.2

33

2.6 ax =
()

ax2
2 d
=
I=
e
dx =
e
.
a
a

(dimensional analysis)
x

[ x ] = [ L ].
I

[
2 ]
[ I ] = eax [ dx ] = 1 [ L ] = [ L ].
dx (2.7.1) x = xn+1 xn
[dx] = [L] e
[
2 ]
en eax = 1.
e e
[ ax2 ] = 1 a

[ a ] = [ L2 ].
x I x
a I a

I = const. a1/2
const. a = 1

a = 1 I = const. =

.
I=
a

2.74

f (x) =

(k 2

1
eikx dk,
+ a2 )2

[ x ] = [ L ]
[
]
df (x)
[ k ], [ a ], [ f (x) ],
.
dx

34
2.75

I=

x2 ex

2 /b2

dx,

[ x ] = [ L ]

2.76

x2 ex

ex

2 /b2

(x2

]
,

[ b ],

[ I ].

dx = const. b3 .

(b > 0)

dx
= const. a3 .
2
2
+a )

(a > 0)

2.77

2 /b2

2.78

2.7.3

x3 ex /a
dx = const. (a )
(x2 + a2 )2
2

f (x, y) dxdy
S

x = f (u, v)
y = g(u, v)

() dS = dxdy dudv

(x, y)
dudv
(2.7.2)
dxdy =
(u, v)
(x, y)/(u, v) (Jacobian)

x x

(x, y) u v
(2.7.3)
=
(u, v) y y

u v

35

f (x, y, z) dxdydz,
V

x = f (u, v, w)

y = g(u, v, w)

z = h(u, v, w)
() dV = dxdydz dudvdw

(x, y, z)
dudvdw
dxdydz =
(2.7.4)
(u, v, w)
(x, y, z)/(u, v, w)

(x, y, z)

=
(u, v, w)

x
u
y
u
z
u

x
v
y
v
z
v

x
w
y
w
z
w

(2.7.5)

2 (r, ) (x = r cos , y = r sin )

(x, y) x/r x/ cos r sin

=
=
= r.
(r, ) y/r y/ sin r cos

dxdy = rdrd,

(2.7.6)

3 (r, , ) (x = r sin cos , y = r sin sin , z = r cos )

x/r x/ x/ sin cos r cos cos r sin sin

(x, y, z)

= y/r y/ y/ = sin sin r cos sin r sin cos = r2 sin .

(r, , )

z/r z/ z/
cos
r sin
0

dxdydz = r2 sin drdd

(2.7.7)

36

[]

z
r sin d
dr
d
r

rd

r sin

dr

rd

d
0
2.79 2 (x, y)

u+v

x=
2
u

y=
2
dS = dr rd

dV = dr rd r sin d

dS = dxdy (u, v)
2.80 R

S = R2

2.81 R

V =

4
R3
3

2.82 xy

2
2
ex y dxdy

2.8

Fourier

2.83 x L

2u
T 2u
=
t2
x2

37

T u = u(x, t) t
x (x = 0, L) x = 0 L
u = 0 u x
Fourier

nx
u(x, t) =
qn (t) sin
L
n=1
sin (u t t- Fourier
qn )
t Fourier qn (t) (n = 1, 2, 3, . . . )

nx
nx
An sin
=
Bn sin
L
L
n=1
n=1

An = Bn

(n = 1, 2, 3, . . . )

Fourier
2.83 Fourier qn (t)

d2 qn (t)
T ( n )2
qn (t),
(n = 1, 2, )
(2.8.1)
=
dt2
L

[] n qn (t)
n n
qn

T n
n =

.
L
u(x, t)

 3 Fourier
Fourier

3.1
3.1.1

3.1 eikx L k

L f (x) ( L )

f (x) =

cn eikn x .

kn =

n=

2n
L

cn
{

1 L/2 ikm x ikn x

1
(n = m)
e
e
dx = mn =
.
L L/2
0
(n 6= m)

(3.1.1)

(3.1.2)

(3.1.1) eikm x x L/2 L/2 (3.1.2)

L/2
1 L/2 ikm x
1
e
f (x) =
eikm x eikn x dx cn
L L/2
L n= L/2
=

mn cn

n=

= cm .

(3.1.3)

3.1 f (x) [, ]

{
f (x) =

1
1

(0 < x < )
,
( < x < 0)

(3.1.4)

2 f (x)

38

39

cn (3.1.3)

1
cn =
einx f (x) dx
2
{ 0
}

1
inx
inx
=
1 e
dx +
1e
dx
2

0
(n: even)
1
=
[1 (1)n ] =
.
2

in
(n: odd)
in

(3.1.5)

2 1 inx
2
1
f (x) =
e =
ei(2m+1)x .
i odd n n
i m= 2m + 1

(3.1.6)

(
)
2
1 inx 1 inx
f (x) =
e
+ e
i odd n>0
n
n

4
1
=
sin(2m + 1)x
m=0 2m + 1
(
)
4
1
1
=
sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x +

3
5

(3.1.7)
(3.1.8)

y=
y=

sin x + 13 sin 3x

sin x
1

-1

y=

13 sin 3x

3.2 3.1 f (x)

3.3 (3.1.2) Parseval

1 L/2
2
|f (x)| dx =
|cn |2 .
L L/2
n=

(3.1.9)

40
3.4 3.3 Riemann-Lebesgue

L/2

e2inx/L f (x) dx = 0,

lim

(3.1.10)

L/2

3.5 Riemann-Lebesgue

3.1.2

x, y, z L f (x, y, z) = f (r)

f (x, y, z) =

cnx ,ny ,nz eikx x eiky y eikz z . ki =

nx = ny = nz =

2ni
L

(i = x, y, z) (3.1.11)

f (r) =

cn eikr ,

k=

2n
L

(3.1.12)

n = (nx , ny , nz ) (3.1.2)
{

0
1
1
(n = n0 )
ikr ik r 3
0 = nn0 =
e
e
d
r
=

,
(3.1.13)
kk
L3
0
(n 6= n0 )
:

2n
1
cn = 3 eikr f (r) d3 r.
(k =
)
L
L

(3.1.14)

3.6 (3.1.13) Parseval

1
2 3
|f
(r)|
d
r
=
|cn |2 .
(3.1.15)
L3
n

41

Fourier

3.2
3.2.1

f (x)

(3.1.1) L
kn kn+1 k k = kn+1 kn = 2/L 0 kn

1
c(k)eikx dk,
(3.2.1)
f (x) =
2
c(k) (3.1.3)

c(k) =
eikx f (x) dx,

(3.2.2)

(3.1.1) L

f (x) = lim

cn eikn x .

(3.2.3)

n=

cn L (3.1.3)

1
cn =
L

L/2

ikn x

e
L/2

1
f (x) dx
L

eikn x f (x) dx

1
c(kn )
L

(3.2.4)

kn = 2n/L L

k kn+1 kn =

2
0,
L

(3.2.5)

L n
kn = 2/L

f (x) =

lim

c(kn )eikn x

n=

1
L

1
lim
c(kn )eikn x k
2 L n=

1
c(k)eikx dk,
=
2
=

(3.2.6)

42

f (x)

1
f (x) =
c(k)eikx dk,
2

c(k) =

eikx f (x) dx.

(3.2.7)

(3.2.8)

c(k) f(k) = c(k)/ 2 x f (x) k f(k)

1
f (x) =
f(k)eikx dk,
(3.2.9)
2

1
f(k) =
2

eikx f (x) dx.

(3.2.10)

f(k) f (x) (Fourier transform) (3.2.10)

(3.2.9)

3.7

i) f1 (x), f2 (x) f1 (k), f2 (k) c1 f1 (x)+c2 f2 (x)

c1 f1 (k) + c2 f2 (k)
ii) f (x) f(k) f (x)/x ik f(k)

3.8 L 3.3 Paraseval

3.9 f (x) = ex

3.2.2

2 /2 2

f (x, y, z)

1
(3.2.11)
ei(kx x+ky y+kz z) f(kx , ky , kz ) dkx dky dkz ,
f (x, y, z) =
(2)3/2

43

f(kx , ky , kz ) =

1
(2)3/2

ei(kx x+ky y+kz z) f (x, y, z) dxdydz.

(3.2.12)

1
f (r) =
eikr f(k) d3 k,
(2)3/2

f (k) =
eikr f (r) d3 r,
(2)3/2

(3.2.13)
(3.2.14)

d3 k = dkx dky dkz , d3 r = dxdydz

k- r-

3.3

Fourier

(x) = Aeik0 x , (k0 =

2/0 = p0 /~)

0 = 2/k0
(x) =
k0 ||2

2/k0
(x) =
(x)

1
(x) =
A(k)eikx dk
(3.3.1)
2

Fourier , k0
k k0
A(k) k = k0
A(k) = 0,

if |k k0 | > k.

44

3.2 k0 (x)

{
eik0 x (|x x0 | a)
(x) =
(3.3.2)
0
(|x x0 | > a)

2/k0
=

.
x0 a

x0 + a

1
A(k)eikx dk
(x) =
2
Fourier

1
A(k) =
(x)eikx dx
2
x0 +a
1
eik0 x eikx dx
=
2 x0 a
1 ei(kk0 )(x0 +a) ei(kk0 )(x0 a)

=
i(k k0 )
2
ik0 x0
2e
sin(k k0 )a ikx0
=
e
.
2 (k k0 )

eik0 x0 sin(k k0 )a ik(xx0 )

(x) =
e
dk.

k k0

(3.3.3)

sin(k k0 )a/(k k0 ) k |k k0 | . /a

sin(kk0 )a
kk0

k
0

k0
k0 /a

k0 + /a

k /a x a

45

x k

(3.3.4)

3.10 (x) Fourier A(k)

{
eikx0 (|k k0 | k)
A(k) =
0
(otherwise)

(3.3.5)

(x) (3.3.4)

3.4

3.10 (x) Fourier A(k)

Fourier

3.4.1

I=
r(k)ei(k) dk.
(r(k), (k) r(k) > 0)

(3.4.1)

r(k) |k k0 | k r(k)
(k)

(k0 ) k
k

(k0 ) k .
k

I 0,

I 6= 0.

46

k k0 k k0 + k

n=

|(k0 + k) (k0 k)|

2

n 1
n . 1

n1

n1

r(k)

r(k)

r(k)

r(k)

n
1
n
2

(k0 ) 2k
k

3.4.2

Fourier (x),
1
(x) =
2

A(k)eikx dk,

(3.4.2)

A(k)

A(k) = r(k)ei(k) ,

(r(k), (k) r(k) > 0)

(3.4.3)

r(k) |k k0 | k r(k)
(k) (x)

1
(x) =
r(k)ei(k,x) dk,
(3.4.4)
2
(k, x)

(k, x) = kx (k)

(3.4.5)

47

(x)

(k0 , x)k = x (k0 ) k .

(3.4.6)
k

(k0 , x) = 0,
k

x=

(k0 )
k

(3.4.7)

(3.4.8)

(3.4.9)

x k

x k

(3.4.10)

3.4.3

1
A(k)ei[kx(k)t] dk.
(3.4.11)
(x, t) =
2
k0 k k0 + k
A(k) = 0 for |k k0 | > k.

= (k),

(3.4.12)

v (k) =

(k)
.
k

(3.4.13)

vg A(k)

A(k) = r(k)ei(k) ,

(r(k), (k) r(k) > 0)

(3.4.14)

(x, t)

1
(x, t) =
2

r(k)ei(k,x,t) dk,

(3.4.15)

48
(k, x, t)

(k, x, t) = kx (k) t (k)

(3.4.16)

(k0 , x, t) = 0,
k

(3.4.17)

(k0 ) t +
(k0 ) vg t + x0 ,
k
k

x=

vg =

(k0 )
k

(3.4.18)

(3.4.19)

3.4.4

(3.4.6)

k
(k, x) k
t 0 t (3.4.16)
(k, x, t) (k) t
t
or

t = 0 x = x0
x ' 1/k
t > 0
t = 0
t = 0

3.11

(k) =

~k 2
2m

(3.4.20)

49

2
2
(x, t) =
e(kk0 ) /(2b ) ei[kx(k)t] dk.

(3.4.21)

Dirac

3.5
3.5.1

Kronecker Dirac

{
1
0

ij =

(i = j)
(i 6= j)

(3.5.1)

fi ij = fj .

(3.5.2)

i=1

ij

{
(x a) =

(x = a)
(x 6= a)

x = a

(x a) dx = 1.

(3.5.3)

(3.5.4)

f (x) (x a) dx = f (a).

(3.5.5)

50

(x a)

3.3 e1 , e2 , e3

ei ej = ij

(3.5.6)

V =

Vi ei .

(3.5.7)

i=1

Vj = ej V

(3.5.8)

ej V = ej

Vi ei =

i=1

Vi ej ei =

i=1

Vi ji = Vj .

i=1

3.4 2 f (x) Fourier

f (x) =

cn einx ,

(3.5.9)

n=

Fourier cm

1
cm =
eimx f (x) dx.
2

1
2

imx

(3.5.10)

eimx einx dx = mn

1
f (x) dx =
2
=
=

n=

n=

eimx

= cm .

cn

1
2

cn mn

cn einx dx

n=

eimx einx dx

51

3.5 a parametrize {a (x)}

a (x) b (x) dx = (a b)

(3.5.11)

(x)

c(a) a (x) da.
(3.5.12)
(x) =

c(a)

c(b) =

b (x) (x) dx

(3.5.13)

b (x) (x) dx =

b (x)

da c(a)

c(a)a (x) da dx
b (x) a (x) dx

da c(a)(b a)

= c(b).
3.12 n n P = (Pij )

P T P = I (= )
P (P T P )

Pij Pik = jk
i=1

x0i =

Pij xj ,

yi0 =

j=1

k=1

i=1

x0i yi0 =

i=1

xi y i

Pik yk ,

52

fi ij

i=1

i (dummy index)

j free index

[ 1]
N

fi ij =

i=1

fk kj .

k=1

[ 2]

( N )2
N
N
N
N

fi
=
fi
fj =
fi fj .
i=1

i=1

j=1

i=1 j=1

[ 3]
N
N

n3 m3
= 0.
n2 + m2
n=1 m=1

n m m n
=

N
N

m3 n3
m=1 n=1

m2 + n2

N
N

n3 m3
m=1 n=1

n2 + m2

= = 0.

f (x)(x y) dx

x
y

f (x)(x y) dx =
f (z)(z y) dz.

3.13
( b
)2 b b
f (x) dx =
f (x)f (y)dxdy.
a

53

[ 1] i j
N

fi ij =

i=1

fj jj

j=1

[ 3]
N
N

fi fi

i=1 i=1

3.5.2

(x)
M

M=

(x) dx

(3.5.14)

x = a

(x = a)
(x) =
(3.5.15)
0
(x 6= a)
(3.5.14)

(x) = M (x a).
(3.5.16)

54

, or

{
}
1
(x a)2
(x a) = lim
exp
.
0
2 2
2

(3.5.17)

(standard deviation)

x
a

.
0 (x a)2 + 2

(x a) = lim

(3.5.18)

step

55

2
(x a) = lim
0
0

(|x a| )
(|x a| > )

(3.5.19)

1
2

3.5.3

a+

Fourier

Fourier

1
(x a) =
2

eik(xa) dk.

(3.5.20)

f (x) Fourier

1
f (x) =
f(k) eikx dk,
(3.5.21)
2

1
0

f (k) =
f (x0 )eikx dx0 ,
(3.5.22)
2

1
0
dk
dx0 f (x0 ) eikx eikx
f (x) =
2

0
0
0 1
=
dx f (x )
eik(xx ) dk.
2

(3.5.23)

f (x) k (x x0 )

56

(i) Fourier (5.22) f (x) = (x a) f(k) = (1/ 2)eika

Fourier (5.21)
(ii) (3.5.20)

1
1 (xa)2 /4
2
lim
e
.
(3.5.24)
eik(xa) ek dk = lim
0 2
0
4

= 2
exp (k 2 ) (damping factor)
(iii) (3.5.20) exp (|k|)

1
1

lim
eik(xa) e|k| dk = lim
.
0 2
0 (x a)2 + 2

(3.5.25)

(iv) (3.5.20)
1
lim
L 2

L sin L(x a)
.
L
L(x a)

eik(xa) dk = lim
L

(3.5.26)

L (3.5.3), (3.5.4)
( 3.15)

57

a+

3.5.4

Fourier

Fourier
f (x), g(x) Fourier f(k), g(k)

1
f (x) =
f(k) eikx dk,
2

1
g(k) eikx dk,
g(x) =
2

(3.5.27)
(3.5.28)

f (x) g(x) dx =

f (k) g(k) dk.

(3.5.29)

Fourier




1
1
0

ikx
f (k) e
dk
g(k 0 ) eik x dk 0
f (x) g(x) dx =
dx
2
2

1
0
=
dk
dk 0 f (k) g(k 0 )
ei(k k)x dx
2

=
dk
dk 0 f (k) g(k 0 )(k 0 k)

f (k) g(k) dk.

(3.5.30)
=

f (x) g(x) (3.5.27), (3.5.28) k

k k 0

58
3.14 (3.5.25)

3.15 (3.5.26) (3.5.3)

sin
d = .

lim sin nx 0

1 (3.5.26) (3.5.4)

3.5.5

(x) = (x),
1
(ax) =
(x),
|a|
(x a)(x a) = 0,
f (x)(x a) = f (a)(x a),

(x y)(y a) dy = (x a).

(3.5.31)
(3.5.32)
(3.5.33)
(3.5.34)
(3.5.35)

3.6
3.6.1

Schwartz
(distribution)

(0) =

(x)
(x) (x a) dx = (a),
(3.6.1)

p.49

3.6.2

59

(x) (test function)

1/x (principal value) P/x

: (x)
( )

P
1
(x) = lim
+
(x) dx.
(3.6.2)
0
x
x

f 0 = f 0 + 0

[]
F (x)
x F x
x
|x x0 | < F (x) x0
F (x0 )

hF (x0 )i = F (x) (x) dx,

(3.6.3)
(x) |x x0 | <

(x) dx =
(x) dx = 1,
(3.6.4)

x0
(x) (x)
(3.6.3) F (x)

3.6.3

60

F (x) (x)

F (x) (x) dx

(3.6.5)

F (x) F 0 (x)

0
F (x) 0 (x) dx.
(3.6.6)
F (x) (x) dx =

F (x)

0
(x a) (x) dx =
(x a) 0 (x) dx = 0 (a).
(3.6.7)

0 (x) = 0 (x),

(3.6.8)

(x a)2 0 (x a) = 0,

(3.6.9)

(x a) 0 (x a) = (x a).
0 (x a) Fourier

1
(x a) =
2
0

(3.6.10)

ik eik(xa) dk,

(3.6.11)

(3.5.31)
(3.5.35)

(3.5.31) (x)

(x)(x) dx =
(y)(y) dy = (y)|y=0 = (0) =

(x)(x) dx.

(3.6.12)

y = x

(3.5.32) (x)



(0)
1
y dy
=
=
(x)(x) dx.
(ax)(x) dx =
(y)( )
a |a|
|a|
|a|

y = ax

(3.6.13)

61

(3.5.34) (x)


f (x)(x a)(x) dx =
(x a) (f (x)(x)) dx = f (a)(a)

=
f (a)(x a)(x) dx.
(3.6.14)

3.16 (3.5.33)
3.17 (3.6.8), (3.6.9), (3.6.10)
3.18 (x)

{
(x) =

0
1

(x < 0)
(x > 0)

(3.6.15)

(x)

(x)(x) dx =

(x) dx,

(3.6.16)

0 (x) = (x)

(3.6.17)

3.19 ( +0
)
(i)
P
x
= .
(3.6.18)
2
2
x +
x

(ii)
1
P
= + i(x).
x i
x

(3.6.19)

4.1

n x1 , x2 , ... , xn n ()

x1
x
2
x=
(4.1.1)

:
xn
n ()
n
n ()

x1
y1
x1 + y 1
x
y
x +y
2
2
2
2
x =
, y =
, x + y =
.
:
:

:
xn
yn
x n + yn

cx1
cx
2
c :
cx =
.
:
cxn

n () Rn (R )

62

4.1.1

63

Rn x =

x1
x2
:
xn

, y =

y1
y2
:
yn

(x, y) = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + xn yn =

xk yk

(4.1.2)

k=1

x y (inner product)

( 1)
( 2) x y
(x, y)
hx, yi
()
(i) (x, y) = (y, x)
(ii) (x1 + x2 , y) = (x1 , y) + (x2 , y),
(x, y 1 + y 2 ) = (x, y 1 ) + (x, y 2 ).
(iii) (x, cy) = c(x, y),
(cx, y) = c(x, y).
(iv) (x, x) 0, x = 0 (=)

(Remark 1) kxk = (x, x) x kxk = 0

x
(Remark 2) Rn n
n
(Remark 3) (x, y) = 0 x y
(Remark 4) x, y
(x, y) = kxk kyk cos .
(Remark 5) (ii),(iii) ,
(x, y) x (linear) y (linear)
x, y (bilinear)

64

4.1 x (4.1.1) xT = (x1 , x2 , , xn )

x y (x, y)

(x, y) = xT y

4.2

n z1 , z2 , ... , zn n

z1
z
2
z=
(4.2.1)

:
zn
n
n
n

z1
w1
z1 + w 1
z
w
z +w
2
2
2
2
z =
, w =
, z + w =
.
:
:

:
zn
wn
zn + w n

z1
z
2
z =
:
.
:
zn

n Cn (C )
(Remark 1) Cn z z z
(z) = z , (z + w) =
z + w

65

4.2.1

Cn z =

(z, w) =

z1 w1

z1
z2
:
zn

, w =

z2 w2

w1
w2
:
wn

zn wn

zk wk

(4.2.2)

k=1

z w

( 1)
( 2)

( (iv) Remark 2
)1 z = (z) = (x + iy) 2
(x, y) (z, z) = z z = x2 + y 2
2
( 3) (z, w) hz, wi

z w

()
(i)

(z, w) = (w, z)

(ii) (z 1 + z 2 , w) = (z 1 , w) + (z 2 , w),
(z, w1 + w2 ) = (z, w1 ) + (z, w2 ).
(iii) (z, w) = (z, w),
(z, w) = (z, w).
(iv) (z, z) 0, z = 0 (=)

(Remark 2) kzk = (z, z) z kzk = 0

z
(Remark 3) (z, w) = 0 z w

(Remark 4) (i) (iii) z w

iz w
i(z, w) (iz, w)

66

(Remark 5) (ii),(iii) ,
(z, w) w (linear)z (anti-linear)
4.2 (4.2.1) z
z = (z1 , z2 , , zn ) z w (z, w)

(z, w) = z w

( )
( )
1
1
4.3 z =
, w=
kzk2 , kwk2 , (z, w)
1
i
( )
(
)
1
1
4.4 z =
, w=
z w
i
i
4.5 kzk = 1, kwk = 2, (z, w) = 3i (z + 23 iw, z)

4.3
4.3.1

(x), (x) [0, 1] [0, 1] N N

(x1 = 1/N, x2 = 2/N, . . . , xN = 1) ,

(x1 )
(x1 )
(x )
(x )

2
2
zN =
, wN =
.

:
:
(xN )
(xN )
N (x), (x) z N , wN CN
(x), (x) C
[0, 1] [a, b]
(, ) = R (x), (x)
C
(Remark 1)

( + )(x) = (x) + (x),

()(x) = (x),

4.3.2

67

[0, 1]
N

(z N , wN ) =

zn wn

n=1

(xn )(xn )

n=1

N N
N

1
1
(z N , wN ) = lim
(xn )(xn )
N N
N
N
n=1

(, ) lim

1/N = xn+1 xn = x

(, ) =

(x)(x) dx

(4.3.1)

()
[0, 1] (, ) = R
(x), (x) || 0, || 0

(, ) =
(x)(x) dx.
(4.3.2)

(Remark 2)
|| 0

(Remark 3) () (Hilbert
space)

(Remark 4)
(i),(ii),(iii),(iv)
(Remark 5)

(, ) = 1

(Remark 6)
a (x) x = a
b (x) x = b

68

x = a, x = b
a (x)
b (x)

(Remark 7)
f (x) g(x)
[a, b]
b
(f, g) =
f (x)g(x) dx,
(4.3.3)
a

(i),(ii),(iii),(iv) Schwarz

|(, )|2 (, )(, ),

(4.3.4)

,

2

(x) (x) dx
|(x)| dx
|(x)|2 dx,

=
(Remak 2)

(, ) =
|(x)|2 dx < +

(x)
Schwarz (, )

4.6 (i),(ii),(iii),(iv) Schwarz

(4.3.4)

() (iv) (x) (, ) 0
(, ) 6= 0
(, )
= ,
=
(, )

69

thechapter.1 [, ]

f (x) = sin x,

g(x) = cos x,

(f, g) kf k kgk

(f, g) =
f (x)g(x) dx =

sin x cos x dx = 0.

sin x cos x

1 cos 2x
2
2
kf k = (f, f ) =
sin x dx =
dx = ,
2

1 + cos 2x
2
2
kgk = (g, g) =
dx = .
cos x dx =
2

kf k = kgk =

4.7 [, ]

f (x) = cos mx,

g(x) = cos nx,

(f, g) kf k kgk m, n
m 6= n
4.8 [, ]

1
n (x) = einx ,
2

(n = 0, 1, 2, 3, )

(n , m )

4.3.3

Fourier

Fourier

70

[, ] f (x)
(Fourier )

a0
+
(an cos nx + bn sin nx).
f (x) =
2
n=1

(4.3.5)

an , bn
{1, cos x, sin x, cos 2x, sin 2x, , cos nx, sin nx, } [, ]
4.1 4.7

(1, cos nx) =
1 cos nx dx = 0,

(1, sin nx) =
1 sin nx dx = 0,

(cos nx, cos mx) =
1 cos nx cos mx dx = 0, (n 6= m)

(sin nx, sin mx) =
1 sin nx sin mx dx = 0, (n 6= m)

(cos nx, sin mx) =
1 cos nx sin mx dx = 0

(1, 1) =
1 1 dx = 2,

(cos nx, cos nx) =
cos2 nx dx = ,

(sin nx, sin nx) =
sin2 nx dx = ,

[
]
a0
(1, 1) +
an (1, cos nx) + bn (1, sin nx)
(1, f ) =
2
n=1

= a0 ,
(cos mx, f ) =

a0
(cos mx, 1) +
2
n=1

(4.3.6)
[
]
an (cos mx, cos nx) + bn (cos mx, sin nx)

= am ,
(sin mx, f ) =

(4.3.7)

[
]
a0
(sin nx, 1) +
an (sin mx, cos nx) + bn (sin mx, sin nx)
2
n=1

= bm ,

(4.3.8)

71

1
(cos nx, f ),

1
=
(sin nx, f ),

an =

(n = 0, 1, 2, 3, )

bn

(n = 1, 2, 3, )

(4.3.9)
(4.3.10)

V
{e1 , e2 , e3 }

V = V1 e1 + V2 e2 + V3 e3 =

Vn en ,

n=1

en em =

(n 6= m)
(n = m)

0
1

V Vn

Vn = en V
V f (x) en cos nx sin nx Vn an , bn
Fourier 3

Fourier [, ]
() f (x) einx

f (x) =

cn einx ,

(4.3.11)

n=

cn
[, ] 5.8
{

0
(m 6= n)
(4.3.12)
(eimx , einx ) =
ei(nm)x dx =
2
(m = n)

imx

(e

, f) =

cn (eimx , einx ) = 2 cm .

n=

cn

1 inx
1
cn =
(e , f ) =
2
2

einx f (x) dx,

(4.3.13)

72

4.4

(x)


2
1=
|(x)| dx =
(x)(x) dx

(, ) = kk2 = 1

1 , 2 1 + 2 c1 1 + c2 2

,


(x)(x) dx = (, )

73

or
px = i~ /x
(x)

:
(x )
n1

(xn ) ,

(xn+1 )
:

i~

px

2x

0 1 0
1 0 1
0 1
0

:
(xn1 )
(xn )
(xn+1 )
:

0
{
}
1 (xn+1 ) (xn ) (xn ) (xn1 )
0
(xn ) =
+
2
x
x

4.9 x
= x x

x
0
0
n1

x
0
xn
0

0
0 xn+1

A

=

hAi
(x)A(x)
dx = (, A),

74

= a
A
A c a

a A A a
(, eigenstate)

4.10 p = (~/i)d/dx p0
4.11 4.10 p