Faculty Research Working Papers Series

The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy John J. Mearsheimer and Stephen M. Walt March 2006 RWP06-011

The views expressed in the KSG Faculty Research Working Paper Series are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect those of the John F. Kennedy School of Government or Harvard University. Copyright belongs to the author(s). Papers may be downloaded for personal use only.

 THEISRAELLOBBYANDU.S.FOREIGNPOLICY JohnJ.Mearsheimer DepartmentofPoliticalScience UniversityofChicago StephenM.Walt JohnF.KennedySchoolofGovernment HarvardUniversity March2006

AneditedversionofthispaperwaspublishedintheLondonReviewofBooksVol.28,No. 6(March23,2006),andisavailableonlineatwww.lrb.co.uk

 THEISRAELLOBBYANDU.S.FOREIGNPOLICY U.S.foreignpolicyshapeseventsineverycorneroftheglobe.Nowhereisthis truerthanintheMiddleEast,aregionofrecurringinstabilityandenormous strategicimportance.Mostrecently,theBushAdministrationsattemptto transformtheregionintoacommunityofdemocracieshashelpedproducea resilientinsurgencyinIraq,asharpriseinworldoilprices,andterrorist bombingsinMadrid,London,andAmman.Withsomuchatstakeforsomany, allcountriesneedtounderstandtheforcesthatdriveU.S.MiddleEastpolicy. TheU.S.nationalinterestshouldbetheprimaryobjectofAmericanforeign policy.Forthepastseveraldecades,however,andespeciallysincetheSixDay Warin1967,thecenterpieceofU.S.MiddleEastpolicyhasbeenitsrelationship withIsrael.ThecombinationofunwaveringU.S.supportforIsraelandthe relatedefforttospreaddemocracythroughouttheregionhasinflamedAraband IslamicopinionandjeopardizedU.S.security. ThissituationhasnoequalinAmericanpoliticalhistory.WhyhastheUnited Statesbeenwillingtosetasideitsownsecurityinordertoadvancetheinterests ofanotherstate?Onemightassumethatthebondbetweenthetwocountriesis basedonsharedstrategicinterestsorcompellingmoralimperatives.Aswe showbelow,however,neitherofthoseexplanationscanaccountforthe remarkablelevelofmaterialanddiplomaticsupportthattheUnitedStates providestoIsrael. Instead,theoverallthrustofU.S.policyintheregionisduealmostentirelyto U.S.domesticpolitics,andespeciallytotheactivitiesoftheIsraelLobby.Other specialinterestgroupshavemanagedtoskewU.S.foreignpolicyindirections theyfavored,butnolobbyhasmanagedtodivertU.S.foreignpolicyasfarfrom whattheAmericannationalinterestwouldotherwisesuggest,while simultaneouslyconvincingAmericansthatU.S.andIsraeliinterestsare essentiallyidentical.1 Inthepagesthatfollow,wedescribehowtheLobbyhasaccomplishedthisfeat, andhowitsactivitieshaveshapedAmericasactionsinthiscriticalregion. GiventhestrategicimportanceoftheMiddleEastanditspotentialimpacton others,bothAmericansandnonAmericansneedtounderstandandaddressthe LobbysinfluenceonU.S.policy. 1

 Somereaderswillfindthisanalysisdisturbing,butthefactsrecountedhereare notinseriousdisputeamongscholars.Indeed,ouraccountreliesheavilyonthe workofIsraelischolarsandjournalists,whodeservegreatcreditforshedding lightontheseissues.WealsorelyonevidenceprovidedbyrespectedIsraeliand internationalhumanrightsorganizations.Similarly,ourclaimsaboutthe LobbysimpactrelyontestimonyfromtheLobbysownmembers,aswellas testimonyfrompoliticianswhohaveworkedwiththem.Readersmayrejectour conclusions,ofcourse,buttheevidenceonwhichtheyrestisnotcontroversial. THEGREATBENEFACTOR SincetheOctoberWarin1973,WashingtonhasprovidedIsraelwithalevelof supportdwarfingtheamountsprovidedtoanyotherstate.Ithasbeenthe largestannualrecipientofdirectU.S.economicandmilitaryassistancesince1976 andthelargesttotalrecipientsinceWorldWarII.TotaldirectU.S.aidtoIsrael amountstowellover$140billionin2003dollars.2Israelreceivesabout$3billion indirectforeignassistanceeachyear,whichisroughlyonefifthofAmericas foreignaidbudget.Inpercapitaterms,theUnitedStatesgiveseachIsraelia directsubsidyworthabout$500peryear.3Thislargesseisespeciallystriking whenonerealizesthatIsraelisnowawealthyindustrialstatewithapercapita incomeroughlyequaltoSouthKoreaorSpain.4 IsraelalsogetsotherspecialdealsfromWashington.5Otheraidrecipientsget theirmoneyinquarterlyinstallments,butIsraelreceivesitsentireappropriation atthebeginningofeachfiscalyearandthusearnsextrainterest.Mostrecipients ofAmericanmilitaryassistancearerequiredtospendallofitintheUnited States,butIsraelcanuseroughlytwentyfivepercentofitsaidallotmentto subsidizeitsowndefenseindustry.Israelistheonlyrecipientthatdoesnothave toaccountforhowtheaidisspent,anexemptionthatmakesitvirtually impossibletopreventthemoneyfrombeingusedforpurposestheUnitedStates opposes,likebuildingsettlementsintheWestBank. Moreover,theUnitedStateshasprovidedIsraelwithnearly$3billiontodevelop weaponssystemsliketheLaviaircraftthatthePentagondidnotwantorneed, whilegivingIsraelaccesstotopdrawerU.S.weaponrylikeBlackhawk helicoptersandF16jets.Finally,theUnitedStatesgivesIsraelaccessto intelligencethatitdeniesitsNATOalliesandhasturnedablindeyetowards Israelsacquisitionofnuclearweapons.6 2

Inaddition,WashingtonprovidesIsraelwithconsistentdiplomaticsupport. Since1982,theUnitedStateshasvetoed32UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil resolutionsthatwerecriticalofIsrael,anumbergreaterthanthecombinedtotal ofvetoescastbyalltheotherSecurityCouncilmembers.7ItalsoblocksArab stateseffortstoputIsraelsnucleararsenalontheInternationalAtomicEnergy Agencysagenda.8 TheUnitedStatesalsocomestoIsraelsrescueinwartimeandtakesitsside whennegotiatingpeace.TheNixonAdministrationresuppliedIsraelduringthe OctoberWarandprotectedIsraelfromthethreatofSovietintervention. Washingtonwasdeeplyinvolvedinthenegotiationsthatendedthatwaraswell asthelengthystepbystepprocessthatfollowed,justasitplayedakeyrolein thenegotiationsthatprecededandfollowedthe1993OsloAccords.9Therewere occasionalfrictionsbetweenU.S.andIsraeliofficialsinbothcases,buttheUnited StatescoordinateditspositionscloselywithIsraelandconsistentlybackedthe Israeliapproachtothenegotiations.Indeed,oneAmericanparticipantatCamp David(2000)latersaid,fartoooften,wefunctioned...asIsraelslawyer.10 Asdiscussedbelow,WashingtonhasgivenIsraelwidelatitudeindealingwith theoccupiedterritories(theWestBankandGazaStrip),evenwhenitsactions wereatoddswithstatedU.S.policy.Moreover,theBushAdministrations ambitiousstrategytotransformtheMiddleEastbeginningwiththeinvasionof IraqisatleastpartlyintendedtoimproveIsraelsstrategicsituation.Apart fromwartimealliances,itishardtothinkofanotherinstancewhereonecountry hasprovidedanotherwithasimilarlevelofmaterialanddiplomaticsupportfor suchanextendedperiod.AmericassupportforIsraelis,inshort,unique. ThisextraordinarygenerositymightbeunderstandableifIsraelwereavital strategicassetoriftherewereacompellingmoralcaseforsustainedU.S. backing.Butneitherrationaleisconvincing. ASTRATEGICLIABILITY AccordingtotheAmericanIsraelPublicAffairsCommittees(AIPAC)website, theUnitedStatesandIsraelhaveformedauniquepartnershiptomeetthe growingstrategicthreatsintheMiddleEast....Thiscooperativeeffortprovides significantbenefitsforboththeUnitedStatesandIsrael.11Thisclaimisan articleoffaithamongIsraelssupportersandisroutinelyinvokedbyIsraeli politiciansandproIsraelAmericans. 3

IsraelmayhavebeenastrategicassetduringtheColdWar.12Byservingas AmericasproxyaftertheSixDayWar(1967),IsraelhelpedcontainSoviet expansionintheregionandinflictedhumiliatingdefeatsonSovietclientslike EgyptandSyria.IsraeloccasionallyhelpedprotectotherU.S.allies(likeJordans KingHussein)anditsmilitaryprowessforcedMoscowtospendmorebacking itslosingclients.IsraelalsogavetheUnitedStatesusefulintelligenceabout Sovietcapabilities. Israelsstrategicvalueduringthisperiodshouldnotbeoverstated,however.13 BackingIsraelwasnotcheap,anditcomplicatedAmericasrelationswiththe Arabworld.Forexample,theU.S.decisiontogiveIsrael$2.2billionin emergencymilitaryaidduringtheOctoberWartriggeredanOPECoilembargo thatinflictedconsiderabledamageonWesterneconomies.Moreover,Israels militarycouldnotprotectU.S.interestsintheregion.Forexample,theUnited StatescouldnotrelyonIsraelwhentheIranianRevolutionin1979raised concernsaboutthesecurityofPersianGulfoilsupplies,andhadtocreateitsown RapidDeploymentForceinstead. EvenifIsraelwasastrategicassetduringtheColdWar,thefirstGulfWar(1990 91)revealedthatIsraelwasbecomingastrategicburden.TheUnitedStates couldnotuseIsraelibasesduringthewarwithoutrupturingtheantiIraq coalition,andithadtodivertresources(e.g.,Patriotmissilebatteries)tokeepTel AvivfromdoinganythingthatmightfracturetheallianceagainstSaddam. Historyrepeateditselfin2003:althoughIsraelwaseagerfortheUnitedStatesto attackSaddam,PresidentBushcouldnotaskittohelpwithouttriggeringArab opposition.SoIsraelstayedonthesidelinesagain.14 Beginninginthe1990s,andespeciallyafter9/11,U.S.supportforIsraelhasbeen justifiedbytheclaimthatbothstatesarethreatenedbyterroristgroups originatingintheAraborMuslimworld,andbyasetofroguestatesthatback thesegroupsandseekWMD.ThisrationaleimpliesthatWashingtonshould giveIsraelafreehandindealingwiththePalestiniansandnotpressIsraelto makeconcessionsuntilallPalestinianterroristsareimprisonedordead.Italso impliesthattheUnitedStatesshouldgoaftercountriesliketheIslamicRepublic ofIran,SaddamHusseinsIraq,andBasharalAssadsSyria.Israelisthusseen asacrucialallyinthewaronterror,becauseitsenemiesareAmericasenemies. Thisnewrationaleseemspersuasive,butIsraelisinfactaliabilityinthewaron terrorandthebroaderefforttodealwithroguestates. 4

Tobeginwith,terrorismisatacticemployedbyawidearrayofpolitical groups;itisnotasingleunifiedadversary.Theterroristorganizationsthat threatenIsrael(e.g.,HamasorHezbollah)donotthreatentheUnitedStates, exceptwhenitintervenesagainstthem(asinLebanonin1982).Moreover, PalestinianterrorismisnotrandomviolencedirectedagainstIsraelorthe West;itislargelyaresponsetoIsraelsprolongedcampaigntocolonizethe WestBankandGazaStrip. Moreimportantly,sayingthatIsraelandtheUnitedStatesareunitedbyashared terroristthreathasthecausalrelationshipbackwards:rather,theUnitedStates hasaterrorismproblemingoodpartbecauseitissocloselyalliedwithIsrael, nottheotherwayaround.U.S.supportforIsraelisnottheonlysourceofanti Americanterrorism,butitisanimportantone,anditmakeswinningthewaron terrormoredifficult.15Thereisnoquestion,forexample,thatmanyalQaeda leaders,includingbinLaden,aremotivatedbyIsraelspresenceinJerusalemand theplightofthePalestinians.AccordingtotheU.S.9/11Commission,binLaden explicitlysoughttopunishtheUnitedStatesforitspoliciesintheMiddleEast, includingitssupportforIsrael,andheeventriedtotimetheattackstohighlight thisissue.16 Equallyimportant,unconditionalU.S.supportforIsraelmakesiteasierfor extremistslikebinLadentorallypopularsupportandtoattractrecruits.Public opinionpollsconfirmthatArabpopulationsaredeeplyhostiletoAmerican supportforIsrael,andtheU.S.StateDepartmentsAdvisoryGrouponPublic DiplomacyfortheArabandMuslimworldfoundthatcitizensinthese countriesaregenuinelydistressedattheplightofthePalestiniansandattherole theyperceivetheUnitedStatestobeplaying.17 AsforsocalledroguestatesintheMiddleEast,theyarenotadirethreattovital U.S.interests,apartfromtheU.S.commitmenttoIsraelitself.Althoughthe UnitedStatesdoeshaveanumberofdisagreementswiththeseregimes, WashingtonwouldnotbenearlyasworriedaboutIran,BathistIraq,orSyria wereitnotsocloselytiedtoIsrael.Evenifthesestatesacquirenuclear weaponswhichisobviouslynotdesirableitwouldnotbeastrategicdisaster fortheUnitedStates.NeitherAmericanorIsraelcouldbeblackmailedbya nucleararmedrogue,becausetheblackmailercouldnotcarryoutthethreat withoutreceivingoverwhelmingretaliation.Thedangerofanuclearhandoff toterroristsisequallyremote,becausearoguestatecouldnotbesurethe transferwouldbeundetectedorthatitwouldnotbeblamedandpunished afterwards. 5

 Furthermore,theU.S.relationshipwithIsraelactuallymakesithardertodeal withthesestates.Israelsnucleararsenalisonereasonwhysomeofits neighborswantnuclearweapons,andthreateningthesestateswithregime changemerelyincreasesthatdesire.YetIsraelisnotmuchofanassetwhenthe UnitedStatescontemplatesusingforceagainsttheseregimes,becauseitcannot participateinthefight. Inshort,treatingIsraelasAmericasmostimportantallyinthecampaignagainst terrorismandassortedMiddleEastdictatorshipsbothexaggeratesIsraelsability tohelpontheseissuesandignoresthewaysthatIsraelspoliciesmakeU.S. effortsmoredifficult. UnquestionedsupportforIsraelalsoweakenstheU.S.positionoutsidethe MiddleEast.ForeignelitesconsistentlyviewtheUnitedStatesastoosupportive ofIsrael,andthinkitstoleranceofIsraelirepressionintheoccupiedterritoriesis morallyobtuseandahandicapinthewaronterrorism.18InApril2004,for example,52formerBritishdiplomatssentPrimeMinisterTonyBlairaletter sayingthattheIsraelPalestineconflicthadpoisonedrelationsbetweentheWest andtheArabandIslamicworlds,andwarningthatthepoliciesofBushand PrimeMinisterArielSharonwereonesidedandillegal.19 AfinalreasontoquestionIsraelsstrategicvalueisthatitdoesnotactlikealoyal ally.IsraeliofficialsfrequentlyignoreU.S.requestsandrenegeonpromises madetotopU.S.leaders(includingpastpledgestohaltsettlementconstruction andtorefrainfromtargetedassassinationsofPalestinianleaders).20Moreover, IsraelhasprovidedsensitiveU.S.militarytechnologytopotentialU.S.rivalslike China,inwhattheU.S.StateDepartmentInspectorGeneralcalledasystematic andgrowingpatternofunauthorizedtransfers.21AccordingtotheU.S.General AccountingOffice,Israelalsoconductsthemostaggressiveespionage operationsagainsttheU.S.ofanyally.22InadditiontothecaseofJonathan Pollard,whogaveIsraellargequantitiesofclassifiedmaterialintheearly1980s (whichIsraelreportedlypassedontotheSovietUniontogainmoreexitvisasfor SovietJews),anewcontroversyeruptedin2004whenitwasrevealedthatakey Pentagonofficial(LarryFranklin)hadpassedclassifiedinformationtoanIsraeli diplomat,allegedlyaidedbytwoAIPACofficials.23Israelishardlytheonly countrythatspiesontheUnitedStates,butitswillingnesstospyonitsprincipal patroncastsfurtherdoubtonitsstrategicvalue.

ADWINDLINGMORALCASE Apartfromitsallegedstrategicvalue,Israelsbackersalsoarguethatitdeserves unqualifiedU.S.supportbecause1)itisweakandsurroundedbyenemies,2)it isademocracy,whichisamorallypreferableformofgovernment;3)theJewish peoplehavesufferedfrompastcrimesandthereforedeservespecialtreatment, and4)Israelsconducthasbeenmorallysuperiortoitsadversariesbehavior. Oncloseinspection,however,eachoftheseargumentsisunpersuasive.Thereis astrongmoralcaseforsupportingIsraelsexistence,butthatisnotinjeopardy. Viewedobjectively,Israelspastandpresentconductoffersnomoralbasisfor privilegingitoverthePalestinians. BackingtheUnderdog? Israelisoftenportrayedasweakandbesieged,aJewishDavidsurroundedbya hostileArabGoliath.ThisimagehasbeencarefullynurturedbyIsraelileaders andsympatheticwriters,buttheoppositeimageisclosertothetruth.Contrary topopularbelief,theZionistshadlarger,betterequipped,andbetterledforces duringthe194749WarofIndependenceandtheIsraelDefenseForces(IDF)won quickandeasyvictoriesagainstEgyptin1956andagainstEgypt,Jordan,and Syriain1967beforelargescaleU.S.aidbeganflowingtoIsrael.24Thesevictories offereloquentevidenceofIsraelipatriotism,organizationalability,andmilitary prowess,buttheyalsorevealthatIsraelwasfarfromhelplesseveninitsearliest years. Today,IsraelisthestrongestmilitarypowerintheMiddleEast.Itsconventional forcesarefarsuperiortoitsneighborsanditistheonlystateintheregionwith nuclearweapons.EgyptandJordansignedpeacetreatieswithIsraelandSaudi Arabiahasofferedtodosoaswell.SyriahaslostitsSovietpatron,Iraqhasbeen decimatedbythreedisastrouswars,andIranishundredsofmilesaway.The Palestiniansbarelyhaveeffectivepolice,letaloneamilitarythatcouldthreaten Israel.Accordingtoa2005assessmentbyTelAvivUniversitysprestigious JaffeeCenterforStrategicStudies,thestrategicbalancedecidedlyfavorsIsrael, whichhascontinuedtowidenthequalitativegapbetweenitsownmilitary capabilityanddeterrencepowersandthoseofitsneighbors.25Ifbackingthe underdogwereacompellingrationale,theUnitedStateswouldbesupporting Israelsopponents. 7

AidingaFellowDemocracy? AmericanbackingisoftenjustifiedbytheclaimthatIsraelisafellowdemocracy surroundedbyhostiledictatorships.Thisrationalesoundsconvincing,butit cannotaccountforthecurrentlevelofU.S.support.Afterall,therearemany democraciesaroundtheworld,butnonereceivesthelavishsupportthatIsrael does.TheUnitedStateshasoverthrowndemocraticgovernmentsinthepastand supporteddictatorswhenthiswasthoughttoadvanceU.S.interests,andithas goodrelationswithanumberofdictatorshipstoday.Thus,beingdemocratic neitherjustifiesnorexplainsAmericassupportforIsrael. TheshareddemocracyrationaleisalsoweakenedbyaspectsofIsraeli democracythatareatoddswithcoreAmericanvalues.TheUnitedStatesisa liberaldemocracywherepeopleofanyrace,religion,orethnicityaresupposed toenjoyequalrights.Bycontrast,IsraelwasexplicitlyfoundedasaJewishstate andcitizenshipisbasedontheprincipleofbloodkinship.26Giventhis conceptionofcitizenship,itisnotsurprisingthatIsraels1.3millionArabsare treatedassecondclasscitizens,orthatarecentIsraeligovernmentcommission foundthatIsraelbehavesinaneglectfulanddiscriminatorymannertowards them.27 Similarly,IsraeldoesnotpermitPalestinianswhomarryIsraelicitizensto becomecitizensthemselves,anddoesnotgivethesespousestherighttolivein Israel.TheIsraelihumanrightsorganizationBtselemcalledthisrestrictiona racistlawthatdetermineswhocanlivehereaccordingtoracistcriteria.28Such lawsmaybeunderstandablegivenIsraelsfoundingprinciples,buttheyarenot consistentwithAmericasimageofdemocracy. Israelsdemocraticstatusisalsounderminedbyitsrefusaltograntthe Palestiniansaviablestateoftheirown.Israelcontrolsthelivesofabout3.8 millionPalestiniansinGazaandtheWestBank,whilecolonizinglandsonwhich thePalestinianshavelongdwelt.Israelisformallydemocratic,butthemillions ofPalestiniansthatitcontrolsaredeniedfullpoliticalrightsandtheshared democracyrationaleiscorrespondinglyweakened. CompensationforPastCrimes AthirdmoraljustificationisthehistoryofJewishsufferingintheChristianWest, especiallythetragicepisodeoftheHolocaust.BecauseJewswerepersecutedfor

centuriesandcanonlybesafeinaJewishhomeland,manybelievethatIsrael deservesspecialtreatmentfromtheUnitedStates. ThereisnoquestionthatJewssufferedgreatlyfromthedespicablelegacyofanti Semitism,andthatIsraelscreationwasanappropriateresponsetoalongrecord ofcrimes.Thishistory,asnoted,providesastrongmoralcaseforsupporting Israelsexistence.ButthecreationofIsraelinvolvedadditionalcrimesagainsta largelyinnocentthirdparty:thePalestinians. Thehistoryoftheseeventsiswellunderstood.WhenpoliticalZionismbeganin earnestinthelate19thcentury,therewereonlyabout15,000JewsinPalestine.29 In1893,forexample,theArabscomprisedroughly95percentofthepopulation, andthoughunderOttomancontrol,theyhadbeenincontinuouspossessionof thisterritoryfor1300years.30EvenwhenIsraelwasfounded,Jewswereonly about35percentofPalestinespopulationandowned7percentoftheland.31 ThemainstreamZionistleadershipwasnotinterestedinestablishingabi nationalstateoracceptingapermanentpartitionofPalestine.TheZionist leadershipwassometimeswillingtoacceptpartitionasafirststep,butthiswasa tacticalmaneuverandnottheirrealobjective.AsDavidBenGurionputitinthe late1930s,Aftertheformationofalargearmyinthewakeoftheestablishment ofthestate,weshallabolishpartitionandexpandtothewholeofPalestine.32 Toachievethisgoal,theZionistshadtoexpellargenumbersofArabsfromthe territorythatwouldeventuallybecomeIsrael.Therewassimplynootherwayto accomplishtheirobjective.BenGurionsawtheproblemclearly,writingin1941 thatitisimpossibletoimaginegeneralevacuation[oftheArabpopulation] withoutcompulsion,andbrutalcompulsion.33OrasIsraelihistorianBenny Morrisputsit,theideaoftransferisasoldasmodernZionismandhas accompanieditsevolutionandpraxisduringthepastcentury.34 Thisopportunitycamein194748,whenJewishforcesdroveupto700,000 Palestiniansintoexile.35IsraeliofficialshavelongclaimedthattheArabsfled becausetheirleaderstoldthemto,butcarefulscholarship(muchofitbyIsraeli historianslikeMorris)havedemolishedthismyth.Infact,mostArableaders urgedthePalestinianpopulationtostayhome,butfearofviolentdeathatthe handsofZionistforcesledmostofthemtoflee.36Afterthewar,Israelbarredthe returnofthePalestinianexiles.

ThefactthatthecreationofIsraelentailedamoralcrimeagainstthePalestinian peoplewaswellunderstoodbyIsraelsleaders.AsBenGuriontoldNahum Goldmann,presidentoftheWorldJewishCongress,IfIwereanArableaderI wouldnevermaketermswithIsrael.Thatisnatural:wehavetakentheir country....WecomefromIsrael,buttwothousandyearsago,andwhatisthat tothem?TherehasbeenantiSemitism,theNazis,Hitler,Auschwitz,butwas thattheirfault?Theyonlyseeonething:wehavecomehereandstolentheir country.Whyshouldtheyacceptthat?37 Sincethen,IsraelileadershaverepeatedlysoughttodenythePalestinians nationalambitions.38PrimeMinisterGoldaMeirfamouslyremarkedthatthere wasnosuchthingasaPalestinian,andevenPrimeMinisterYitzhakRabin,who signedthe1993OsloAccords,nonethelessopposedcreatingafullfledged Palestinianstate.39PressurefromextremistviolenceandthegrowingPalestinian populationhasforcedsubsequentIsraelileaderstodisengagefromsomeofthe occupiedterritoriesandtoexploreterritorialcompromise,butnoIsraeli governmenthasbeenwillingtoofferthePalestiniansaviablestateoftheirown. EvenPrimeMinisterEhudBarakspurportedlygenerousofferatCampDavidin July2000wouldonlyhavegiventhePalestiniansadisarmedanddismembered setofBantustansunderdefactoIsraelicontrol.40 EuropescrimesagainsttheJewsprovideaclearmoraljustificationforIsraels righttoexist.ButIsraelssurvivalisnotindoubtevenifsomeIslamic extremistsmakeoutrageousandunrealisticreferencestowipingitoffthe mapandthetragichistoryoftheJewishpeopledoesnotobligatetheUnited StatestohelpIsraelnomatterwhatitdoestoday. VirtuousIsraelisversusEvilArabs ThefinalmoralargumentportraysIsraelasacountrythathassoughtpeaceat everyturnandshowedgreatrestraintevenwhenprovoked.TheArabs,by contrast,aresaidtohaveactedwithgreatwickedness.Thisnarrativewhichis endlesslyrepeatedbyIsraelileadersandAmericanapologistssuchasAlan Dershowitzisyetanothermyth.41Intermsofactualbehavior,Israelsconduct isnotmorallydistinguishablefromtheactionsofitsopponents. IsraelischolarshipshowsthattheearlyZionistswerefarfrombenevolent towardsthePalestinianArabs.42TheArabinhabitantsdidresisttheZionists encroachments,whichishardlysurprisinggiventhattheZionistsweretryingto createtheirownstateonArablands.TheZionistsrespondedvigorously,and 10

neithersideownsthemoralhighgroundduringthisperiod.Thissame scholarshipalsorevealsthatthecreationofIsraelin194748involvedexplicit actsofethniccleansing,includingexecutions,massacres,andrapesbyJews.43 Furthermore,IsraelssubsequentconducttowardsitsArabadversariesandits Palestiniansubjectshasoftenbeenbrutal,belyinganyclaimtomorallysuperior conduct.Between1949and1956,forexample,Israelisecurityforceskilled between2,700and5000Arabinfiltrators,theoverwhelmingmajorityofthem unarmed.44TheIDFconductednumerouscrossborderraidsagainstits neighborsintheearly1950s,andthoughtheseactionswereportrayedas defensiveresponses,theywereactuallypartofabroaderefforttoexpandIsraels borders.IsraelsexpansionistambitionsalsoledittojoinBritainandFrancein attackingEgyptin1956,andIsraelwithdrewfromthelandsithadconquered onlyinthefaceofintenseU.S.pressure.45 TheIDFalsomurderedhundredsofEgyptianprisonersofwarinboththe1956 and1967wars.46In1967,itexpelledbetween100,000and260,000Palestinians fromthenewlyconqueredWestBank,anddrove80,000SyriansfromtheGolan Heights.47Itwasalsocomplicitinthemassacreof700innocentPalestiniansat theSabraandShatilarefugeecampsfollowingitsinvasionofLebanonin1982, andanIsraeliinvestigatorycommissionfoundthenDefenceMinisterSharon personallyresponsiblefortheseatrocities.48 IsraelipersonnelhavetorturednumerousPalestinianprisoners,systematically humiliatedandinconveniencedPalestiniancivilians,andusedforce indiscriminatelyagainstthemonnumerousoccasions.DuringtheFirstIntifida (19871991),forexample,theIDFdistributedtruncheonstoitstroopsand encouragedthemtobreakthebonesofPalestinianprotestors.TheSwedish SavetheChildrenorganizationestimatedthat23,600to29,900children requiredmedicaltreatmentfortheirbeatinginjuriesinthefirsttwoyearsofthe intifida,withnearlyonethirdsustainingbrokenbones.Nearlyonethirdofthe beatenchildrenwereagedtenandunder.49 IsraelsresponsetotheSecondIntifida(20002005)hasbeenevenmoreviolent, leadingHaaretztodeclarethattheIDFisturningintoakillingmachine whoseefficiencyisaweinspiring,yetshocking.50TheIDFfiredonemillion bulletsinthefirstdaysoftheuprising,whichisfarfromameasuredresponse.51 Sincethen,Israelhaskilled3.4PalestiniansforeveryIsraelilost,themajorityof whomhavebeeninnocentbystanders;theratioofPalestiniantoIsraelichildren killedisevenhigher(5.7to1).52Israeliforceshavealsokilledseveralforeign 11

peaceactivists,includinga23yearoldAmericanwomancrushedbyanIsraeli bulldozerinMarch2003.53 ThesefactsaboutIsraelsconducthavebeenamplydocumentedbynumerous humanrightsorganizationsincludingprominentIsraeligroupsandarenot disputedbyfairmindedobservers.AndthatiswhyfourformerofficialsofShin Bet(theIsraelidomesticsecurityorganization)condemnedIsraelsconduct duringtheSecondIntifadainNovember2003.Oneofthemdeclaredweare behavingdisgracefully,andanothertermedIsraelsconductpatently immoral.54 ButisntIsraelentitledtodowhateverittakestoprotectitscitizens?Doesntthe uniqueevilofterrorismjustifycontinuedU.S.support,evenifIsraeloften respondsharshly? Infact,thisargumentisnotacompellingmoraljustificationeither.Palestinians haveusedterrorismagainsttheirIsraelioccupiers,andtheirwillingnesstoattack innocentciviliansiswrong.Thisbehaviorisnotsurprising,however,because thePalestiniansbelievetheyhavenootherwaytoforceIsraeliconcessions.As formerPrimeMinisterBarakonceadmitted,hadhebeenbornaPalestinian,he wouldhavejoinedaterroristorganization.55 Finally,weshouldnotforgetthattheZionistsusedterrorismwhentheywerein asimilarlyweakpositionandtryingtoobtaintheirownstate.Between1944and 1947,severalZionistorganizationsusedterroristbombingstodrivetheBritish fromPalestine,andtookthelivesofmanyinnocentciviliansalongtheway.56 IsraeliterroristsalsomurderedU.N.mediatorCountFolkeBernadottein1948, becausetheyopposedhisproposaltointernationalizeJerusalem.57Norwerethe perpetratorsoftheseactsisolatedextremists:theleadersofthemurderplotwere eventuallygrantedamnestybytheIsraeligovernmentandoneofthemwas electedtotheKnesset.Anotherterroristleader,whoapprovedthemurderbut wasnottried,wasfuturePrimeMinisterYitzhakShamir.Indeed,Shamiropenly arguedthatneitherJewishethicsnorJewishtraditioncandisqualifyterrorism asameansofcombat.Rather,terrorismhadagreatparttoplayinourwar againsttheoccupier[Britain].58IfthePalestiniansuseofterrorismismorally reprehensibletoday,sowasIsraelsrelianceuponitinthepast,andthusone cannotjustifyU.S.supportforIsraelonthegroundsthatitspastconductwas morallysuperior.59

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Israelmaynothaveactedworsethanmanyothercountries,butitclearlyhasnot actedanybetter.Andifneitherstrategicnormoralargumentscanaccountfor AmericassupportforIsrael,howarewetoexplainit? THEISRAELLOBBY TheexplanationliesintheunmatchedpoweroftheIsraelLobby.Wereitnotfor theLobbysabilitytomanipulatetheAmericanpoliticalsystem,therelationship betweenIsraelandtheUnitedStateswouldbefarlessintimatethanitistoday. WhatIsTheLobby? WeusetheLobbyasaconvenientshorthandtermfortheloosecoalitionof individualsandorganizationswhoactivelyworktoshapeU.S.foreignpolicyin aproIsraeldirection.Ouruseofthistermisnotmeanttosuggestthatthe Lobbyisaunifiedmovementwithacentralleadership,orthatindividuals withinitdonotdisagreeoncertainissues ThecoreoftheLobbyiscomprisedofAmericanJewswhomakeasignificant effortintheirdailylivestobendU.S.foreignpolicysothatitadvancesIsraels interests.Theiractivitiesgobeyondmerelyvotingforcandidateswhoarepro Israeltoincludeletterwriting,financialcontributions,andsupportingproIsrael organizations.ButnotallJewishAmericansarepartoftheLobby,because Israelisnotasalientissueformanyofthem.Ina2004survey,forexample, roughly36percentofJewishAmericanssaidtheywereeithernotveryornot atallemotionallyattachedtoIsrael.60 JewishAmericansalsodifferonspecificIsraelipolicies.Manyofthekey organizationsintheLobby,likeAIPACandtheConferenceofPresidentsof MajorJewishOrganizations(CPMJO),arerunbyhardlinerswhogenerally supportedtheexpansionistpoliciesofIsraelsLikudParty,includingitshostility totheOsloPeaceProcess.ThebulkofU.S.Jewry,ontheotherhand,ismore favorablydisposedtomakingconcessionstothePalestinians,andafew groupssuchasJewishVoiceforPeacestronglyadvocatesuchsteps.61Despite thesedifferences,moderatesandhardlinersbothsupportsteadfastU.S.support forIsrael. Notsurprisingly,AmericanJewishleadersoftenconsultwithIsraeliofficials,so thattheformercanmaximizetheirinfluenceintheUnitedStates.Asoneactivist withamajorJewishorganizationwrote,itisroutineforustosay:Thisisour 13

policyonacertainissue,butwemustcheckwhattheIsraelisthink.Weasa communitydoitallthetime.62Thereisalsoastrongnormagainstcriticizing Israelipolicy,andJewishAmericanleadersrarelysupportputtingpressureon Israel.Thus,EdgarBronfmanSr.,thepresidentoftheWorldJewishCongress, wasaccusedofperfidywhenhewrotealettertoPresidentBushinmid2003 urgingBushtopressureIsraeltocurbconstructionofitscontroversialsecurity fence.63Criticsdeclaredthat,Itwouldbeobsceneatanytimeforthepresident oftheWorldJewishCongresstolobbythepresidentoftheUnitedStatestoresist policiesbeingpromotedbythegovernmentofIsrael. Similarly,whenIsraelPolicyForumpresidentSeymourReichadvisedSecretary ofStateCondoleezzaRicetopressureIsraeltoreopenacriticalbordercrossingin theGazaStripinNovember2005,criticsdenouncedhisactionasirresponsible behavior,anddeclaredthat,ThereisabsolutelynoroomintheJewish mainstreamforactivelycanvassingagainstthesecurityrelatedpolicies...of Israel.64Recoilingfromtheseattacks,Reichproclaimedthatthewordpressure isnotinmyvocabularywhenitcomestoIsrael. JewishAmericanshaveformedanimpressivearrayoforganizationstoinfluence Americanforeignpolicy,ofwhichAIPACisthemostpowerfulandwellknown. In1997,FortunemagazineaskedmembersofCongressandtheirstaffstolistthe mostpowerfullobbiesinWashington.65AIPACwasrankedsecondbehindthe AmericanAssociationofRetiredPeople(AARP),butaheadofheavyweight lobbiesliketheAFLCIOandtheNationalRifleAssociation.ANationalJournal studyinMarch2005reachedasimilarconclusion,placingAIPACinsecond place(tiedwithAARP)intheWashingtonsmusclerankings.66 TheLobbyalsoincludesprominentChristianevangelicalslikeGaryBauer,Jerry Falwell,RalphReed,andPatRobertson,aswellasDickArmeyandTomDeLay, formermajorityleadersintheHouseofRepresentatives.TheybelieveIsraels rebirthispartofBiblicalprophecy,supportitsexpansionistagenda,andthink pressuringIsraeliscontrarytoGodswill.67Inaddition,theLobbys membershipincludesneoconservativegentilessuchasJohnBolton,thelateWall StreetJournaleditorRobertBartley,formerSecretaryofEducationWilliam Bennett,formerU.N.AmbassadorJeanneKirkpatrick,andcolumnistGeorge Will.

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 SourcesofPower TheUnitedStateshasadividedgovernmentthatoffersmanywaystoinfluence thepolicyprocess.Asaresult,interestgroupscanshapepolicyinmany differentwaysbylobbyingelectedrepresentativesandmembersofthe executivebranch,makingcampaigncontributions,votinginelections,molding publicopinion,etc. Furthermore,specialinterestgroupsenjoydisproportionatepowerwhenthey arecommittedtoaparticularissueandthebulkofthepopulationisindifferent. Policymakerswilltendtoaccommodatethosewhocareabouttheissuein question,eveniftheirnumbersaresmall,confidentthattherestofthe populationwillnotpenalizethem. TheIsraelLobbyspowerflowsfromitsunmatchedabilitytoplaythisgameof interestgrouppolitics.Initsbasicoperations,itisnodifferentfrominterest groupsliketheFarmLobby,steelandtextileworkers,andotherethniclobbies. WhatsetstheIsraelLobbyapartisitsextraordinaryeffectiveness.Butthereis nothingimproperaboutAmericanJewsandtheirChristianalliesattemptingto swayU.S.policytowardsIsrael.TheLobbysactivitiesarenotthesortof conspiracydepictedinantiSemitictractsliketheProtocolsoftheEldersofZion. Forthemostpart,theindividualsandgroupsthatcomprisetheLobbyaredoing whatotherspecialinterestgroupsdo,justmuchbetter.Moreover,proArab interestgroupsareweaktononexistent,whichmakestheLobbystaskeven easier.68 StrategiesforSuccess TheLobbypursuestwobroadstrategiestopromoteU.S.supportforIsrael.First, itwieldssignificantinfluenceinWashington,pressuringbothCongressandthe ExecutivebranchtosupportIsraeldowntheline.Whateveranindividual lawmakerorpolicymakersownviews,theLobbytriestomakesupportingIsrael thesmartpoliticalchoice. Second,theLobbystrivestoensurethatpublicdiscourseaboutIsraelportraysit inapositivelight,byrepeatingmythsaboutIsraelanditsfoundingandby publicizingIsraelssideinthepolicydebatesoftheday.Thegoalistoprevent criticalcommentaryaboutIsraelfromgettingafairhearinginthepoliticalarena. ControllingthedebateisessentialtoguaranteeingU.S.support,becausea 15

candiddiscussionofU.S.IsraelirelationsmightleadAmericanstofavora differentpolicy. InfluencingCongress AkeypillaroftheLobbyseffectivenessisitsinfluenceintheU.S.Congress, whereIsraelisvirtuallyimmunefromcriticism.Thisisinitselfaremarkable situation,becauseCongressalmostnevershiesawayfromcontentiousissues. Whethertheissueisabortion,affirmativeaction,healthcare,orwelfare,thereis certaintobealivelydebateonCapitolHill.WhereIsraelisconcerned,however, potentialcriticsfallsilentandthereishardlyanydebateatall. OnereasonfortheLobbyssuccesswithCongressisthatsomekeymembersare ChristianZionistslikeDickArmey,whosaidinSeptember2002thatMyNo.1 priorityinforeignpolicyistoprotectIsrael.69Onewouldthinkthatthenumber 1priorityforanycongressmanwouldbetoprotectAmerica,butthatisnot whatArmeysaid.TherearealsoJewishsenatorsandcongressmenwhoworkto makeU.S.foreignpolicysupportIsraelsinterests. ProIsraelcongressionalstaffersareanothersourceoftheLobbyspower.As MorrisAmitay,aformerheadofAIPAC,onceadmitted,Therearealotofguys attheworkingleveluphere[onCapitolHill]whohappentobeJewish,who arewillingtolookatcertainissuesintermsoftheirJewishness.Theseare allguyswhoareinapositiontomakethedecisionintheseareasforthose senators.Youcangetanawfullotdonejustatthestafflevel.70 ItisAIPACitself,however,thatformsthecoreoftheLobbysinfluencein Congress.AIPACssuccessisduetoitsabilitytorewardlegislatorsand congressionalcandidateswhosupportitsagenda,andtopunishthosewho challengeit.MoneyiscriticaltoU.S.elections(astherecentscandalover lobbyistJackAbramoffsvariousshadydealingsremindsus),andAIPACmakes surethatitsfriendsgetstrongfinancialsupportfromthemyriadproIsrael politicalactioncommittees.ThoseseenashostiletoIsrael,ontheotherhand, canbesurethatAIPACwilldirectcampaigncontributionstotheirpolitical opponents.AIPACalsoorganizesletterwritingcampaignsandencourages newspapereditorstoendorseproIsraelcandidates. Thereisnodoubtaboutthepotencyofthesetactics.Totakebutoneexample,in 1984AIPAChelpeddefeatSenatorCharlesPercyfromIllinois,who,accordingto oneprominentLobbyfigure,haddisplayedinsensitivityandevenhostilityto 16

ourconcerns.ThomasDine,theheadofAIPACatthetime,explainedwhat happened:AlltheJewsinAmerica,fromcoasttocoast,gatheredtooustPercy. AndtheAmericanpoliticiansthosewhoholdpublicpositionsnow,andthose whoaspiregotthemessage.71AIPACprizesitsreputationasaformidable adversary,ofcourse,becauseitdiscouragesanyonefromquestioningitsagenda. AIPACsinfluenceonCapitolHillgoesevenfurther,however.Accordingto DouglasBloomfield,aformerAIPACstaffmember,Itiscommonformembers ofCongressandtheirstaffstoturntoAIPACfirstwhentheyneedinformation, beforecallingtheLibraryofCongress,theCongressionalResearchService, committeestafforadministrationexperts.72Moreimportantly,henotesthat AIPACisoftencalledupontodraftspeeches,workonlegislation,adviseon tactics,performresearch,collectcosponsorsandmarshalvotes. ThebottomlineisthatAIPAC,whichisadefactoagentforaforeigngovernment, hasastrangleholdontheU.S.Congress.73OpendebateaboutU.S.policy towardsIsraeldoesnotoccurthere,eventhoughthatpolicyhasimportant consequencesfortheentireworld.Thus,oneofthethreemainbranchesofthe U.S.governmentisfirmlycommittedtosupportingIsrael.AsformerSenator ErnestHollings(DSC)notedashewasleavingoffice,YoucanthaveanIsraeli policyotherthanwhatAIPACgivesyouaroundhere.74Smallwonderthat IsraeliPrimeMinisterArielSharononcetoldanAmericanaudience.When peopleaskmehowtheycanhelpIsrael,ItellthemHelpAIPAC.75 InfluencingtheExecutive TheLobbyalsohassignificantleverageovertheExecutivebranch.Thatpower derivesinpartfromtheinfluenceJewishvotershaveonpresidentialelections. Despitetheirsmallnumbersinthepopulation(lessthan3percent),theymake largecampaigndonationstocandidatesfrombothparties.TheWashingtonPost onceestimatedthatDemocraticpresidentialcandidatesdependonJewish supporterstosupplyasmuchas60percentofthemoney.76Furthermore, Jewishvotershavehighturnoutratesandareconcentratedinkeystateslike California,Florida,Illinois,NewYork,andPennsylvania.Becausetheymatterin closeelections,Presidentialcandidatesgotogreatlengthsnottoantagonize Jewishvoters. KeyorganizationsintheLobbyalsodirectlytargettheadministrationinpower. Forexample,proIsraelforcesmakesurethatcriticsoftheJewishstatedonotget importantforeignpolicyappointments.JimmyCarterwantedtomakeGeorge 17

Ballhisfirstsecretaryofstate,butheknewthatBallwasperceivedascriticalof IsraelandthattheLobbywouldopposetheappointment.77Thislitmustest forcesanyaspiringpolicymakertobecomeanovertsupporterofIsrael,whichis whypubliccriticsofIsraelipolicyhavebecomeanendangeredspeciesinthe U.S.foreignpolicyestablishment. Theseconstraintsstilloperatetoday.When2004presidentialcandidateHoward DeancalledfortheUnitedStatestotakeamoreevenhandedroleintheArab Israeliconflict,SenatorJosephLiebermanaccusedhimofsellingIsraeldownthe riverandsaidhisstatementwasirresponsible.78Virtuallyallofthetop DemocratsintheHousesignedahardhittinglettertoDeancriticizinghis comments,andtheChicagoJewishStarreportedthatanonymousattackersare cloggingtheemailinboxesofJewishleadersaroundthecountry,warning withoutmuchevidencethatDeanwouldsomehowbebadforIsrael.79 Thisworrywasabsurd,however,becauseDeanisinfactquitehawkishon Israel.80HiscampaigncochairwasaformerAIPACpresident,andDeansaid hisownviewsontheMiddleEastmorecloselyreflectedthoseofAIPACthanthe moremoderateAmericansforPeaceNow.Deanhadmerelysuggestedthatto bringthesidestogether,Washingtonshouldactasanhonestbroker.Thisis hardlyaradicalidea,butitisanathematotheLobby,whichdoesnottoleratethe ideaofevenhandednesswhenitcomestotheArabIsraeliconflict. TheLobbysgoalsarealsoservedwhenproIsraelindividualsoccupyimportant positionsintheexecutivebranch.DuringtheClintonAdministration,for example,MiddleEastpolicywaslargelyshapedbyofficialswithclosetiesto IsraelortoprominentproIsraelorganizationsincludingMartinIndyk,the formerdeputydirectorofresearchatAIPACandcofounderoftheproIsrael WashingtonInstituteforNearEastPolicy(WINEP);DennisRoss,whojoined WINEPafterleavinggovernmentin2001;andAaronMiller,whohaslivedin Israelandoftenvisitsthere.81 ThesemenwereamongPresidentClintonsclosestadvisorsattheCampDavid summitinJuly2000.AlthoughallthreesupportedtheOslopeaceprocessand favoredcreationofaPalestinianstate,theydidsoonlywithinthelimitsofwhat wouldbeacceptabletoIsrael.82Inparticular,theAmericandelegationtookits cuesfromIsraeliPrimeMinisterEhudBarak,coordinatednegotiatingpositions inadvance,anddidnotofferitsownindependentproposalsforsettlingthe conflict.Notsurprisingly,Palestiniannegotiatorscomplainedthattheywere

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negotiatingwithtwoIsraeliteamsonedisplayinganIsraeliflag,andonean Americanflag.83 ThesituationisevenmorepronouncedintheBushAdministration,whoseranks includeferventlyproIsraelindividualslikeElliotAbrams,JohnBolton,Douglas Feith,I.Lewis(Scooter)Libby,RichardPerle,PaulWolfowitz,andDavid Wurmser.Asweshallsee,theseofficialsconsistentlypushedforpolicies favoredbyIsraelandbackedbyorganizationsintheLobby. ManipulatingtheMedia Inadditiontoinfluencinggovernmentpolicydirectly,theLobbystrivestoshape publicperceptionsaboutIsraelandtheMiddleEast.Itdoesnotwantanopen debateonissuesinvolvingIsrael,becauseanopendebatemightcauseAmericans toquestionthelevelofsupportthattheycurrentlyprovide.Accordingly,pro Israelorganizationsworkhardtoinfluencethemedia,thinktanks,and academia,becausetheseinstitutionsarecriticalinshapingpopularopinion. TheLobbysperspectiveonIsraeliswidelyreflectedinthemainstreammediain goodpartbecausemostAmericancommentatorsareproIsrael.Thedebate amongMiddleEastpundits,journalistEricAltermanwrites,isdominatedby peoplewhocannotimaginecriticizingIsrael.84Helists61columnistsand commentatorswhocanbecountedupontosupportIsraelreflexivelyand withoutqualification.Conversely,Altermanfoundjustfivepunditswho consistentlycriticizeIsraelibehaviororendorseproArabpositions. NewspapersoccasionallypublishguestopedschallengingIsraelipolicy,butthe balanceofopinionclearlyfavorstheotherside. ThisproIsraelbiasisreflectedintheeditorialsofmajornewspapers.Robert Bartley,thelateeditoroftheWallStreetJournal,onceremarkedthat,Shamir, Sharon,Bibiwhateverthoseguyswantisprettymuchfinebyme.85Not surprisingly,theJournal,alongwithotherprominentnewspaperslikeTheChicago SunTimesandTheWashingtonTimesregularlyruneditorialsthatarestrongly proIsrael.MagazineslikeCommentary,theNewRepublic,andtheWeekly StandardalsozealouslydefendIsraelateveryturn. EditorialbiasisalsofoundinpapersliketheNewYorkTimes.TheTimes occasionallycriticizesIsraelipoliciesandsometimesconcedesthatthe Palestinianshavelegitimategrievances,butitisnotevenhanded.Inhis memoirs,forexample,formerTimesexecutiveeditorMaxFrankelacknowledged 19

theimpacthisownproIsraelattitudehadonhiseditorialchoices.Inhiswords: IwasmuchmoredeeplydevotedtoIsraelthanIdaredtoassert.Hegoeson: FortifiedbymyknowledgeofIsraelandmyfriendshipsthere,Imyselfwrote mostofourMiddleEastcommentaries.AsmoreArabthanJewishreaders recognized,IwrotethemfromaproIsraelperspective.86 ThemediasreportingofnewseventsinvolvingIsraelissomewhatmoreeven handedthaneditorialcommentaryis,inpartbecausereportersstrivetobe objective,butalsobecauseitisdifficulttocovereventsintheoccupiedterritories withoutacknowledgingIsraelsactualbehavior.Todiscourageunfavorable reportingonIsrael,theLobbyorganizesletterwritingcampaigns, demonstrations,andboycottsagainstnewsoutletswhosecontentitconsiders antiIsrael.OneCNNexecutivehassaidthathesometimesgets6,000email messagesinasingledaycomplainingthatastoryisantiIsrael.87Similarly,the proIsraelCommitteeforAccurateMiddleEastReportinginAmerica (CAMERA)organizeddemonstrationsoutsideNationalPublicRadiostationsin 33citiesinMay2003,anditalsotriedtoconvincecontributorstowithhold supportfromNPRuntilitsMiddleEastcoveragebecamemoresympatheticto Israel.88BostonsNPRstation,WBUR,reportedlylostmorethan$1millionin contributionsasaresultoftheseefforts.PressureonNPRhasalsocomefrom IsraelsfriendsinCongress,whohaveaskedNPRforaninternalauditaswellas moreoversightofitsMiddleEastcoverage. ThesefactorshelpexplainwhytheAmericanmediacontainsfewcriticismsof Israelipolicy,rarelyquestionsWashingtonsrelationshipwithIsrael,andonly occasionallydiscussestheLobbysprofoundinfluenceonU.S.policy. ThinkTanksThatThinkOneWay ProIsraelforcespredominateinU.S.thinktanks,whichplayanimportantrole inshapingpublicdebateaswellasactualpolicy.TheLobbycreateditsown thinktankin1985,whenMartinIndykhelpedfoundWINEP.89Although WINEPplaysdownitslinkstoIsraelandclaimsinsteadthatitprovidesa balancedandrealisticperspectiveonMiddleEastissues,thisisnotthecase.90 Infact,WINEPisfundedandrunbyindividualswhoaredeeplycommittedto advancingIsraelsagenda. TheLobbysinfluenceinthethinktankworldextendswellbeyondWINEP. Overthepast25years,proIsraelforceshaveestablishedacommanding presenceattheAmericanEnterpriseInstitute,theBrookingsInstitution,the 20

CenterforSecurityPolicy,theForeignPolicyResearchInstitute,theHeritage Foundation,theHudsonInstitute,theInstituteforForeignPolicyAnalysis,and theJewishInstituteforNationalSecurityAffairs(JINSA).Thesethinktanksare decidedlyproIsrael,andincludefew,ifany,criticsofU.S.supportfortheJewish state. AgoodindicatoroftheLobbysinfluenceinthethinktankworldistheevolution oftheBrookingsInstitution.Formanyyears,itsseniorexpertonMiddleEast issueswasWilliamB.Quandt,adistinguishedacademicandformerNSCofficial withawelldeservedreputationforevenhandednessregardingtheArabIsraeli conflict.Today,however,Brookingssworkontheseissuesisconducted throughitsSabanCenterforMiddleEastStudies,whichisfinancedbyHaim Saban,awealthyIsraeliAmericanbusinessmanandardentZionist.91The directoroftheSabanCenteristheubiquitousMartinIndyk.Thus,whatwas onceanonpartisanpolicyinstituteonMiddleEastmattersisnowpartofthe chorusoflargelyproIsraelthinktanks. PolicingAcademia TheLobbyhashadthemostdifficultystiflingdebateaboutIsraeloncollege campuses,becauseacademicfreedomisacorevalueandbecausetenured professorsarehardtothreatenorsilence.Evenso,therewasonlymildcriticism ofIsraelinthe1990s,whentheOslopeaceprocesswasunderway.Criticismrose afterthatprocesscollapsedandArielSharoncametopowerinearly2001,andit becameespeciallyintensewhentheIDFreoccupiedtheWestBankinspring 2002andemployedmassiveforceagainsttheSecondIntifada. TheLobbymovedaggressivelytotakebackthecampuses.Newgroups sprangup,liketheCaravanforDemocracy,whichbroughtIsraelispeakersto U.S.colleges.92EstablishedgroupsliketheJewishCouncilforPublicAffairsand Hilleljumpedintothefray,andanewgrouptheIsraelonCampusCoalition wasformedtocoordinatethemanygroupsthatnowsoughttomakeIsraelscase oncampus.Finally,AIPACmorethantripleditsspendingforprogramsto monitoruniversityactivitiesandtotrainyoungadvocatesforIsrael,inorderto vastlyexpandthenumberofstudentsinvolvedoncampus...inthenational proIsraeleffort.93 TheLobbyalsomonitorswhatprofessorswriteandteach.InSeptember2002, forexample,MartinKramerandDanielPipes,twopassionatelyproIsrael neoconservatives,establishedawebsite(CampusWatch)thatposteddossierson 21

suspectacademicsandencouragedstudentstoreportcommentsorbehaviorthat mightbeconsideredhostiletoIsrael.94Thistransparentattempttoblacklistand intimidatescholarspromptedaharshreactionandPipesandKramerlater removedthedossiers,butthewebsitestillinvitesstudentstoreportallegedanti IsraelbehavioratU.S.colleges. GroupsintheLobbyalsodirecttheirfireatparticularprofessorsandthe universitiesthathirethem.ColumbiaUniversity,whichhadthelatePalestinian scholarEdwardSaidonitsfaculty,hasbeenafrequenttargetofproIsraelforces. JonathanCole,theformerColumbiaprovost,reportedthat,Onecanbesure thatanypublicstatementinsupportofthePalestinianpeoplebythepreeminent literarycriticEdwardSaidwillelicithundredsofemails,letters,andjournalistic accountsthatcallonustodenounceSaidandtoeithersanctionorfirehim.95 WhenColumbiarecruitedhistorianRashidKhalidifromtheUniversityof Chicago,Colesaysthatthecomplaintsstartedflowinginfrompeoplewho disagreedwiththecontentofhispoliticalviews.Princetonfacedthesame problemafewyearslaterwhenitconsideredwooingKhalidiawayfrom Columbia.96 Aclassicillustrationoftheefforttopoliceacademiaoccurredinlate2004,when theDavidProjectproducedapropagandafilmallegingthatfacultyin ColumbiaUniversitysMiddleEaststudiesprogramwereantiSemiticandwere intimidatingJewishstudentswhodefendedIsrael.97Columbiawasrakedover thecoalsinproIsraelcircles,butafacultycommitteeassignedtoinvestigatethe chargesfoundnoevidenceofantiSemitismandtheonlyincidentworthnoting wasthepossibilitythatoneprofessorhadrespondedheatedlytoastudents question.98Thecommitteealsodiscoveredthattheaccusedprofessorshadbeen thetargetofanovertintimidationcampaign. Perhapsthemostdisturbingaspectofthiscampaigntoeliminatecriticismof IsraelfromcollegecampusesistheeffortbyJewishgroupstopushCongressto establishmechanismsthatmonitorwhatprofessorssayaboutIsrael.99Schools judgedtohaveanantiIsraelbiaswouldbedeniedFederalfunding.Thiseffort togettheU.S.governmenttopolicecampuseshavenotyetsucceeded,butthe attemptillustratestheimportanceproIsraelgroupsplaceoncontrollingdebate ontheseissues. Finally,anumberofJewishphilanthropistshaveestablishedIsraelstudies programs(inadditiontotheroughly130JewishStudiesprogramsthatalready exist)soastoincreasethenumberofIsraelfriendlyscholarsoncampus.100NYU 22

announcedtheestablishmentoftheTaubCenterforIsraelStudiesonMay1, 2003,andsimilarprogramshavebeenestablishedatotherschoolslikeBerkeley, Brandeis,andEmory.Academicadministratorsemphasizethepedagogical valueoftheseprograms,butthetruthisthattheyareintendedingoodpartto promoteIsraelsimageoncampus.FredLaffer,theheadoftheTaub Foundation,makesclearthathisfoundationfundedtheNYUcentertohelp countertheArabic[sic]pointofviewthathethinksisprevalentinNYUs MiddleEastprograms.101 Insum,theLobbyhasgonetoconsiderablelengthstoinsulateIsraelfrom criticismoncollegecampuses.Ithasnotbeenassuccessfulinacademiaasithas beenonCapitolHill,butithasworkedhardtostiflecriticismofIsraelby professorsandstudentsandthereismuchlessofitoncampusestoday.102 TheGreatSilencer NodiscussionofhowtheLobbyoperateswouldbecompletewithoutexamining oneofitsmostpowerfulweapons:thechargeofantiSemitism.Anyonewho criticizesIsraeliactionsorsaysthatproIsraelgroupshavesignificantinfluence overU.S.MiddleEastpolicyaninfluencethatAIPACcelebratesstandsa goodchanceofgettinglabeledanantiSemite.Infact,anyonewhosaysthat thereisanIsraelLobbyrunstheriskofbeingchargedwithantiSemitism,even thoughtheIsraelimediathemselvesrefertoAmericasJewishLobby.Ineffect, theLobbyboastsofitsownpowerandthenattacksanyonewhocallsattentionto it.Thistacticisveryeffective,becauseantiSemitismisloathsomeandno responsiblepersonwantstobeaccusedofit. EuropeanshavebeenmorewillingthanAmericanstocriticizeIsraelipolicyin recentyears,whichsomeattributetoaresurgenceofantiSemitisminEurope. Wearegettingtoapoint,theU.S.AmbassadortotheEuropeanUnionsaidin early2004,whereitisasbadasitwasinthe1930s.103MeasuringantiSemitism isacomplicatedmatter,buttheweightofevidencepointsintheopposite direction.Forexample,inthespringof2004,whenaccusationsofEuropeananti SemitismfilledtheairinAmerica,separatesurveysofEuropeanpublicopinion conductedbytheAntiDefamationLeagueandthePewResearchCenterforthe PeopleandthePressshowedthatitwasactuallydeclining.104 ConsiderFrance,whichproIsraelforcesoftenportrayasthemostantiSemitic stateinEurope.ApollofFrenchcitizensin2002foundthat:89percentcould envisagelivingwithaJew;97percentbelievemakingantiSemiticgraffitiisa 23

seriouscrime;87percentthinkattacksonFrenchsynagoguesarescandalous; and85percentofpracticingFrenchCatholicsrejectthechargethatJewshavetoo muchinfluenceinbusinessandfinance.105Itisunsurprisingthattheheadofthe FrenchJewishcommunitydeclaredinthesummerof2003thatFranceisnot moreantiSemiticthanAmerica.106AccordingtoarecentarticleinHaaretz,the FrenchpolicereportthatantiSemiticincidentsinFrancedeclinedbyalmost50 percentin2005;andthisdespitethefactthatFrancehasthelargestMuslim populationofanycountryinEurope.107 Finally,whenaFrenchJewwasbrutallymurderedlastmonthbyaMuslimgang, tensofthousandsofFrenchdemonstratorspouredintothestreetstocondemn antiSemitism.Moreover,PresidentJacquesChiracandPrimeMinister DominiquedeVillepinbothattendedthevictimsmemorialserviceinapublic showofsolidaritywithFrenchJewry.108Itisalsoworthnotingthatin2002more JewsimmigratedtoGermanythanIsrael,makingitthefastestgrowingJewish communityintheworld,accordingtoanarticleintheJewishnewspaper Forward.109IfEuropewerereallyheadingbacktothe1930s,itishardtoimagine thatJewswouldbemovingthereinlargenumbers. Werecognize,however,thatEuropeisnotfreeofthescourgeofantiSemitism. NoonewoulddenythattherearestillsomevirulentautochthonousantiSemites inEurope(asthereareintheUnitedStates)buttheirnumbersaresmallandtheir extremeviewsarerejectedbythevastmajorityofEuropeans.Norwouldone denythatthereisantiSemitismamongEuropeanMuslims,someofitprovoked byIsraelsbehaviortowardsthePalestiniansandsomeofitstraightforwardly racist.110Thisproblemisworrisome,butitishardlyoutofcontrol.Muslims constitutelessthanfivepercentofEuropestotalpopulation,andEuropean governmentsareworkinghardtocombattheproblem.Why?Becausemost Europeansrejectsuchhatefulviews.111Inshort,whenitcomestoantiSemitism, EuropetodaybearshardlyanyresemblancetoEuropeinthe1930s. ThisiswhyproIsraelforces,whenpressedtogobeyondassertion,claimthat thereisanewantiSemitism,whichtheyequatewithcriticismofIsrael.112In otherwordscriticizeIsraelipolicyandyouarebydefinitionanantiSemite. WhenthesynodoftheChurchofEnglandrecentlyvotedtodivestfrom CaterpillarInconthegroundsthatCaterpillarmanufacturesthebulldozersused todemolishPalestinianhomes,theChiefRabbicomplainedthatitwouldhave themostadverserepercussionson...JewishChristianrelationsinBritain,while RabbiTonyBayfield,theheadoftheReformmovement,said:Thereisaclear problemofantiZionistvergingonantiSemiticattitudesemerginginthegrass 24

roots,andeveninthemiddleranksoftheChurch.113However,theChurchwas neitherguiltyofantiZionismnorantiSemitism;itwasmerelyprotestingIsraeli policy.114 CriticsarealsoaccusedofholdingIsraeltoanunfairstandardorquestioningits righttoexist.Buttheseareboguschargestoo.WesterncriticsofIsraelhardly everquestionitsrighttoexist.Instead,theyquestionitsbehaviortowardsthe Palestinians,whichisalegitimatecriticism:Israelisquestionitthemselves.Noris Israelbeingjudgedunfairly.Rather,IsraelitreatmentofthePalestinianselicits criticismbecauseitiscontrarytowidelyacceptedhumanrightsnormsand internationallaw,aswellastheprincipleofnationalselfdetermination.Anditis hardlytheonlystatethathasfacedsharpcriticismonthesegrounds. Insum,otherethniclobbiescanonlydreamofhavingthepoliticalmusclethat proIsraelorganizationspossess.Thequestion,therefore,iswhateffectdoesthe LobbyhaveonU.S.foreignpolicy? THETAILWAGGINGTHEDOG IftheLobbysimpactwereconfinedtoU.S.economicaidtoIsrael,itsinfluence mightnotbethatworrisome.Foreignaidisvaluable,butnotasusefulashaving theworldsonlysuperpowerbringitsvastcapabilitiestobearonIsraelsbehalf. Accordingly,theLobbyhasalsosoughttoshapethecoreelementsofU.S. MiddleEastpolicy.Inparticular,ithasworkedsuccessfullytoconvince AmericanleaderstobackIsraelscontinuedrepressionofthePalestiniansandto takeaimatIsraelsprimaryregionaladversaries:Iran,Iraq,andSyria. DemonizingthePalestinians Itisnowlargelyforgotten,butinthefallof2001,andespeciallyinthespringof 2002,theBushAdministrationtriedtoreduceantiAmericansentimentinthe ArabworldandunderminesupportforterroristgroupslikealQaeda,byhalting Israelsexpansionistpoliciesintheoccupiedterritoriesandadvocatingthe creationofaPalestinianstate. Bushhadenormouspotentialleverageathisdisposal.Hecouldhavethreatened toreduceU.S.economicanddiplomaticsupportforIsrael,andtheAmerican peoplewouldalmostcertainlyhavesupportedhim.AMay2003pollreported thatover60percentofAmericanswerewillingtowithholdaidtoIsraelifit resistedU.S.pressuretosettletheconflict,andthatnumberroseto70percent 25

amongpoliticallyactiveAmericans.115Indeed,73percentsaidthatUnited Statesshouldnotfavoreitherside. YettheBushAdministrationfailedtochangeIsraelspolicies,andWashington endedupbackingIsraelshardlineapproachinstead.Overtime,the AdministrationalsoadoptedIsraelsjustificationsforthisapproach,sothatU.S. andIsraelirhetoricbecamesimilar.ByFebruary2003,aWashingtonPost headlinesummarizedthesituation:BushandSharonNearlyIdenticalon MideastPolicy.116ThemainreasonforthisswitchistheLobby. ThestorybeginsinlateSeptember2001whenPresidentBushbeganpressuring IsraeliPrimeMinisterSharontoshowrestraintintheoccupiedterritories.He alsopressedSharontoallowIsraeliforeignministerShimonPerestomeetwith PalestinianleaderYasserArafat,eventhoughBushwashighlycriticalofArafats leadership.117BushalsosaidpubliclythathesupportedaPalestinianstate.118 Alarmedbythesedevelopments,SharonaccusedBushoftryingtoappeasethe Arabsatourexpense,warningthatIsraelwillnotbeCzechoslovakia.119 BushwasreportedlyfuriousatSharonslikeninghimtoNevilleChamberlain, andWhiteHousepresssecretaryAriFleischercalledSharonsremarks unacceptable.120TheIsraeliprimeministerofferedaproformaapology,buthe quicklyjoinedforceswiththeLobbytoconvincetheBushadministrationandthe AmericanpeoplethattheUnitedStatesandIsraelfacedacommonthreatfrom terrorism.121IsraeliofficialsandLobbyrepresentativesrepeatedlyemphasized thattherewasnorealdifferencebetweenArafatandOsamabinLaden,and insistedthattheUnitedStatesandIsraelshouldisolatethePalestinianselected leaderandhavenothingtodowithhim.122 TheLobbyalsowenttoworkinCongress.OnNovember16,89senatorssent BushaletterpraisinghimforrefusingtomeetwithArafat,butalsodemanding thattheUnitedStatesnotrestrainIsraelfromretaliatingagainstthePalestinians andinsistingthattheadministrationstatepubliclythatitstoodsteadfastly behindIsrael.AccordingtotheNewYorkTimes,theletterstemmedfroma meetingtwoweeksagobetweenleadersoftheAmericanJewishcommunityand keysenators,addingthatAIPACwasparticularlyactiveinprovidingadvice ontheletter.123 BylateNovember,relationsbetweenTelAvivandWashingtonhadimproved considerably.ThiswasdueinparttotheLobbyseffortstobendU.S.policyin Israelsdirection,butalsotoAmericasinitialvictoryinAfghanistan,which 26

reducedtheperceivedneedforArabsupportindealingwithalQaeda.Sharon visitedtheWhiteHouseinearlyDecemberandhadafriendlymeetingwith Bush.124 ButtroubleeruptedagaininApril2002,aftertheIDFlaunchedOperation DefensiveShieldandresumedcontrolofvirtuallyallofthemajorPalestinian areasontheWestBank.125BushknewthatIsraelsactionwoulddamage AmericasimageintheArabandIslamicworldandunderminethewaron terrorism,sohedemandedonApril4thatSharonhalttheincursionsandbegin withdrawal.Heunderscoredthismessagetwodayslater,sayingthismeant withdrawalwithoutdelay.OnApril7,Bushsnationalsecurityadvisor, CondoleezzaRice,toldreportersthat,withoutdelaymeanswithoutdelay.It meansnow.ThatsamedaySecretaryofStateColinPowellsetoutforthe MiddleEasttopressureallsidestostopfightingandstartnegotiating.126 IsraelandtheLobbyswungintoaction.AkeytargetwasPowell,whobegan feelingintenseheatfromproIsraelofficialsinVicePresidentCheneysofficeand thePentagon,aswellasfromneoconservativepunditslikeRobertKaganand WilliamKristol,whoaccusedhimofhavingvirtuallyobliteratedthedistinction betweenterroristsandthosefightingterrorists.127AsecondtargetwasBush himself,whowasbeingpressedbyJewishleadersandChristianevangelicals,the latterakeycomponentofhispoliticalbase.TomDeLayandDickArmeywere especiallyoutspokenabouttheneedtosupportIsrael,andDeLayandSenate MinorityLeaderTrentLottvisitedtheWhiteHouseandpersonallywarnedBush tobackoff.128 ThefirstsignthatBushwascavingcameonApril11onlyoneweekafterhe toldSharontowithdrawhisforceswhenAriFleischersaidthePresident believesSharonisamanofpeace.129Bushrepeatedthisstatementpublicly uponPowellsreturnfromhisabortivemission,andhetoldreportersthat Sharonhadrespondedsatisfactorilytohiscallforafullandimmediate withdrawal.130Sharonhaddonenosuchthing,butthePresidentoftheUnited Stateswasnolongerwillingtomakeanissueofit. Meanwhile,CongresswasalsomovingtobackSharon.OnMay2,itoverrode theAdministrationsobjectionsandpassedtworesolutionsreaffirmingsupport forIsrael.(TheSenatevotewas94to2;theHouseversionpassed35221).Both resolutionsemphasizedthattheUnitedStatesstandsinsolidaritywithIsrael andthatthetwocountriesare,toquotetheHouseresolution,nowengagedina commonstruggleagainstterrorism.TheHouseversionalsocondemnedthe 27

ongoingsupportofterrorbyYasirArafat,whowasportrayedasacentral elementoftheterrorismproblem.131Afewdayslater,abipartisancongressional delegationonafactfindingmissioninIsraelpubliclyproclaimedthatSharon shouldresistU.S.pressuretonegotiatewithArafat.132OnMay9,aHouse appropriationssubcommitteemettoconsidergivingIsraelanextra$200million tofightterrorism.SecretaryofStatePowellopposedthepackage,buttheLobby backedit,justasithadhelpedauthorthetwocongressionalresolutions.133 Powelllost. Inshort,SharonandtheLobbytookonthePresidentoftheUnitedStatesand triumphed.HemiShalev,ajournalistfortheIsraelnewspaperMaariv,reported thatSharonsaidescouldnothidetheirsatisfactioninviewofPowellsfailure. SharonsawthewhiteinPresidentBushseyes,theybragged,andthePresident blinkedfirst.134ButitwastheproIsraelforcesintheUnitedStates,notSharon orIsrael,thatplayedthekeyroleindefeatingBush. Thesituationhaschangedlittlesincethen.TheBushAdministrationrefusedto dealfurtherwithArafat,whoeventuallydiedinNovember2004.Ithas subsequentlyembracedthenewPalestinianleader,MahmoudAbbas,buthas donelittletohelphimgainaviablestate.Sharoncontinuedtodevelophisplans forunilateraldisengagementfromthePalestinians,basedonwithdrawalfrom GazacoupledwithcontinuedexpansionontheWestBank,whichentails buildingthesocalledsecurityfence,seizingPalestinianownedland,and expandingsettlementblocsandroadnetworks.Byrefusingtonegotiatewith Abbas(whofavorsanegotiatedsettlement)andmakingitimpossibleforhimto delivertangiblebenefitstothePalestinianpeople,Sharonsstrategycontributed directlytoHamasrecentelectoralvictory.135WithHamasinpower,however, Israelhasanotherexcusenottonegotiate.Theadministrationhassupported Sharonsactions(andthoseofhissuccessor,EhudOlmert),andBushhaseven endorsedunilateralIsraeliannexationsintheOccupiedTerritories,reversingthe statedpolicyofeverypresidentsinceLyndonJohnson.136 U.S.officialshaveofferedmildcriticismsofafewIsraeliactions,buthavedone littletohelpcreateaviablePalestinianstate.Formernationalsecurityadvisor BrentScowcroftevendeclaredinOctober2004thatSharonhasPresidentBush wrappedaroundhislittlefinger.137IfBushtriestodistancetheUnitedStates fromIsrael,orevencriticizesIsraeliactionsintheoccupiedterritories,heis certaintofacethewrathoftheLobbyanditssupportersinCongress. DemocraticPartypresidentialcandidatesunderstandthesefactsoflifetoo,

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whichiswhyJohnKerrywenttogreatlengthstodisplayhisunalloyedsupport forIsraelin2004andwhyHillaryClintonisdoingthesamethingtoday.138 MaintainingU.S.supportforIsraelspoliciesagainstthePalestiniansisacore goaloftheLobby,butitsambitionsdonotstopthere.ItalsowantsAmericato helpIsraelremainthedominantregionalpower.Notsurprisingly,theIsraeli governmentandproIsraelgroupsintheUnitedStatesworkedtogethertoshape theBushAdministrationspolicytowardsIraq,Syria,andIran,aswellasits grandschemeforreorderingtheMiddleEast. IsraelandtheIraqWar PressurefromIsraelandtheLobbywasnottheonlyfactorbehindtheU.S. decisiontoattackIraqinMarch2003,butitwasacriticalelement.Some Americansbelievethatthiswasawarforoil,butthereishardlyanydirect evidencetosupportthisclaim.Instead,thewarwasmotivatedingoodpartbya desiretomakeIsraelmoresecure.AccordingtoPhilipZelikow,amemberofthe PresidentsForeignIntelligenceAdvisoryBoard(20012003),executivedirector ofthe9/11Commission,andnowCounselortoSecretaryofStateCondoleezza Rice,therealthreatfromIraqwasnotathreattotheUnitedStates.139The unstatedthreatwasthethreatagainstIsrael,ZelikowtoldaUniversityof VirginiaaudienceinSeptember2002,notingfurtherthattheAmerican governmentdoesntwanttoleantoohardonitrhetorically,becauseitisnota popularsell. OnAugust16,2002,elevendaysbeforeVicePresidentCheneykickedoffthe campaignforwarwithahardlinespeechtotheVeteransofForeignWars,the WashingtonPostreportedthatIsraelisurgingU.S.officialsnottodelaya militarystrikeagainstIraqsSaddamHussein.140Bythispoint,accordingto Sharon,strategiccoordinationbetweenIsraelandtheU.S.hadreached unprecedenteddimensions,andIsraeliintelligenceofficialshadgiven WashingtonavarietyofalarmingreportsaboutIraqsWMDprograms.141As oneretiredIsraeligenerallaterputit,Israeliintelligencewasafullpartnerto thepicturepresentedbyAmericanandBritishintelligenceregardingIraqsnon conventionalcapabilities.142 IsraelileadersweredeeplydistressedwhenPresidentBushdecidedtoseekU.N. SecurityCouncilauthorizationforwarinSeptember,andevenmoreworried whenSaddamagreedtoletU.N.inspectorsbackintoIraq,becausethese developmentsseemedtoreducethelikelihoodofwar.ForeignMinisterShimon 29

PerestoldreportersinSeptember2002thatthecampaignagainstSaddam Husseinisamust.Inspectionsandinspectorsaregoodfordecentpeople,but dishonestpeoplecanovercomeeasilyinspectionsandinspectors.143 Atthesametime,formerPrimeMinisterEhudBarakwroteaNewYorkTimesop edwarningthatthegreatestrisknowliesininaction.144Hispredecessor, BenjaminNetanyahu,publishedasimilarpieceintheWallStreetJournalentitled TheCaseforTopplingSaddam.145Netanyahudeclared,Todaynothingless thandismantlinghisregimewilldo,addingthatIbelieveIspeakforthe overwhelmingmajorityofIsraelisinsupportingapreemptivestrikeagainst Saddamsregime.OrasHaaretzreportedinFebruary2003:The[Israeli] militaryandpoliticalleadershipyearnsforwarinIraq.146 ButasNetanyahusuggests,thedesireforwarwasnotconfinedtoIsraels leaders.ApartfromKuwait,whichSaddamconqueredin1990,Israelwasthe onlycountryintheworldwhereboththepoliticiansandthepublic enthusiasticallyfavoredwar.147AsjournalistGideonLevyobservedatthetime, IsraelistheonlycountryintheWestwhoseleaderssupportthewar unreservedlyandwherenoalternativeopinionisvoiced.148Infact,Israeliswere sogunghoforwarthattheiralliesinAmericatoldthemtodampdowntheir hawkishrhetoric,lestitlooklikethewarwasforIsrael.149 TheLobbyandtheIraqWar WithintheUnitedStates,themaindrivingforcebehindtheIraqwarwasasmall bandofneoconservatives,manywithclosetiestoIsraelsLikudParty.150In addition,keyleadersoftheLobbysmajororganizationslenttheirvoicestothe campaignforwar.151AccordingtotheForward,AsPresidentBushattemptedto sellthe...warinIraq,AmericasmostimportantJewishorganizationsralliedas onetohisdefense.Instatementafterstatementcommunityleadersstressedthe needtoridtheworldofSaddamHusseinandhisweaponsofmass destruction.152TheeditorialgoesontosaythatconcernforIsraelssafety rightfullyfactoredintothedeliberationsofthemainJewishgroups. AlthoughneoconservativesandotherLobbyleaderswereeagertoinvadeIraq, thebroaderAmericanJewishcommunitywasnot.153Infact,SamuelFreedman reportedjustafterthewarstartedthatacompilationofnationwideopinion pollsbythePewResearchCentershowsthatJewsarelesssupportiveoftheIraq warthanthepopulationatlarge,52%to62%.154Thus,itwouldbewrongto

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blamethewarinIraqonJewishinfluence.Rather,thewarwasdueinlarge parttotheLobbysinfluence,especiallytheneoconservativeswithinit. TheneoconservativeswerealreadydeterminedtotoppleSaddambeforeBush becamePresident.155Theycausedastirinearly1998bypublishingtwoopen letterstoPresidentClintoncallingforSaddamsremovalfrompower.156The signatories,manyofwhomhadclosetiestoproIsraelgroupslikeJINSAor WINEP,andwhoseranksincludedElliotAbrams,JohnBolton,DouglasFeith, WilliamKristol,BernardLewis,DonaldRumsfeld,RichardPerleandPaul Wolfowitz,hadlittletroubleconvincingtheClintonAdministrationtoadoptthe generalgoalofoustingSaddam.157Buttheneoconservativeswereunabletosella wartoachievethatobjective.Norweretheyabletogeneratemuchenthusiasm forinvadingIraqintheearlymonthsoftheBushAdministration.158As importantastheneoconservativeswereformakingtheIraqwarhappen,they neededhelptoachievetheiraim. Thathelparrivedwith9/11.Specifically,theeventsofthatfatefuldayledBush andCheneytoreversecourseandbecomestrongproponentsofapreventivewar totoppleSaddam.NeoconservativesintheLobbymostnotablyScooterLibby, PaulWolfowitz,andPrincetonhistorianBernardLewisplayedespecially criticalrolesinpersuadingthePresidentandVicePresidenttofavorwar. Fortheneoconservatives,9/11wasagoldenopportunitytomakethecasefor warwithIraq.AtakeymeetingwithBushatCampDavidonSeptember15, WolfowitzadvocatedattackingIraqbeforeAfghanistan,eventhoughtherewas noevidencethatSaddamwasinvolvedintheattacksontheUnitedStatesand binLadenwasknowntobeinAfghanistan.159Bushrejectedthisadviceand chosetogoafterAfghanistaninstead,butwarwithIraqwasnowregardedasa seriouspossibilityandthePresidenttaskedU.S.militaryplannersonNovember 21,2001withdevelopingconcreteplansforaninvasion.160 Meanwhile,otherneoconservativeswereatworkwithinthecorridorsofpower. Wedonothavethefullstoryyet,butscholarslikeLewisandFouadAjamiof JohnHopkinsUniversityreportedlyplayedkeyrolesinconvincingVice PresidentCheneytofavorthewar.161Cheneysviewswerealsoheavily influencedbytheneoconservativesonhisstaff,especiallyEricEdelman,John Hannah,andchiefofstaffLibby,oneofthemostpowerfulindividualsinthe Administration.162TheVicePresidentsinfluencehelpedconvincePresident Bushbyearly2002.WithBushandCheneyonboard,thedieforwarwascast.

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Outsidetheadministration,neoconservativepunditslostnotimemakingthe casethatinvadingIraqwasessentialtowinningthewaronterrorism.Their effortswerepartlyaimedatkeepingpressureonBushandpartlyintendedto overcomeoppositiontothewarinsideandoutsideofthegovernment.On September20,agroupofprominentneoconservativesandtheiralliespublished anotheropenletter,tellingthePresidentthatevenifevidencedoesnotlinkIraq directlytothe[9/11]attack,anystrategyaimingattheeradicationofterrorism anditssponsorsmustincludeadeterminedefforttoremoveSaddamHussein frompowerinIraq.163TheletteralsoremindedBushthat,Israelhasbeenand remainsAmericasstaunchestallyagainstinternationalterrorism.Inthe October1issueoftheWeeklyStandard,RobertKaganandWilliamKristolcalled forregimechangeinIraqimmediatelyaftertheTalibanwasdefeated.Thatsame day,CharlesKrauthammerarguedintheWashingtonPostthatafterwewere donewithAfghanistan,Syriashouldbenext,followedbyIranandIraq.The waronterrorism,heargued,willconcludeinBaghdad,whenwefinishoff themostdangerousterroristregimeintheworld.164 Thesesalvoeswerethebeginningofanunrelentingpublicrelationscampaignto winsupportforinvadingIraq.165Akeypartofthiscampaignwasthe manipulationofintelligenceinformation,soastomakeSaddamlooklikean imminentthreat.Forexample,LibbyvisitedtheCIAseveraltimestopressure analyststofindevidencethatwouldmakethecaseforwar,andhehelped prepareadetailedbriefingontheIraqthreatinearly2003thatwaspushedon ColinPowell,thenpreparinghisinfamousbriefingtotheU.N.SecurityCouncil ontheIraqithreat.166AccordingtoBobWoodward,Powellwasappalledat whatheconsideredoverreachingandhyperbole.Libbywasdrawingonlythe worstconclusionsfromfragmentsandsilkythreads.167AlthoughPowell discardedLibbysmostoutrageousclaims,hisU.N.presentationwasstillriddled witherrors,asPowellnowacknowledges. Thecampaigntomanipulateintelligencealsoinvolvedtwoorganizationsthat werecreatedafter9/11andreporteddirectlytoUndersecretaryofDefense DouglasFeith.168ThePolicyCounterterrorismEvaluationGroupwastaskedto findlinksbetweenalQaedaandIraqthattheintelligencecommunity supposedlymissed.ItstwokeymemberswereWurmser,ahardcore neoconservative,andMichaelMaloof,aLebaneseAmericanwhohadcloseties withPerle.TheOfficeofSpecialPlanswastaskedwithfindingevidencethat couldbeusedtosellwarwithIraq.ItwasheadedbyAbramShulsky,a neoconservativewithlongstandingtiestoWolfowitz,anditsranksincluded recruitsfromproIsraelthinktanks.169 32

 Likevirtuallyalltheneoconservatives,FeithisdeeplycommittedtoIsrael.He alsohaslongstandingtiestotheLikudParty.Hewrotearticlesinthe1990s supportingthesettlementsandarguingthatIsraelshouldretaintheoccupied territories.170Moreimportantly,alongwithPerleandWurmser,hewrotethe famousCleanBreakreportinJune1996fortheincomingIsraeliPrime Minister,BenjaminNetanyahu.171Amongotherthings,itrecommendedthat NetanyahufocusonremovingSaddamHusseinfrompowerinIraqan importantIsraelistrategicobjectiveinitsownright.ItalsocalledforIsraelto takestepstoreordertheentireMiddleEast.Netanyahudidnotimplementtheir advice,butFeith,PerleandWurmserweresoonadvocatingthattheBush Administrationpursuethosesamegoals.ThissituationpromptedHaaretz columnistAkivaEldartowarnthatFeithandPerlearewalkingafineline betweentheirloyaltytoAmericangovernmentsandIsraeliinterests.172 WolfowitzisequallycommittedtoIsrael.TheForwardoncedescribedhimas themosthawkishlyproIsraelvoiceintheAdministration,andselectedhimin 2002asthefirstamongfiftynotableswhohaveconsciouslypursuedJewish activism.173Ataboutthesametime,JINSAgaveWolfowitzitsHenryM. JacksonDistinguishedServiceAwardforpromotingastrongpartnership betweenIsraelandtheUnitedStates,andtheJerusalemPost,describinghimas devoutlyproIsrael,namedhimManoftheYearin2003.174 Finally,abriefwordisinorderabouttheneoconservativesprewarsupportof AhmedChalabi,theunscrupulousIraqiexilewhoheadedtheIraqiNational Congress(INC).TheyembracedChalabibecausehehadworkedtoestablish closetieswithJewishAmericangroupsandhadpledgedtofostergoodrelations withIsraeloncehegainedpower.175ThiswaspreciselywhatproIsrael proponentsofregimechangewantedtohear,sotheybackedChalabiinreturn. JournalistMatthewBergerlaidouttheessenceofthebargainintheJewish Journal:TheINCsawimprovedrelationsasawaytotapJewishinfluencein WashingtonandJerusalemandtodrumupincreasedsupportforitscause.For theirpart,theJewishgroupssawanopportunitytopavethewayforbetter relationsbetweenIsraelandIraq,ifandwhentheINCisinvolvedinreplacing SaddamHusseinsregime.176 GiventheneoconservativesdevotiontoIsrael,theirobsessionwithIraq,and theirinfluenceintheBushAdministration,itisnotsurprisingthatmany AmericanssuspectedthatthewarwasdesignedtofurtherIsraeliinterests.For example,BarryJacobsoftheAmericanJewishCommitteeacknowledgedin 33

March2005thatthebeliefthatIsraelandtheneoconservativesconspiredtoget theUnitedStatesintoawarinIraqwaspervasiveintheU.S.intelligence community.177Yetfewpeoplewouldsaysopublicly,andmostthatdid includingSenatorErnestHollings(DSC)andRepresentativeJamesMoran(D VA)werecondemnedforraisingtheissue.178MichaelKinsleyputthepoint wellinlate2002,whenhewrotethatthelackofpublicdiscussionabouttherole ofIsraelistheproverbialelephantintheroom:Everybodyseesit,noone mentionsit.179Thereasonforthisreluctance,heobserved,wasfearofbeing labeledanantiSemite.Evenso,thereislittledoubtthatIsraelandtheLobby werekeyfactorsinshapingthedecisionforwar.WithouttheLobbysefforts, theUnitedStateswouldhavebeenfarlesslikelytohavegonetowarinMarch 2003. DreamsofRegionalTransformation TheIraqwarwasnotsupposedtobeacostlyquagmire.Rather,itwasintended asthefirststepinalargerplantoreordertheMiddleEast.Thisambitious strategywasadramaticdeparturefrompreviousU.S.policy,andtheLobbyand Israelwerecriticaldrivingforcesbehindthisshift.Thispointwasmadeclearly aftertheIraqwarbeganinafrontpagestoryintheWallStreetJournal.The headlinesaysitall:PresidentsDream:ChangingNotJustRegimebutaRegion: AProU.S.,DemocraticAreaisaGoalthatHasIsraeliandNeoConservative Roots.180 ProIsraelforceshavelongbeeninterestedingettingtheU.S.militarymore directlyinvolvedintheMiddleEast,soitcouldhelpprotectIsrael.181Butthey hadlimitedsuccessonthisfrontduringtheColdWar,becauseAmericaactedas anoffshorebalancerintheregion.MostU.S.forcesdesignatedfortheMiddle East,liketheRapidDeploymentForce,werekeptoverthehorizonandoutof harmsway.Washingtonmaintainedafavorablebalanceofpowerbyplaying localpowersoffagainsteachother,whichiswhytheReaganAdministration supportedSaddamagainstrevolutionaryIranduringtheIranIraqwar(198088). ThispolicychangedafterthefirstGulfWar,whentheClintonAdministration adoptedastrategyofdualcontainment.Itcalledforstationingsubstantial U.S.forcesintheregiontocontainbothIranandIraq,insteadofusingoneto checktheother.ThefatherofdualcontainmentwasnoneotherthanMartin Indyk,whofirstarticulatedthestrategyinMay1993attheproIsraelthinktank WINEPandthenimplementeditasDirectorforNearEastandSouthAsian AffairsattheNationalSecurityCouncil.182 34

Therewasconsiderabledissatisfactionwithdualcontainmentbythemid1990s, becauseitmadetheUnitedStatesthemortalenemyoftwocountrieswhoalso hatedeachother,anditforcedWashingtontobeartheburdenofcontainingboth ofthem.183Notsurprisingly,theLobbyworkedactivelyinCongresstosavedual containment.184PressedbyAIPACandotherproIsraelforces,Clinton toughenedupthepolicyinthespringof1995byimposinganeconomicembargo onIran.ButAIPACetalwantedmore.Theresultwasthe1996IranandLibya SanctionsAct,whichimposedsanctionsonanyforeigncompaniesinvesting morethan$40milliontodeveloppetroleumresourcesinIranorLibya.AsZeev Schiff,themilitarycorrespondentforHaaretz,notedatthetime,Israelisbuta tinyelementinthebigscheme,butoneshouldnotconcludethatitcannot influencethosewithintheBeltway.185 Bythelate1990s,however,theneoconservativeswerearguingthatdual containmentwasnotenoughandthatregimechangeinIraqwasnowessential. BytopplingSaddamandturningIraqintoavibrantdemocracy,theyargued,the UnitedStateswouldtriggerafarreachingprocessofchangethroughoutthe MiddleEast.Thislineofthinking,ofcourse,wasevidentintheCleanBreak studytheneoconservativeswroteforNetanyahu.By2002,wheninvadingIraq hadbecomeafrontburnerissue,regionaltransformationhadbecomeanarticle offaithinneoconservativecircles.186 CharlesKrauthammerdescribesthisgrandschemeasthebrainchildofNatan Sharansky,theIsraelipoliticianwhosewritingshaveimpressedPresident Bush.187ButSharanskywashardlyalonevoiceinIsrael.Infact,Israelisacross thepoliticalspectrumbelievedthattopplingSaddamwouldaltertheMiddle EasttoIsraelsadvantage.AlufBennreportedinHaaretz(February17,2003), SeniorIDFofficersandthoseclosetoPrimeMinisterArielSharon,suchas NationalSecurityAdvisorEphraimHalevy,paintarosypictureofthewonderful futureIsraelcanexpectafterthewar.Theyenvisionadominoeffect,withthefall ofSaddamHusseinfollowedbythatofIsraelsotherenemiesAlongwith theseleaderswilldisappearterrorandweaponsofmassdestruction.188 Inshort,Israelileaders,neoconservatives,andtheBushAdministrationallsaw warwithIraqasthefirststepinanambitiouscampaigntoremaketheMiddle East.Andinthefirstflushofvictory,theyturnedtheirsightsonIsraelsother regionalopponents. 35

GunningforSyria IsraelileadersdidnotpushtheBushAdministrationtoputitscrosshairson SyriabeforeMarch2003,becausetheyweretoobusypushingforwaragainst Iraq.ButonceBaghdadfellinmidApril,Sharonandhislieutenantsbegan urgingWashingtontotargetDamascus.189OnApril16,forexample,Sharonand ShaulMofaz,hisdefenseminister,gavehighprofileinterviewsindifferent Israelinewspapers.Sharon,inYediothAhronoth,calledfortheUnitedStatesto putveryheavypressureonSyria.190MofaztoldMaarivthat,Wehavealong listofissuesthatwearethinkingofdemandingoftheSyriansanditis appropriatethatitshouldbedonethroughtheAmericans.191Sharonsnational securityadvisor,EphraimHalevy,toldaWINEPaudiencethatitwasnow importantfortheUnitedStatestogetroughwithSyria,andtheWashingtonPost reportedthatIsraelwasfuelingthecampaignagainstSyriabyfeedingthe UnitedStatesintelligencereportsabouttheactionsofSyrianPresidentBashar Assad.192 ProminentmembersoftheLobbymadethesameargumentsafterBaghdad fell.193WolfowitzdeclaredthattherehasgottoberegimechangeinSyria,and RichardPerletoldajournalistthatWecoulddeliverashortmessage,atwo wordedmessage[tootherhostileregimesintheMiddleEast]:Yourenext.194 InearlyApril,WINEPreleasedabipartisanreportstatingthatSyriashouldnot missthemessagethatcountriesthatpursueSaddamsreckless,irresponsibleand defiantbehaviorcouldendupsharinghisfate.195OnApril15,YossiKlein HaleviwroteapieceintheLosAngelesTimesentitledNext,TurntheScrewson Syria,whilethenextdayZevChafetswroteanarticlefortheNewYorkDaily NewsentitledTerrorFriendlySyriaNeedsaChange,Too.Nottobeoutdone, LawrenceKaplanwroteintheNewRepubliconApril21thatSyrianleaderAssad wasaseriousthreattoAmerica.196 BackonCapitolHill,CongressmanEliotEngel(DNY)hadreintroducedthe SyriaAccountabilityandLebaneseSovereigntyRestorationActonApril12.197It threatenedsanctionsagainstSyriaifitdidnotwithdrawfromLebanon,giveup itsWMD,andstopsupportingterrorism,anditalsocalledforSyriaandLebanon totakeconcretestepstomakepeacewithIsrael.Thislegislationwasstrongly endorsedbytheLobbyespeciallyAIPACandframed,accordingtothe JewishTelegraphAgency,bysomeofIsraelsbestfriendsinCongress.198Ithad beenonthebackburnerforsometime,largelybecausetheBushAdministration hadlittleenthusiasmforit,buttheantiSyrianactpassedoverwhelmingly(3984

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intheHouse;894intheSenate),andBushsigneditintolawonDecember12, 2003.199 YettheBushAdministrationwasstilldividedaboutthewisdomoftargeting Syriaatthistime.Althoughtheneoconservativeswereeagertopickafightwith Damascus,theCIAandtheStateDepartmentwereopposed.Andevenafter Bushsignedthenewlaw,heemphasizedthathewouldgoslowlyin implementingit.200 Bushsambivalenceisunderstandable.First,theSyriangovernmenthadbeen providingtheUnitedStateswithimportantintelligenceaboutalQaedasince 9/11andhadalsowarnedWashingtonaboutaplannedterroristattackinthe Gulf.201SyriahadalsogivenCIAinterrogatorsaccesstoMohammedZammar, theallegedrecruiterofsomeofthe9/11hijackers.TargetingtheAssadregime wouldjeopardizethesevaluableconnections,andthusunderminethelargerwar onterrorism. Second,SyriawasnotonbadtermswithWashingtonbeforetheIraqwar(e.g.,it hadevenvotedforU.N.Resolution1441),anditwasnothreattotheUnited States.PlayinghardballwithSyriawouldmaketheUnitedStateslooklikea bullywithaninsatiableappetiteforbeatingupArabstates.Finally,putting SyriaontheAmericanhitlistwouldgiveDamascusapowerfulincentiveto causetroubleinIraq.EvenifonewantedtopressureSyria,itmadegoodsense tofinishthejobinIraqfirst. YetCongressinsistedonputtingthescrewstoDamascus,largelyinresponseto pressurefromIsraelofficialsandproIsraelgroupslikeAIPAC.202Iftherewere noLobby,therewouldhavebeennoSyriaAccountabilityActandU.S.policy towardDamascuswouldhavebeenmoreinlinewiththeU.S.nationalinterest. PuttingIranintheCrosshairs Israelistendtodescribeeverythreatinthestarkestterms,butIraniswidelyseen astheirmostdangerousenemybecauseitisthemostlikelyadversarytoacquire nuclearweapons.VirtuallyallIsraelisregardanIslamiccountryintheMiddle Eastwithnuclearweaponsasanexistentialthreat.AsIsraeliDefenseMinister BinyaminBenEliezerremarkedonemonthbeforetheIraqwar:Iraqisa problem.Butyoushouldunderstand,ifyouaskme,todayIranismore dangerousthanIraq.203 37

SharonbeganpubliclypushingtheUnitedStatestoconfrontIraninNovember 2002,inahighprofileinterviewinTheTimes(London).204DescribingIranasthe centerofworldterror,andbentonacquiringnuclearweapons,hedeclared thattheBushAdministrationshouldputthestrongarmonIranthedayafterit conqueredIraq.InlateApril2003,HaaretzreportedthattheIsraeliambassador inWashingtonwasnowcallingforregimechangeinIran.205Theoverthrowof Saddam,henoted,wasnotenough.Inhiswords,Americahastofollow through.WestillhavegreatthreatsofthatmagnitudecomingfromSyria, comingfromIran. Theneoconservativesalsolostnotimeinmakingthecaseforregimechangein Tehran.206OnMay6,theAEIcosponsoredanalldayconferenceonIranwith theproIsraelFoundationfortheDefenseofDemocraciesandtheHudson Institute.207ThespeakerswereallstronglyproIsrael,andmanycalledforthe UnitedStatestoreplacetheIranianregimewithademocracy.Asusual,there wereabevyofarticlesbyprominentneoconservativesmakingthecaseforgoing afterIran.Forexample,WilliamKristolwroteintheWeeklyStandardonMay12 that,TheliberationofIraqwasthefirstgreatbattleforthefutureoftheMiddle East.Butthenextgreatbattlenot,wehope,amilitaryonewillbefor Iran.208 TheBushAdministrationhasrespondedtotheLobbyspressurebyworking overtimetoshutdownIransnuclearprogram.ButWashingtonhashadlittle success,andIranseemsdeterminedtogetanucleararsenal.Asaresult,the LobbyhasintensifieditspressureontheU.S.government,usingallofthe strategiesinitsplaybook.209Opedsandarticlesnowwarnofimminentdangers fromanuclearIran,cautionagainstanyappeasementofaterroristregime,and hintdarklyofpreventiveactionshoulddiplomacyfail.TheLobbyisalso pushingCongresstoapprovetheIranFreedomSupportAct,whichwould expandexistingsanctionsonIran.Israeliofficialsalsowarntheymaytake preemptiveactionshouldIrancontinuedownthenuclearroad,hintspartly intendedtokeepWashingtonfocusedonthisissue. OnemightarguethatIsraelandtheLobbyhavenothadmuchinfluenceonU.S. policytowardIran,becausetheUnitedStateshasitsownreasonstokeepIran fromgoingnuclear.Thisispartlytrue,butIransnuclearambitionsdonotpose anexistentialthreattotheUnitedStates.IfWashingtoncouldlivewithanuclear SovietUnion,anuclearChina,orevenanuclearNorthKorea,thenitcanlive withanuclearIran.AndthatiswhytheLobbymustkeepconstantpressureon U.S.politicianstoconfrontTehran.IranandtheUnitedStateswouldhardlybe 38

alliesiftheLobbydidnotexist,butU.S.policywouldbemoretemperateand preventivewarwouldnotbeaseriousoption. Summary ItisnotsurprisingthatIsraelanditsAmericansupporterswanttheUnitedStates todealwithanyandallthreatstoIsraelssecurity.IftheireffortstoshapeU.S. policysucceed,thenIsraelsenemiesgetweakenedoroverthrown,Israelgetsa freehandwiththePalestinians,andtheUnitedStatesdoesmostofthefighting, dying,rebuilding,andpaying. ButeveniftheUnitedStatesfailstotransformtheMiddleEastandfindsitselfin conflictwithanincreasinglyradicalizedArabandIslamicworld,Israelstillends upprotectedbytheworldsonlysuperpower.210Thisisnotaperfectoutcome fromtheLobbysperspective,butitisobviouslypreferabletoWashington distancingitselffromIsrael,orusingitsleveragetoforceIsraeltomakepeace withthePalestinians. CONCLUSION CantheLobbyspowerbecurtailed?Onewouldliketothinkso,giventheIraq debacle,theobviousneedtorebuildAmericasimageintheArabandIslamic world,andtherecentrevelationsaboutAIPACofficialspassingU.S.government secretstoIsrael.OnemightalsothinkthatArafatsdeathandtheelectionofthe moremoderateAbuMazenwouldcauseWashingtontopressvigorouslyand evenhandedlyforapeaceagreement.Inshort,thereareamplegroundsforU.S. leaderstodistancethemselvesfromtheLobbyandadoptaMiddleEastpolicy moreconsistentwithbroaderU.S.interests.Inparticular,usingAmericanpower toachieveajustpeacebetweenIsraelandthePalestinianswouldhelpadvance thebroadergoalsoffightingextremismandpromotingdemocracyintheMiddle East. Butthatisnotgoingtohappenanytimesoon.AIPACanditsallies(including ChristianZionists)havenoseriousopponentsinthelobbyingworld.Theyknow ithasbecomemoredifficulttomakeIsraelscasetoday,andtheyareresponding byexpandingtheiractivitiesandstaffs.211Moreover,Americanpoliticians remainacutelysensitivetocampaigncontributionsandotherformsofpolitical pressureandmajormediaoutletsarelikelytoremainsympathetictoIsraelno matterwhatitdoes. 39

Thissituationisdeeplyworrisome,becausetheLobbysinfluencecausestrouble onseveralfronts.Itincreasestheterroristdangerthatallstatesfaceincluding AmericasEuropeanallies.BypreventingU.S.leadersfrompressuringIsraelto makepeace,theLobbyhasalsomadeitimpossibletoendtheIsraeliPalestinian conflict.Thissituationgivesextremistsapowerfulrecruitingtool,increasesthe poolofpotentialterroristsandsympathizers,andcontributestoIslamic radicalismaroundtheworld. Furthermore,theLobbyscampaignforregimechangeinIranandSyriacould leadtheUnitedStatestoattackthosecountries,withpotentiallydisastrous effects.WedonotneedanotherIraq.Ataminimum,theLobbyshostility towardthesecountriesmakesitespeciallydifficultforWashingtontoenlistthem againstalQaedaandtheIraqiinsurgency,wheretheirhelpisbadlyneeded. Thereisamoraldimensionhereaswell.ThankstotheLobby,theUnitedStates hasbecomethedefactoenablerofIsraeliexpansionintheoccupiedterritories, makingitcomplicitinthecrimesperpetratedagainstthePalestinians.This situationundercutsWashingtonseffortstopromotedemocracyabroadand makesitlookhypocriticalwhenitpressesotherstatestorespecthumanrights. U.S.effortstolimitnuclearproliferationappearequallyhypocriticalgivenits willingnesstoacceptIsraelsnucleararsenal,whichencouragesIranandothers toseeksimilarcapabilities. Moreover,theLobbyscampaigntosquelchdebateaboutIsraelisunhealthyfor democracy.Silencingskepticsbyorganizingblacklistsandboycottsorby suggestingthatcriticsareantiSemitesviolatestheprincipleofopendebate uponwhichdemocracydepends.TheinabilityoftheU.S.Congresstoconducta genuinedebateonthesevitalissuesparalyzestheentireprocessofdemocratic deliberation.Israelsbackersshouldbefreetomaketheircaseandtochallenge thosewhodisagreewiththem.Buteffortstostifledebatebyintimidationmust beroundlycondemnedbythosewhobelieveinfreespeechandopendiscussion ofimportantpublicissues. Finally,theLobbysinfluencehasbeenbadforIsrael.Itsabilitytopersuade WashingtontosupportanexpansionistagendahasdiscouragedIsraelfrom seizingopportunitiesincludingapeacetreatywithSyriaandapromptandfull implementationoftheOsloAccordsthatwouldhavesavedIsraelilivesand shrunktheranksofPalestinianextremists.DenyingthePalestinianstheir legitimatepoliticalrightscertainlyhasnotmadeIsraelmoresecure,andthelong campaigntokillormarginalizeagenerationofPalestinianleadershas 40

empoweredextremistgroupslikeHamas,andreducedthenumberof Palestinianleaderswhowouldbebothwillingtoacceptafairsettlementand abletomakeitwork.ThiscourseraisestheawfulspecterofIsraeloneday occupyingthepariahstatusoncereservedforapartheidstateslikeSouthAfrica. Ironically,IsraelitselfwouldprobablybebetteroffiftheLobbywereless powerfulandU.S.policyweremoreevenhanded. Butthereisarayofhope.AlthoughtheLobbyremainsapowerfulforce,the adverseeffectsofitsinfluenceareincreasinglydifficulttohide.Powerfulstates canmaintainflawedpoliciesforquitesometime,butrealitycannotbeignored forever.Whatisneeded,therefore,isacandiddiscussionoftheLobbys influenceandamoreopendebateaboutU.S.interestsinthisvitalregion.Israels wellbeingisoneofthoseinterests,butnotitscontinuedoccupationoftheWest Bankoritsbroaderregionalagenda.Opendebatewillexposethelimitsofthe strategicandmoralcaseforonesidedU.S.supportandcouldmovetheUnited Statestoapositionmoreconsistentwithitsownnationalinterest,withthe interestsoftheotherstatesintheregion,andwithIsraelslongterminterestsas well.

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ENDNOTES
Indeed,themereexistenceoftheLobbysuggeststhatunconditionalsupportforIsrael isnotintheAmericannationalinterest.Ifitwas,onewouldnotneedanorganized specialinterestgrouptobringitabout.ButbecauseIsraelisastrategicandmoral liability,ittakesrelentlesspoliticalpressuretokeepU.S.supportintact.AsRichard Gephardt,theformerHouseMinorityLeader,toldtheAmericanIsraelPublicAffairs Committee(AIPAC),Without[your]constantsupport...andallyourfightingona dailybasistostrengthenthatrelationship,itwouldnotbe.Thisquotewasdownloaded fromtheAIPACwebsite[http://www.aipac.org/]onJanuary12,2004.AlsoseeMichael Kinsley,JAccuse,SortOf,Slate,March12,2003. 2AccordingtotheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopments(USAID)Greenbook, whichreportsoverseasloansandgrants,Israelhasreceived$140,142,800(inconstant 2003dollars)fromtheUnitedStatesthrough2003.DownloadedfromtheGreenbook website[http://qesdb.cdie.org/gbk/]onNovember8,2005. 3AccordingtotheGreenbook,Israelreceivedabout$3.7billionindirectaidfromthe UnitedStatesin2003.IsraelspopulationaccordingtotheInternationalInstitutefor StrategicStudies[IISS]andtheCIAis6,276,883.IISS,TheMilitaryBalance:20052006 (Oxfordshire:Routledge,2005),p.192;http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/. Thataveragesoutto$589perIsraeli.Ifoneassumesthesamepopulationsizeand$3 billionintotalaid,theneachIsraelireceives$478. 4Seehttp://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/;WorldBankAtlas(Washington,DC: DevelopmentDataGroup,WorldBank,September2004),pp.6465. 5ForadiscussionofthevariousspecialdealsthatIsraelreceives,seeClydeR.Mark, Israel:U.S.ForeignAssistance,IssueBriefforCongress(Washington,DC: CongressionalResearchService,April26,2005). 6AvnerCohen,IsraelandtheBomb(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1999); SeymourM.Hersh,TheSamsonOption:IsraelsNuclearArsenalandAmericanForeign Policy(NewYork:RandomHouse,1991). 7ReportoftheOpenEndedWorkingGroupontheQuestionofEquitable RepresentationonandIncreaseintheMembershipoftheSecurityCouncilandOther MattersRelatedtotheSecurityCouncil,AnnexIII,U.N.GeneralAssemblyOfficial Records,58thSession,SupplementNo.47,2004,pp.1314;DonaldNeff,AnUpdated ListofVetoesCastbytheUnitedStatestoShieldIsraelfromCriticismbytheU.N. SecurityCouncil,WashingtonReportonMiddleEastAffairs,May/June2005;Stephen Zunes,U.S.DeclaresOpenSeasononUNWorkers,CommonDreams.org,January10,
1

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2003.TherewerealsomanyresolutionsthatnevercametoavotebecauseSecurity CouncilmembersknewthattheUnitedStateswouldvetothem.Giventhedifficultyof criticizingspecificIsraeliactionsintheSecurityCouncil,criticismhasoftencomefrom theU.N.GeneralAssembly,wherenostatehasaveto.Inthoseinstances,theUnited Statesinvariablyfindsitselfontheshortendoflopsidedvotesontheorderofsay1334, wherethedissentersincludeMicronesiaandtheMarshallIslandsaswellasIsraeland theUnitedStates.Inresponse,theForwardreportedinNovember2003thattheBush Administration,attheinstigationoftheAmericanJewishCommittee,wasembarking onthemostcomprehensivecampaigninyearstoreducethenumberofantiIsrael resolutionsroutinelypassedbytheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.MarcPerelman, WashingtonSeekingtoReduceNumberofAntiIsraelVotesatU.N.,Forward, November14,2003. 8MarcPerelman,InternationalAgencyEyesIsraeliNukes,Forward,September5,2003. 9WilliamB.Quandt,PeaceProcess:AmericanDiplomacyandtheArabIsraeliConflictsince 1967,3rded.(Washington,DC:BrookingsInstitutionPress,2005),chapters57,1012. 10NathanGuttman,U.S.AccusedofProIsraelBiasat2000CampDavid,Haaretz, April29,2005.AlsoseeAaronD.Miller,IsraelsLawyer,WashingtonPost,May23, 2005;LessonsofArabIsraeliNegotiating:FourNegotiatorsLookBackandAhead, Transcriptofpaneldiscussion,MiddleEastInstitute,April25,2005.Forgeneral discussionsofhowtheUnitedStatesconsistentlyfavorsIsraeloverthePalestinians,see NoamChomsky,FatefulTriangle:TheUnitedStates,IsraelandthePalestinians(Cambridge, MA:SouthEndPress,1999);KathleenChristison,PerceptionsofPalestine:TheirInfluence onU.S.MiddleEastPolicy(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2001);NaseerH. Aruri,DishonestBroker:TheU.S.RoleinIsraelandPalestine(Cambridge,MA:SouthEnd Press,2003).ItisalsoworthnotingthattheBritishfavoredtheZionistsoverthe PalestiniansduringtheperiodoftheBritishMandate(19191948).SeeTomSegev,One Palestine,Complete:JewsandArabsundertheBritishMandate(NewYork:HenryHolt, 2000). 11DownloadedfromAIPACswebsite[http://aipac.org/documents/unitedefforts.html] onJanuary12,2006. 12See,forexample,WarrenBass,SupportAnyFriend:KennedysMiddleEastandthe MakingoftheUSIsraelAlliance(NY:OxfordUniversityPress,2003);A.F.K.Organski,The $36BillionBargain:StrategyandPoliticsinU.S.AssistancetoIsrael(NewYork:Columbia UniversityPress,1990);StevenL.Spiegel,IsraelasaStrategicAsset,Commentary,June 1983,pp.5155;Idem,TheOtherArabIsraeliConflict:MakingAmericasMiddleEastPolicy, fromTrumantoReagan(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1985).

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ThispointwasnotlostonMosheDayan,who,rememberingatalkhehadwithHenry KissingeratthetimeoftheOctober1973War,notedthatthoughIhappenedtoremark thattheUnitedStateswastheonlycountrythatwasreadytostandbyus,mysilent reflectionwasthattheUnitedStateswouldreallyrathersupporttheArabs.Moshe Dayan,MosheDayan:StoryofMyLife(NY:WilliamMorrow,1976),pp.521513.Alsosee ZachLevey,TheUnitedStatesSkyhawkSaletoIsrael,1966:StrategicExigenciesofan ArmsDeal,DiplomaticHistory,Vol.28,No.2(April2004),pp.255276. 14BernardLewiswrotein1992,WhatevervalueIsraelmighthavehadasastrategic assetduringtheColdWar,thatvalueobviouslyendedwhentheColdWaritselfcameto aclose.ThechangewasclearlymanifestedintheGulfWarlastyear,whenwhatthe UnitedStatesmostdesiredfromIsraelwastokeepoutoftheconflicttobesilent, inactiveand,asfaraspossible,invisible.Israelwasnotanasset,butanirrelevance someevensaidanuisance.SomeofthethingsthattheIsraeligovernmentlatersaidand didwereunlikelytochangethisperception.RethinkingtheMiddleEast,Foreign Affairs,Vol.71,No.4,(Fall1992),pp.110111. 15AccordingtoMiddleEastexpertShibleyTelhami,Nootherissueresonateswiththe publicintheArabworld,andmanyotherpartsoftheMuslimworld,moredeeplythan Palestine.NootherissueshapestheregionalperceptionsofAmericamore fundamentallythantheissueofPalestine.TheStakes:AmericaandtheMiddleEast (Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,2002),p.96.LakhdarBrahimi,theformerU.N.special envoytoIraq,whotheBushAdministrationenlistedtohelpformaninterimIraqi governmentinJune2004,saidthatIsraelipolicytowardthePalestiniansisthegreat poisonintheregion,andthatintheregion,andbeyondpeoplerecognizedthe injusticeofthispolicyandtheequallyunjustsupportoftheUnitedStatesforthis policy.SeeWarrenHoge,U.N.MovestoDisassociateItselffromRemarksbyEnvoy toIraq,NewYorkTimes,April23,2004;BrahimisIsraelCommentsDrawAnnan,Israel Ire,Haaretz,April24,2004.AlsoseethecommentsofEgyptianPresidentHosni MubarakinMubarak:ArabHatredofAmericaGrowing,WashingtonPost,April20, 2004.Finally,seeAmiEden,9/11CommissionFindsAngeratIsraelFuelingIslamic TerrorismWave,Forward,July30,2004. 16NationalCommissiononTerroristAttacksagainsttheUnitedStates,Outlineofthe 9/11Plot,StaffStatementNo.16,June16,2004.AlsoseeNathanGuttman,AlQaida PlannedAttacksduringPMsVisittoWhiteHouse,Haaretz,June17,2004;andMarc Perelman,BinLadenAimedtoLinkPlottoIsrael,Forward,June25,2004.ProIsrael supportersoftenarguethatbinLadenonlybecameinterestedintheIsraelPalestinian conflictafter9/11,andonlybecausehethoughtthatitwasgoodforrecruitingpurposes. Thus,thereisvirtuallynoconnectionbetweenwhathappenedon9/11andU.S.support forIsrael.SeeAndreaLevin,DontScapegoatIsrael,BostonGlobe,October6,2001; NormanPodhoretz,IsraelIsnttheIssue,WallStreetJournal,September20,2001.Note
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thatbothofthesepieceswerepublishedrightaftertheTwinTowersfell.However,we nowhaveasubstantialnumberofbinLadenswritingsandtalksfromthe1980sand 1990s,anditisclearthathecareddeeplyaboutmattersrelatingtoJerusalemandthe Palestinianslongbefore9/11.See,forexample,JihadagainstJewsandCrusaders, WorldIslamicFrontStatement,February23,1998;TranscriptofOsamabinLadens March20,1997interviewwithPeterArnettofCNN(firstbroadcastonMay10,1997). AlsoNewOsamabinLadenVideoContainsAntiIsraelandAntiAmerican Statements,downloadedfromtheAntiDefamationLeague(ADL)website [http://www.adl.org/terrorism_america/bin_l_print.asp]onMarch8,2004. 17ChangingMinds,WinningPeace:ANewStrategicDirectionforU.S.PublicDiplomacyinthe ArabandMuslimWorld,ReportoftheAdvisoryGrouponPublicDiplomacyfortheArab andMuslimWorld,SubmittedtotheCommitteeonAppropriations,U.S.Houseof Representatives,October1,2003,p.18.AlsoseeThePewGlobalAttitudesProject,Views ofaChangingWorld2003:WarWithIraqFurtherDividesGlobalPublics(Washington,DC: ThePewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress,June3,2003);ReportoftheDefense ScienceBoardTaskForceonStrategicCommunication(Washington,DC:Officeofthe UndersecretaryofDefenseforAcquisition,Technology,andLogistics,September2004); ShibleyTelhami,ArabPublicOpinion:ASurveyinSixCountries,SanJoseMercury, March16,2003;JohnZogby,TheTenNationImpressionsofAmericaPoll(Utica,NY:Zogby International,April11,2002);Idem,ImpressionsofAmerica2004:HowArabsViewAmerica, HowArabsLearnaboutAmerica(SixNationSurvey),(Utica,NY:ZogbyInternational, 2004). 18SeeThePewGlobalAttitudesProject,AmericaAdmired,YetItsNewVulnerabilitySeen AsGoodThing,SayOpinionLeaders(Washington,DC:ThePewResearchCenterforthe PeopleandthePress,December19,2001);PewGlobalAttitudesProject,Viewsofa ChangingWorld2003,p.5. 19Foracopyoftheletter,seeDoomedtoFailureintheMiddleEast,TheGuardian, April27,2004.AlsoseeNicholasBlanford,USMovesInflameArabModerates,The ChristianScienceMonitor,April26,2004;RupertCornwell,AlliesWarnBushthat StabilityinIraqDemandsArabIsraeliDeal,TheIndependent,June10,2004;Glenn KesslerandRobinWright,ArabsandEuropeansQuestionGreaterMiddleEastPlan, WashingtonPost,February22,2004;PaulRichter,U.S.HasFreshHopeforMideast,Los AngelesTimes,November7,2004;RobinWrightandGlennKessler,U.S.Goalsfor MiddleEastFalter,WashingtonPost,April21,2004.EvensomeIsraelisunderstandthat thecontinuationofthisconflict,includingtheIsraelioccupation,willmostcertainly leadtonewwavesofterror;internationalterrorism,whichtheAmericansfearsomuch, willspread.ZeevSchiff,FittingintoAmericasStrategy,Haaretz,August1,2003.It isalsoworthnotingthatsome50retiredAmericandiplomatswrotealetterinMay2004 toPresidentBushsimilartotheletterthattheBritishdiplomatssenttoTonyBlair.A

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copyoftheAmericanletterwaspublishedinTheNewYorkReviewofBooks,November 18,2004. 20Consider,forexample,thecontroversythateruptedin2005overIsraelsdecisionto expanditssettlementsintheWestBank.SeeAlufBenn,WeCantExpectExplicitU.S. OkaytoBuildinSettlements,Haaretz,March28,2005;AkivaEldar,Bush:End ExpansionofSettlements,Haaretz,May27,2005;BushWarnsIsraeloverWestBank, BBCNewsOnline,April11,2005;DonaldMacintyre,SharonVowstoDefyBushover ExpansionofIsraeliSettlements,Independent,April22,2005;SharonBrushesOff WarningfromBush,MSNBC.com,April12,2005;AmyTeibel,U.S.toIsrael:Stop ExpandingSettlements,WashingtonPost,June26,2005;ZeevSchiff,U.S.:Israel ShirkingItsPromisesonSettlementBoundaries,Haaretz,March15,2005.Regarding targetedassassinationsPrimeMinisterSharonpromisedSecretaryofStateColinPowell inMay2003thatIsraelwouldrefrainfromkillingPalestinianleadersunlesstherewasa tickingbomb(animminentattack).ZeevSchiff,Focus/AmericansFearAbuMazen IsFurtherWeakened,Haaretz,June12,2003.Butonemonthlater,afterBushmadea highprofilevisittotheMiddleEastandtheprospectsfornegotiationsbetweenthe warringpartieslookedpromising,Sharonlaunchedsevenassassinationmissionsinfive days,noneinvolvingatickingbomb.BradleyBurston,Background:HasSharons HamasHitlistConvertedBush?Haaretz,June17,2003.AlsoseeUriAvnery,Avoiding aRoadMaptotheAbyss,ArabNews(online),August26,2003;GlennKessler,White HouseBacksLatestIsraeliAttacks,WashingtonPost,June13,2003;LauraKing,Sharon LaudsHebronKilling,LosAngelesTimes,June23,2003;GideonLevy,WhoViolated theHudna?Tikkun(online),August17,2003.InMarch2004,theIDFkilledHamas spiritualleaderSheikYassin,eventhoughhewasnotanimminentthreat,andeven thoughhisdeathdamagedAmericaspositionintheMiddleEast.GeorgieAnneGeyer, ArielSharonComplicatesU.S.Mission,ChicagoTribune,March26,2004;H.D.S. Greenway,AssassinationFalloutBodesIllforUS,BostonGlobe,March26,2004;Tony Karon,HowIsraelsHamasKillingAffectstheU.S.,Time,March23,2004;DavidR. Sands,IsraelsKillingofYassinPutsUSinLineofFire,WashingtonTimes,March23, 2004.AsJimHoaglandsaidinthewakeofYassinskilling,Withthepossibleexception ofCharlesdeGaulle,nofriendlyforeignleaderhascomplicatedmodernAmerican diplomacymoreconsistentlyorgravelythanArielSharon.HepursuesIsraelsinterests withawarriorstenacityanddirectnessthattakesawaythebreath,andtheoptions,of everyoneelse.SeeConsequencesforSharonandtheU.S.,ChicagoTribune,March 26,2004. 21QuotedinDuncanL.Clarke,IsraelsUnauthorizedArmsTransfers,ForeignPolicy, No.99(Summer1995),p.94.Thisarticleprovidesanexcellentdiscussionofthe problem.Therewasabittercontroversyin20042005betweentheUnitedStatesand IsraeloverIsraeliarmssalestoChina.SeeAlufBennandAmnonBarzilai,Pentagon OfficialWantsYaronFired,Haaretz,December16,2004;AlufBenn,U.S.KeepsIsrael

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OutofNewFighterJetDevelopmentProgram,Haaretz,October12,2005;NinaGilbert, YaronWontGiveInfoonArmsSalestoChina,JerusalemPost,December30,2004; Israeli,U.S.TalksonWeaponsDealswithChinaEndwithoutResult,Haaretz,June29, 2005;MarcPerelman,SpatOverSalesofWeaponsChillingTiesbetweenJerusalemand Beijing,Forward,December23,2004;MarcPerelman,ChinaCrisisStrainingU.S.Israel Ties,Forward,August5,2005;MarcPerelman,IsraelMiffedoverLingeringChina Flap,Forward,October7,2005;ZeevSchiff,U.S.IsraelCrisisDeepensoverDefense ExportstoChina,Haaretz,July27,2005. 22QuotedinDuncanL.Clarke,IsraelsEconomicEspionageintheUnitedStates, JournalofPalestineStudies,Vol.27,No.4(Summer1998),p.21.AlsoseeBobDroginand GregMiller,IsraelHasLongSpiedonU.S.SayOfficials,LosAngelesTimes,September 3,2004;FBISaysIsraelaMajorPlayerinIndustrialEspionage,JewishBulletin,January 16,1998;ClydeR.Mark,IsraeliUnitedStatesRelations,IssueBriefforCongress (Washington,DC:CongressionalResearchService,November9,2004),pp.1415;Joshua Mitnick,U.S.AccusesOfficialsofSpying,WashingtonTimes,December16,2004. 23OnthePollardaffair,seeHersh,SamsonOption,pp.285305;Idem,TheTraitor:Why PollardShouldNeverBeReleased,NewYorker,Vol.74,issue42(January18,1999),pp. 2633.ThereareahugenumberofarticlesontheinternetdealingwiththeFranklin Affair.Foragoodoverviewofthecase,seeJeffreyGoldberg,RealInsiders:AProIsrael LobbyandanF.B.I.Sting,NewYorker,Vol.81,issue19(July4,2005),pp.3440. 24TrevorN.Dupuy,ElusiveVictory:TheArabIsraeliWars,19471974(NewYork:Harper andRow,1978),pp.319,121125,146147,212214,231244,333340,388390,597605, 623633;SimhaFlapan,TheBirthofIsrael:MythsandRealities(NewYork:Pantheon Books,1987),pp.189199;RashidKhalidi,ThePalestiniansand1948:TheUnderlying CausesofFailure,inEugeneL.RoganandAviShlaim,eds.,TheWarforPalestine: RewritingtheHistoryof1948(NY:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),pp.1236;Haim Levenberg,MilitaryPreparationsoftheArabCommunityinPalestine,19451948(London: FrankCass,1993);BennyMorris,TheBirthofthePalestinianRefugeeProblemRevisited (NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004),chapters1,3.Idem,RighteousVictims:A HistoryoftheZionistArabConflict,18811999(NewYork:AlfredKnopf,1999),pp.187 189,191196,217223,235236,241242,286291,311313,393395;MartinVanCreveld, TheSwordandtheOlive:ACriticalHistoryoftheIsraeliDefenseForces(NY:PublicAffairs, 1998),pp.7782,137138,179182. 25AmosHarel,IsraelMaintainsItsStrategicAdvantage,SaysJaffeeCenter,Haaretz, November23,2005.Alsosee,UriBarJoseph,TheParadoxofIsraeliPower,Survival, Vol.46,No.4(Winter200405),pp.137156;MartinVanCreveld,Opportunity Beckons,JerusalemPost,May15,2003.

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ForthreeinstructivepiecesonthismatterfromtheIsraelipress,seeAmiramBarkat, MajorityofIsraelisAreOpposedtoIntermarriage,SurveyFinds,Haaretz,September 15,2003;NickyBlackburn,BetteraJew,Haaretz,April21,2004;LilyGalili,Hitting BelowtheBelt,Haaretz,August8,2004. 27SeeTheOfficialSummationoftheOrCommissionReport,publishedinHaaretz, September2,2003.ForevidenceofhowhostilemanyIsraelisweretothereports findingsandrecommendations,seeNoAvoidingtheCommissionRecommendations, Haaretz,September4,2003;MollyMoore,IsraeliReportIsWelcomed,Dismissed, WashingtonPost,September3,2003.AlsoseeBernardAvishai,SavingIsraelfromItself: ASecularFuturefortheJewishState,HarpersMagazine,January2005.Itisalsoworth notingthattheIsraelDemocracyInstitutereportedinMay2003that:53percentofIsraeli JewsareagainstfullequalityfortheArabs;77percentofIsraeliJewsbelievethat thereshouldbeaJewishmajorityoncrucialpoliticaldecisions;only31percent supporthavingArabpoliticalpartiesinthegovernment;57percentthinkthatthe Arabsshouldbeencouragedtoemigrate.SeeTheDemocracyIndex:MajorFindings 2003.ImaginetheoutcrythatwouldoccurifamajorityofwhiteAmericansdeclared thatblacks,Hispanics,andAsiansshouldbeencouragedtoleavetheUnitedStates. Formorerecentsurveys,whichshowlittlechangeinIsraeliattitudes,seeYulie Khromchenko,Survey:MostJewishIsraelisSupportTransferofArabs,Haaretz,June 22,2004;YoavStern,Poll:MostIsraeliJewsSayIsraeliArabsShouldEmigrate, Haaretz,April4,2005. 28QuotedinJustinHuggler,IsraelImposesRacistMarriageLaw,Guardian,August1, 2003.AlsoseeJamesBennet,IsraelBlocksPalestiniansfromMarryingintoResidency, NewYorkTimes,July31,2003;RacistLegislation,Haaretzeditorial,July,19,2004; RacistLegislation,Haaretzeditorial,January18,2005.EventheAntiDefamation League(ADL)criticizedthelegislation,albeitmildly.NathanGuttman,YairEttinger, SharonSadeh,ADLCriticizesLawDenyingCitizenshiptoPalestinians,Haaretz, August5,2003. 29ThefirstwaveofEuropeanJewstocometoPalestineisknownastheFirstAliyah,and itcoverstheyearsfrom1882to1903.Therewereslightlymorethan15,000Jewsin Palestinein1882.JustinMcCarthy,ThePopulationofPalestine:PopulationHistoryand StatisticsoftheLateOttomanPeriodandtheMandate(NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress, 1990),p.11,whichhasexcellentdatafortheyearsfrom1850to1915.AlsoseeMark Tessler,AHistoryoftheIsraeliPalestinianConflict(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversity Press,1994),p.124. 30ThetotalpopulationofPalestinein1893wasroughly530,000,ofwhomabout19,000 wereJewish(3.6percent).Arabscomprisedthevastmajorityoftheremaining population.McCarthy,PopulationofPalestine,p.11.
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Flapan,BirthofIsrael,p.44;Morris,RighteousVictims,p.186.

Flapan,BirthofIsrael,p22.Similarly,BenGuriontoldhisson,Iamcertainwewillbe abletosettleinalltheotherpartsofthecountry,whetherthroughagreementand mutualagreementwithourArabneighborsorinanotherway.Hewentontosay, ErectaJewishStateatonce,evenifitisnotinthewholeoftheland.Therestwillcome inthecourseoftime.Itmustcome.AviShlaim,TheIronWall:IsraelandtheArabWorld (NY:Norton,2000),p.21.AlsoseeFlapan,BirthofIsrael,pp.1353;NurMasalah, ExpulsionofthePalestinians:TheConceptofTransferinZionistPoliticalThought,18821948 (Washington,DC:InstituteforPalestineStudies,1992),chapter2;Morris,Righteous Victims,pp.138139;AviShlaim,ThePoliticsofPartition:KingAbdullah,theZionists,and Palestine,19211951(NY:OxfordUniversityPress,1999). 33Masalah,ExpulsionofthePalestinians,p.128.AlsoseeMorris,RighteousVictims,pp. 140,142,168169. 34BennyMorris,ANewExodusfortheMiddleEast?Guardian,October3,2002.On thepervasivenessoftransferthinkingamongZionistsbeforeIsraelwasestablishedin 1948,seeMasalha,ExpulsionofthePalestinians;Morris,RevisitingthePalestinian Exodusof1948,inRoganandShlaim,WarforPalestine,pp.3948;Morris,Birth Revisited,chapter2;AriShavit,SurvivaloftheFittest,Haaretz,January9,2004. 35Morris,BirthRevisited,providesadetailedaccountofthisevent.AlsoseeMeron Benvenisti,SacredLandscape:TheBuriedHistoryoftheHolyLandsince1948,trans.Maxine KaufmanLacusta(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2000),chapters34.The onlyremainingdebateofrealsignificanceregardingtheexpulsionofthePalestinians fromtheirhomelandiswhetheritwasbornofwar,asMorrisargues,orbydesign,as NormanFinkelsteinarguesinImageandRealityoftheIsraelPalestineConflict(London: Verso,1995),chapter3. 36ErskineChilders,TheOtherExodus,Spectator,May12,1961;Flapan,BirthofIsrael, pp.81118;WalidKhalidi,WhyDidthePalestiniansLeaveRevisited,Journalof PalestineStudies,Vol.34,No.2(Winter2005),pp.4254;Idem,TheFallofHaifa, MiddleEastForum,Vol.35,No.10(December,1959),pp.2232;Morris,BirthRevisited. 37NahumGoldmann,TheJewishParadox,trans.SteveCox(NY:GrossetandDunlap, 1978),p.99.ZeevJabotinsky,thefoundingfatheroftheIsraeliright,madeessentially thesamepointwhenhewrote,Colonizationisselfexplanatoryandwhatitimpliesis fullyunderstoodbyeverysensibleJewandArab.Therecanonlybeonepurposein colonization.ForthecountrysArabsthatpurposeisessentiallyunacceptable.Thisisa naturalreactionandnothingwillchangeit.QuotedinIanLustick,ToBuildandTo
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BeBuiltBy:IsraelandtheHiddenLogicoftheIronWall,IsraelStudies,Vol.1,No.1 (Spring1996),p.200. 38SeeGeoffreyAronson,Israel,Palestinians,andtheIntifada:CreatingFactsontheWest Bank(London:KeganPaulInternational,1990);AmnonBarzilai,ABriefHistoryofthe MissedOpportunity,Haaretz,June5,2002;Idem,SomeSawtheRefugeesastheKey toPeace,Haaretz,June11,2002;MosheBehar,ThePeaceProcessandIsraeliDomestic Politicsinthe1990s,SocialismandDemocracy,CurrentIssueNumber32,Vol.16,No.2 (SummerFall2002),pp.3447;AdamHaniehandCatherineCook,ARoadMaptothe OsloCuldeSac,MiddleEastReportOnline,May15,2003;IsraelsInterestsTake Primacy:AnInterviewwithDoreGold,inbitterlemons.org,WhatConstitutesaViable PalestinianState?March15,2004,Edition10;NurMasalha,ImperialIsraelandthe Palestinians:ThePoliticsofExpansion(London:PlutoPress,2000);SaraRoy,Erasingthe OpticsofGaza,TheDailyStarOnLine,February14,2004;36Years,andStill Counting,Haaretz,September26,2003. 39RahidKhalidi,PalestinianIdentity:TheConstructionofModernNationalConsciousness (NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1997),p.147.Meiralsosaid,Itwasnotasthough therewasaPalestinianpeopleinPalestineconsideringitselfasaPalestinianpeopleand wecameandthrewthemoutandtooktheircountryawayfromthem.Theydidnot exist.Masalha,ImperialIsrael,p.47.Rabinsaidin1995,twoyearsaftersigningtheOslo accords,IseekpeacefulcoexistencebetweenIsraelasaJewishstate,notalloverthe landofIsrael,ormostofit;itscapital,theunitedJerusalem;itssecurityborderwith Jordanrebuilt;nexttoit,aPalestinianentity,lessthanastate,thatrunsthelifeof Palestinians.Thisismygoal,nottoreturntothepreSixDayWarlinesbuttocreate twoentities,aseparationbetweenIsraelandthePalestinianswhoresideintheWest BankandtheGazaStrip.HaniehandCook,RoadMap.AlsoseeAkivaEldar,On theSamePage,TenYearsOn,Haaretz,November5,2005;DavidGrossman,The NightOurHopeforPeaceDied,Guardian,November4,2005;MichaelJansen,A PracticethatPreventstheEmergenceofaPalestinianState,JordanTimes,November10, 2005.Itisworthnotingthatinthespringof1998,IsraelanditsAmericansupporters sharplycriticizedFirstLadyHillaryClintonforsayingthat,Itwouldbeinthelong terminterestsofpeaceintheMiddleEastfortheretobeastateofPalestine,a functioningmodernstatethatisonthesamefootingasotherstates.TomRhodesand ChristopherWalker,CongressTellsIsraeltoRejectClintonsPulloutPlan,NewYork Times,May8,1998;JamesBennet,AidesDisavowMrs.ClintononMideast,NewYork Times,May8,1998. CharlesEnderlein,ShatteredDreams:TheFailureofthePeaceProcessintheMiddleEast, 19952002,trans.SusanFairfield(NY:OtherPress,2003),pp.201,207208;Jeremy Pressman,VisionsinCollision:WhatHappenedatCampDavidandTaba?International Security,Vol.28,No.2(Fall2003),p.17;DeborahSontag,QuestforMideastPeace:
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HowandWhyItFailed,NewYorkTimes,July26,2001;ClaytonE.Swisher,TheTruth aboutCampDavid:TheUntoldStoryabouttheCollapseofthePeaceProcess(NY:Nation Books,2004),pp.284,318,325.BarakhimselfsaidafterCampDavidthatthe Palestinianswerepromisedacontinuouspieceofsovereignterritoryexceptforarazor thinIsraeliwedgerunningfromJerusalemthroughfromMaaleAdumimtotheJordan River,whicheffectivelywouldhavebeenunderIsraelscontrol.BennyMorris,Camp DavidandAfter:AnExchange(1.AnInterviewwithEhudBarak),NewYorkReviewof Books,Vol.49,No.10(June13,2002),p.44.AlsoseethemapIsraelinegotiators presentedtothePalestiniansatCampDavid,acopyofwhichcanbefoundinRoane Carey,ed.,TheNewIntifada:ResistingIsraelsApartheid(London:Verso,2001),p.36. SeeAlanDershowitz,TheCaseforIsrael(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2003).Fora tellingcritiqueofDershowitzsbook,seeNormanG.Finkelstein,BeyondChutzpah:On theMisuseofAntiSemitismandtheAbuseofHistory(Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia Press,2005).AlsoseeDershowitzv.Desch,AmericanConservative,January16,2005. 42Morris,RighteousVictims,chapters25. 43Morris,BirthRevisited.ItshouldbenotedthatmanyIsraelidocumentsconcerningthe eventsof1948remainclassified;Morrisexpectsthatwithrespecttobothexpulsions andatrocities,wecanexpectadditionalrevelationsastheyearspassandmoreIsraeli recordsbecomeavailable.Morris,RevisitingthePalestinianExodus,inRoganand Shlaim,WarforPalestine,p.49.Infact,hemaintainsthatthereportedcasesofrapehe knowsaboutarejustthetipoftheiceberg.SeeShavit,SurvivaloftheFittest. 44BennyMorris,IsraelsBorderWars,19491956(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress, 1997),p.432.Alsoseeibid.,pp.126153,178184.Forevidenceofsimilarbehaviorafter the1967War,seeUriAvnery,CryingWolf?CounterPunch,March15,2003;Ami Kronfeld,AvneryonEthnicCleansingandaPersonalNote,inJewishVoiceforPeace, JewishPeaceNews,March17,2003;KatherineM.Metres,AsEvidenceMounts,Tollof IsraeliPrisonerofWarMassacresGrows,WashingtonReportonMiddleEastAffairs, February/March1996,pp.17,104105. 45DuringhisnegotiationswiththeBritishandFrenchgovernmentsoverthelaunching ofthe1956war,BenGurionproposedagrandplanforreorderingtheregionthatwould havedividedJordanbetweenIsraelandIraq,transferredallofLebanonsouthofthe LitaniRivertoIsrael,andgivenIsraelportionsoftheSinaiaswell.OnIsraelspolicies inthe1950s,seeMorris,IsraelsBorderWars;Morris,RighteousVictims,chapter6, especiallypp.289290;Shlaim,IronWall,chapters34,especiallypp.184185;Kennett Love,Suez:theTwiceFoughtWar(NewYork:McGrawHill,1969),pp.589638;Michael Brecher,DecisionsinIsraelsForeignPolicy(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1975),pp. 282283.
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 GabbyBron,EgyptianPOWsOrderedtoDigGraves,ThenShotbyIsraeliArmy, YediothAhronoth,August17,1995;RonalFisher,MassMurderinthe1956SinaiWar, Maariv,August8,1995[CopiesofthesetwopiecescanbefoundinJournalofPalestine Studies,Vol.25,No.3(Spring1996),pp.148155];GalalBana,Egypt:WeWillTurnto theInternationalWarCrimesTribunalintheHagueifIsraelWillNotCompensate MurderedPrisonersofWar,Haaretz,July24,2002;Zehavat,Friedman,Personal Reminiscence:RememberingAmiKronfeld,inJewishVoiceforPeace,JewishPeace News,September25,2005;Metres,AsEvidenceMounts. 47Avnery,CryingWolf;RobertBlecher,LivingontheEdge:TheThreatofTransfer inIsraelandPalestine,MERIP,MiddleEastReport225,Winter2002;Baruch Kimmerling,Politicide:ArielSharonsWaragainstthePalestinians(London:Verso,2003),p. 28.AlsoseeChomsky,FatefulTriangle,p.97;Morris,RighteousVictims,pp.328329; TanyaReinhart,Israel/Palestine:HowtoEndtheWarof1948(NY:SevenStoriesPress, 2002),p.8.Morrisreports(p.329)that120,000Palestiniansappliedtoreturntotheir homesrightafterthe1967War,butIsraelallowedonlyabout17,000tocomeback. AmnestyInternationalestimatedinmid2003thatintheyearssinceIsraelhadacquired theWestBankandtheGazaStrip,ithaddestroyedmorethan10,000Palestinianhomes inthoseareas.DannyRubinstein,Roads,FencesandOutpostsMaintainControlinthe Territories,Haaretz,August12,2003. 48ReportoftheCommissionofInquiryintotheEventsattheRefugeeCampsin Beirut,February7,1983.ThereportiscommonlycalledTheKahanCommission Reportafteritschairman,YitzhakKahan. 49SwedishSavetheChildren,TheStatusofPalestinianChildrenduringtheUprisingin theOccupiedTerritories,ExcerptedSummaryMaterial,Jerusalem,1990,inJournalof PalestineStudies,Vol.19,No.4(Summer1990),pp.136146.AlsoseeJoshuaBrilliant, OfficerTellsCourtVillagersWereBound,GaggedandBeaten.NotGuiltyPleaat BreakBonesTrial,JerusalemPost,March30,1990;JoshuaBrilliant,RabinOrdered Beatings,MeirTellsMilitaryCourt,JerusalemPost,June22,1990;JacksonDiehl, RightsGroupAccusesIsraelofViolenceAgainstChildreninPalestinianUprising, WashingtonPost,May17,1990;JamesA.Graff,CripplingaPeople:PalestinianChildren andIsraeliStateViolence,Alif,No.13(1993),pp.4663;RonaldR.Stockton,Intifada Deaths,JournalofPalestineStudies,Vol.19,No.4(Summer1990),pp.8695.Ehud Barak,theIDFsDeputyChiefofStaffduringtheFirstIntifada,saidatthetime,Wedo notwantchildrentobeshotunderanycircumstances.Whenyouseeachildyou dontshoot.Nevertheless,theSwedishSavetheChildrenreportestimatedthat6,500to 8,000childrenwerewoundedbygunfireduringthefirsttwoyearsoftheIntifada. Researchersinvestigated66ofthe106recordedcasesofchildgunshotdeaths.They concludedthat:almostallofthemwerehitbydirectednotrandomorricochet
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gunfire;nearlytwentypercentsufferedmultiplegunshotwounds;twelvepercentwere shotfrombehind;fifteenpercentofthechildrenweretenyearsofageoryounger;most childrenwerenotparticipatinginastonethrowingdemonstrationwhenshotdead; andnearlyonefifthofthechildrenwereshotdeadwhileathomeorwithintenmeters oftheirhomes. 50UnbridledForce,Haaretzeditorial,March16,2003.Forotherevidence,seeJonathan Cook,ImpunityonBothSidesoftheGreenLine,MERIP,MiddleEastReportOnline, November23,2005;WhenEverythingIsPermissible,Haaretzeditorial,June6,2005; ItCanHappenHere,Haaretzeditorial,November22,2004;ChrisMcGreal,Snipers withChildreninTheirSights,Guardian,June28,2005;Idem,IsraelShockedbyImage ofSoldiersForcingViolinisttoPlayatRoadblock,Guardian,November29,2004;Greg Myre,FormerIsraeliSoldiersTellofHarassmentofPalestinians,NewYorkTimes,June 24,2004;ReuvenPedatzur,TheMessagetotheSoldiersWasClear,Haaretz,December 13,2004;ConalUrquhart,IsraeliSoldiersTellofIndiscriminateKillingsbyArmyandA CultureofImpunity,Guardian,September6,2005. 51SeeSwisher,TruthaboutCampDavid,p.387. 52AccordingtoBtselem,betweenSeptember29,2000,andDecember31,2005,3,386 PalestinianswerekilledbytheIsraelis,ofwhom676werechildren.Ofthose3,386 deaths,1,185werebystanders,1,008werekilledwhilefightingtheIsraelis,andthe circumstancesof563deathsareunknown.Duringthesameperiod,992Israeliswere killedbythePalestinians,118ofwhomwerechildren.Ofthose992deaths,683were civiliansand309belongedtoIsraelisecurityforces.Btselempressrelease,January4, 2006. 53NathanGuttman,ItsaTerribleThing,LivingwiththeKnowledgethatYouCrushed OurDaughter,Haaretz,April30,2004;AdamShapiro,RememberingRachel Shapiro,Nation,March18,2004;TsaharRotem,BritishPeaceActivistShotbyIDF TroopsinGazaStrip,Haaretz,April11,2003. 54MollyMoore,ExSecurityChiefsTurnonSharon,WashingtonPost,November15, 2003;ExShinBetHeadsWarnofCatastrophewithoutPeaceDeal,Haaretz, November15,2003.ThesecommentswerebasedonaninterviewintheIsraeli newspaperYediothAhronothonNovember14,2003.Foracopyofthatinterview,see WeAreSeriouslyConcernedabouttheFateoftheStateofIsrael,TheAlternative InformationCenter,December1,2003. 55BillMaxwell,U.S.ShouldReconsiderAidtoIsrael,St.PetersburgTimes,December 16,2001.

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SeeJ.BowyerBell,TerrorOutofZion:TheFightforIsraeliIndependence(New Brunswick,NJ:TransactionPublishers,1996);JosephHeller,TheSternGang:Ideology, PoliticsandTerror,19401949(London:FrankCass,1995);BruceHoffmann,TheFailureof BritishMilitaryStrategywithinPalestine,19391947(Israel:BarIlanUniversity,1983); Morris,RighteousVictims,pp.173180;Segev,OnePalestine,pp.468486.Accordingto HaimLevenberg,210ofthe429casualtiesfromJewishterrorisminPalestineduring 1946werecivilians.Theother219werepoliceandsoldiers.Levenberg,Military Preparations,p.72.Furthermore,itwasJewishterroristsfromtheinfamousIrgunwhoin late1937introducedthepracticeofplacingbombsinbusesandlargecrowds.Benny Morrisspeculatesthat,TheArabsmaywellhavelearnedthevalueofterrorist bombingsfromtheJews.RighteousVictims,pp.147,201.AlsoseeLenniBrenner,The IronWall:ZionistRevisionismfromJabotinskytoShamir(London:ZedBooks,1984),p.100; YehoshuaPorath,ThePalestinianArabNationalMovement:fromRiotstoRebellion,Vol.II, 19291939(London:FrankCass,1977),p.238.Finally,Morrisnotesthatduringthe1948 warthemainJewishterroristgroupsknowinglyplantedbombsinbusstopswiththe aimofkillingnoncombatants,includingwomenandchildren.BirthRevisited,p.80. 57Bell,TerrorOutofZion,pp.336340. 58QuotedinChomsky,FatefulTriangle,pp.485486.IsraeliPrimeMinisterLeviEshkol usedtocallMenachemBegintheterrorist.Barzilai,BriefHistory.OnShamir,see AvishaiMargalit,TheViolentLifeofYitzhakShamir,NewYorkReviewofBooks,May 14,1992,pp.1824. 59Moreover,Israelsclaimtoamorallysuperiorstatusisunderminedbysomeofits otherpolicies.IsraeloncecultivatedclosetieswithapartheideraSouthAfricaand aidedthewhiteminoritygovernmentsnuclearweaponsprogram.PeterLiberman, IsraelandtheSouthAfricanBomb,TheNonproliferationReview,Vol.11,No.2(Summer 2004),pp.4680.In1954,IsraeliintelligenceforcesbombedaU.S.diplomaticfacilityin CairoinabungledattempttosowdiscordbetweenEgyptandtheUnitedStates.Shlaim, IronWall,pp.110113. 60StevenM.Cohen,The2004NationalSurveyofAmericanJews,sponsoredbytheJewish AgencyforIsraelsDepartmentofJewishZionistEducation,February24,2005.The figuretwoyearsearlierwas28percent.SeeStevenM.Cohen,The2002NationalSurveyof AmericanJews,sponsoredbytheJewishAgencyforIsraelsDepartmentofJewishZionist Education,conductedinNovemberDecember2002.AlsoseeAmiranBarkat,Young AmericanJewsAreMoreAmbivalentTowardIsrael,StudyShows,Haaretz,March7, 2005;StevenM.Cohen,Poll:AttachmentofU.S.JewstoIsraelFallsinPast2Years, Forward,March4,2005;M.J.Rosenberg,LettingIsraelSellItself,IsraelPolicyForum IssueBrief#218,March18,2005.
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J.J.Goldberg,OldFriend,ShatteredDreams,Forward,December24,2004;Esther Kaplan,TheJewishDivideonIsrael,Nation,July12,2004;MichaelMassing, ConservativeJewishGroupsHaveClout,LosAngelesTimes,March10,2002;Eric Yoffie,ReformtheConference,Forward,August2,2002. 62OriNir,FBIProbe:MoreQuestionsThanAnswers.Forward,May13,2005. 63InigoGilmore,U.S.JewishLeaderHitoverLetter,LondonSundayTelegraph,August 12,2003;IsiLiebler,WhenSeymourMetCondi,JerusalemPost,November24,2005. AlsoseeSarahBronson,OrthodoxLeader:U.S.JewsHaveNoRighttoCriticizeIsrael, Haaretz,August2,2004. 64Liebler,WhenSeymourMetCondi;OriNir,O.U.ChiefDecriesAmericanPressure onIsrael,Forward,December2,2005;Idem,RiceTripRaisesConcernoverU.S. PressureonIsrael,Forward,November18,2005;SeymourD.Reich,Listento America,JerusalemPost,November13,2005. 65JeffreyH.Birnbaum,WashingtonsPower25,Fortune,December8,1997.AIPAC wasrankednumber4inasimilarstudyconductedin2001.SeeJeffreyH.Birnbaumand RussellNewell,FatandHappyinD.C.,Fortune,May28,2001. 66RichardE.CohenandPeterBell,CongressionalInsidersPoll,NationalJournal.March 5,2005;JamesD.Besser,MostMuscle?ItsNRA,ThenAIPACandAARP,Chicago JewishStar,March1124,2005. 67SeeMaxBlumenthal,BornAgainsforSharon,salon.com,October30,2004;DarrellL. Bock,SomeChristiansSeeaRoadMaptoEndTimes,LosAngelesTimes,June18, 2003;NathanGuttman,WipingOutTerror,BriningOnRedemption,Haaretz,April 29,2002;TomHamburgerandJimVandeHei,ChosenPeople:HowIsraelBecamea FavoriteCauseofChristianRight,WallStreetJournal,May23,2002;PaulNussbaum, IsraelFindsanAllyinAmericanEvangelicals,PhiladelphiaInquirer,November17, 2005.DanielPipesmaintainsthat,otherthantheIsraelDefenseForces,Americas ChristianZionistsmaybetheJewishstatesultimatestrategicasset.[Christian Zionism:]IsraelsBestWeapon?NewYorkPost,July15,2003. 68TheweaknessofthePalestinianLobbyintheUnitedStatesiscapturedinthe headlinesofthesetwoarticles:NoraBoustany,PalestiniansLoneHandin Washington,WashingtonPost,April,19,2002;GeorgeGedda,PLOLosesD.C.Office BecauseofUnpaidRent,ChicagoTribune,April12,2002.Ontheweakimpactofthe ArabLobby,seeAliA.Mazrui,BetweentheCrescentandtheStarSpangledBanner: AmericanMuslimsandU.S.ForeignPolicy,InternationalAffairs,Vol.72,No.3(July 1996),pp.493506;NabeelA.Khoury,TheArabLobby:ProblemsandProspects,
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MiddleEastJournal,Vol.41,No.3(Summer1987),pp.379396;AndreaBarron,Jewish andArabDiasporasintheUnitedStatesandTheirImpactonU.S.MiddleEastPolicy, inYehudaLukacsandAbdallaM.Battah,eds.,TheArabIsraeliConflict:TwoDecadesof Change(London:Westview,1988),pp.238259. 69JakeTapper,QuestionsforDickArmey:Retiring,NotShy,NewYorkTimesMagazine, September1,2002.Also,TomDeLayhascalledhimselfanIsraeliatheart.SeeJames Bennet,DeLaySaysPalestiniansBearBurdenforAchievingPeace,NewYorkTimes, July30,2003. 70QuotedinMitchellBard,IsraeliLobbyPower,Midstream,Vol.33,No.1(January 1987),pp.68. 71QuotedinEdwardTivnan,TheLobby:JewishPoliticalPowerandAmericanForeignPolicy (NY:SimonandSchuster,1987),p.191.J.J.Goldberg,theeditoroftheForward,saidin 2002,ThereisthisimageinCongressthatyoudontcrossthesepeopleortheytakeyou down.QuotedinJohnDiamondandBriannaB.Piec,ProIsraelGroupsIntensify PoliticalFrontinU.S.,ChicagoTribune,April16,2002. 72QuotedinCamilleMansour,BeyondAlliance:IsraelinU.S.ForeignPolicy,trans.James A.Cohen(NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1994),p.242. 73AlthoughAIPAChasbeenabletouseitspoliticalmuscletoavoidhavingtoregisteras aforeignagentforanothergovernment,itisespeciallyconcernedaboutthatproblem todaybecauseoftheLarryFranklinspyscandal,andthusitisgoingtoconsiderable lengthstoemphasizeitsAmericanside.SeeOriNir,LeadersFearProbeWillForce ProIsraelLobbytoFileasForeignAgentCouldFuelDualLoyaltyTalk,Forward, December31,2004;Idem,LeadersStressAmericanSideofAIPAC,Forward,May27, 2005. 74Sen.HollingsFloorStatementSettingtheRecordStraightonHisMideastNewspaper Column,May20,2004,acopyofwhichcanbefoundontheformerSenatorswebsite. 75PublishedinanAIPACadvertisementintheChicagoJewishStar,August29 September11,2003.SharonisnotaloneinhisappraisalofAIPACspower.Senate MinorityLeaderHarryReidsaysthatIcantthinkofapolicyorganizationinthe countryaswellorganizedorrespected[asAIPAC]andformerHouseSpeakerNewt Gingrichcalleditthemosteffectivegeneralinterestgroup...acrosstheentireplanet. FormerPresidentBillClintondescribedAIPACasstunninglyeffectiveandbetter thananyoneelselobbyinginthistown.QuotationsdownloadedfromtheAIPAC websiteonJanuary14,2005[www.aipac.org/documents/whoweare.html#say].

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ThomasB.EdsallandAlanCooperman,GOPUsesRemarkstoCourtJews, WashingtonPost,March13,2003.AlsoseeJamesD.Besser,JewsPrimaryRole Expanding,JewishWeek,January23,2004;AlexanderBolton,JewishDefectionsIrk Democrats,TheHill,March30,2004;E.J.Kessler,AncientWoesResurfacingasDean EyesTopDemPost,Forward,January28,2005.HamiltonJordanwroteamemorandum toPresidentJimmyCarterinJune1977,inwhichhesaid:Outof125membersofthe DemocraticNationalFinanceCouncil,over70areJewish;In1976,over60%ofthelarge donorstotheDemocraticPartywereJewish;Over60%ofthemoniesraisedbyNixonin 1972wasfromJewishcontributors;Over75%ofthemoniesraisedinHumphreys1968 campaignwasfromJewishcontributors;Over90%ofthemoniesraisedbyScoop JacksonintheDemocraticprimarieswasfromJewishcontributors;Inspiteofthefact thatyouwerealongshotandcamefromanareaofthecountrywherethereisasmaller Jewishcommunity,approximately35%ofourprimaryfundswerefromJewish supporters.Whereverthereismajorpoliticalfundraisinginthiscountry,youwillfind AmericanJewsplayingasignificantrole.HamiltonJordan,ConfidentialFile,Box34, FileForeignPolicy/DomesticPoliticsMemo,HJMemo,6/77,declassifiedJune12, 1990. 77DouglasBrinkley,OutoftheLoop,TheNewYorkTimes,December29,2002. LawrenceKaplanreportsthatafterBruceRiedel,theMiddleEastexpertontheNational SecurityCouncil,lefthisjobattheendof2001,thePentagonhelduptheappointment ofRiedelsdesignatedsuccessor,MiddleEastexpertAlinaRomanowski,whom PentagonofficialssuspectofbeinginsufficientlysupportiveoftheJewishstate. TorpedoBoat:HowBushTurnedonArafat,NewRepublic,February18,2003.The positionwaseventuallyfilledbyElliotAbrams,aferventsupporterofIsrael.Indeed, forthegovernmentofIsrael,NathanGuttmanwrote,itisagiftfromheaven.See FromClemencytoaSeniorPost,Haaretz,December16,2002. 78E.J.Kessler,LiebermanandDeanSparOverIsrael,Forward,September9,2003; StephenZunes,AttacksonDeanExposeDemocratsShifttotheRight,Tikkun, November/December2003. 79Zunes,AttacksonDean;JamesD.Besser,DeansJewishProblem,ChicagoJewish Star,December19,2003January8,2004. 80E.J.Kessler,DeanPlanstoVisitIsrael,PoliticalBaggageinTow,Forward,July8, 2005;Zunes,AttacksonDean. 81LauraBlumenfeld,ThreePeaceSuits;ForThesePassionateAmericanDiplomats,a MiddleEastSettlementistheGoalofaLifetime,WashingtonPost,February24,1997.
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Samuel(Sandy)Berger,PresidentClintonsNationalSecurityAdvisor,reportsthat atonepointduringthenegotiationsatCampDavid(July2000),DennisRossmadethe remarkablecommentthat,IfBarakoffersanythingmore,Illbeagainstthis agreement.UneditedtranscriptofCommentsbySandyBergerattheLaunchofHow IsraelisandPalestiniansNegotiate(USIPPress,2005),U.S.InstituteofPeace,Washington, DC,June7,2005. 83QuotedinBlumenfeld,ThreePeaceSuits. 84EricAlterman,IntractableFoes,WarringNarratives,MSNBC.com,March28,2002. 85QuotedinBretStephens,EyeontheMediabyBretStephens:BartleysJournal, JerusalemPost,November21,2002. 86MaxFrankel,TheTimesofMyLifeAndMyLifewiththeTimes(NY:RandomHouse, 1999),pp.401403. 87FelicityBarringer,SomeU.S.BackersofIsraelBoycottDailiesOverMideastCoverage ThatTheyDeplore,NewYorkTimes,May23,2002. 88Barringer,SomeU.S.Backers;GabyWenig,NPRIsraelCoverageSparksProtests, TheJewishJournalofGreaterLosAngeles,May9,2003;GilaWertheimer,NPRDismisses ProtestRallies,ChicagoJewishStar,May30June12,2003.AlsoseeJamesD.Besser, NPRRadioWarsPuttingJewishGroupsinaBind,JewishWeek,May20,2005;Samuel Freedman,FromBalancetoCensorship:BushsCynicalPlanforNPR,Forward,May 27,2005;NathanGuttman,EnoughAlreadyfromThoseProIsraelNudniks,Haaretz, February1,2005;E.J.Kessler,HotSeatExpectedforNewChairofCorporationfor PublicBroadcasting,Forward,October28,2005. 89JoelBeinin,Money,MediaandPolicyConsensus:TheWashingtonInstituteforNear EastPolicy,MiddleEastReport,JanuaryFebruary1993,pp.1015;MarkH.Milstein, WashingtonInstituteforNearEastPolicy:AnAIPACImageProblem,Washington ReportonMiddleEastAffairs,July1991. 90QuotedinMilstein,WashingtonInstitute. 91BrookingsAnnouncesNewSabanCenterforMiddleEastPolicy,Brookings InstitutionPressRelease,May9,2002;AndrewRossSorkin,SchleppingtoMoguldom, NewYorkTimes,September5,2004. 92JamesD.Besser,TurningupHeatinCampusWars,JewishWeek,July25,2003; RonaldS.LauderandJaySchottenstein,BacktoSchoolforIsraelAdvocacy,Forward,
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November14,2003;RachelPomerance,IsraelForcesWinningCampusBattle,Say StudentsAttendingAIPACMeeting,JTA,December31,2002.Jewishgroupsarealso targetinghighschools.SeeMaxGross,IsraelAdvocacyCoalitionTargetingHigh Schools,Forward,January23,2004;NewProIsraelCampaignTargetsHighSchool Students,JTA,June2,2004. 93Besser,TurningupHeat.In2002and2003,AIPACbrought240collegestudentsto Washington,DCforintensiveadvocacytraining,sendingthembacktoschooltowin overcampusleaderstoIsraelscause.Besser,TurningupHeat;Pomerance,Israel ForcesWinning.Inthespringof2005,ithosted100studentgovernmentpresidents(80 ofwhomwerenotJewish)atitsannualconference.NathanielPopper,ProIsrael Groups:CampusesImproving,Forward,June24,2005. 94MichaelDobbs,MiddleEastStudiesunderScrutinyinU.S.,WashingtonPost, January13,2004;MicheleGoldberg,OsamaUniversity?Salon.com,November6,2003; KristineMcNeil,TheWaronAcademicFreedom,Nation,November11,2002;Zachary Lockman,BehindtheBattleoverUSMiddleEastPolicy,MiddleEastReportOnline, January2004. 95JonathanR.Cole,ThePatriotActonCampus:DefendingtheUniversityPost9/11, BostonReview,Summer2003. 96ChanakyaSethi,KhalidiCandidacyforNewChairDrawsFire,DailyPrincetonian, April22,2005;Idem,DebateGrowsoverKhalidiCandidacy,DailyPrincetonian,April 28,2005. 97RobertGaines,TheBattleatColumbiaUniversity,WashingtonReportonMiddleEast Affairs,April2005,pp.5657;CarolineGlick,OurWorld:TheColumbiaDisaster, JerusalemPost,April4,2005;JosephMassad,WitchHuntatColumbia:Targetingthe University,CounterPunch,June3,2005;NathanielPopper,ColumbiaStudentsSay FirestormBlursCampusReality,Forward,February11,2005;ScottSherman,The MideastComestoColumbia,Nation,April4,2005;ChananWeissman,Columbia Unbecoming,JerusalemPost,February6,2005. 98ColumbiaUniversityAdHocGrievanceCommittee,FinalReport,NewYork,28 March2005(excerpts),inJournalofPalestineStudies,Vol.34,No.4(Summer2005),pp. 90100. 99Goldberg,OsamaUniversity?;RonKampeas,CampusOversightPassesSenateas ReviewEffortScoresaVictory,JTA,November22,2005;StanleyKurtz,Reformingthe Campus:CongressTargetsTitleVI,NationalReviewOnline,October14,2003;McNeil, WaronAcademicFreedom;OriNir,GroupsBackBilltoMonitorUniversities,

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Forward,March12,2004;SaraRoy,ShortCuts,LondonReviewofBooks,April1,2004; AndersStrindberg,TheNewCommissars,AmericanConservative,February2,2004. 100Thenumber130comesfromMitchellG.Bard,TenuredorTenuous:Definingthe RoleofFacultyinSupportingIsraelonCampus,ReportpublishedbyTheIsraelon CampusCoalitionandTheAmericanIsraeliCooperativeEnterprise,May2004,p.11. AlsoseeNachaCattan,NYUCenter:NewAdditiontoGrowingAcademicField, Forward,May2,2003;SamuelG.Freedman,SeparatingthePoliticalMythsfromthe FactsinIsraelStudies,NewYorkTimes,February16,2005;JenniferJacobson,The PoliticsofIsraelStudies,ChronicleofHigherEducation,June24,2005,pp.1012;Michael C.Kotzin,TheJewishCommunityandtheIvoryTower:AnUrgentNeedforIsrael Studies,Forward,January30,2004;NathanielPopper,IsraelStudiesGainonCampus asDisputesGrow,Forward,March25,2005. 101QuotedinCattan,NYUCenter. 102JonathanKessler,ProIsraelActivismMakesComebackonCampus,Forward, December26,2003;Popper,CampusesImproving;BarrySilvermanandRandall Kaplan,ProIsraelCollegeActivistsQuietlySuccessfulonCampus,JTA,May9,2005; ChananTigay,AsStudentsReturntoCampus,ActivistsPrepareaNewApproach, JTA,September1,2005.Nevertheless,therearelimitstotheLobbyseffectivenesson campuses.SeeJoeEskenazi,Book:CollegeCampusesQuiet,butAntiIsraelFeelingIs Growing,JTA,November29,2005;GaryRosenblatt,U.S.GradStudentsSeenHostile toIsrael,JewishWeek,June17,2005. 103QuotedinTonyJudt,GoodbyetoAllThat?Nation,January3,2005. 104AntiDefamationLeague(ADL),AttitudestowardJews,IsraelandthePalestinian IsraeliConflictinTenEuropeanCountries,April2004;ThePewGlobalAttitudes Project,AYearAfterIraqWar:MistrustofAmericainEuropeEvenHigher,MuslimAnger Persists(Washington,DC:ThePewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress,March 16,2004),pp.45,26.OntheADLsurvey,seeADLSurveyFindsSomeDecreasein AntiSemiticAttitudesinTenEuropeanCountries,ADLPressRelease,April26,2004; ShlomoShamir,PollShowsDecreaseinAntiSemiticViewsinEurope,Haaretz,April 27,2004.ThesefindingshadvirtuallynoeffectonproIsraelpundits,whocontinuedto arguethatantiSemitismwasrampantinEurope.See,forexample,DanielJ.Goldhagen, EuropesToothlessReplytoAntiSemitism:ConferenceFailstoBuildToolstoFighta RisingSicknessLosAngelesTimes,April30,2004;CharlesKrauthammer,TheReal MideastPoison,WashingtonPost,April30,2004. 105MartinPeretz,theeditorinchiefoftheNewRepublic,says,Theheadquartersofanti SemiticEuropetoday,justasduringtheThirdRepublic,isParis.CambridgeDiarist:

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Regrets,NewRepublic,April22,2002,p.50.ThedatainthisparagrapharefromAnti SemitisminEurope:IsItReallyRising?Economist,May4,2002. 106QuotedinMarcPerelman,CommunityHead:FranceNoMoreAntisemiticThan U.S.,Forward,August1,2003.AlsoseeFrancoisBujondelEstang,ASlanderon France,WashingtonPost,June22,2002;FrenchPresidentAccusesIsraelofConducting AntiFrenchCampaign,Haaretz,May12,2002. 107FrenchPolice:AntiSemitisminFranceSharplyDecreasedin2005,Haaretz,January 19,2006. 108FrenchProtestforMurderedJew,BBCNewsOnline,February26,2006;Michel Zlotowski,LargeMemorialHeldforParisianJew,JerusalemPost,February23,2006. 109AviBeker,TheEternallyOpenGate,Haaretz,January11,2005;JosefJoffe,A Boom,ifNotARenaissance,inModernDayGermany,Forward,July25,2003; NathanielPopper,ImmigrantPolicyEyedasGermanCommunitySwells,Forward, July25,2003;EliahuSalpeter,JewsfromtheCISPreferGermanytotheJewishState, Haaretz,May28,2005.Also,theTimesofLondonreportedinthespringof2005,that, Anestimated100,000JewshavereturnedtoRussiainthepastfewyears,sparkinga dramaticrenaissanceofJewishlifeinacountrywithalonghistoryofantiSemitism. JeremyPage,OnceDesperatetoLeave,NowJewsAreReturningtoRussia,Landof Opportunity,Times,April28,2005.AlsoseeLevKrichevsky,Poll:RussiansDont DislikeJews,andMoreAreagainstAntiSemitism,JTA,February2,2006. 110ThechairmanoftheEducationDepartmentoftheJewishAgencyrecentlysaidthat presentdayviolentantiSemitismoriginatesfromtwoseparatesources:radical IslamistsintheMiddleEastandWesternEuropeaswellastheneoNaziyouthelement inEasternEuropeandLatinAmerica.JonathanSchneider,AntiSemitismStillaWorld Problem,JerusalemPost,January26,2006. 111IntheADLsApril2004survey,AttitudestowardJews,IsraelandthePalestinian IsraeliConflictinTenEuropeanCountries,thefollowingquestionwasasked:Inyour opinion,isitveryimportant,somewhatimportant,somewhatunimportantornot importantatallforourgovernmenttotakearoleincombatingantiSemitisminour country?ThepercentagesforthosewhostronglyagreeorsomewhatagreewereItaly (92),Britain(83),Netherlands(83),France(82),Germany(81),Belgium(81),Denmark (79),Austria(76),Switzerland(74),Spain(73).Seep.19. 112PhyllisChesler,TheNewAntiSemitism:TheCurrentCrisisandWhatWeMustDoabout It(SanFrancisco:JosseyBass,2003);HillelHalkin,TheReturnofAntiSemitism:ToBe againstIsraelIstoBeagainsttheJews,WallStreetJournal,February5,2002;Barry

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KosminandPaulIganski,JudeophobiaNotYourParentsAntiSemitism,Haaretz, June3,2003;AmnonRubinstein,FightingtheNewAntiSemitism,Haaretz,December 2,2003;GabrielSchoenfeld,TheReturnofAntiSemitism(SanFrancisco:EncounterBooks, 2003);NatanSharansky,AntiSemitismisourProblem,Haaretz,August10,2003;Yair Sheleg.AWorldCleansedoftheJewishState,Haaretz.April18,2002;YairSheleg, Enemies,aPostNationalStory,Haaretz,March8,2003.Forcriticismofthis perspective,seeAkivaEldar,AntiSemitismCanBeSelfServing,Haaretz,May3, 2002;BrianKlug,TheMythoftheNewAntiSemitism,Nation,February2,2004;Ralph Nader,CriticizingIsraelisNotAntiSemitism,CounterPunch,October16/17,2004; HenriPicciottoandMitchellPlitnick,eds.,ReframingAntiSemitism:AlternativeJewish Perspectives(Oakland,CA:JewishVoiceforPeace,2004);andespeciallyFinkelstein, BeyondChutzpah,chapters13. 113HelenNugent,ChiefRabbiFlaysChurchoverVoteonIsraelAssets,TimesOnline, February17,2006.AlsoseeBillBowder,SacksSeeksTalksafterSynodVoteon Disinvestment,ChurchTimes,February24,2006;BulldozerMotionBasedon Ignorance,inibid;RuthGledhill,ChurchUrgedtoReconsiderInvestmentswith Israel,TimesOnline,May28,2005;IreneLancaster,AnglicansHaveBetrayedthe Jews,DownloadedfromMorielMinistries(UK)website,February20,2006;U.K.Chief RabbiAttacksAnglicansoverIsraelDivestmentVote,Haaretz,February17,2006. 114ThattheChurchofEnglandwasmerelycriticizingIsraelipolicyandnotengagingin antiSemitismisclearlyreflectedintheFebruary10,2006letterthattheArchbishopof Canterbury(Dr.RowanWilliams)senttoEnglandsChiefRabbi(JonathanSacks) explainingtheChurchsdecisionondivestment.Foracopyoftheletter,see Archbishop:SynodCallWasExpressionofConcern,February10,2006,Downloaded fromChurchofEnglandwebsite,February20,2006. 115StevenKull(PrincipalInvestigator),AmericansontheMiddleEastRoadMap(Program onInternationalPolicyAttitudes,UniversityofMaryland,May30,2003),pp.911,1819. AlsoseeStevenKulletal.,AmericansontheIsraeliPalestinianConflict(Programon InternationalPolicyAttitudes,UniversityofMaryland,May6,2002).A2005Anti DefamationLeaguepublicopinionsurveyfoundthat78percentofAmericansbelieve thattheirgovernmentshouldfavorneitherIsraelnorthePalestinians.American AttitudestowardIsraelandtheMiddleEast,SurveyconductedonMarch1825,2005, andJune1923,2005,bytheMarttilaCommunicationsGroupfortheAntiDefamation League. 116RobertG.Kaiser,BushandSharonNearlyIdenticalonMideastPolicy,Washington Post,February9,2003.

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LeeHockstaderandDanielWilliams,IsraelSaysItWontPayPriceofCoalition, WashingtonPost,September18,2001;JonathanKarp,SharonCancelsPeaceTalksin RebufftoU.S.Concerns,WallStreetJournal,September24,2001;ThomasOliphant,A DelicateBalance,BostonGlobe,September18,2001:IsraelsOpportunity,LosAngeles Timeseditorial,September18,2001. 118KurtEichenwald,U.S.JewsSplitonWashingtonsShiftonPalestinianState,New YorkTimes,October5,2001.Atthesametime,PrimeMinisterTonyBlairmadeBritains strongestendorsementyetofPalestinianstatehood.MichaelDobbs,BlairBacks CreationofPalestinianState,WashingtonPost,October16,2001. 119JamesBennet,SharonInvokesMunichinWarningU.S.onAppeasement,New YorkTimes,October5,2001;JanePerlezandandKatharineQ.Seelye.U.S.Stongly RebukesSharonforCriticismofBush,CallingitUnacceptable.NewYorkTimes October6,2001;ShlomoShamir,U.S.Jews:SharonisWorriedbyTerrorism Distinction,Haaretz,September18,2001;AlanSipressandLeeHockstader,Sharon SpeechRilesU.S.,WashingtonPost,October6,2001.ForevidencethatotherIsraelis sharedSharonsfears,seeIsraelHarel,LessonsfromtheNextWar,Haaretz,October 6,2001. 120JackDonnelly,NationSettoPushSharononAgreement,BostonGlobe,October10, 2001;HockstaderandSipress,SharonSpeechRilesU.S.;PerlezandSeelye.U.S. StronglyRebukesSharon. 121LeeHockstader,SharonApologeticoverRowwithU.S.,WashingtonPost,October7, 2001;SergeSchmemann,RaisingMunich,SharonRevealsIsraeliQualms,NewYork Times,October6,2001. 122AlufBenn,Analysis:ClutchingatStraws,Haaretz,September18,2001;Excerpts fromTalkbySharon,NewYorkTimes,December4,2001;WilliamSafire,Israelor Arafat,NewYorkTimes,December3,2001. 123ElaineSciolino,SenatorsUrgeBushNottoHamperIsrael,NewYorkTimes, November17,2001. 124DanaMilbank,BushSpokesmanGentleonIsraeliAssault,WashingtonPost, December3,2001;Safire,IsraelorArafat;DavidSanger,U.S.WalksaTightropeon TerrorisminIsrael,NewYorkTimes,December4,2001. 125KeithB.RichburgandMollyMoore,IsraelRejectsDemandstoWithdrawTroops, WashingtonPost,April11,2002.AllquotesinthisparagrapharefromFareedZakaria, ColinPowellsHumiliation:BushShouldClearlySupportHisSecretaryofState
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OtherwiseHeShouldGetaNewOne,Newsweek,April29,2002.AlsoseeMikeAllen andJohnLancaster,DefiantSharonLosingSupportinWhiteHouse,WashingtonPost, April11,2002,whichdescribestheBushAdministrationsangerwithSharon. 126ItisworthnotingthattheAmericanpeopleweregenerallysupportiveofBushs effortstoputpressureonIsraelinthespringof2002.ATime/CNNpolltakenonApril 1011foundthat60percentofAmericansfeltthatU.S.aidtoIsraelshouldbecutoffor reducedifSharonrefusedtowithdrawfromthePalestinianareashehadrecently occupied.Poll:AmericansSupportCuttingAidtoIsrael,ReutersNewsRelease,April 12,2002;AFPNewsRelease,April13,2002.AlsoseeIsraelandthePalestinians(Program onInternationalPolicyAttitudes,UniversityofMaryland,lastupdatedonAugust15, 2002).Moreover,75percentofthosesurveyedthoughtthatPowellshouldmeetwith ArafatwhenhevisitedIsrael.RegardingSharon,only35percentfoundhim trustworthy,while35percentthoughthewasawarmonger,20percentsawhimasa terrorist,and25percentconsideredhimanenemyoftheUnitedStates. 127WilliamKristolandRobertKagan,SeniorWhiteHouseAides:SpeakUp!Weekly Standard,April11,2002.ForagraphicdescriptionoftheheatthattheLobbyputon PowellwhenhewasintheMiddleEast,seeBobWoodward,BushatWar(NewYork: SimonandSchuster,2002),pp.323326.AlsoseeJohnSimpson,IsraeliLeaderHas MorePowerinWashingtonthanPowell,SundayTelegraph(London),April14,2002, whichdescribesajointpressconferencePowellandSharonconductedbynotingthat: theSecretaryofStateslanguage,bodyandverbal,certainlywerenotthatofthe paymastercomingtocallaclienttoaccount.Farfromit.Mr.Powellseemedingratiating, deferential;nodoubtherealizeshowmuchsupportMr.SharonhasbackinWashington andhowmuchinfluencehisfriendshavetherewiththePresident.Itisalsoworth notingthatformerIsraeliPrimeMinisterBenjaminNetanyahu,whowasmakingIsraels caseintheUnitedStatesatthetime,saidevenbeforePowellarrivedinIsraelthathis tripwontamounttoanything.ElaineSciolino,NetanyahuSaysPowellMission WontAmounttoAnythingandUrgesArafatsExile,NewYorkTimes,April11,2002. 128JamesD.Besser,NoTennesseeWaltz,JewishWeek,December27,2002.Alsosee MikeAllenandJulietEilperin,WhiteHouseandDeLayatOdds,WashingtonPost April26,2002;JudithEilperinandHelenDewar,LawmakersEndorseIsraels Offensive,WashingtonPost,May3,2002.Bushwasfeelingintensepressurenotjust fromlawmakers,butfromJewishleadersandChristianEvangelicals.SeeMikeAllen andJohnLancaster,DefiantSharonLosingSupportinWhiteHouse,WashingtonPost, April11,2002;DanBalz,BushStatementonMideastReflectsTensioninGOP, WashingtonPost,April7,2003;ElisabethBumiller,BushSendsAidetoSpeakatRallyto QuellaGrowingFuror,NewYorkTimes,April16,2002;BradleyBurston,Background: CanBushAffordtoPressSharonforPeace?Haaretz,May6,2002;AkivaEldar,Bush andIsrael,1991and2002,Haaretz,May6,2002;AlisonMitchell,U.S.PoliticalLeaders

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SeekUnityonMideast,forNow,WashingtonPost,April12,2002;WilliamSafire,On BeinganAlly,NewYorkTimes,April11,2002;AlanSipress,PolicyDivideThwarts PowellinMideastEffort,WashingtonPost,April26,2002;andAlanSipressandKaren DeYoung,U.S.PressesAheadwithPeaceEfforts,WashingtonPost,May9,2002. 129RandallMikkelsen,WhiteHouseCallsSharonManofPeace,Reuters,April11, 2002;BillSammon,WhiteHouseSoftensTonewithIsrael,WashingtonTimes,April12, 2002. 130PeterSlevinandMikeAllen,Bush:SharonAManofPeace,WashingtonPost,April 19,2002;DavidSanger,PresidentPraisesEffortbyPowellintheMiddleEast,New YorkTimes,April19,2002.Foratranscriptofthepressconference,seePresidentBush, SecretaryPowellDiscussMiddleEast,WhiteHouse,OfficeofthePressSecretary,April 18,2002. 131EilperinandDewar,LawmakersEndorseIsraelsOffensive;JulietEilperinand MikeAllen,HillLeadersPlanVotesonProIsraelRelations,WashingtonPost,May2, 2002;AlisonMitchell,HouseandSenateSupportIsraelinStrongResolutions,New YorkTimes,May3,2002.Forcopiesofthetworesolutions,see2ResolutionsExpressing SolidaritywithIsrael,NewYorkTimes,May3,2002.AlsoseeMatthewE.Berger,Bills inCongressBoostIsrael,TreatArafatasTerrorist,JewishBulletin,April26,2002. 132AriehOSullivan,VisitingCongressmenAdviseIsraeltoResistAdministration PressuretoDealwithArafat,JerusalemPostMay6,2002. 133EliLake,IsraeliLobbyWins$200MillionFight,UnitedPressInternational,May11, 2002. 134QuotedinJeffersonMorley,WhosinCharge?WashingtonPost,April26,2002.As AkivaEldarnotedjustbeforeSharonsteamrolledBush,Sharonhasalotofexperience stickingittotheAmericans.Ultimately,whetheritwasPalestinianterror,Arafats mistakes,ordomesticpolitics,theAmericansweresenttothepeanutgallery.Seehis WordsAreNotEnough,Haaretz,April8,2002.NorwasBushshumiliationloston commentatorsaroundtheworld.Spainsleadingdaily,ElPais,expressedtheviewsof manyoutsideobserverswhenitcommented,Ifacountrysweightismeasuredbyits degreeofinfluenceonevents,thesuperpowerisnottheUSAbutIsrael.Quotedin Morley,WhosinCharge? 135BradleyBurston,HamasRUs,Haaretz,January18,2006;AkivaEldar,Kadimato ANewMiddleEast,Haaretz,December19,2005;Idem,WhoNeedsAbuMazen? Haaretz,November7,2005;RanHaCohen,HamasandIsrael:RivalTwins, AntiWar.com,February6,2006;M.J.Rosenberg,NoPartnerAsAlways,IPFFriday,

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IssueNo.260,February3,2006;DannyRubenstein,AllWeDidWasSwitchtheNon Partner,Haaretz,February5,2006;DisarrayAmongthePalestinians,NewYorkTimes editorial,January17,2006. 136RegardingtheviewsofpreviousPresidents,seeClydeR.Mark,IsraeliUnitedStates Relations,IssueBriefforCongress(Washington,DC:CongressionalResearchService, August29,2002),p.7.OnApril14,2004,Bushbrokewithhispredecessorsand proclaimedthatIsraelwouldnothavetoreturnalloftheterritoriesthatitoccupiedin 1967,andthatPalestinianrefugeeswouldnotbeallowedtoreturntotheirformerhomes inIsrael,butwouldhavetosettleinanewPalestinianstate.SeeStatementbythe PresidentRegardingIsraelArabPeaceProcess,April14,2004;andPresidentBushs LettertoPrimeMinisterSharon,April14,2004. 137USScowcroftCriticizesBushAdminsForeignPolicy,FinancialTimes,October13, 2004.AlsoseeGlennKessler,ScowcroftisCriticalofBush,WashingtonPost,October 16,2004. 138OnKerry,seeGadiDechter,Analysis:PresidentKerryonIsrael,UnitedPress Internationalpressrelease,July9,2004;NathanGuttman,KerryPositionPaperOutlines SupportforIsrael,Haaretz,July2,2004:NathanGuttman,KerryJumpsonSharon BandwagoninFavoringGazaDisengagementPlan,Haaretz,April25,2004.On Clinton,seeAdamDickter,Hillary:IHadALottoProve,JewishWeek,November18, 2005;KristenLombardi,HillaryCallsIsraelaBeaconofDemocracy,VillageVoice, December11,2005;SoniaVerma,ClintonStressedU.S.IsraelCoalition,Newsday, November15,2005;RachelZabarkesFriedman,SenatorIsrael,NationalReviewOnline, May25,2005. 139EmadMekay,IraqWasInvadedtoProtectIsraelUSOfficial,AsiaTimesOnline, March31,2004.ZelikowalsoservedwithRiceontheNationalSecurityCouncilwhen GeorgeH.W.BushwasPresident,andcoauthoredabookwithheronGerman reunification.HewasalsooneoftheprincipalauthorsofthesecondBush Administrations2002NationalSecurityStrategy,whichisthemostcomprehensive officialpresentationofthesocalledBushDoctrine. 140JasonKeyser,IsraelUrgesU.S.toAttack,WashingtonPost,August16,2002.Alsosee AlufBenn,PMUrgingU.S.NottoDelayStrikeagainstIraq,Haaretz,August16,2002; Idem,PMAide:DelayinU.S.AttackLetsIraqSpeedUpArmsProgram,Haaretz, August16,2002;ReuvenPedhatzur,IsraelsInterestintheWaronSaddam,Haaretz, August4,2002;ZeevSchiff,IntotheRough,Haaretz,August16,2002. 141GideonAlon,SharontoPanel:IraqisOurBiggestDanger,Haaretz,August13, 2002.AtaWhiteHousepressconferencewithPresidentBushonOctober16,2002,

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Sharonsaid:Iwouldliketothankyou,Mr.President,forthefriendshipand cooperation.AndasfarasIremember,aswelookbacktowardsmanyyearsnow,I thinkthatweneverhadsuchrelationswithanyPresidentoftheUnitedStatesaswe havewithyou,andweneverhadsuchcooperationineverythingaswehavewiththe currentadministration.Foratranscriptofthepressconference,seePresidentBush WelcomesPrimeMinisterSharontoWhiteHouse;QuestionandAnswerSessionwith thePress,U.S.DepartmentofState,October16,2002.AlsoseeKaiser,Bushand SharonNearlyIdenticalonMideastPolicy. 142ShlomoBrom,AnIntelligenceFailure,StrategicAssessment(JaffeeCenterfor StrategicStudies,TelAvivUniversity),Vol.6,No.3(November2003),p.9.Alsosee IntelligenceAssessment:SelectionsfromtheMedia,19982003,inibid.,pp.1719; GideonAlon,ReportSlamsAssessmentofDangersPosedbyLibya,Iraq,Haaretz, March28,2004;DanBaron,IsraeliReportBlastsIntelligenceforExaggeratingtheIraqi Threat,JTA,March28,2004;GregMyre,IsraeliReportFaultsIntelligenceonIraq, NewYorkTimes,March28,2004;JamesRisen,StateofWar:TheSecretHistoryoftheCIA andtheBushAdministration(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2006),pp.7273. 143MarcPerelman,IraqiMovePutsIsraelinLonelyU.S.Corner,Forward,September 20,2002.Thisarticlebegins,SaddamHusseinssurpriseacceptanceofunconditional UnitedNationsweaponsinspectionsputIsraelonthehotseatthisweek,forcingitinto theopenastheonlynationactivelysupportingtheBushadministrationsgoalofIraqi regimechange.PeresbecamesofrustratedwiththeUNprocessinthefollowing monthsthatinmidFebruary2003helashedoutattheFrenchbyquestioningFrances statusasapermanentmemberoftheSecurityCouncil.PeresQuestionsFrance PermanentStatusonSecurityCouncil,Haaretz,February20,2003.Onavisitto MoscowinlateSeptember2002,SharonmadeitcleartoRussianPresidentPutin,who wasleadingthechargefornewinspections,thatthetimewhentheseinspectorscould havebeeneffectivehaspassed.HerbKeinon,SharontoPutin:TooLateforIraqArms Inspection,JerusalemPost,October1,2002. 144EhudBarak,TakingApartIraqsNuclearThreat,NewYorkTimes,September4, 2002. 145BenjaminNetanyahu,TheCaseforTopplingSaddam,WallStreetJournal, September20,2002.TheJerusalemPostwasparticularlyhawkishonIraq,frequently runningeditorialsandopedspromotingthewar,andhardlyeverrunningpieces againstit.RepresentativeeditorialsincludeNextStopBaghdad,JerusalemPost, November15,2001;DontWaitforSaddam,JerusalemPost,August18,2002;Making theCaseforWar,JerusalemPost,September9,2002.Forsomerepresentativeopeds, seeRonDermer,TheMarchtoBaghdad,JerusalemPost,December21,2001;Efraim

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Inbar,OustingSaddam,InstillingStability,JerusalemPost,October8,2002;GeraldM. Steinberg,ImaginingtheLiberationofIraq,JerusalemPost,November18,2001. 146AlufBenn,Background:EnthusiasticIDFAwaitsWarinIraq,Haaretz,February17, 2002.AlsoseeJamesBennet,IsraelSaysWaronIraqWouldBenefittheRegion,New YorkTimes,February27,2003;ChemiShalev,JerusalemFretsAsU.S.BattlesIraqWar Delays,Forward,March7,2003. 147Indeed,aFebruary2003pollreportedthat77.5percentofIsraeliJewswantedthe UnitedStatestoattackIraq.EphraimYaarandTamarHermann,PeaceIndex:Most IsraelisSupporttheAttackonIraq,Haaretz,March6,2003.RegardingKuwait,a publicopinionpollreleasedinMarch2003foundthat89.6percentofKuwaitisfavored theimpendingwaragainstIraq.JamesMorrison,KuwaitisSupportWar,Washington Times,March18,2003. 148GideonLevy,ADeafeningSilence,Haaretz,October6,2002. 149SeeDanIzenberg,ForeignMinistryWarnsIsraeliWarTalkFuelsUSAnti Semitism,JerusalemPost,March10,2003,whichmakesclearthattheForeignMinistry hasreceivedreportsfromtheUStellingIsraelistocooltheirjetsbecausetheUS mediaisportrayingIsraelastryingtogoadtheadministrationintowar.Thereisalso evidencethatIsraelitselfwasconcernedaboutbeingseenasdrivingAmericanpolicy towardIraq.SeeBenn,PMUrgingU.S.NottoDelayStrike;Perelman,IraqMove PutsIsraelinLonelyU.S.Corner.Finally,inlateSeptember2002,agroupofpolitical consultantsknownastheIsraelProjecttoldproIsraelleadersintheUnitedStatesto keepquietwhiletheBushadministrationpursesapossiblewarwithIraq.Dana Milbank,GroupUrgesProIsraelLeadersSilenceonIraq,WashingtonPost,November 27,2002.
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Theinfluenceoftheneoconservativesandtheiralliesisclearlyreflectedinthe followingarticles:SeeJoelBeinin,ProIsraelHawksandtheSecondGulfWar,Middle EastReportOnline,April6,2003;ElisabethBumillerandEricSchmitt,OntheJobandat Home,InfluentialHawks30YearFriendshipEvolves,NewYorkTimes,September11, 2002;KathleenandWilliamChristison,ARosebyAnotherName:TheBush AdministrationsDualLoyalties,CounterPunch,December13,2002;RobertDreyfuss, ThePentagonMuzzlestheCIA,TheAmericanProspect,December16,2002;Michael ElliottandJamesCarney,FirstStop,Iraq,Time,March31,2003;SeymourHersh,The IraqHawks,NewYorker,Vol.77,issue41(December2431,2001),pp.5863;Glenn Kessler,U.S.DecisiononIraqHasPuzzlingPast,WashingtonPost,January12,2003; JoshuaM.Marshall,BombSaddam?WashingtonMonthly,June2002;DanaMilbank, WhiteHousePushforIraqiStrikeIsonHold,WashingtonPost,August18,2002;Susan

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Page,ShowdownwithSaddam:TheDecisiontoAct,USAToday,September11,2002; SamTanenhaus,BushsBrainTrust,VanityFair,July2003.Notethatallthesearticles arefrombeforethewarstarted. 151SeeMortimerB.Zuckerman,NoTimeforEquivocation,U.S.News&WorldReport, August26/September2,2002;Idem,ClearandCompellingProof,U.S.News&World Report,February10,2003;Idem,TheHighPriceofWaiting,U.S.News&WorldReport, March10,2003. 152AnUnseemlySilence,Forward,May7,2004.AlsoseeGaryRosenblatt,Hussein Asylum,JewishWeek,August23,2002;Idem,TheCaseforWaragainstSaddam, JewishWeek,December13,2002. 153JustbeforetheU.S.militaryinvadedIraq,CongressmanJamesP.Moran(DVa) createdastirwhenhesaid,IfitwerenotforthestrongsupportoftheJewish communityforthiswarwithIraq,wewouldnotbedoingthis.SpencerS.Hsu,Moran SaidJewsArePushingWar,WashingtonPost,March11,2003.However,Moran misspoke,becausetherewasnotwidespreadsupportforthewarintheJewish community.Heshouldhavesaid,Ifitwerenotforthestrongsupportofthe neoconservativesandtheleadershipoftheIsraelLobbyforthiswarwithIraq,wewould notbedoingthis. 154SamuelG.Freedman,DontBlameJewsforThisWar,USAToday,April2,2003. AlsoseeOriNir,PollFindsJewishPoliticalGap,Forward,February4,2005. Itisnoexaggerationtosaythatinthewakeof9/11,theneoconservativeswerenot justdetermined,butwereobsessedwithremovingSaddamfrompower.Asonesenior AdministrationfigureputitinJanuary,2003,Idobelievecertainpeoplehavegrown theologicalaboutthis.Itsalmostareligionthatitwillbetheendofoursocietyifwe donttakeactionnow.Kessler,U.S.DecisiononIraqHasPuzzlingPast.Kessleralso describesColinPowellreturningfromWhiteHousemeetingsonIraq,rollinghiseyes andsaying,Jeez,whatafixationaboutIraq.BobWoodwardreportsinPlanofAttack (NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2004),p.410,thatKennethAdelmansaidhehad worriedtodeathastimewentonandsupportseemedtowanethattherewouldbeno war.Alsoseeibid.,pp.164165. 156Thefirstletter(January26,1998)waswrittenundertheauspicesoftheProjectforthe NewAmericanCenturyandcanbefoundonitswebsite.Thesecondletter(February 19,1998)waswrittenundertheauspicesoftheCommitteeforPeaceandSecurityinthe GulfandcanbefoundontheIraqWatchwebsite.AlsoseetheMay29,1998letterto SpeakeroftheHouseNewtGingrichandSenateMajorityLeaderTrentLottwritten
155

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undertheauspicesoftheProjectfortheNewAmericanCenturyandfoundonits website.Theneoconservatives,itshouldbeemphasized,advocatedinvadingIraqto toppleSaddam.SeeTheEndofContainment,WeeklyStandard,December1,1997,pp. 1314;ZalmayM.KhalizadandPaulWolfowitz,OverthrowHim,inibid.,pp.1415; FrederickW.Kagan,NotbyAirAlone,inibid.,pp.1516. 157SeeClintonscommentsafterhesignedtheIraqLiberationActof1998.Statement bythePresident,WhiteHousePressOffice,October31,1998. 158Onemightthinkfromthepublicityandthecontroversysurroundingtwobooks publishedin2004RichardClarkesAgainstAllEnemies:InsideAmericasWaronTerror (NewYork:FreePress,2004)andRonSuskind,ThePriceofLoyalty:GeorgeW.Bush,the WhiteHouse,andtheEducationofPaulONeill(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2004) thatBushandCheneywerebentoninvadingIraqwhentheyassumedofficeinlate January2001.However,thisinterpretationiswrong.Theyweredeeplyinterestedin topplingSaddam,justasBillClintonandAlGorehadbeen.Butthereisnoevidencein thepublicrecordshowingthatBushandCheneywereseriouslycontemplatingwar againstIraqbefore9/11.Infact,BushmadeitcleartoBobWoodwardthathewasnot thinkingaboutgoingtowaragainstSaddambefore9/11.SeePlanofAttack,p.12.Also seeNicholasLehmann,TheIraqFactor,NewYorker,Vol.76,issue43(January22, 2001),pp.3448;EricSchmittandStevenLeeMeyers,BushAdministrationWarnsIraq onWeaponsPrograms,NewYorkTimes,January23,2001.AndCheneyhaddefended thedecisionnottogotoBaghdadthroughoutthe1990sandduringthe2000campaign. SeeTimothyNoah,DickCheney,Dove,Slate,October16,2002;CalmafterDesert Storm,AnInterviewwithDickCheney,PolicyReview,No.65(Summer1993).Inshort, eventhoughtheneoconservativesheldimportantpositionsintheBushAdministration, theywereunabletogeneratemuchenthusiasmforattackingIraqbefore9/11.Thus,the NewYorkTimesreportedinMarch2001thatsomeRepublicanswerecomplainingthat RumsfeldandWolfowitzarefailingtoliveuptotheirpreelectionadvocacyof steppingupeffortstooverthrowPresidentHussein.Atthesametime,aWashington Timeseditorialasked,HaveHawksBecomeDoves?SeeJanePerlez,CapitolHawks SeekTougherLineonIraq,NewYorkTimes,March7,2001;HaveHawksBecome Doves?WashingtonTimes,March8,2001. 159Woodward,PlanofAttack,pp.2526.WolfowitzwassoinsistentonconqueringIraq thatfivedayslaterCheneyhadtotellhimtostopagitatingfortargetingSaddam. Page,ShowdownwithSaddam.AccordingtooneRepublicanlawmaker,hewaslike aparrotbringing[Iraq]upallthetime.ItwasgettingonthePresidentsnerves.Elliot andCarney,FirstStop,Iraq.WoodwarddescribesWolfowitzaslikeadrumthat wouldnotstop.PlanofAttack,p.22. 160Woodward,PlanofAttack,pp.144.

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 RegardingtheneoconservativesinfluenceonCheney,seeElliottandCarney,First Stop,Iraq;Page,ShowdownwithSaddam;MichaelHirsh,BernardLewis Revisited,WashingtonMonthly,November2004,pp.1319;FrederickKempe,Lewiss LiberationDoctrineforMideastFacesNewTests,WallStreetJournal,December13, 2005;CarlaAnneRobbinsandJeanneCummings,HowBushDecidedthatHussein MustBeOustedfromAtopIraq,WallStreetJournal,June14,2002.OnCheneyscritical roleinthedecisionmakingprocess,seeGlennKesslerandPeterSlevin,Cheneyis FulcrumofForeignPolicy,WashingtonPost,October13,2002;BarbaraSlavinandSusan Page,CheneyRewritesRolesinForeignPolicy,USAToday,July29,2002. 162TheNewYorkTimesreportedshortlyafter9/11that,Somesenioradministration officials,ledbyPaulD.WolfowitzandI.LewisLibbyarepressingfortheearliest andbroadestmilitarycampaignagainstnotonlytheOsamabinLadennetworkin Afghanistan,butalsoagainstothersuspectedterroristbasesinIraqandinLebanons Bekkaregion.PatrickE.TylerandElaineSciolino,BushAdvisersSplitonScopeof Retaliation,NewYorkTimes,September20,2001.AlsoseeWilliamSafire,PhonyWar II,NewYorkTimes,November28,2002.WoodwardsuccinctlydescribesLibbys influenceinPlanofAttack(pp.4849):Libbyhadthreeformaltitles.Hewaschiefof stafftoVicePresidentCheney;hewasalsonationalsecurityadvisertothevice president;andhewasfinallyanassistanttoPresidentBush.Itwasatrifectaofpositions probablyneverheldbeforebyasingleperson.Scooterwasapowercenteruntohimself .LibbywasoneofonlytwopeoplewhowerenotprincipalstoattendtheNational SecurityCouncilmeetingswiththepresidentandtheseparateprincipalsmeetings chairedbyRice.Alsoseeibid.,pp5051,288292,300301,409410;Bumillerand Schmitt,OntheJobandatHome;KarenKwiatkowski,TheNewPentagonPapers, Salon.com,March10,2004;PatrickE.TylerandElaineSciolino,BushAdvisersSpliton ScopeofRetaliation,NewYorkTimes,September20,2001.OnLibbysrelationshipto Israel,anarticleintheForwardreportsthatIsraeliofficialslikedLibby.Theydescribed himasanimportantcontactwhowasaccessible,genuinelyinterestedinIsraelrelated issuesandverysympathetictotheircause.OriNir,LibbyPlayedLeadingRoleon ForeignPolicyDecisions,Forward,November4,2005. 163ThisletterwaspublishedintheWeeklyStandard,October1,2001.
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RobertKaganandWilliamKristol,TheRightWar,WeeklyStandard,October1,2001; CharlesKrauthammer,OurFirstMove:TakeOuttheTaliban,WashingtonPost, October1,2001.AlsoseeWarAims,WallStreetJournal,September20,2001. 165EvenbeforethedusthadsettledattheWorldTradeCenter,proIsraelforceswere makingthecasethatSaddamwasresponsiblefor9/11.SeeMichaelBarone,Warby Ultimatum,U.S.NewsandWorldReport,October1,2001;BillGertz,IraqSuspectedof SponsoringTerroristAttacks,WashingtonTimes,September21,2001;DrainthePond

164

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ofTerror,JerusalemPosteditorial,September25,2001;WilliamSafire,TheUltimate Enemy,NewYorkTimes,September24,2001. 166SeeJamesBamford,APretexttoWar(NewYork:Doubleday,2004);chaps.1314; Woodward,PlanofAttack,pp.288292,297306.Alsoseeibid.,pp.72,163,300301. 167Woodward,PlanofAttack,p.290. 168SeeBamford,PretexttoWar,pp.287291,307331;DavidS.Cloud,Prewar IntelligenceInquiryZeroesInOnPentagon,WallStreetJournal,March11,2004; SeymourM.Hersh,SelectiveIntelligence,NewYorker,Vol.79,issue11(May12,2003), pp.4450;Kwiatkowski,NewPentagonPapers;JimLobe,PentagonOfficeHometo NeoConNetwork,InterPressServiceNewsAgency,August7,2003;GregMiller,Spy UnitSkirtedCIAonIraq,LosAngelesTimes,March10,2004;PaulR.Pillar,Intelligence, Policy,andtheWarinIraq,ForeignAffairs,Vol.85,No.2(MarchApril2006),pp.1527; JamesRisen,HowPairsFindingonTerrorLedtoClashonShapingIntelligence,New YorkTimes,April28,2004;EricSchmittandThomShanker,ThreatsandResponses:A C.I.A.Rival;PentagonSetsUpIntelligenceUnit.NewYorkTimesOctober24,2002. 169TheOfficeofSpecialPlansreliedheavilyoninformationfromAhmedChalabiand otherIraqiexilesandithadcloselinkswithvariousIsraelisources.Indeed,theGuardian reportsthatitforgedclosetiestoaparallel,adhocintelligenceoperationinsideAriel SharonsofficeinIsraelspecificallytobypassMossadandprovidetheBush administrationwithmorealarmistreportsonSaddamsIraqthanMossadwasprepared toauthorize.JulianBorger,TheSpiesWhoPushedforWar,Guardian,July17,2003. 170See,forexample,DouglasJ.Feith,TheInnerLogicofIsraelsNegotiations: WithdrawalProcess,NotPeaceProcess,MiddleEastQuarterly,March1996.Foruseful discussionsofFeithsviews,seeJeffreyGoldberg,ALittleLearning:WhatDouglas FeithKnewandWhenHeKnewIt,NewYorker,Vol.81,issue12(May9,2005),pp.36 41;JimLobe,LosingFeith,oristheBushTeamSheddingItsSharperEdges?TheDaily Star,January31,2005;JamesJ.Zogby,ADangerousAppointment:ProfileofDouglas Feith,UndersecretaryofDefenseunderBush,MiddleEastInformationCenter,April 18,2001;IsraeliSettlements:Legitimate,DemocraticallyMandated,VitaltoIsraels Securityand,Therefore,inU.S.Interest,TheCenterforSecurityPolicy,TransitionBrief No.96T130,December17,1996.Notethatthetitleofthelatterpiece,whichwas publishedbyanorganizationintheLobby,saysthatwhatisinIsraelsinterestis thereforeinAmericasnationalinterest.InLosingFeith,Lobewrites:In2003,when Feith,whowasstandinginforRumsfeldataninteragencyPrincipalsMeetingonthe MiddleEast,concludedhisremarksonbehalfofthePentagon,accordingtothe Washingtoninsidernewsletter,TheNelsonReport,[NationalSecurityAdvisor

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Condoleezza]Ricesaid,ThanksDoug,butwhenwewanttheIsraelipositionwell invitetheambassador. 171TheCleanBreakstudywaspreparedforTheInstituteforAdvancedStrategicand PoliticalStudiesinJerusalemandpublishedinJune1996.Acopycanbefoundonthe Instituteswebsite. 172AkivaEldar,PerlesofWisdomfortheFeithful,Haaretz,October1,2002. 173RallyUnitesAnguishedFactionsunderFlagofStandwithIsrael,Forward,April 19,2002;Forward50,Forward,November15,2002. 174JohnMcCaslin,IsraeliTrainedCops,WashingtonTimes,November5,2002;Bret Stephens,ManoftheYear,JerusalemPost(RoshHashanaSupplement),September26, 2003;JanineZacharia,InvasiveTreatment,inibid.OtherusefulpiecesonWolfowitz includeMichaelDobbs,ForWolfowitz,AVisionMayBeRealized,WashingtonPost, April7,2003;JamesFallows,TheUnilateralist,AtlanticMonthly,March2002,pp.26 29;BillKeller,TheSunshineWarrior,NewYorkTimesMagazine,September22,2002; PaulWolfowitz,Velociraptor,Economist,February915,2002. 175AccordingtoFeithsformerlawpartner,L.MarcZell,Chalabialsopromisedtore buildthepipelinethatonceranfromHaifainIsraeltoMosulinIraq.SeeJohnDizard, HowAhmedChalabiConnedtheNeocons,Salon.com,May4,2004.InmidJune2003, BenjaminNetanyahuannouncedthat,ItwontbelongbeforeyouwillseeIraqioil flowingtoHaifa.Reuters,NetanyahuSaysIraqIsraelOilLineNotPipeDream, Haaretz,June20,2003.Ofcourse,thisdidnothappenanditisunlikelytohappeninthe foreseeablefuture. 176MatthewE.Berger,NewChancestoBuildIsraelIraqTies,JewishJournal,April28, 2003.AlsoseeBamford,PretexttoWar,p.293;EdBlanche,SecuringIraqiOilforIsrael: ThePlotThickens,Lebanonwire.com,April25,2003.NathanGuttmanreportsthatthe AmericanJewishcommunityandtheIraqioppositionhadforyearstakenpainsto concealthelinksbetweenthem.MutualWariness:AIPACandtheIraqiOpposition, Haaretz,April8,2003. 177Nir,FBIProbe.Ontheeveofthewar,BillKeller,whoisnowtheexecutiveeditorof theNewYorkTimes,wrote:TheideathatthiswarisaboutIsraelispersistentandmore widelyheldthanyouthink.Keller,IsItGoodfortheJews?NewYorkTimes,March8, 2003. 178Inanopedwritteninmid2004,HollingsaskedwhytheBushAdministration invadedIraqwhenitwasnotadirectthreattotheUnitedStates.Theanswer,which

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hesayseveryoneknows,isbecausewewanttosecureourfriendIsrael.Senator ErnestF.Hollings,BushsFailedMideastPolicyIsCreatingMoreTerrorism, CharlestonPostandCourier,May6,2004;Sen.HollingsFloorStatement.Not surprisingly,HollingswascalledanantiSemite,achargehefuriouslyrejected.Matthew E.Berger,NotSoGentleRhetoricfromtheGentlemanfromSouthCarolina,JTA,May 23,2004;Sen.HollingsFloorStatement;SenatorLautenbergsFloorStatementin SupportofSenatorHollings,June3,2004,acopyofwhichcanbefoundonHollings website.OnMoran,seenote151.AhandfulofotherpublicfigureslikePatrick Buchanan,MaureenDowd,GeorgieAnneGeyer,GaryHart,ChrisMatthews,and GeneralAnthonyZinni,haveeithersaidorstronglyhintedthatproIsraelforcesinthe UnitedStatesweretheprinciplemoversbehindtheIraqwar.SeeAlufBenn,Scapegoat forIsrael,Haaretz,May13,2004;MatthewBerger,WillSomeJewsBackingforWarin IraqHaveRepercussionsforAll?JTA,June10,2004;PatrickJ.Buchanan,Whose War?AmericanConservative,March24,2003;AmiEden,IsraelsRole:TheElephant TheyreTalkingAbout,Forward,February28,2003;TheGroundShifts,Forward,May 28,2004;NathanGuttman,ProminentU.S.Jews,IsraelBlamedforStartofIraqWar, Haaretz,May31,2004;LawrenceF.Kaplan,ToxicTalkonWar,WashingtonPost, February18,2003;E.J.Kessler,GaryHartSaysDualLoyaltyBarbWasNotAimedat Jews,Forward,February21,2003;OriNirandAmiEden,ExMideastEnvoyZinni ChargesNeoconsPushedIraqWartoBenefitIsrael,Forward,May28,2004. 179MichaelKinsley,WhatBushIsntSayingaboutIraq,Slate,October24,2002.Also seeidem,JAccuse. 180RobertS.GreenbergerandKarbyLeggett,PresidentsDream:ChangingNotJust RegimebutaRegion:AProU.S.,DemocraticAreaisaGoalthatHasIsraeliandNeo ConservativeRoots,WallStreetJournal,March21,2003.AlsoseeGeorgePacker, DreamingofDemocracy,NewYorkTimesMagazine,March2,2003.Althoughnotall neoconservativesareJewish,mostofthefounderswereandvirtuallyallwerestrong supportersofIsrael.AccordingtoGalBeckermanintheForward,Ifthereisan intellectualmovementinAmericatowhoseinventionJewscanlaysoleclaim, neoconservatismisit.SeeTheNeoconservativePersuasion,Forward,January6,2006. 181See,forexample,RebuildingAmericasDefenses:Strategy,ForcesandResourcesforaNew Century,AReportfortheNewAmericanCentury,September2000,p.14. 182MartinIndyk,TheClintonAdministrationsApproachtotheMiddleEast,Speech toSorefSymposium,WashingtonInstituteforNearEastPolicy,May18,1993.Alsosee AnthonyLake,ConfrontingBacklashStates,ForeignAffairs,Vol.73.No.2 (March/April1994),pp.4553.

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BarbaraConry,AmericasMisguidedPolicyofDualContainmentinthePersian Gulf,ForeignPolicyBriefingNo.33,CATOInstitute,November10,1994;GregoryF. GauseIII,TheIllogicofDualContainment,ForeignAffairs,Vol.73.No.2(March/April 1994),pp.5666;ZbigniewBrzezinskiandBrentScowcroft,DifferentiatedContainment: U.S.PolicyTowardIranandIraq,ReportofanIndependentStudyGrouponGulfStability andSecurity,CouncilonForeignRelations,NewYork,1997. 184BrzezinskiandScowcroft,DifferentiatedContainment,p.6. 185BrzezinskiandScowcroft,DifferentiatedContainment,p.130. 186Forexample,theJerusalemPostnotedinaneditorial(September9,2002)that accordingtoMiddleEastexpertBernardLewis,apostSaddamIraqisonethatwould bemorelikelytomakepeacewithIsrael,defangArabradicalism,andperhapseven catalyzerevolutionaryforcesinpresentdayIran.Similarly,MichaelLedeenwroteon August6,2002intheNationalReviewOnline(ScowcroftStrikesOut)that,Ifeverthere wasaregionthatrichlydeservedbeingcauldronized,itistheMiddleEasttoday.Ifwe wagethewareffectively,wewillbringdowntheterrorregimesinIraq,Iran,andSyria, andeitherbringdowntheSaudimonarchyorforceittoabandonitsglobalassembly linetoindoctrinateyoungterrorists.OnAugust19,JoshuaMuravchikarguedinthe NewYorkTimes(DemocracysQuietVictory)that,Changetowarddemocratic regimesinTehranandBaghdadwouldunleashatsunamiacrosstheIslamicworld. AlsoseeMarinaOttawayetal.,DemocraticMirageintheMiddleEast,PolicyBrief#20 (Washington,D.C:CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,October2002). 187CharlesKrauthammer,PeacethroughDemocracy,WashingtonPost,June28,2002. 188Benn,Background.Also,theNewYorkTimesreportedthatHalevygaveaspeechin MunichinFebruary2003inwhichhesaid,Theshockwavesemergingfrompost SaddamBaghdadcouldhavewiderangingeffectsinTehran,Damascus,andin Ramallah.TheTimesarticlewentontosaythatIsraelishopingthatonceSaddam Husseinisdispensedwith,thedominoeswillstarttotumble.Accordingtothishope moderatesandreformersthroughouttheregionwouldbeencouragedtoputnew pressureontheirowngovernments,notexceptingthePalestinianAuthorityofYasir Arafat.Bennet,IsraelSaysWaronIraqWouldBenefittheRegion.Thissametheme isreflectedinaForwardarticlefromearlyMarch2003,whichsaidthatIsraelstop political,militaryandeconomicechelonshavecometoregardtheloomingwarasa virtualdeusexmachinathatwillturnthepoliticalandeconomictablesandextricateIsrael fromitscurrentmorass.Shalev,JerusalemFrets.Finally,thislineofthinkingwas apparentinformerPrimeMinisterEhudBarakspreviouslydiscussedSeptember4, 2002,opedintheNewYorkTimes.BarakmaintainedthatputtinganendtoSaddam HusseinsregimewillchangethegeopoliticallandscapeoftheArabworld.Heclaimed
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thatAnArabworldwithoutSaddamHusseinwouldenablemanyfromthisgeneration [leadersabouttocomeintopower]toembracethegradualdemocraticopeningthat someofthePersianGulfstatesandJordanhavebeguntoenjoy.Barakalsomaintained thattopplingSaddamwouldcreateanopeningforforwardmovementontheIsraeli Palestinianconflict. 189SeeSeymourM.Hersh,TheSyrianBet,NewYorker,Vol.79,issue20(July28,2003), pp.3236;MollyMoore,SharonAsksU.S.toPressureSyriaonMilitants,Washington Post,April17,2003;OriNir,JerusalemUrgesBush:NextTargetHezbollah,Forward, April11,2003;Idem,SharonAideMakestheCaseforU.S.ActionagainstSyria, Forward,April18,2003;MarcPerelman,BehindWarningstoDamascus:Reassessment ofYoungerAssad,Forward,April18,2004;DanielSobelmanandNathanGuttman, PMUrgesU.S.toKeepHeatonSyria,CallsAssadDangerous,Haaretz,April15, 2003.
190

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Nir,SharonAide.AlsoseeKarenDeYoung,U.S.ToughensWarningstoSyriaon Iraq,OtherIssues,WashingtonPost,April15,2003. 192Nir,SharonAide.AlsoseePerelman,BehindWarnings.Intheireffortsto demonizeSyriaandbaittheUnitedStatesintoattackingit,Israelishavesaidthat DamascuswasharboringhighlevelIraqisfromSaddamsregime,andevenworse, hidingIraqsWMD.Perelman,BehindWarnings;LaurieCopans,IsraeliMilitary BossClaimsIraqHadChemicalWeapons,AssociatedPressnewsrelease,April26,2004; IraStoll,SaddamsWMDMovedtoSyria,AnIsraeliSays,NewYorkSun,December 15,2005;Idem,IraqsWMDSecretedinSyria,SadaSays,NewYorkSun,January26, 2006.InAugust2003,whenasuicidetruckbomberblewupUNheadquartersin Baghdad,IsraelsambassadortotheUNcausedadiplomaticspatbysuggestingthat Syriahadprovidedthetruck,therebyimplyingthatSyriawaspartlyresponsible. MichaelCasey,IsraeliAmbassadorBelievesTruckUsedinU.N.BombingCamefrom Syria,AssociatedPressnewsrelease,August21,2003;IsraeliEnvoyLinksSyriatoUN Blast,StirsFlap,Reutersnewsrelease,August21,2003.ItmarRabinowich,theformer IsraeliambassadortotheUnitedStates,toldSeymourHershthathewondered whether,giventhequalityoftheirsources,theSyrianshadhadadvanceinformation abouttheSeptember11thplotandfailedtowarntheUnitedStates.Hersh,The SyrianBet.Therewaslittleevidencetosupportthesecharges,butIsraelswillingness tomakethemshowshoweagertheyweretogettheUnitedStatesembroiledwithyet anotherArabregime.
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SyriahadbeenintheLobbysgunsightswellbefore9/11.Infact,Syria,notIraq,was themaintargetintheCleanBreakstudythatFeith,Perle,andWurmserwrotefor Netanyahuin1996.AndDanielPipesandZiadAbdelnour,theheadoftheU.S. CommitteeforaFreeLebanon(USCFL),hadcoauthoreda2000reportcallingforthe UnitedStatestousemilitarythreatstoforceSyriatoremoveitstroopsfromLebanon, getridofanyWMDitmighthave,andstopsupportingterrorism.(EndingSyrias OccupationofLebanon:TheU.S.Role,ReportoftheMiddleEastStudyGroup,Middle EastForum,May2000.)TheUCSFLisaclosecousinoftheLobby,anditincludes numerousneoconservatives(Abrams,Feith,Ledeen,Perle,andWurmser)amongits officialcoresupporters.JordanGreen,NeoconsDreamofLebanon,ZNet,July23, 2003;DavidR.Sands,HawksRecycleArgumentsforIraqWaragainstSyria, WashingtonTimes,April16,2003.ExceptforLedeen,theyallsignedthe2000report,as didproIsraelCongressmanEliotEngel(DNY),anothercoresupporterofUCSFL. 194NathanGuttman,SomeSeniorU.S.FiguresSaySyriaHasCrossedtheRedLine, Haaretz,Aril14,2004;MichaelFlynn,TheWarHawks:TheRightFlexesMusclewith NewU.S.Agenda,ChicagoTribune,April13,2003.InadditiontoPerleandWolfowitz, JohnBoltonpushedhardfrominsidetheAdministrationforregimechangeinSyria.He hadtoldIsraelileadersamonthbeforetheIraqwarthattheBushAdministrationwould dealwithSyria,aswellasIranandNorthKorea,rightafterSaddamfellfrompower. Flynn,TheRightFlexesMuscle.Inpursuitofthatgoal,Boltonreportedlypreparedto tellCongressinmidJulythatSyriasWMDprogramshadreachedthepointwherethey wereaseriousthreattostabilityintheMiddleEastandhadtobedealtwithsooner ratherthanlater.However,theCIAandothergovernmentagenciesobjected,claiming thatBoltonsanalysisgreatlyinflatedtheSyrianthreat.Consequently,the AdministrationdidnotallowBoltontogivehistestimonyonSyriaatthattime.Douglas Jehl,NewWarningWasPutOffonWeaponsSyriaPlans,NewYorkTimes,July18, 2003;MarcPerelman,StateDepartmentHawkunderFireinIntelligenceFlapover Syria,Forward,July25,2003;WarrenP.StrobelandJonathanS.Landay,Intelligence DataonSyriaNowDisputed,PhiladelphiaInquirer,July17,2003.YetBoltonwasnot putoffforlong.HeappearedbeforeCongressinSeptember2003anddescribedSyriaas agrowingthreattoU.S.interestsintheMiddleEast.NathanGuttman,US:Syria SupportingTerror,DevelopingWeaponsofMassDestruction,Haaretz,September16 2003. 195QuotedinRobinWright,U.S.InsistsSyriaAlterItsCourse,LosAngelesTimes,April 14,2003.AlsoseeMartinIndyksandDennisRossstoughmindedrhetoricaboutSyria inHersh,TheSyrianBet. 196LawrenceF.Kaplan,WhiteLie,NewRepublic,April21&28,2003.AlsoseeWilliam KristolandLawrenceF.Kaplan,TheWaroverIraq:SaddamsTyrannyadAmericasMission (NewYork:EncounterBooks,2003).
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 DeYoung,U.S.ToughensStance.TherewasastoryinHaaretz(NYCongressman SaysWillPushBilltoPressureSyria)onAugust19,2003,whichreportedthatEngel hadjustmetwithSharoninhisJerusalemOfficefor90minutesandtheIsraelileader hadendorsedEngelseffortstopushtheSyriaAccountabilityAct.Regardingthe specificsofthatlegislation,seeZviBarel,DecipheringtheSyrians,Haaretz,July9, 2003;TheReturnoftheSyriaAccountabilityAct,NewsMax.com,April19,2003;Claude Salhani,TheSyriaAccountabilityAct:TakingtheWrongRoadtoDamascus,Policy Analysis,No.512,CATOInstitute,March18,2004.Notsurprisingly,RichardPerlecalled onCongresstopasstheSyriaAccountabilityActshortlyafterEngelreintroducedthe legislation.Sands,HawksRecycleArguments. 198RonKampeas,Bush,OnceReluctantonSanctions,PreparestoTakeaToughLine withSyria,JTA,March16,2004. 199Salhani,TheSyriaAccountabilityAct,p.5. 200JulianBorger,BushVetoesSyriaWarPlan,Guardian,April15,2003;Kampeas, Bush,OnceReluctant. 201SeeHersh,TheSyrianBet.OtherpiecesdiscussingtheadvantagesfortheUnited statesofcooperatingwithSyriaincludeSpencerAckerman,RoughTrade,New Repulic,January13,2003;SusanTaylorMartin,ExpertsDisagreeonDangersofSyria, St.PetersburgTimes,November3,2002;Salhani,TheSyriaAccountabilityAct;Stephen Zunes,BushHasClearRunatSyria,AsiaTimesOnline,March2,2005. 202TwoarticlesthatappearedintheForwardafterBaghdadfelldescribethedriving forcesbehindthenewU.S.policytowardSyria.InapieceinmidApril,theauthor noted:AsuddenflurryofU.S.warningstoSyriainrecentdaysindicatesthat WashingtonhasundertakenwhatIsraelanditssupportersherehavebeenurgingfor months:acomprehensivereassessmentofSyrianrulerBasharAssad.Perelman, BehindWarnings.AfewmonthslaterinmidJuly,anotherauthornoted:Duringthe pastseveralmonths,topIsraeliofficialshavewarnedtheirAmericancounterpartsand audiencesaboutAssadsunreliability.Americanofficialshaveechoedthestanceand pressreportshavespeculatedaboutpossibleAmericanmilitaryinterventioninSyria. MarcPerelman,SyriaMakesOvertureoverNegotiations,Forward,July11,2003. 203QuotedinAlanSipress,IsraelEmphasizesIranianThreat,WashingtonPost, February7,2002.Thisarticle,whichwaswrittenasSharonwasarrivinginWashington, makesclearthatTelAvivwasredoublingitseffortstowarntheBushadministration thatIranposesagreaterthreatthantheIraqiregimeofSaddamHussein.Alsosee SeymourHersh,TheIranGame,NewYorker,Vol.77,issue38(December3,2001),pp.
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4249;PeterHirschberg,Background/PeresRaisesIranianThreat,Haaretz,February5, 2002;DavidHirst,IsraelThrustsIraninLineofUSFire,Guardian,February2,2002; IsraelOnceAgainSeesIranasACauseforConcern,Haaretz,May7,2001. 204StephenFarrell,RobertThomson,andDanielleHaas,AttackIrantheDayIraqWar Ends,DemandsIsrael,TheTimes(London),September5,2002;StephenFarrelland RobertThomson,TheTimesInterviewwithArielSharon,inibid. 205AmbassadortoU.S.CallsforRegimeChangeinIran,Syria,Haaretz,April28, 2003.TendayslatertheNewYorkTimesreportedthattheWashingtonwasgrowing increasinglyconcernedaboutIransnuclearambitions,andthatthereisalotof hammeringfromtheIsraelisforustotakethispositionseriously.StevenR.Weisman, NewU.S.ConcernsonIransPursuitofNuclearArms,NewYorkTimes,May8,2003. ShimonPeresthenpublishedanopedintheWallStreetJournalonJune25entitled,We MustUnitetoPreventanAyatollahNuke.HisdescriptionoftheIranianthreat soundedjustlikehisearlierdescriptionofthethreatfromSaddam,evenincludinga ritualreferencetothelessonsofappeasementinthe1930s.Iran,heemphasized,must betoldinnouncertaintermsthattheUnitedStatesandIsraelwillnottolerateitgoing nuclear. 206InlateMay2003,InterPressServicereportedthat,Theneoconseffortstonowfocus USattentiononregimechangeinIranhasbecomemuchmoreintensesinceearlyMay andalreadyhasbornesubstantialfruit.JimLobe,U.S.NeoConsMoveQuicklyon Iran,InterPressService,May28,2003.InearlyJune,theForwardreportedthat, Neoconservativesinsideandoutsidetheadministrationhavebeenurginganactive efforttopromoteregimechangeinTehran.Reportsofpossiblecovertactionshave surfacedinrecentweeks.MarcPerelman,PentagonTeamonIranComesunderFire, Forward,June6,2003.Alsoseeidem,WhiteHouseIsAimingtoRaiseIranianNukesat U.N.SecurityCouncil,Forward,May9,2003;Idem,NewFrontSetsSightsonToppling IranRegime,Forward,May16,2003.Finally,theLobbyhasestablishedcloserelations withRezaPahlavi,thesonofthelateShahofIran.Heisevenreportedtohavehad meetingswithNetanyahuandSharon.ThisrelationshipissimilartotheLobbys relationshipwithAhmedChalabi.Specifically,proIsraelforcespromotePahlavi,andin return,hemakesclearthatifhecomestopowerinIran,itwillhavegoodrelationswith Israel.ConnieBruck,Exiles:HowIransExpatriatesAreGamingtheNuclearThreat, NewYorker,Vol.82,issue2(March6,2006),pp.4863;Perelman,NewFront. 207Theflyeradvertisingtheconference,whichwasentitledTheFutureofIran: Mullahcracy,DemocracyandtheWaronTerror,canbefoundatanumberofsiteson theweb.AlsoseeGreen,NeoconsDreamofLebanon;Lobe,U.S.NeoConsMove Quickly.

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WilliamKristol,TheEndoftheBeginning,WeeklyStandard,February12,2003. OtherswritingarticlesatthetimeincludeDanielPipesandPatrickClawson,whowrote apieceonMay20fortheJerusalemPostentitledTurnupthePressureonIran.They calledfortheBushAdministrationtosupporttheMujahedeeneKhalq,aterrorist organizationbasedinIraqthatwasbentonoverthrowingtheayatollahsrunningIran. LawrenceKaplanarguedintheNewRepublic(Iranamok)onJune9thattheUSneeded togettougherwithIranoveritsnuclearprograms,whichhefearedwerefurtheralong thanmostAmericanpolicymakersrecognized.MichaelLedeen,oneoftheleading hawksonIran,wroteintheNationalReviewOnline(TheOthers)onApril4:Thereis nomoretimefordiplomaticsolutions.Wewillhavetodealwiththeterrormasters, hereandnow.Iran,atleast,offersusthepossibilityofamemorablevictory,becausethe Iranianpeopleopenlyloaththeregime,andwillenthusiasticallycombatit,ifonlythe UnitedStatessupportsthemintheirjuststruggle. 209ForevidenceoftheLobbysintensifiedeffortstogettheBushAdministrationtodeal withtheIraniannuclearproblem,seeStewartAin,IsraelUrgingU.S.toStopIran Nukes,JewishWeek,October7,2005;EfraimInbar,TheImperativestoUseForce againstIranianNuclearization,BESACenter[BarIlanUniversity,Israel]Perspectives, Number12,December1,2005;MartinS.Indyk,IransBlusterIsntABluff,LosAngeles Times,November1,2005;RonKampeas,WithTimeShortonIranNukes,AIPAC CriticizesBushApproach,JTA,December2,2005;CharlesKrauthammer,InIran, ArmingforArmageddon,WashingtonPost,December16,2005;DafnaLinzer,Pro IsraelGroupCriticizesWhiteHousePolicyonIran,WashingtonPost,December25, 2005;OriNir,NewSanctionBillLosesMomentumasAdministrationPresses Diplomacy,Forward,June10,2005;Idem,JewishGroupsPushforIranSanctions, Forward,September23,2005;Idem,IsraeliAidesWarnU.S.NottoDropBallonIran, Forward,December9,2005;MichaelRubinetal.,WarFooting:10StepsAmericaMust TaketoPrevailintheWarfortheFreeWorld,AmericanEnterpriseInstitute, November30,2005;RowanScarborough,IsraelPushesU.S.onIranNukeSolution, WashingtonTimes,February21,2005. 210Someneoconservativesevenwelcomethisoutcome.Forexample,RobertKaganand WilliamKristolwroteintheaftermathof9/11that,Afghanistanwillprovebutan openingbattle.thiswarwillnotendinAfghanistan.Itisgoingtospreadandengulf anumberofcountriesinconflictsofvaryingintensity.Itcouldwellrequiretheuseof Americanmilitarypowerinmultipleplacessimultaneously.Itisgoingtoresemblethe clashofcivilizationsthateveryonehashopedtoavoid.TheGatheringStorm,Weekly Standard,October29,2002.AlsoseeEliotA.Cohen,WorldWarIV,WallStreetJournal, November20,2001;PhilMcCombs,TheFireThisTime,WashingtonPost,April13, 2003;NormanPodhoretz,HowtoWinWorldWarIV,Commentary,February2002; Idem,WorldWarIV:HowItStarted,WhatItMeans,andWhyWeHavetoWin,
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Commentary,September2004;BrianWhitaker,PlayingSkittleswithSaddam,Guardian, September3,2002. 211RonKampeas,AfterRestructuring,AIPACPlanstoFocusonWiderRangeof Issues,JTA,September26,2005.

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