:

, , &

...

, 2010

............................
.
...




.
. .

,
.
, .
,
.

, 2010

.
...



,
.
,
.

.
.

, .

.
,
,
.

.

.............................................................................................................. 3
............................................................................................................... 4
.................................................................................... 5
1: ..................................................................................... 7
1.1.

.................................................................................................................. 8

1.2.

............................................................................ 10

1.3.

............................................................ 11

1.4.

18

1.5.

.................................................................................................... 20

2: ........................................................................21
2.1

................................................................................ 22

2.2

............................................................................................. 28

2.2.1

................................................................. 29

2.2.2

...................................................................... 32

2.3

........................................................................................ 41

2.4

............................................................................... 43

2.5

........................................................................ 49

2.6

.................................................................................................... 51

3: ..................................................................................52
3.1

........................................................................................................... 53

3.2

.................................................................................................... 55

3.3

................................................................... 60

3.4

.................................................................... 64

3.5

& ................ 66

3.6

.............................................................. 69

3.7

......................................................... 71

3.8

.................................................................................................... 74

4:
........................................................................................................................76
4.1

................................................................................................................ 77

4.2

.................................................................................................... 78

4.3

.................................................................................................... 92

5: ..............................97
5.1

.................................................. 98

5.2

............................................ 100

5.3

................................... 104

5.4

........... 108

5.5

.................. 109

5.6

..................................................... 110

5.7

.................................................................................................. 116

6: ................ 119
6.1

.............................................................................................................. 120

6.2

....................................................... 120

6.3

..................................................... 123

6.4

.................................................................................. 132

6.5

RAMAN .............................................................................. 136

6.6

.................................................................................................. 147

........................................................................................................... 150
: .................. 151
: ................................. 154
: -
.................................................................................................................. 159
V: ............................................................................................. 165

 1:

1:

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

 1:

1.1.

(,,, )

(,,,,

, .)

() (,, .)

1.1 .

1.1

(composites) .

. 1.1

 1:

(density)
M (modulus of
elasticity)
(yield strength)
A

(tensile strength)

(Mechanical Properties)

(hardness)

(fracture toughness)

(fatigue strength)
A
(thermal fatigue strength)
A
(creep strength)

(thermal properties)
O

(optical properties)

(Non-mechanical properties)

M
(magnetic properties)
H
(electrical properties)
(oxidation)
(corrosion)

(friction)

(Surface Integrity)

(wear)
K
(manufacturability)

(joining)

(Production Processing)

A (finishing)
(appearance)

E (texture)

(Aesthetic Properties)

1.1

 1:

1.2.

(manufacturing)

()
(). 0
.

, , .. [1] .

DEFINITION OF PRODUCT NEED

ORIGINAL CONCEPT

CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN
DESIGN ANALYSIS
PHYSICAL AND ANALYTICAL MODELS
PROTOTYPE TESTING
EVALUATION
REVISED DESIGN
FINAL EVALUATION

PRODUCTION DRAWINGS
MATERIAL SPECIFICATION, PROCESS AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION, TOOL AND DIE DESIGN
MANUFACTURING
1.2

[1]

10

 1:

1.3.

(manufacturing)

. ,
,
.
1926,
Hermann Staudinger
()
.


,
.
.
, , , ,
, ,
.
Guilio Natta:

, ,
.
Guilio Natta Carl Ziegler
Nobel 1963
.

1950

,
, , , , , , ,

, ..
, , , ,
( ) ,
, ,

11

 1:

, ,
. ,

, , , ,
.
50%


, .

,
:

( 1839)

,
, , , , , , ,
(), , , ..

: ( 1839 1907)

1839 Goodyear Hancock

, .
(30%-50%)
. ,

..
(Schonbein 1846)
,
, , ,

12

 1:

Rayon ( )
(Chardonnet 1889).

, (cellouloid) (Hyatt,1968).
(
)
.
( ).
, ,
(cellophane),
(1924).
,
() ,
( ).
,
(
) .
, ,
, , ,
..

. 1861 T. Graham
,
,
,
. ,
, (
)
.
van der Waals
1-1000 nm.
, , , ,
.. .

13

 1:

,
.

( polymer )
.

(). ,
Raoult Van Hoff 1880,
.
,
10.000 40.000.
,
. ,
,
, Raoult
. , 1890 1900

.

( 1907 )

. 1907 Baekeland
,
.
,
(functionality), ,
. Baekeland
, ,
. ,
(bakelite),
.

. 1926

14

 1:

, H. Staudinger .
, :
,
500 200 .

, 1936
,

, ,
.
W. Carothers
.
, 1947 IUPAC
. (Polymer Chemistry)
.
,
,
.
(polymer science) , ,
, , .

.

. ,
1.2, ,


, , , (,
),
.


(materials science) ,
[2] .

15

 1:

1839

1839

Goodyear, Hancock

1846

Schonbein

1868

Chardonnet

1889

Hyatt

1890

( )

Despeisses

1890

Kriesche, Spitteler

1892

( )

Cross, Bevan, Beadle

1907

1907

Baekeland

1919

C.and H. Dreyfus

1927

Kienle

1929

Thiokol

Patrick

1930

Staudinger

1930

1931

Rohm

1939

Henkel

Fawcett,Gibson

-6,6

Carothers

Plunkett

1941

16

 1:

1942

Ellis, Rust

1943

Bayer

-6

Schlack

Rochow, Hyde,
Andrianov

1944

( )

Whinfield, Dickson

1946

ABS

1947

Castan, Greenlee

1956

Ziegler, Hogan

1957

Natta

1959

Staudinger, McDonald

( )

Schnell, Fox

1961

Vogel, Marvel

1964

Sroog

Rees

Hay

Morgan

1968

Philips Petrleum

1970

( )*

1966

1.2 .
(*) ( )

( ).

17

 1:

1.4.

18.000

.
.

1993 90%
1995 83%.

...

1.3

32%

18

 1:

14% 4%
.
69%

8%
.

1.4

. 1.3
.


.
1.4 , ..
[3].

19

 1:

1.5.

1) . .. ,
: ,E (1997).
2) ., ., , , ,
(2006).

3) Tim.A.Osswald,George

Menges,

Materials

Science

of

Polymers

for

Engineers,Hanser Publisher,New York.

20

 2:

2:

2.1

2.2

2.2.1

2.2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

21

 2:

2.1

. .. ,
...
. ,
,
20 .



.
100 ,
, ..
.

.

..

CH 3
CH 2

CH

CH 2

CH 2

CH

CH 2

CH 3
2.1

22

 2:

:
OH

CH

CH
O

CH

OH

CH
O
CH 2

CH

OH

2.2

( ) .

H.Straudinger 1920
.

[1].

H.Straudinger , ,
() () 3 .
4 .

()
CH 2

CH 3
C

CH 3

CH 3
CHCH 2

2.3

CH 2

CHCH 2

CH 2

()
CH 2

CH

H.Straudinger .

23

 2:

H.Straudinger ,
, .
.

CH 3

()
CH 2

CH 2

CH 3
CHCH 2

CH

()

CH 2

CH 2

CH 2CH

CH 3

2.4

CHCH 2

CH 2

CH 3

H.Straudinger
.

1937
Flory , ,
. Flory
R. ..
:
CH3
R

CH2

2.5

CH3
CHCH 2

CH2

CH

CH2

Flory ( 1937 )
.

Straudinger Flory
bel ,
1954 1974.

24

 2:

1920
, 1829,
.
1839, Charles Goodyear Akron Ohio
1851 ,
, .
1920 ( ) , 1927 () ,
1931 , 1937 1938 Nylon -6,6
Carothers.


),

.. (

(,

Tefflon

...)

() ... ,
.. , , ...
.. , ,
, ...

:
() .. HCN ()
, HCl () , SO2 ( ).
.
() ..
.
,
(.. )
[2].
.
() (
).

25

 2:

,
,
.
..
( co ),
, :
( )

100

30

()

15

(. )
(

150

)
( )
Cd/Ba

150
3

()
(

)
:
.

2.1 .

.
(
HCl ).

.

26

 2:

( resin)
( ),
( ) .

27

 2:

2.2

( polymer ) ( mac molecule )

.
.
(oligomers).
(monomers).
T (repecting units) (monomeric
units) , ..

nCH2

CHCl

()

()

CH 2CH

CH 2CH

CH 2CH

Cl

Cl

Cl

(),(),()

( C
)

( C
)

OCH2CH 2C

OCH2CH 2C

O
nHOCH2CH 2C

OH

()

(),()

C3 H6 O 3

C 3 H4 O 2

2.6

28

 2:

100
10.000.

2.2.1
.
) ( trade names ) ,
..
terylene,
dylene, dilete, fostarene
plexiglass, diacon .
.

. nylon, .
nylon m,n m n
.
, nylon 6,6.
-
.

) ,

29

 2:

CH 3
CH 2

Cl

C
COOH3

CH 2CH

()
CH 2

CH

2.7

(),
.

(. COOH, -NH2 , OH , -NCO ) .

- (- ).
O

.
O

nOH - (CH2)11 COOH

-H 2O

-
2.8

(CH 2)11

-.

, (- ).
O

.
n (CH2)11

O
+H2O

(CH 2)11 C

-
2.9

30

 2:

( ).
nHOCH2CH 2OH + nHOOC

COOH

-H 2O

OCH 2CH 2OC

2.10 .

(--).
nHOCH2CH 2OH + nOCN

NCO

.
O

O
NH C

OCH 2CH 2OCNH

-
2.11 .

) IUPAC.
( ) (1-1-) ()
(1- ).

31

 2:

2.2.2
.
1)

. , ,

2)

. , , ,

:
)
)
)

)
:
1)

2)

().
(,)
.
:
i)

(linear homopolymers)
AAAAAAAA
2.12

32

 2:

ii) (branched hompolymers)

AAAAAAAA
AAA

AAA

2.13

AAAAAAAA
A

AAAAAAA
A

A-A A A A A A
2.14 .

A
A

A
A

A
A

A
A
A

A
A
A

2.15 .

33

 2:

AAAAAAAA
A
A
A

2.16 .

AAAAAAAA

AAAAAAA
2.17 .

iii)

AA
A
A
A
A

A
A

A A AAA
2.18 .

. () ()
:

34

 2:

i) (random) ,

~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~
( co )

ii)

~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
( alt )

iii) , ,

~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~
( b )

iv) ,
.
AAAA

AAAA

AAA

( - g - )

35

 2:

BBBB

BBBB

BBB

( - g - )

.

. . (1) .
.
CH 2

CH

CH 2

CH

CH 2

CH 2

CH 2

CH 2

CH 2

CH 2

CH 2

CH 2

CH 3

CH 3

1 -

( 1 - )

2.19 1-

CH3
, ,
.

36

 2:

.
nCH

CH 2

CH 2CHCH 2CH

CH 3

CH 2

CH 2
CH 2
CH 3

2.20 .

)

.

(
o) , , ,
Tg (glass transition temperature).
.
, , (
) .
. , , .

37

 2:

T > Tg

T > Tg

. /

:
g ()

: 100

2.21
.

,
.

, ,
,
.

.
.

Sx

Sx
Sx

Sx
Sx

Sx

Sx

Sx
Sx

Sx
Sx

. /

Sx

:
2.22
.

38

 2:

,
.
. , , .

)
.
,
, .

. , , .

, 100%,
.
, ,
.
,
.
.

,
.
.

(Tm) (Tg).
Tm Tg . nylon 6 (Tm: 223
C Tg: 50 C) , nylon 6,6 (Tm: 265 C Tg: 57 C) , (Tm: 240 C
Tg: 100 C).
Tm g (cis-1,4-) (Tm: 6 C Tg: 108 C) , (cis-1,4-)( )(Tg:-73 C)

39

 2:

Tm Tg .
(Tm: 135 C Tg: -125 C) , (Tm: 273 C Tg:
81 C) , ( ) (Tm: 200 C Tg: 100 C).

40

 2:

2.3

( 50 Kcal/mol) (
10 Kcal/mol) [3].
, ,
, 0.9 2 .
, Van der Waals
,
2.5 5 .
: ) , ) )
( London ).
,

Van der Waals. ,
.
(. Tm, , )

.
Tm nylon 6,6 Van der Waals (
, , London).
(CH 2)4

- H+

O-

H+

H+ O

(CH 2)6

H+

(CH 2)6

O
(CH 2)4

Nylon - 6,6
2.23 .

41

 2:

Tm (
)
CH2-. Tm Tg

PVC .

2.24 (PVC) Van Der Waals .

2.25 Van Der Waals, London.

42

 2:

2.4

. :
)
)
)
)
.

,
.

CH2CH2O

( Tg: -67 oC)

CHO
CH3

( Tg: -30 C)

CH 2CH
OH
2.26

( ) Tg: 85 C
.

43

 2:

)

,
.
X
CH2

2.27

CH2

2.28

2.29

( head to tail )

, - ( head to head
, tail to tail ).

44

 2:

.
. (1)
,
.
CH 2CH
X
CH 2

CH
X

(1)

(2)

CH 2CHCHCH 2

CH 2CHCH 2CH
X

2.30

X X

( ).

()
(NMR). H CHF ,
. ,
, .
NMR
.

Zn.
PVC :

45

 2:

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl Cl

Zn

(1)

(2)
CH 2

CH 2

CH

CH 2CHCl

CH

CH 2CH

CHCH 2CH 2CH

+ZnCl 2

+ZnCl 2

2.31

CH

( ).

(1) 86,4 %
. 13,6 % ,
Zn . (2)
.
PVC Zn 84
86 % PVC ~100% .

)
,

X

1
2.32

2
.

46

 2:

(1) (2)
.
:

1)
H

X H

C C

C C

C C

H H

H H

H H

2.33

2)
H

H H

H H

C C

C C

X H

2.34

3)
H

H H

C C

C C

C C

H H

X H

H H

2.35

47

 2:

100% 100%
. ,
.
100% NMR.
.

, (Tm = 160 C), ,
, (Tm = 75 C)
( ) [4].

)
, .
, :
CH 3
CH

CH 2

CH
CH 2

CH 2

cis

CH 3

CH 2

cis
2.36

trans
.

() ,

trans

().

cis trans .
(IR) NMR.

48

 2:

2.5

.
.
.
. ,
:

iMi
<M>n =

N1M1 + N2M2 + N3M3 + ......

=

N1 + N2 + N3 + .......

Ni moles i Mi

, ,
:

wiMi
<M>w =

w1M1 + w2M2 + w3M3 + ......

=

wi

w1 + w2 + w3 + .......

W i i.

I :

<M>w
I=
<M>n
1 .

49

 2:

.
, , Tg .
Xc ,
. ~600,
.
600,
,

200 600.

50

 2:

2.6

1) .. , :
, ... (1985)
2) ., ., , , ,
(2006).
3) , , ... (1999)

4) Tim.A.Osswald,George Menges, Materials Science of Polymers for Engineers,
Hanser Publisher, New York.

51

 3:

3:

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

52

 3:

3.1

,
.
.
.

.
, , .
,
, 19 ,
.
4000 .., , 3000 .
, ,
. , 1000 . .
, 500
, ,
[4].
, 2
.

, .

. .
,
- . ,
.

, . .
, ,
. ,
,

53

 3:

, .
197 .. ,
. ,
, . ,
8
.
11 .
,
. , ,
... ,
, ,
[4].

.
,
( )
,
.
. ,
.
,
. ,
, ,

.

54

 3:

3.2

, .

,
.

,
. ,

. ,

, .

-

:

55

 3:

,
. , ,
.
:
1.
2.

, , (
, )
/.
,
. , ,

/ . /
,
.
,

.

, ...
.

,
.

.

. (5 nm - 1 mm)

:
1. ,
2. , :Pb, Sn, Zn .

56

 3:

3. ,
,

, [2].

.
.

.

(
)
()
().
:
1. (interdiffusion)
2. (electrostatic attraction)
3. (chemical bonding)

3.1

()
, () , () .

57

 3:

.
,

.
.

,
,
. ..
( 3.1).
,
.

,
( 3.1)
.
.
- ,
, (.. ),
.
.

,
.
, -
( 3.1). ,
.
.

58

 3:

-.
,

(interface).


. ,
,
,

.
,
(interphase).

59

 3:

3.3

, ,

.
:

(Metal Matrix Composites, MMC)

(Polymer Matrix Composites, PMC)
(Ceramic Matrix Composites, CMC)

(Metal Matrix Composites)

(PMC)
,
.
, MMC
.

3.2

( ) , whiskers
( ) MMC .

60

 3:

,
. ,
, .
,
.

(Polymer Matrix Composites)

.

. PMC
,
[3].
.
,
[1].

3.3

( ) , whiskers

PMC. ( whiskers 10 6
m, ).

61

 3:

.


, .
.

.
, ,
, .
()
() . ,
.
, .

, .
-, -,
- , .


. ,
,
.
,
.

(),

(VC), (PC),
(), () .

(Ceramic Matrix Composites)

,
.
(),
. :

62

 3:

1. (, whiskers,.)
2.
3.

,
,
[5]. ,
, SiC, Si3N4, Al2O3, ZrO2 .

63

 3:

3.4

. , , ,
,
, ,
.
, .
Portland
.
.

( )
, ,
.

( )
(
, ),
( , ).

..

,
.
, : )
, )
) ,
.
, ,
, , , ,
, , ..

.

64

 3:

,
.

.

45% ,

70% ( 3.4)
.

3.4

. 787

65

 3:

3.5

&

:
1. ,
.
2. ,
,
.

(, , ). ,
,

,
15-45% .
, (

) /, /
f/ [5].

,
, (
). ,

,
.

1/3 [6].

66

 3:

, .
,
. ,
.
,

.
. ,

. ,

[7].

:
1.
2.
3.

[7].

67

 3:

. ,

.

.

[8].

.

,
.
: ,
.

[9].

68

 3:

3.6

[10].
,
(1 nm = 10-9 m ), 100 nm.

, ,
. , ,
. ,
1 nm . ,
, (layered silicate),
(dendrimers)
.
,
,
'60. ,
,
. ,

, ,
, , , [11].
,

-, ,
, .

.

.
. -
.

.

69

 3:

,

,
[12].

,
(curing) .
2 nm 50 nm.
,
. ,
-
.
, ,
, , ,
, ( ),
..
PMCs (polymeric matrix composites) ,
,
(10-9 m) (10-6
m) [13].

70

 3:

3.7

(open molding)

. ,
.
.
(Hand Lay-up) (Spray-up).

()
3.5

()

() () .

(vacuum bag molding)

. .
(prepreg) unidirectional
( ) . ,
. .


.

3.6

71

 3:

(autoclave molding)
.
,
. ,
. .

.

3.7

(resin transfer molding)

.

.
(vacuum infusion)
(vacuum assisted resin transfer molding).
.

3.8

72

 3:

(compression molding),
(pultrusion), (filament winding),
b (centrifugation casting).

3.9

(filament winding) (pultrusion)

73

 3:

3.8

1) K., , 2 ,
(2000)

2) W. D. Callister, JR, T , 5 (2004).

3) Mel Schwartz editor, Encyclopedia of Materials, Wiley-Interscience, volumes 2, 2002

4) Hull D., Clyne T.W.: An Introduction to Composite Materials, Cambridge
University Press (1996).
5) M. G. Bader, The Composites Market, In Comprehensive Composite Materials,
6.01, (2000), Elsevier Science Ltd

6) P.C. Le Baron, A. Wang, T.J. Pinnavaia, Appl. Clay Sci., 15, 11 (1999).

7) M. Sumita, Y. Tsukumo, K. Miyasaka, K.Ishikawa, J. Mater. Sci., 18, 1758 (1983).

8) P.B. Messersmith, E.P. Giannelis, Chem. Mater., 6, 1719 (1994)

9) S. Iijima, Nature, 354, 56 (1991).

10) N.G.McCrum, B.E.Read and G.Williams, Anelastic and Dielectric Effects in
Polymeric Solids (Wiley, London, 1967) pp 108-111
11) T. Tanaka, G.C Montanari, R lhaupt. Polymer Nanocomposites as dielectrics
and

electrical

insulation-perspectives

for

processing

technologies,

material

characterization and future application. Vol11 No %, 2004

74

 3:

12) Dang Zhi-Min, Xu Hai-Ping, Wang Hai-Yan Significantly enhanced lowfrequency

dielectric permittivity in the BaTiO3/ poly(vinylidene fluoride) nanocomposite Applied
Physics Letters (2007).
13) H. Daniel Wagner and Richard Vaia, Nanocomposites, issues at the interface ,
Materialstoday 38-42 (2004).

75

 4:

4:

4.1

4.2

4.3

76

 4:

4.1

(),

S.Iijima ( NEC) 1991 [1],
L.V. Radushkevich M. Lukyanovich 1952 Soviet Journal of
Physical Chemistry 50nm.
1991,
(1976 Oberlin,
Endo and Koyama, 1979 J. Abrahamson, 1981
Irvestiya Akademii Nank SSSR, 1987 G.H. Tennent).
S.Iijima 1985 H. Kroto [2]
1996
.

4.1 .

77

 4:

4.2

.
-
[3].
(1 Tera Pa!) ( GPa),
20% [4].
(
Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes - SWCNTs) (
Double-Wall Carbon Nanotubes - DWCNTs) (-
Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes - MWCNTs).

.
-,
.

.

,
.
/
[5].
Allaoui [6]
.

.
1 4% .. .
Bai [7]

, .

78

 4:

.

/
.
Gojny [8]
DGEBA- (L135i) (H137i).

: ) 2nm
, ) (-NH2)
15 nm 50 m )
(-NH2) 2.8 nm .
/
carbon black Printex XE2-Degussa/ Germany
(CB) ,
.

,

.

.

, /
. ,

.

.



.

79

 4:

.

(-NH2)
(+10%), (+15%) (+43%)
0.5% . (-NH2).
Breton [9]

.
.

.

,
.

.
O F.H. Gojny [10]
calandering.
2.8 nm
Nanocyl
,

.

.
0.1% .
.
/
.

.

.
Halpin-Tsai.

80

 4:

Yeh [11]

PF- 650. ) -,
,
CVD ) -,
,
.
17.57 nm 3.07 nm . /-
/ -, ,
.
-

-,

.
Liu [12]


.

(-COOH).
.

1%

-COOH

28%
.
1% ..
-COOH, .

,

.
50%
.

81

 4:

Thostenson [13] calandering

CVD .


.
,
-f
- .
.


. /

0.1% .. .
,
60% 5%
. .
Mottaghitalab [14] /
(wet spinning process).

.
Raman

.
Paiva [15]
-
(PVA).
PVA .
, ,
PVA ,
PVA/ ,
.
PVA/

82

 4:

PVA. .


PVA.

,

PVA. M. D. Frogley [16]
(RTV)
N (NIA)
(PolygrafIII, Applied Sciences Inc., USA),
200 nm.

.

( ).


10 20%,
.
-,

.
O Ci Bai [17]
.
0.5 %

.
.

83

 4:

.
.
O Eitan [18]
.
2 5 %
.
Raman.

. Raman


.
25-300
C 2H2/NH2 Bright [19],

.
.
,
27%, 44% 18%
.
Yaping [20]
.

.
%..
0.6%. 58%
, 100%
. Li [21]
0, 1, 3, 5 % .
(nanoidenter).
,
(Atomic Force
Microscope tip).

84

 4:

5%
. 75%
30% .

.
Gryshchuk [22]
(thermoset) ,
- - , 2 %
.
.
/ (aspect ratio) ,

- .
/

.
. Chen [23]
5.6, 9.3
17.7 % .
.

.
im [24]
- (
)
1% ..

.

.
.
O Ren [25]
.

85

 4:

(rope) 100mm
. (s-N
curves)
.
O Guzman de Valoria [26]
.

. 0.1%
,
. 24
60C 48
60 C 24 .

.
.
.
(
)
.
(adhesion)
. Yeh [27]
(1mm)
, .
,
. To

, ,
.

, [28] (wear).
,
(Rc/m) ) 25% ) 25%.
80mm HMV=720

86

 4:

,
.

. Rc/m>25%
o 5.5
.
,
.
O
, Ye [29]
- (BAS) 5, 10 15 %
(hot pressing).
.
192% 143%
, ,
(bridging) .
Esawi & Borady [30]

0.5, 1 2 %
/ .
. 0.5%
,

. .
(clusters) ,
,
.
O Li [31]
.
.
2% ..
.

87

 4:

-.

.
,
.
O Meguid Sun [32]


.
1.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 15%
.
(autoclave).
T .

.

/ (interlocking)
.

K. Schulte [33].
(Resin
Transfer Moulding). 37% 50%
. 0.3 %
. , 1
2 .

.


.

88

 4:

.
Seyhan [34] (- glass)
0.1 % .. -NH2 ()
(VARTM).
.
GIC GIIC ,
(fibre pull-out, fibre breakage & fibre bridging)
. O Sotiriadis et al.
[35] 1% ..
.
.

5%,
.


.
Veedu [36]
.
SiC (twill 2/2)

.
SiC (CNT forest).

.
348% (!) 54% .
240% 105%.

.
- (interlocking)
. Mathur [36]

89

 4:

.


.

, . Williams [38]
DNA
.

-
. Harvard, [39]
10nm, DNA, DNA .
DNA
DNA . DNA
. DNA
DNA.
(Molecular Dynamics).
[40 - 42]
DNA .
DNA


.
Smart [43]

.
,
(in vivo & in vitro).
-
.
-

90

 4:

.

,
[44],
.
aughman [45]
(transparent sheets).


(forest) .
50nm
u963 .
,
.




.

.

.

850 C [46,47].

91

 4:

4.3

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HW,

Heath

JR,

OBrien

SC,

Curl

RF,

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RE,

(1985)

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96

 5:

5:

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7

97

 5:

5.1

(allotropic crystalline form), . (graphite)

.
sp2 , (5.1).
( 5.42 )
,
( ) 3300 C.
( 3.35 ) van der Waals
.
sp3
( 5.1),
109 .
5.54 711 kJ/mol.
1800 C ,
sp2 5. ,
, 3.52 g/cm3 , ,
5.09-5.23 g/cm3.

. 1985 laser
,
(fullerene). sp 2
5.44 .

.
60 (C60) 5.1,
70,76 84 . 5.72 g/cm 3,
.

98

 5:

()

()

5.1

()

() , () , ()

1991
,
(carbon nanotubes).


( 5.2).
.
,
.

5.2

99

 5:

5.2

( 5.3) )

, SWCNT (Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes), )

, DWCNT (Double-Walled Carbon Nanotubes) )
, MWCNT (Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes).
(carbon nanotube, CNT)
(graphene) 1-3 nm 350 m.

10000. C-C 5.44 ,

, 2 0.8-5.2 g/cm3.
3-30
3-50 nm,
.
0.34 nm. ,

.

5.3

() , () ()
.

100

 5:

(, , )
( 5.4 ).
, [1-5].

5.4

,
.

C h (chiral vector).
( 5.5),
. , ,
3.

C h=n a + m b

(5.1)

a b (
/3) n,m ( 5.6).

101

 5:

5.5

(chiral angle) C h a

(5.2)
L d
(5.3)
(5.4)
(= 3 c-c, c-c C-C).

5.6

102

 5:

.
. n=m (
= 30 ) armchair. n = 0 , m 0 n
0 , m = 0 ( = 0 ) zigzag.
(achiral) .
[3], [4]
( 5.7).

. (n,n) (n,0) 3.38 3.41 .

5.7

, armchair, zigzag

103

 5:

5.3

. Iijima [8]
, Iijima [9] Bethune [10]
.

(arc-discharge) [9], [11],
laser (laser ablation) [12],
HiPCO [13],
(chemical vapor deposition, CVD) [14-18].

. ,
CVD,
. ,

.

(Arc-discharge)
Iijima [5]
. 5.8, ,

.
, (arc).
. ,
.
(build-up)

.
,
[9-10], [16].

104

 5:

5.8

arc-discharge [16].

laser (Laser Ablation)

laser
. ,
[12], [17]. , laser

1200 C.
5.9. ,
[12].
.

5.9

laser ablation.

laser).

105

 5:

-.
,
(chemical vapor deposition (CVD),
.

. ,
,
.

H (CVD-Chemical Vapour Deposition)

CVD [18], [19] ( 5.10). Nikolaev [13]

600-700

C. ,

.

,
,
.

5.10

() () CVD
.

106

 5:

CO (HiPCO)
Nikolaev [13]
.
(1200 C
10 atm). HiPCO (high-pressure conversion of carbon monoxide)
Carbon Nanotechnologies
Inc (Houston, TX)
.

107

 5:

5.4

.
.


, van der Waals
. ,
, ( )
[19-24].

,
:
) ,
) ( ) ,
) /
) (
).

(..HNO 3, H2SO4), SOCl2
, (COOH, NH2)
[24-30] ( 5.11).

.

5.11

[26]

108

 5:

5.5

,
( ) , /
,
.
(.. ) [31-33] /.

(.. ) .

[34-36] (
5.12).

5.12

[34]

109

 5:

5.6

O :
)
) / .

.
:
) (field emission sources)
) (),
) (nano-tweezers)
) .

.

,
(fuel cells),
.
, ,
.
,
Nernstian .

, , ,
.
.

.

110

 5:

.
.

.
, .

5.13

2007

: E
, , (
) .
,
, ,
.
:
,
,
,
. ( )
, .
,
, ,

111

 5:

,
.
!

,
.

. 500
10 ( ).
,

.
,
, . , ,
,
.
,
.
,
.
. ,
, , '
,
, ' .

,

. ,
,
- -

112

 5:

.
.
1 .

. .

.
.

.

.

.

. ,
,
.


.
.

.

,
.

.

113

 5:

&
2002
DNA DNA.
DNA
DNA .
DNA DNA
. DNA
DNA
DNA.
DNA


.

Altman (),
.
,
, ( 60kgr
20 kgr 15
MIT)
.

114

 5:

.

.



.


.
(nanobot)

,
. nanobot

.


,

. -

.. , , DNA.

15-20 ,
.

115

 5:

5.7

1) .., , , 1999.
2) ., , , 1996.
3) ..., , , , 2002

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118

 6:

6:

6.1

6.2

6.3

6.4

6.5

RAMAN

6.6

119

 6:

6.1

) ,

.

6.2

(SEM, Scanning Electron Microscopy)

,
. 5
keV
.

.

.
,
.

,
300 eV.
,
. ,

.
, (
)
. SEM
50 .
. SEM (

120

 6:

)
, .. , (TEM, Transmission
Electron Microscopy), .
SEM
(, , , , ..)

.
( ),


.
SEM 250 (25 nm) [1].

SEM
.
( 6.1) ,
, .
:
1)

2) ,
,

3)
.

121

 6:

6.1

122

 6:

6.3

I.C.T.A. (Intemational
Confederation for Thermal Analysis)
,
,
.

, , , ,
, .

, , ,
..
,
.

.
,
, , [2].
,
.
:
) DTA (Differential Thermal Analysis) - .


. DT
.
) DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimetry) - .

123

 6:

.
) TGA (Thermo Gravimetric Analysis) - .

.
) (Thermo Mechanical Analysis) - .

. DMTA (Dynamic
Mechamical Thermal Analysis) - ,
.
:

( mg).

..

.

DSC
DSC S R
.
.

, ( 6.2).


S R.

124

 6:

[2,3].

6.2

DSC

2-10 mg R
.
.
,
RS

RO.
6.3 ,
DSC .

dQ
R S,

.
dt P

dQ
,

dH dt

dt P

125

 6:

.
mCal/sec C.

6.3

. DSC

6.3 ,
( g),

(CP).

(Tc)

.
(Tm),
.

.

126

 6:

DSC

RO
RS.
dH

dt

, ,

dH
dT

dt

dt

RO

dT dt

(6.1)

,
. ,
DSC,
.
.

, .
,
.
,

.
[4-10].

(6.1) .


. ,
,

127

 6:

. ,
.
,

(thermal lag).
,
, .
,

.

.
,
.
, .
.

,

.

DSC

.
1. :
DSC.
.
Tm.


. ,
,
. ,

128

 6:

. 6.4

. ,
. ,
,
. ,
,
.



().

6.4

( 5C/min)

2. :
. ,
.
.
.
,
(nucleation),

129

 6:

,
(growth).

,
. 6.5.

,
,
.
,
,
. ,

.

( ).

6.5

3. :
,
,

130

 6:

(Tg). 100%
.
100%
.

, , , , ..

E DSC

.

,
(m) 6.2 % c:
%Xc = (m / H0) x 100

(6.2)

H0 100% .

, c
Xc .
, .

.

. ,
, , ..
g
g
g. g
, g
.

131

 6:

6.4

(=10-10 m).
.
.
-, ,
( , Coolidge 1913),
,
(V = 20 100 kV).

1 2
( 6.6), ,
.
, .
Bragg, hkl
d,
, :
2d = n

(6.3)

(2d)
hk l (n)
() .

132

 6:

6.6

Bragg

X
H I0

s0 , s ( 6.7) [15-17].

6.7

133

 6:

I R

a1 , a 2 , a 3 FT
1, 2, 3
:
(

FT

( )

(6.4)

( )

B n sin 2
2i s s r
o n
2

fn e
e

f n (
) , n

, , s s0 (n-

rn ).

Bragg:

s s0 = hb1 kb 2 lb 3

(6.5)

b1 , b 2 , b 3 .
,

Bragg. O

( 6.8),

.
.

134

20

40

60

80

(202)

(220)
(113)
(311)

(211)
(202)
(301) (300)

(112)

(201)

(002)

(110)
(200)

(101)

(. )

(111)

6:

100

6.8

135

 6:

6.5

RAMAN

Raman
.
Raman

. 1928 C.V. Raman
.
Raman. ,
(98%)
( Rayleigh).
,
( Raman). Tyndall,
. Rayleigh .
Tyndall, Rayleigh
[18-20].
.
Raman
i hi ,
, ,


hi, i ( Rayleigh).
.

( Raman), .
m
() . hs
( ) h i
m :
m= hi- hs

(6.6)

136

 6:

m s i,
Stokes Raman.
m , s i
anti-Stokes Raman.

,
() .

( ). Rayleigh.
, ,
n=1 .
:
m= hi- hs = hm

(6.7)

s=i-m n=+1. Stokes

Raman.
Raman n=1, .
n=1
,
. (n=0)

hm. anti-Stokes Raman.
Boltzmann
n=1 n=0,
:
n1/n0=e-(h/kT)

(6.8)

, Stokes anti-Stokes
, .
.

137

 6:

Raman
(polarizability) ,

.

Raman

,

.
(induced electric dipole moment)
. ,
,
:
=

(6.9)

( ) .
Raman,
.
, i :
E = E0cos(2it)

(6.10)

0 () .
(6.10) (6.9) :
= 0cs(2it)

(6.11)

(
Rayleigh)
202.

138

 6:

Raman
Raman
.
: ) ) (
).
Taylor :
= 0+(/Q)Q+(1/2!)(2/Q2)Q2+

(6.12)

0 , Q (
r-re ) /Q
Q, .
.
Q :
Q = Q0 cos(2mt)

(6.13)

m Q 0 Q.
:
= 0+(/Q)0 cos(2mt)

(6.14)

(6.14) (6.11) :
= 00cos(2it) + (/Q)Q0 E0 cos(2mt)cos(2it)

(6.15)

:
= 0 0 cos(2it) + (/Q)Q0 E0/2 [cos2(i-m) t + cos2(i+m) t]

(6.16)

,
i, (i-m) (i+m)
Rayleigh, Stokes anti-Stokes .
Raman.
Raman n=1.
, /Q=0,
Raman
, Raman.

139

 6:

Rayleigh 02
Raman (/Q)2.
anti-Stokes Stokes :
anti-stokes/stokes = (i+m)4/(i-m)4exp(-hm/kT)

(6.17)

.
(n1/n0=e-(h/kT)) (Maxwell-Boltzmann)
.
.
, :
x = x

(6.18)

y = y

(6.19)

z = z

(6.20)

.
x, y, z ,
.
x ,
y z x .
:
x= xxx+ xyy+ xzz

(6.21)

y= yxx+ yyy+ yzz

(6.22)

z=zxx+ yzy+zzz

(6.23)

( ,
, ).
ij=ji i, j={x, y, z}.
(x, y, z)
xx, yy, zz .
,
(6.21), (6.22) (6.23) :

140

 6:

x= xxx

(6.24)

y= yyy

(6.25)

z=zzz

(6.26)

.
( 1/2)-1 ,
. ,
x, y, z. ,
(xx yy zz) .

,
. , ,
, Raman [20-23].

Raman
Raman
,
, ,
[23-25].
Raman ,
,
Raman .

Raman
1970 Tuinstra Koenig
Raman ( 6.9).
Raman ,
laser
.
1575 cm -1.

141

 6:

. ,

:
22g + 2E2g + A2u + E1u

(6.27)

M 2E2g Raman.
2E 2g
180 . ,
,
,
1575 cm-1, E2g .
1575 cm-1 sp 2
G (G-band).
sp3 1333 cm-1 ()
1850-2100 cm-1.

6.9

Raman ()

,
( 6.10) 1355 cm-1. H
, ,
,
[26-28].

142

 6:

6.10

Raman ..

D (D-band)

Raman. D G (ID/IG)
. Tunistra
Koenig Raman -
(L ),
D G (ID/IG)
L ( 6.11).

6.11

L
D G (ID/IG)

143

 6:

Knight White Raman

,
=514.5 nm (laser = 2.41 eV), :
L (nm) = 560 / 4 laser (ID/IG)-1

(6.28)

laser eV
Raman.
nm :
L (nm) = (2.4 x 10-10) 4laser (ID/IG)-1

(6.29)

Raman
Raman

.
,

.. H

Raman
.
Raman
: 1500-1600 cm-1 160-200 cm-1.
1500-1600 cm-1:
180
(
, 6.12) 2g
1580 cm-1 ( G).
(achiral)
.
,
, 1250-1450 cm-1
1350 cm-1 ( D, 6.12).

144

 6:

D
laser.

6.12

Raman .

, ,
.
160-200 cm-1:
, RBM (Radial Breathing
Modes)
, ( 6.12).

RBM 0.7 nm 2
nm. RBM
.
RBM :
RBM (cm-1) = /d +

(6.30)

d
nm.
1.5 nm
=234 cm-1 =10 cm-1. RBM,
3.30 -.

. 2

145

 6:

nm 6.30
RBM . 0.7 nm
6.30. RBM

.

146

 6:

6.6

1) , .., , , 1999.
2) , ., , 1999.

3) Goldstein J., Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis, 2nd ed.,
Plenum Press, New York, 1992.
4) Wunderligh, ., Thermal Analysis, Academic Press, London, 1990.
5) Hohne G., Hemminger W., and Flammersheim, J.H., Differential Scanning
Calorimetry. An Introduction for Practitioners, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1996.
6) Charlsley, L.E., and Warrington, B.S., Thermal Analysis-Techniques and
Applications, The Royal Society of Chemistry, London, 1992.
7) Hatekeyama, T., and Quinn, X.F., Thermal Analysis-Fundamentals and Applications
to Polymer Science, 2nd ed., J.Wiley &Sons, NewYork, 2000.
8) Codek, ., Coleman, .J., Ryan, P.K., Nicolosi, V., Bister, G., and Fonseca, A.,
Nano Lett., 2004, 4, 353.

9) Minus, M., Chae, G.H., and Kumar, S., Polymer, 2006, 47, 3705.

10) Herrero, R.C., Morales, B., and Acosta, L.J., J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 1994, 51, 1189.

11) Xiong, H., Gao, Y., and Li, M.H., Exp. Polym. Lett., 2007, 1, 416.

12) Leelapornpisit, W., Ton-That, T.M., Perrin-Sarazin, F., Cole, K., Denault, J., and
Simard, B., J. Polym. Sci. B Polym. Phys., 2005, 43, 2445.

147

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13) Antoniadis, G., Paraskevopoulos, M.K., Bikiaris, and D., Chrissafis, K., J. Polym.
Sci.B Polym. Phys., 2009, 47, 1452.

14) Valentini, L, Biagiotti, J., Kenny, M.J. and Santucci, S., J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2003,
87, 708.

15) Manhado, L.M.A., Valentini, L., Biagiotti, J., and Kenny, M.J., Carbon, 2005, 43,
1499.

16) Jin J., Song M., and Pan F., Thermochim. Acta, 2007, 456, 25.
17) Warren, B.E., X-Ray Diffraction, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1969.
18) Colthup, N.B., Daly, L.H, Wiberley, S.E, Introduction to Infrared and Raman
Spectroscopy, 3rd ed., Academic Press, 1990.
19) Painter, P.C., Coleman, M.M., and Koening, J.L, The Theory of Vibrational
Spectroscopy and its Application to Polymeric Materials, John Wiley & Sons, 1982.
20) Banwell, C.N., McCash, E.M., Fundamentals of Molecular Spectroscopy, 4 th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, London, 1994.

21) Dresselhaus, S.M., Dresselhaus, G., Sugihara, K., Spain, L.I., and Goldberg, A.H.,
Graphite Fibers and Filaments, vol. 5 of Springer Series in Materials Science,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1988.

22) Dresselhaus, S.M., Dresselhaus, G., Saito, R., and Jorio, A., Phys. Rep., 2005, 409,
47.

23) Pimenta, A.M., Dresselhaus, G., Dresellhaus, S.M., Cancado, G.L., Jorio, A., and
Saito, R., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2007, 9, 1276.

24) Cancado, G.L., Pimenta, A.M., Nevecs, A.R., Medeiros-Ribeiro, G., Enoki, T.,
Kobayashi, Y., Takai, K., Fukui, K., Dresselhaus, S.M., Saito, R., and Jorio, A.,
Phys. Rev. Lett., 2004, 93, 047403.

148

 6:

25) Saito, R., Dresselhaus, G., and Dresselhaus, S.M., Physical Properties of Carbon
Nanotubes, Imperial College Press, London, 1998.

26) Tuinstra, F., and Koenig, L.J., J. Chem. Phys., 1970, 53, 1126.

27) Tuinstra, F., and Koenig, L.J., J. Compos. Mater., 1970, 4, 492.

28) Batzian, R.A., Backmann, K.P., Hartnett, T., Batzian, T., and Messier, R.,
Amorphous Hydrogenated Carbon Films, ed. P. Koidl and P. Oelhafen, Les
Editions de Physique, vol. XVII, 1987.

149

:

:

:

V:

150

TG

TM

-120

135

-10

170

-73

128

(1,4- cis )

-100

(1,4- trans- )

-60

148

(cis )

-72

27

(trans)

-53

60

(cis)

-20

50

(trans)

-45

55

(1-)

-25

132

(1-)

-40

130

(1-)

-50

(1-)

-30

17

(1-)

-65

-38

(1-)

-47

(1-)

-40

(1-)

-37

(1-)

-36

49

(4---1)

29

250

-82

180

-67

66

-78

-84

60

()

-31

144

()

-43

86

(--)

-55

64

()

-18

115

(-.-)

88

260

()

100

()

100

(-)

100

34

240

151

(-)

135

>360

(-)

97

215

-(-)

100

(-)

161

(-)

110

( )

106

130

165

( )

10

( )

-24

( )(iso)

45

160

( )(syn)

110

>200

( )(iso)

12

( )(syn)

65

( -)

35

(--)

20

( -)

-5

( -)

-20

40

200

81

227

-25

171

-18

190

(1,2-)

98

(1,2-)

145

-113

327

97

317

120

( )

29

208

105

49

85

258

( )

150

267

152

( )

75

255

40

232

130

290

111

325

( )
( )
( 1,4- )
( )
( )
( )
-3
-4

260

-5

223

-6 ()

50

225

-10

42

188

-11

46

198

-12

37

179

-6,6

57

265

-6,10

50

227

-123

-30

-86

230

150

43

60

50-480*

105

306

-22

119

(2,6- )

210

270

175

>300

(-), (Nomex)

>400

()

-66

225

(),(PEEK)

335

242

* , .

153

ABR

Acrylonitrile/Butadiene Rubber

ABS

Acrylonitrile/Butadiene/Styrene

copolymer

//

AIBN

Azobisisobutyronitrile

ASTM

American Society for Testing

Materials

Polybenzimidazobenzophenanthroline

BBL

()
BOPP

Biaxial Oriented Polypropylene

BR

Butadiene Rubber

BS

Butadiene /Styrene Rubber

CA

Cellulose Acetate

CF

Cresol Formaldehyde Resin

CMC

Carboxymethylcellulose

CN

Cellulose Nitrate

COPA

Copolyamide

COPE

Copolyester

CP

Cellulose Propionate

CPE

Chloroprene Polyethylene

CR

Chronoprene Rubber

CS

Casein

CTA

Callulose Triacetate

DMAc

N,N.-Dimethylacetamide

,-

DMF

N,N.-Dimethylformamide

,-

DMSO

Dimethylsulfoxide

DMT

Dimethyl Terephthalate

DOP

Dioctyl Phthalate

DP

Degree of Polymerization

154

DPn

Average Degree of Polymerization

DTA

Differential Thermal Analysis

EEA

Poly(ethylene co- ethyl acrylate)

EP

Epoxy Resin

EPM

Poly (ethylene co- propylene)

EPR

Ethylene/Propylene Rubber

EPS

Expandable Polystyrene

GPC

Gel Permeation Chronomatography)

HALS

Hindered Amine Light Stabilizer

HDI

Hexamethylene Diisocyanate

HDPE

High Density Polyethylene

HIPS

High Impact Polystyrene

HMP

Hexamethylphosphoramide

IIR

Isobutene Isoprene Rubber

IR

Isoprene Rubber

(cis -1,4)

LDPE

Low Density Polyethylene

LLDPE

Linear Low Density Polyethylene

MDI

Methylene Diphenylene Diisocyanate

MF

Melamine Formaldehyde Resin

MFI

Melt Flow Index

Mn

Number average molecular weight

Mv

Viscosity average molecular weight

Mw

Weight average molecular weight

Mz

Z-average molecular weight (from

German spelling zentrifuge)

MMA

Methyl Methacrylate

MPF

Melamine Phenol- Formaldehyde

155

Resin

MWD

Molecular Weight Distribution

NBR

Nitrile /Butadiene Rubber

NR

Natural Rubber

PA

Polyamide (Nylon)

()

PAI

Polyamide Imide

PAN

Polyacrylonitrile

PB

Polybutadiene

PBI

Polybenzimidazole

PBN

Poly(butylene naphthalate)

( )

PBT

Poly(butylene terephthalate)

( )

Polybenzothiazole

PC

Polycarbonate

PEEK

Poly-ether-ether-ketone

- -

PEI

Poly(ethylene isophthatate)

( )

PEI

Poly (ether imide)

PEK

Poly ether- ketone

--

PEN

Poly (ethylene 2.6-naphthalenedicarboxylate)

(2,6- )

Poly(ethylene-2.6naphthalate)
Poly(ethylene naphtha late)
PEOX

Poly (ethylene oxide)

PET

Poly(ethylene terephthalate)

( )

PETE
PETR
PES

Polyethersulphone

PF

Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin

PFA

Perfluoro-alcoxyalkene

PI

Polymide

PIB

Polyisobutylene

PMAN

Polymethacrylonitrile

PMMA

Poly(Methyl methacrylate)

( )

PMP

Polymethylpentene

POM

Polyoxymethylene

156

PP

Polypropylene

PPA

Polyphosphoric acid

PPO

Poly(phenylene oxide)
Poly(oxy -2.6-dimethyl 1.4- pheny-

lene)
PPS

Poly(phenylene sulfide)

Poly(thio-1.4-phenylene)
PS

Polystyrene

PSO

Polysulfone

PTFE

Polytetrafluoroethylene

PUR

Polyurethane

PVA

Poly(vinyl acetate)

( )

PVAI

Poly (vinyl alcohol)

( )

PVB

Poly(vinyl butylale)

PVC

Poly(vinyl chloride)

PVCAc

Poly(vinyl chloride co-vinyl-acetate)

PVAc

PVDC

Poly (vinylidene chloride)

PVDF

Poly (vinylidene fluoride)

PVF

Poly (vinylidene formal)

PVP

Poly (N-vinyl pyrrolidone)

RF

Resorcinole Formaldehyde Resin

SAN

Styrene /Acrylonitrile copolymer

SBR

Styrene/Butediene Rubber

SIR

Silicon Rubber

TCP

Tricresyl Phosphate

TDI

Tolylene Diisocyanate

TGA

Thermogravimetric Analysis

TMA

Thermomechanical Analysis

TPX

Poly (4-methylpentene -1)

(4--1)

TR

Thiokol Rubber

TS

Thermoset

157

UF

Urea Formaldehyde Resin

UHM-

Ultra High Molecular Weight

WPE

Polyethylene

ULDPE

Ultra Low Density Polyethylene

VCM

Vinyl Chloride Monomer

VAE

Vinyl Acetate co-ethylene copolymer

ZNC

Ziegler Natta Catalyst

Ziegler Natta

158

Acrilan

Chemstrand

Acrylite

( )

American Cyanamid

Aculon

,6- 6,6

DSM

Alathon

Du Pont de Nemours

Alkathene

ICI

Amberlite

Rohm and Haas

Araldite

Ciba

Arenka

Amer,Enka Co

Arnite

( )

DSM

Astrel

3M

Bakelite

P- F

Bakelite Sterling
Union Carbide

Baydur

Bayer

Bayflex

Bayer

Bexloy

Du Pont de Nemours

Buna CB

Du Pont deNemours

Capton

-6

Allied Signal Inc.

Carinex

Shell Chemical

Celanese

-6,6

Hoechst Celanese

Celanex

( )

Hoechst Celanese

Celcon

Hoechst Celanese

Celluloid

Hoechst Celanese

Chevron PE

Chevron

Collodion

Crastin

( )

Du Pont de Nemours

Cronar

(PET)

Du Pont de Nemours

Dacron

(PET)

Du Pont de Nemours

159

Darvic

ICI

Delrin

Du Pont de Nemours

Derel

Hoechst Celanese

Desmopan

Bayer

Desmophen

Bayer

A
Diakon

( )

ICI

Diolen

(PET)

Amer,Enka,Co

Dowlex

Dow chemicals

Doryl

Westinghouse

Epikote

Shell Chemicals

Epolene

Eastman Chemicals

Escorene

Exxon

Exon

Fireston Plastics

Fluon

ICI

Formica

Formica Corp.

Fortiflex

Soltex Polymer
Corp.HoechstCelanese

Fortilene

Solvay Polymers

Fortron

Hoechst Celanese

Glyptal

General Electric

Herculon

Hercules Powder

Herox

Du Pont de Nemours

H film

Du Pont de Nemours

Hi Blen

ABS

Japanese Geon

Hipol

Mitsui Sekka

Hitalex

Hitachi Chemicals

Hitanol

P-F

Hitachi Chemicals

Hostaflon

Hoechst

Hoechst

PET

Hoechst

C2
Hostaflon
FEP
Hostadur A

160

Hostadur B

PBT

Hoechst

Hostaflon

Hoechst

Hostaform

Hoechst

Hostalen

Hoechst

Hostalen

Hoechst

Histalit

Hoechst

Hostapor

Hoechst

Hostyren

Hoechst

Hytrel

Du Pont de nemours

PP

PBT/POBT
Impet

PET

Hoechst Celanese

Irrathene

General Electrc

Kapton

Du Pont De Nemours

Kardel

Union Carbide

Kaurit

U-P

BASF

Kerimid

Phone Poulenc

Kevlar

Du Pont de Nemours

Kodacel

Eastman

Kodel

Eastman

Kodar

Eastman

Kollidon

General Anilin

Korad

Rohm and Haas

Kynar

Penwalt

Lexan

( )

General Electric

Lotader

Elf atochem

Lucite

( )

Du Pont de Nemours

Lupolen

BASF

Lustran

ABS

Monsanto Chemicals

Lustrex

Monsanto Chemicals

Luvican

BASF

Lycra

Du Pont de Nemours

161

Lytex

Quantum Composites

Makrolon

( )

Bayer

Maranyl

-6 6,6

ICI

Marlex TR-

Philips Petroleum Co.

Melinar

PET

ICI

Melinex

(PET)

ICI

Minlon

-66

Du Pont de Nemours

Mylar

(PET)

Du Pont de Nemours

Neocis

Enichem

Neoprene

Du Pont de Nemours

Nipeon

Japanese Geon

Nipoflex

Toyo Soda

Nipolon

Toyo Soda

Nomex

Du Pont de Nemours

Noryl

General Electric

Novamid

Mitsubishi

Novodur

ABS

Bayer A.G.

Opalon

Monsanto Chemicals

Oppanol

BASF

Orlon

Du Pont de Nemours

Pelaspan

Dow chemicals

Perbuman

Bayer A.G.

Perlon L

-6 ( )

Bayer A.G.

Perlon N

-6,10( )

Bayer A.G.

Perlon T

-6,6()

Bayer A.G.

Perlon U

( )

Bayer A.G.

Perspex

PMMA

ICI

Plexiglass

PMMA

Rohm and Haas

Propathene

ICI

Quiana

Du Pont de Nemours

Rididex

BP Chemicals

Rilsan

-11

Aquitaine Qrganico

130

162

Riteflex

Hoechst Celanese

Roofmate

Dow Chemicals

Rovel

Uniroyal

Rynite

30% PET

Du Pont de Nemours

Ryton

( )

Phillips Petroleum

Saflex

Monsanto

Saran

Dow Chemicals

Silastic

Dow Cornig Corp.

Sniamid

-6

Snia

Spandex

Du Pont de Nemours

Stanyl

-4,6

DSM

Styrocel

Styrene Products

Syrofoam

Dow Chemicals

Styron

Dow Chemicals

Surlin

Du Pont de Nemours

Syntex

U-F

Celanese

Tedlar

Du Pont de Nemours

Teflon

Du Pont De Nemours

Teflon EPE

Du Pont De Nemours

/ .. (295 )
Teflon PFA
Teflon FEP

Du Pont De Nemours

Teflon PFA

Du Pont De Nemours

Terylene

(PET)

ICI

Trevira

(PET)

Hoechst AG

Texin

Bayer

Thiokol-A

Thiokol Corp.

Torlon

Amoco Polymers

Tygon

PVC

Norton Co.

Typar

Du Pont de Nemours

Tyvek

( )

Du Pont de Nemours

163

Ultraform

BASF

Ultramid

BASF

Ultrapek

BASF

Ultrason

BASF

Upilex

ICI-UBE

Valox

( )

General Electric

Vectra

Hoechst Celanese

Versamid

General Mills, Inc.Hulls

Vespel

Du Pont de Nemours

Vestamid

-12

Chemische Werke
Hulls

Vistanex

Exxon Chemicals

Viton

Du Pont de Nemours

Vydyne

-6,6

Monsanto

Wallmate

Dow Chemicals

Welite

PBT

Wellman Inc.

Wellamid

-6 -66

Wellman Inc.

Welpet

PET

Wellman Inc.

Xantar

DSM(Dutch State
Mines

Xenoy

General Electric Co.

/( )
Xydar

Amoco

Zenite

Du Pont de Nemours

Zetafin

Du Pont de Nemours

Zytel

-66

Du Pont de Nemours

164

V:
Adsorbate ::
.
, ,
CVD.
Assembler ::

.
Atom ::
,
. .
Atomic force microscopy ::
()
.

.

. (),
().
.
,
, , -,
.
Auger electron :: Auger
. ,
,

.
.

165

Auger
(.. KLM).
Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) :: Auger ()
.
.
Auger
.
Automated engineering ::
,
.
Automated manufacturing ::
.
Bacteria ::
, ( ).
Biomimicry ::
, .. .
Biomineralization ::
-
. (.. , )


Bottom Up ::
(.. )
.
,
.

166

Brownian Motion :: Brown

, .
Brown Robert Brown 1827.
Buckminsterfullerene
Fullerenes
Bucky Balls ::
60
.
() .
Buckyball or Fullerene or C60
( )
. Buckyballs
Buckminster Fuller.
1985 -
.
C60
, ,
70 (C70) , 120(C120), 180 (C180), ..
Robert F. Curl Jr. Richard E. Smalley, Rice
Houston, Texas Harold W. Kroto Sussex ,
1996
buckminsterfullerene buckyballs.
Bulk technology ::
.
Carbon Black ::
.
,
,
.
, .

167

Carbon Nanotubes ::
fullerenes,
.

.

.
,
.
,
, .
Catalyst ::

., .
.
(1)
, (2)

.
Cell ::

.
Cell pharmacology ::
.
Cell surgery ::
.
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) :: ()

.
,

168

.
Chromatograpy ::

,
.
,
.
Cluster ::
, .
(.. , )
.
Colloidal Systems ::

. .
.
Colorant ::
.
( ).
-
.
Computational nanotechnology ::
.
Computational Nanotechnology ::
.
Cryogenic AFM :: AFM

Kelvin.

169

Dendrimer ::
( )
.
.
Dendrimer ::
.



.
.

,
.
( ,
)
,
.
Dimer ::
- ()
Diode ::
p-n ( p
n), .
, .
, , ,
, , ,
.
Dip Pen Nanolithography ::
(. )

170

.
Disassembler ::

.
DNA
. DNA

( , ).
DNA

Drug Delivery Sytems (DDS) :: ()

.
Dye ::
.
,
.
Ecosystem protector ::

.
Electron-beam lithography (EBL) :: ()
,
,
() .
..
.

171

Electrostatic Force Microscopy (EFM) :: ()

. ,
.
/ .
Enabling science and technologies ::
.
Entanglement ::
(
).
.
Entropy ::

.
.
, :

. ( Kelvin)
Enzymes ::
,
.
Epitaxy ::

.
.
Exploratory engineering ::

, .

172

Extracellular matrix (ECM) :: ()

. .
3 : 1) :
. 2) : .. 3) :


(GAGs) .
Femtometer ::
(1/1,000,000,000,000,000).
.
Fractal ::
.
. :
.
Fuel cell :: (
)

) ) . ,
.
.
.
.
.

Fullerene
.
Fullerene ,
.
Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983).
Buckminsterfullerenes.

173

Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR) :: ()

-
. -
, .

.

.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle :: Heisenberg
:
. , ,
, .
.
Hydrocarbon ::
.
, ,
.
.
Imaging Contrast Agent ::

, MRI .
MRI, ,
.
,
MRI.
Immune machines :: .
,
,
.

174

Interface ::
: , .. -,
-, - -.
Josephson-Effect :: Josephson

( Josephson). - ( ).
Josephson ,
(SQUID).
Langmuir-Blodgett Technique :: Langmuir-Blodgett


.
Lateral force microscopy (LFM) :: ()
.
( ) .
LCD, Liquid Crystal Display :: ()
()
.
, .
,
.
.
LED, Light Emitting Diode :: ,
( p-n-).
, .

.
Ligand
,

175

.
Limited assembler ::
,

.
Lipids ::
,
.
Liposome ::
,
. ,
,

.
Liquid crystal (LC) :: ()
,
.

( ),
.

Lithography ::

.
,
. ()
Low-dimensional Structures ::
(..
, , ). , .

176

Macromolecule ::
.
Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM :: (
,
.
.
.
Matrix ::
, .
Membrane ::
,
, .
,
. ,
.
MEMS ::
.
-
.
.


.
Mesoporous ::

, (2 50 ).
.
50
2, .

177

Microfluidics ::
,

( nl )
( l ).
Microfluidics ::
, ,
,
.

.

,
.
,

.
.
Molecular Electronics (ME) :: ()

(.. , ).
.
.
Molecular electronics ::
, ,

.
Molecular engineering, Molecular manufacturing :: ,

,
.

178

Molecular machine ::
,
.
Molecular manipulator ::

.
.
Molecular manufacturing ::
,
.
Molecular medicine ::
.
Molecular nanotechnology ::

.
.
Molecular recognition ::

.
.
Molecular self assembly ::

.
Molecular sieve ::
,
( )
.

179

Molecular surgery or molecular repair ::

.
Molecular systems engineering ::
,
.
Molecular Wire ::

.
( ).
Molecule ::

.
.
.
Molecule ::
. .
Monomer ::
.
Moore's Law :: Moore
(
CPU ) Moore ,
.
Multiwalled nanotubes ::

180

Nano ::
(1/1,000,000,000)
Nano, Nanoscale :: ,

Nanocantilever ::
-- ()

.
,
, .
, ,
,
.
Nanochemistry ::
,
(, ) .
.
Nanocomposites ::
/ ,
100
. , ,
,

.
Nanocomputer ::

Nanocrystal ::
,
.

181

.
Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) :: ()
, - ,
.
Nanoelectronics ::

,
.
Nanofluidics ::
- .
,
.
Nanoimprinting ::
.
.
, .
.
, .
Nanoindentation ::
.

.
.
.
Nanolithography ::
,
,
.

182

().

) ().
.
,
.
Nanomachine ::

Nanomanufacturing ::

Nanometer ::
, 10
.
Nanometer ::
(1/1,000,000,000).
Nanometer ::
(10 9)
. 1 .
60,000 , DNA
2- 12 .
Nanoparticle ::
.
, , .
,
,
.
, , ,
.

183

.
Nanoscale ::
. , 1
100 , 100 1000 .
Nanoshell :: ( )

. ,
,

.
Nanostructures ::
1,000 ,
.
Nanosurgery ::
.
Nanotechnology ::
0.1 100
.
Nanotechnology ::

Nanotechnology ::

,
. ,
100
.

184

Nanotubes ::
, .
.
( 10,000 ).
) ,
().
Nanotubes ::
.

, .
Nanowire ::
,
.
, .

.
,


.
nm ::
,
(1/1,000,000,000).
Nucleus ::
, 0.00001
> 99.9% . .
OLED, Organic Light Emitting Diode ::
,
.
.

185

.
, ,
AYK.
Peptide ::

-
.
Photolithography ::
.
.. .
,
, .
Photonic crystal ::

.

, .
,
.
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) :: ()
.
.
.
.
, ,
( ).
Picometer ::
(1/1,000,000,000,000)

186

Plasma ::
( ).
, .
, ,
(-). .
Polariser ::
..
.
Positional synthesis ::
.
.
Protein design, protein engineering :: ,
.
.
Proteins ::
,
.
,
.
. ,
.
, .
Proximal probes ::
,
.
.
Quantum Computation ::
.
(0

187

1) -.
.
Quantum dot (Qdots) :: (Qdots)
(CdSe),
(CdS) (CdTe) .

: CdS -UV, CdSe
. CdTe
.

,
.
,
-
.

.
2004,

.
,
.
Quantum dot ::

.

, .
,
.
.

188

Quantum Well ::

(..
, ).
Quantum Wire ::

.
Qubit (Quantum bit) :: Qubit ( )
.

Replicator ::

.
Resist ::
.
- .
Ribosome ::


Scanning Capacitance Microscopy (SCM) ::
()
,
.
.
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) :: ()
.
,
, .

189

. .
, .
Scanning force microscopy (SFM) :: ()

Scanning Near Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM) ::
()

.

. ( )
(. . ).
Scanning probe microscope ::


, ,
,
, .
Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) ::
()


.

.
Scanning probe nanolithography (SPN) :: ()
.
()
()
,
.

190

Scanning Thermal Microscope ::

( ).
Scanning tunneling microscope ::

,
.
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) :: ()
.
.
Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) :: ()

.
.


.
Sealed assembler lab ::
,
.
Self-Assembly :: -
(). - , -
-
, , ,
.
Self-Organisation :: -
,

191

( ).

(.. ). -.
Semiconductor ::
, ,
(.. , ).
()
.
Silicon nano-sensors :: -
O -
( ).
SIMS (Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry) :: (
)
.
(.. Ar)
,
.

.
Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT) :: ()

Smart materials and products ::
,
.
.
Soft lithography ::

.

192

(), (),
() .
PDMS
, ,
- .
,
. 10 .
Spin coating ::
(
).
.
.
,
.
SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) ::
()
- .
Josephson
-
.
fT (femtotesla)
.
, .
Josephson.
Star Trek scenario ::
-
.
Substrate ::

.

193

Superconductor ::

. ,
. , 250
.
( , )
.
Superlattices :: -

.
.
Si(111) 7x7.
( 111 ). -
-.
Superposition (quantum mechanical) :: ( )
.
.
, ,
, .
,
.
Surface tension ::

.
.
.

. ,
.

194

Surfactant ::
.
, .
.

.
Van der Waals forces :: Van der Waals
.
.

( London). Van der Waals
.
J.D. van der Waals, 1837-1923.
Virtual reality system ::
(,
)
.
Virus ::
( )
.
XPS (x-ray photoelectron or photoemission spectroscopy) ::
()

( ).

.
. ()
.

195