Ludwig Wittgenstein - Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Cao Dao dch Khai t ca Wittgenstein C l cun sch ny ch s c thu hiu bi c gi no tng c nhng

g t tng_hay t ra th cng l nhng t tng ging nh th_c din t trong . V th, y khng phi l mt cun sch gio khoa. Mt cun sch nh th th c l mc ch ca n s t c nu nh n em li nim vui cho mt ngi no c v hiu n. Cun sch ny lun v nhng vn trit hc, v ti tin l n chng t rng: Ci l do m nhng vn trit hc nh th c t ra, chnh l v lun l trong ngn ng ca chng ta vn d b din gii sai lc. Ton b ngha ca cun sch ny, tht ra ch c th thu tm li trong vng mt cu thi: Ci g c th ni ht c bng ngn ng, th hy c th ni ht c mt cch r rng khc chit, v ci g chng ta khng th ni c, th phi cha n li trong ci im lng. Nh th, mc ch ca cun sch ny l v ra ci ng ranh gii hn cho t tng, hay ni ng hn, khng phi l cho t tng, m l cho cch biu t t tng_Bi v: c th v c ci ng bin gii hn cho t tng, th chng ta cng buc phi tm cho ra hai mt ca gii hn m chng ta c th t tng ti c (v d: chng ta cng b buc phi c kh nng t tng n ci-g-khng-th-t-tng-c). V l m m ng bin gii hn y ch c th c v ra trong ngn ng, v ci g nm b bn kia ca ng bin hn nh y, th ht thy cng ch n thun l nhng ci v ngha. Ti khng h mun thm nh v vic nhng n lc ca ti s tng hp n u vi nhng vic m nhng trit gia khc lm. Tht ra th nhng iu ti vit ra y cng chng xut iu chi mi m, v l do m ti khng h a ra mt trch dn no, th y chnh l v vic ti chng h quan tm n vic t tng ca ti vit ra y n c tng quan g n t tng ca ngi khc hay khng. Ti ch mun ni n vic ti hm n rt nhiu i vi nhng tc phm ln ca Frege v nhng bi vit ca bn ti, ng Bertrand Russell, lm phn khch t tng ti bit chng no. Nu tc phm ny c mt gi tr no chng, th ch ct hai iu. iu th nht l: nhng t tng c biu t trong , v trn c s ny th nhng t tng y cng c biu t minh bch_ci inh cng c ng cht vo u_th gi tr ca n cng ln hn_ch ny th ti thc c r rng l mnh lc bt tng tm. n gin ch l v nng lc ca ti qu i mong manh c th hon thnh c mt cng vic nh th, mong rng nhng ngi khc s c mt v lm n tt hn. Mt khc, ci chn xc ni hm trong t tng c truyn t y, th i vi ti, li c v nh l mt ci g r rng dt khot v khng th cng kch c. V vy ti t mnh tin rng l tm ra c t nhng im ct li, mt gii php cui cng cho mi vn trit hc. V nu nh trong nim tin ny ti khng nhm ln, th iu th hai c gi tr no chng m tc phm ny c th chuyn ti, l n cng ch cho thy rng: Cho d con ngi ta c ha gii tt c mi vn trit hc i chng na, th thnh tu y, cng chng ng l bao. L. Wittgenstein Vienna, 1918

Vi dng cho cho bn dch Vit ng *y l mt bn dch th nghim, V th, ti khng mong ch ci g hon ho trong bn dch ny. ng hn, ti ch mong mi nhng bc k tip cho bc u ny thi. Ngi ta bao gi cng cn mt bc u, hn l khng h bc i u. Bn dch ny c dch vi s tham kho gia hai bn ting Anh v mt s bn ting Nht: 1. Hai bn ting Anh: a. David Pears and Brian McGuinness (1961): _C th download ti: http://www.gutenberg.org b. Ogden (1921): _C th download ti www.wikipedia.com Ti chn bn ca David Pears v Brian McGuinness lm bn chnh chuyn sang Vit ng, v l do: phong cch gin khit, thong t (gn vi phong cch gin khit v trong sng r rng ca Witt.) v c khuynh hng tng hp (thun chuyn sang ngn ng ng nh Vit ng hn, ngha khng b ri). Bn ca Ogden (thin v chi tit v phong cch kinh vin hn, i khi cng nhc) ch dng tham kho. 2. Bn cnh , ti cng tham kho mt s bn ting Nht qua nhng ghi chp tay v nhng bi vit ring bng ting Nht ca ti v Witt. khong thp nin 90. Rt tic, iu kin hin nay ca ti khng cho php ti tra li tn tc, dch gi, nh xut bn dn xut c. Trong tay ti hin nay ch gi c mt cun duy nht lm cn bn trch dn l c.Uigenshuten Shojiten, do Makoto Yamamoto v Hiroshi Kurosaki ch bin, nh xut bn Daishukanshoten, 1999. y l mt cun t in v Wittgenstien ca nhiu tc gi Nht bn. Trong bn dch ting Vit ny, khi c nhng im lch kh xa cc bn dch Anh v Nht v Vit th ti trch dn km theo rng ng tham kho, tt c nhng trch dn ngoi ng trong bn dch ny u t a, b, v c. tin theo di mch vn, nhng ch in nghing, hoc trong ngoc, v d: __(abc) l ca ngi dch. y l mt bn dch th nghim, ng hn, l mt bc u tip cn vi tc phm ny, tht s vn khng d dng tip cn, mi bc c tin li gn n, li l mt bc b trt chn i, bi lch pha ngn ng kh ln gia ng v Ty, nhiu khi ti c cm gic n trt ra ngoi tm ca mt c nhn. Hai nm trc, ti dch xong, tng yn. Hai nm sau, c dp c li, mi ch u i ti phi chnh sa. Cng sa, ch li cng ln qun ngoi ra, khng tin c gn hn. Nhng ch ny ti vit ra, mt giy sau, n khng cn l ca ti na. By gi th ti phi thun theo ch ca chng: th cho chng t tm ng n ch chn xc cui cng i vi chng_c chm vo tc phm ny. Ti m bn dch ny ra cho tt c nhng ai thc s c quan tm n Witt. v tt c mi ngi, nhng ai quan tm n n, bt k ai cng c thm quyn gip cho n c chm vo im cui.

Ch c im cui ca ng tip tuyn l thc s chm vo i tng c thm d. (Tractatus, 2.15121) l nhng bc i k tip m ti mong mi, khng thuc ch mi mt mnh ti, mong c chm u ngn tay vo n. CAO DAO ___________________________________ 1. The world is all that is the case. (Th gii l tng th ca nhng g thnh lp) Th gii l tng th ca nhng g c hnh thnh. 1.1 The world is the totality of facts, not of things. (Th gii l tng th ca nhng s tht, khng phi l tng th ca nhng vt) Th gii l tng th ca nhng s kin, khng phi ca nhng s vt. 1.11 Th gii c xc lp bi nhng s kin, v bi s tn ti ca tt c mi s kin hp thnh. 1.12 Bi v, tng th ca nhng s kin xc lp ci g hnh thnh, cng nh xc lp ci g khng c hnh thnh. 1.13 Nhng s kin trong khng gian lun l l th gii. 1.2 Th gii c phn lp thnh nhng s kin. 1.21 (Trong ) mi s khong c th hnh thnh c hay khng hnh thnh c, v nhng ci cn li cng u nh th. 2. What is the case--a fact--is the existence of states of affairs. (Nhng g c thnh lp, tc l nhng s tht, c ngha l, thnh lp nhng s thi) Nhng g hnh thnh, tc nhng s kin, l hnh thnh nhng trng hung. 2.01 Mt trng hung (tc mt trng thi ca nhng s vt), l s phi hp ca nhng i tng (s vt). 2.011 iu thit yu ca s vt, l n c th cu thnh nn nhng trng hung. 2.012 Trong lun l khng tn ti tnh ngu nhin. Nu mt s vt c th xy ra trong mt trng hung, th kh nng ca trng hung y phi c thut trnh trong chnh s vt y.

2.0121 C v nh l mt kiu ngu nhin, nu mt trng hung li ph hp vi mt s vt hon ton tn ti trong chnh n. Nu s vt c th xy ra trong nhng trng hung, th kh nng ny phi c trong n t u. (Chng c g trong lnh vc lun l m ch l c th. Lun l gii quyt tng kh nng, v, tt c nhng kh nng u l vic ca n). Cng ging nh chng ta thc s khng th hnh dung c nhng i tng thuc v khng gian li ngoi khng gian, hay nhng i tng thuc v thi gian li ngoi thi gian, cng nh th, khng c i tng no m chng ta c th hnh dung, ngoi tr kh nng phi hp vi nhng i tng khc. Nu chng ta c th hnh dung nhng i tng c phi hp trong trng hung, th chng ta khng th hnh dung chng, ngoi tr kh nng ca s phi hp nh th. 2.0122 S vt bit lp vi nhau trong chng mc chng c th xy ra trong tt c nhng trng hung c th, tuy nhin hnh thc bit lp ny l mt hnh thc tng quan vi trng hung, vn l mt hnh thc bit lp. (T ng khng th ng hai vai tr cng lc: bi chnh n v trong mnh ) 2.0123 Nu ti bit v mt i tng, ti cng bit tt c nhng pht sinh ca n trong nhng trng hung. (Mi mt kh nng phi l mt phn bn cht ca i tng). Mt kh nng mi khng th c khm ph ra sau . 2.01231 Nu ti mun bit v mt i tng, d ti khng cn bit nhng tnh cht ngoi ti ca n, nhng ti phi bit tt c nhng tnh cht ni ti ca n. 2.0124 Nu tt c mi i tng u c xut, th ng thi, tt c mi kh tnh ca nhng trng hung cng c xut. 2.013 Mi s vt, l ci g trong khng gian kh nng ca nhng trng hung, nh n l nh th. Khng gian ny ti c th ngh l n rng, nhng ti khng th hnh dung c mt s vt khng c khng gian. 2.0131 Mt i tng trong khng gian phi c t trong mt khng gian v hn. (mt im trong khng gian l mt ch lun v). Mt mng trong trong trng nhn, d n khng nht thit phi l , nhng n phi c mt vi mu sc no : l ci ni v, c nhum bi mt khng gian -mu sc. Nt nhc th phi c m vc no , i tng ca cm gic xc gic th phi c mt mc khng no , v c nh th... 2.014 i tng hm cha kh tnh ca mi tnh trng. 2.0141 Kh nng pht sinh trong trng hung, l hnh thc ca i tng. 2.02 Mi i tng u gin n.

2.0201 Mi ngn biu v nhng ci phc tp c th c ha gii thnh mt ngn biu v nhng yu t cu thnh v c ha gii thnh nhng mnh gii thch hon ton ci phc tp . 2.021 i tng lm nn thc th ca th gii. l l do v sao chng khng th phc hp c. 2.0211 Nu th gii khng c thc th no, th mt mnh c ngha hay khng, phi ty thuc vo mt mnh khc ng hay khng. 2.0212 Trong trng hp , chng ta khng th hnh dung c mt hnh tng no v th gii (d tha ng hay khng). 2.022 Tht r rng rng mt th gii c hnh tng ha, cho d c th khc vi th gii thc ti, cng phi c mt ci g _mt hnh thc_ cng thng vi n. 2.023 i tng l nhng g cu thnh hnh thc khng th bin i ny. 2.0231 Thc th ca th gii ch c th nh tnh mt hnh thc, nhng khng th nh tnh cho bt k tnh cht vt cht no. V chng ch l ngha thuc v nhng mnh m tnh cht vt cht c biu th_ch thng qua hnh dung v nhng i tng m chng c a ra. 2.0232 Trong trng thi ang c ni v, mi nhng i tng u v v. 2.0233 Nu hai i tng c cng mt hnh thc lun l, th s bin bit duy nht gia chng, ngoi nhng tnh cht ngoi vi ca chng, l chng khc nhau. 2.02331 Hoc, s vt c nhng tnh cht m khng mt ci g khc c, trong trng hp ny, chng ta c th s dng mt s miu t ngay tc khc v quy vo n. Hoc, mt khc, c nhng s vt c ton b nhng c tnh ca chng cng thng vi nhau, trong trng hp ny, khng th no ch nh ra c mt trong chng. Bi v khng c ci g phn bit n ring ra c, ti khng th phn bit c n, hoc bi v n ch c th c phn bit sau tt c nhng ci khc. 2.024 Thc th, l ci g vn tip tc tn ti mt cch c lp vi ci c hnh thnh. 2.025 l hnh thc v ni dung. 2.0251

Khng gian, thi gian, mu sc (c mu sc) l hnh thc ca i tng. 2.026 There must be objects, if the world is to have unalterable form. Nht thit phi c nhng i tng, nu th gii l ci g c hnh thc khng bin i. 2.027 Objects, the unalterable, and the subsistent are one and the same. i tng, ci khng th sa i, v ci c nh th tn ti, l mt v ng nht. 2.0271 i tng l ci khng th sa i v c nh th tn ti; hnh dung v n th l ci g bin i v khng n nh. 2.0272 The configuration of objects produces states of affairs. Hnh dung v nhng i tng to nn nhng trng hung. 2.03 Trong trng hung, nhng i tng kht khao vi nhau nh nhng mc xch trong mt chui. 2.031 Trong trng hung, nhng i tng thit lp mt tng quan nh tnh vi nhau. 2.032 Th thc nht nh m nhng i tng c lin kt vi nhau trong trng hung, l cu trc ca trng hung. 2.033 Hnh thc l kh nng ca cu trc. 2.034 Cu trc ca mt s kin, bao gm nhng cu trc ca nhng trng hung. 2.04 Tng th ca nhng trng hung hin tn ti, l th gii. 2.05 Tng th ca nhng trng hung hin tn ti, cng xc nh nhng trng hung no hin khng tn ti. 2.06 Tn ti v khng-tn ti ca nhng trng hung, l thc ti. (Chng ta gi tn ti ca nhng trng hung l mt s kin kh th v khng tn ti ca chng l mt s kin ph nh th). 2.061 Nhng trng hung u c lp vi nhau. 2.062 T tn ti hay khng-tn ti ca mt trng hung, th khng th quy kt vo tn ti hay khng-tn ti ca mt trng hung khc. 2.063 Tng-ton th ca thc ti, l th gii.

2.1 We picture facts to ourselves. (DP&BM) 2.1 We make to ourselves pictures of facts.(Ogd.) (Chng ta nm bt s tht tung) Chng ta nm bt s kin qua hnh tng. 2.11 Mt hnh tng biu th mt trng hung trong khng gian lun l tnh, rng trng hung y tn ti hay khng tn ti. 2.12 Hnh tng l m hnh ca thc ti. 2.13 Trong mt hnh tng, nhng i tng c nhng yu t ca hnh tng tng ng vi chng. 2.131 Trong mt hnh tng, nhng yu t ca hnh tng y i din cho nhng i tng. 2.14 Ci thit nh mt hnh tng, l ci m nhng yu t ca n tng quan vi nhau trong mt th thc nh tnh. 2.141 Mt hnh tng l mt s kin. 2.15 Vic nhng yu t ca mt hnh tng c tng quan vi nhau trong mt th thc nh tnh, ni ln rng s vt c tng quan vi nhau trong cng mt th thc nh th. Chng ta gi tng quan gia nhng yu t ca hnh tng l cu trc ca n, v gi kh nng ca cu trc ny l hnh thc miu t trnh thut ca hnh tng. 2.151 Hnh thc miu t trnh thut ca hnh tng t l mt kh th, m s vt c tng quan vi nhau trong cng mt th thc vi nhng yu t ca hnh tng. 2.1511 l cch m mt hnh tng c gn lin vi thc ti; n tm thy chnh n ngay trc mt. 2.1512 N c t i din vi thc ti nh l mt thm d. 2.15121 Ch c im cui ca ng tip tuyn l thc s chm vo i tng c thm d. _______ Nguyn bn ting c v bn dch ca Ogden gm 2.1513 v 2.1514: 2.1513 According to this view the representing relation which makes it a picture, also belongs to the picture. Theo cch nhn ny th tng quan biu hin lm thnh mt hnh tng, th cng ty thuc vo hnh tng.

2.1514 The representing relation consists of the co-ordinations of the elements of the picture and the things. Tng quan biu hin bao gm s kt hp gia nhng yu t ca hnh tng v s vt. Bn dch ca DB&BM tng hp hai mnh ny thnh 2.1514. _______ 2.1514 Nh th, mt hnh tng c hnh dung trong cch ny, cng bao hm tng quan miu t trnh thut, ci lm cho n tr thnh mt hnh tng. 2.1515 Lin kt gia chng l, nh l, ci cm thc v nhng yu t ca hnh tng, qua hnh tng chm vo thc ti. 2.16 Nu mt s kin di hnh thc l mt hnh tng, th n phi c ci g cng thng vi ci n c trnh thut miu t. 2.161 Phi c mt ci g chung nht gia mt hnh tng v ci n c trnh thut miu t, n c th l hinh tng y m khng l bt k ci g khc. 2.17 Nhng im cng thng vi thc ti m hnh tng phi c, c th miu t trnh thut c thc ti , trong cch ca n_mt cch chnh xc hay khng_, l hnh thc miu t. 2.171 Mt hnh tng c th miu t bt k thc ti no c hnh thc m hnh tng c.Mt hnh tng thuc v khng gian c th miu t bt k s vt no trong khng gian, mt hnh tng v mu sc c th miu t bt k ci g c mu sc.. vv. 2.172 A picture cannot, however, depict its pictorial form: it displays it. Mt hnh tng, tuy nhin, khng th miu t hnh thc miu t ca n: n phi by hnh thc miu t ca n. ______ Bn dch ca Ogden: Hnh tng, tuy nhin, khng th biu th hnh thc biu th ca n, m t l n ra (The picture, however, cannot represent its form of representation; it shows it forth). ______ 2.173 Mt hnh tng biu th ch ca n t mt v tr bn ngoi n. (V th ca n l hnh thc biu th ca n). l l do v sao mt hnh tng biu th ch ca n mt cch chinh xc hay khng chnh xc. 2.174 Tuy nhin, mt hnh tng khng th t n tch la khi hnh thc biu th n. 2.18

Ci m bt k mt hnh tng no, ca bt k hnh thc no, cng phi c c th nht tr vi thc ti, c th miu t c n_mt cch chnh xc hay khng chnh xc_l hinh thc lun l, tc l, hnh thc ca thc ti. 2.181 Mt hnh tng m hnh thc miu t ca n l hnh thc lun l, th c gi l mt hnh tng lun l. 2.182 Mi hnh tng, ng thi cng l mt hnh tng lun l. (Mt khc, khng phi mi hnh tng u l th, v d, hnh tng v khng gian). 2.19 Hnh tng lun l c th miu t th gii. 2.2 A picture has logico-pictorial form in common with what it depicts. (Tng cng hu vi ci n miu t v hnh thc lun l ca t tng) Mt hnh tng bao gm hnh thc lun l ca miu t cng thng vi ci n miu t. 2.201 Hnh tng miu t thc ti bng cch biu th kh nng tn ti v khng-tn ti ca trng hung. 2.202 Hnh tng bao hm kh nng ca tnh hung m n biu trng. 2.203 Mt hnh tng nht tr vi thc ti hay khng nht tr vi thc ti; n ng hay khng ng, tha ng v khng tha ng. _______ 2.21 trong nguyn bn c xc nhp vi 2.203 _______ 2.22 Mt hnh tng biu th ci m n biu th, mt cch c lp vi tnh cch chn hay ngy ca n, bi th thc ca hnh thc miu t. 2.221 What a picture represents is its sense. (Ci m tng biu hin, l ngha ca tng ) Ci m mt hnh tng biu th, l ngha (Sinn) ca hnh tng . 2.222 Tha ng hay khng tha ng i vi thc ti, hay ngha ca n i vi thc ti, thit lp nn tnh cch chn hay ngy ca n. 2.223 c th ni mt hnh tng l chn hay ngy, chng ta phi so snh n vi thc ti. 2.224 Khng th ni v mt hnh tng n c, rng n c tnh cch chn hay ngy. 2.225 There are no pictures that are true a priori.

Khng c mt hnh tng no l chn, mt cch tin nghim (a priori). 3. A logical picture of facts is a thought. (Tng lun l ca s tht l t nim) Mt hnh tng lun l ca s kin, l mt t tng ( ngh). 3.001 "Trng hung l ci c th t tng; iu ny c ngha l chng ta c kh nng nm bt hnh tng t trng hung. 3.01 Tng th ca nhng t tng ng, l mt hnh tng v th gii. 3.02 Mt t tng bao hm kh tnh ca mt tnh hung, m bi t tng l t tng. Ci g c th t tng, cng l ci g c th. 3.03 T duy khng bao gi c th l mt ci g phi lun l, bi v, nu n nh th, th c l nhng g chng ta suy ngh u v l. 3.031 Ngi ta thng ni rng Thng c th sng to mi th, ngoi tr ci g mu thun vi nguyn tc lun l. Chn xc khng th l mt ci g m chng ta c th ni l ging nh mt th gii "phi l" c. 3.032 Khng th no biu th trong ngn ng bt k ci g "mu thun vi lun l", cng nh trong hnh hc, khng th no biu th mt ta ta ca mt hnh mu thun vi nhng nh lut khng gian, hay xut mt ta ca mt cht im khng tn ti. 3.0321 Mc d mt trng hung mu thun vi nhng nh lut vt l hc c th c chng ta biu trng n trong khng gian, nhng mt trng hung mu thun vi nhng nh lut hnh hc th khng th. 3.04 It a thought were correct a priori, it would be a thought whose possibility ensured its truth. (T tng ng mt cch a priori , l t tng m kh nng tnh ca n bo chng cho chn l tnh ca n) Mt t tng ng mt cch tin nghim (a priori), th phi l mt t tng m kh tnh ca n xc chng cho tnh ng n ca n. 3.05 A priori knowledge that a thought was true would be possible only it its truth were recognizable from the thought itself (without anything a to compare it with). C th nhn bit mt cch tin nghim (a priori) rng mt t tng l ng, ch khi no c th nhn bit n l ng bi t chnh t tng (m khng cn bt k ci g so snh vi n). 3.1

Trong mt mnh , ngh tm thy mt biu trng c th c cm th bi tri gic (sense). 3.11 Chng ta s dng k hiu kh cm ca mt mnh (ni hay vit vv) nh l mt nh hng ca mt trng hung c th. Phng thc nh hng l suy ngh v ngha* ca mnh . _______*Bn ting Anh dng t "sense" l " ngha" v cng l "cm gic, tri gic", ngha ny c s dng lin kt vi ngha "cm gic" vi 3.1 ______ 3.12 Ti gi k hiu m vi n chng ta biu trng mt ngh, l k hiu ca mnh . V mt mnh , l mt mnh k hiu trong tng quan nh hng vi th gii. 3.13 Mt mnh , v th, khng thc s hm cha ngha ca n, m ch hm cha kh nng biu trng n. ("Ni dung ca mnh " c ngha l ni dung ca mt mnh c ngha). Mt mnh hm cha hnh thc ca, m khng hm cha ni dung ca ngha. 3.14 Ci thit nh mt k hiu ca mnh , l ci trong nhng yu t ca n (nhng t ng) nh lp trong mt tng quan nh tnh vi nhau. Mt k hiu ca mnh l mt s kin. 3.141 Mnh khng phi l mt hn hp ca t ng. (Cng nh ch m nhc khng phi l mt hn hp ca nhng nt nhc). Mnh l mt lin kt nh tnh. 3.142 Ch c nhng s kin mi c th biu trng c ngha, mt t hp nhng tn gi th khng th. 3.143 Mc d k hiu ca mnh l mt s kin, iu ny ti nghia bi hnh thc thng dng biu hin trong khi vit v in n. V trong mt mnh c in n, v d, th khng c s khc bit c bit no r rng gia k hiu ca mt mnh v mt t. (iu ny khin cho Frege gi mnh l mt tn gi phc hp). 3.1431 Bn cht ca k hiu ca mnh c nhn thy r rng nu chng ta hnh dung mt s kin c phi hp vi nhng i tng trong khng gian (nh bn, gh, sch v) thay v vit bng nhng k hiu. 3.1432 Thay v ni "K hiu phc hp 'aRb' ngha l a v b trong tng quan R", th chng ta nn din t "Rng 'a' v 'b' trong mt tng quan nht nh ni ln rng 'aRb'" 3.144 Situations can be described but not given names. 3.144 States of affairs can be described but not named. (Names resemble points; propositions resemble arrows, they have senses.) (Ogden) 3.144

Trng hung, c th trnh thut miu t, nhng khng th t tn gi c. ____Trong nguyn bn ting c v bn ting Anh ca Ogden c thm cu gii thch c ng trong ngoc: (Tn gi ging nh im ch, mnh nh mi tn, n mang ngha ca ci ch nhm ti) 3.2 Trong mt mnh , mt t tng c th c biu trng trong th thc m nhng yu t ca k hiu trong mnh p ng vi i tng ca ngh. 3.201 Ti gi nhng yu t nh th l nhng "k hiu n gin", v mt mnh nh th l " hon ton c phn tch" 3.202 K hiu n gin c s dng trong mnh l tn gi. 3.203 (Bedeutung) (Tn gi ly i tng lm ngha. i tng l ngha (Bedeutung) ca tn gi) Mt tn gi, l tng (Bedeutung) ca mt i tng. i tng y l tng ca tn gi. ("A" l mt k hiu ng nht nh "A".) 3.21 Hnh dung ca i tng trong trng hung p ng vi hnh dung ca nhng k hiu n gin trong k hiu ca mnh . __________ Nguyn bn ting c v ting Anh ca Ogden c 3.22, b sung ngha ni hm trong 3.203 ("i tng y l tng ca tn gi") 3.22 In the proposition the name represents the object.(Ogden) Trong mnh , tn gi biu th i tng. __________ 3.221 i tng ch c th c gi tn. K hiu l biu th ca n. Ti ch c th ni v n (i tng) rng: ti khng th t gn n vo trong t ng. Mnh ch c th ni ln s vt nh th no, khng th ni ln n l ci g c. (_in nghing ca ND) 3.23 Nhu cu kh hu ca k hiu n gin, l nhu cu ca s minh nh ngha. 3.24 Mt mnh v mt phc hp c nh lp trong tng quan ni ti vi mt mnh cu thnh s phc hp . S phc hp ch c th c biu trng bi s miu t trnh thut ca n, c th l ng hay sai. Mt mnh biu trng mt phc hp, s khng v ngha nu s phc hp tn ti, m ch n gin l n sai. Khi yu t ca mnh biu th mt s phc hp, th c th thy iu ny trong tnh bt nh ca mnh m n hin din. Trong trng hp ny, chng ta bit c rng mnh y vn cn ci g bt nh. (Thc ra, k hiu cho tnh bao qut c hm cha mt nguyn mu). S gin ha mt biu tng phc hp thnh mt biu tung n gin, c th c biu trng trong nh ngha.

3.25 Mt mnh khng th c phn tch xa hn ngha ca nh ngha: l k hiu tin khi. _______ Nguyn bn ting c v bn ting Anh ca Ogden c 3.251 v 3.26. Bn dch ca David Pears and Brian McGuinness tng hp ba cu ny thnh mt cu gin khit (3.25): 3.25 There is one and only one complete analysis of the proposition. Ch c mt v ch mt phn tch nguyn vn m thi. 3.251 The proposition expresses what it expresses in a definite and clearly specifiable way: the proposition is articulate. Mnh biu trng ci n biu trng trong mt cch thc c th minh nh r rng v r ngha: mnh nh th th minh bch khc chit. 3.26 The name cannot be analysed further by any definition. It is a primitive sign. Tn gi khng th c phn tch xa hn nh ngha. l k hiu tin khi. _____ 3.261 Mi k hiu c nh ngha, biu th thng qua nhng k hiu dng nh ngha n, v nh ngha ch nh ra cch thc y. Hai k hiu khng th biu th trong cng mt cch thc, nu mt ci l k hiu khi u v ci kia c nh ngha bi k hiu khi u y. Tn gi khng th uc phn tch m x bi cch nh ngha trng lp nh th. (Cng nh bt k k hiu no cng khng th c ngha c lp v bit lp ring mt mnh n). 3.262 Ci m nhng k hiu tht bi trong biu trng, th s thch dng ca chng c th. Ci m nhng k hiu lt qua i, th s thch dng ca chng ni r rng. 3.263 ngha ca nhng k hiu tin khi c th c gii thch bi cch thc minh gii. S gii minh l nhng mnh c thit lp, nu ngha ca nhng k hiu y c l gii. 3.3 Only propositions have sense; only in the nexus of a proposition does a name have meaning. (in nghing v gch nhn ca ND) Ch c mnh c ngha (Sinn). Ch trong tng quan ca mnh , tn gi mi c tng (Bedeutung). 3.31 Ti gi bt k phn no ca mt mnh biu th ngha ca n, l mt biu trng (hay mt biu tng). (Mt mnh , t n l mt biu trng). Ci ct yu cho ngha ca nhng mnh m chng c th c c cng thng vi nhau, l biu trng. Biu trng l du n ca hnh thc v ni dung. 3.311 Mt biu trng lm tin cho hnh thc ca tt c nhng mnh trong n c th xut hin. l du hiu c trng cng thng trong cng mt lp phn loi ca mnh (class of propositions). 3.312

Bi th n c biu th bi phng thc ca hnh thc chung cho nhng mnh m n c trng. Tht ra, trong hnh thc ny th biu trng y n nh, trong khi mi th khc c th bin i. 3.313 Nh th, mt biu trng c biu th bi nhng cch bin i m gi tr ca chng l nhng mnh c hm cha biu trng y. (Trong trng hp hn nh khi s bin i tr nn n nh, th biu trng y thnh ra mt mnh ). Ti gi mt s bin i nh th l mt bin ca mnh . 3.314 Mt biu trng ch c ngha trong mnh . Tt c nhng bin ca n c th c phn nh nh l bin i ca mnh . (C nhng tn gi kh bin). 3.315 Nu chng ta chuyn mt yu t cu thnh ca mt mnh thnh mt yu t kh bin (_bin), th chng ta s c mt lp phn loi ca nhng mnh m tt c chng u l nhng gi tr c th c c t mnh kh bin c chuyn thnh y. Ni mt cch khi qut, th dng thc ny cng b l thuc vo ngha m chng ta tha thun vi nhau mt cch ty tin cho nhng phn ca mnh khi nguyn. Nhng nu tt c nhng k hiu trong c nhng ngha c tha thun ty tin y u c chuyn thnh nhng bin s, th chng ta s vn c c c mt dng thc thuc loi ny. Tuy nhin, dng thc ny li khng ty thuc vo bt k mt tha thun no, m n ch duy ty thuc vo trng thi t nhin ca mnh . N tng ng vi mt hnh thc lun l_mt nguyn mu lun l (logical prototype). 3.316 Ci m nhng gi tr kh bin ca mnh c th c c, l ci g c qui c. S qui c gi tr y l mt bin. 3.317 Qui c nhng gi tr kh bin ca mnh , l hn nh mnh y trong phm vi nhng c trng chung ca bin . Qui c l mt miu t trnh thut ca mnh . Theo qui c ch c quan tm n bi nhng biu tng, khng phi bi ngha ca chng. V iu ng ni duy nht v s qui c, rng ch l mt miu t v biu tng v n khng pht biu v mt ngha kh d no c. Cch thc mt miu t trnh thut ca mnh c xut nh th no th khng phi l ct li (essential). 3.318 Cng vi Frege v Russell, ti cng l gii mt mnh nh l mt hm s ca nhng biu trng m n hm cha. 3.32 K hiu l ci c th tri nhn c ca biu tng. 3.321 Nh th, mt k hiu n nht v ng nht (trong cch vit hay cch ni vv) c th cng thng trong hai biu tng khc nhau_trong trng hp chng c ngha trong nhng th thc khc nhau. 3.322

Cch s dng cng mt k hiu cho hai i tng khc nhau, khng th no ch nh c c trng chung cho c hai, nu chng ta s dng n vi hai dng thc ca ngha. Bi v, k hiu, ng nhin c tnh n phng. Thay vo , chng ta c th s dng hai k hiu khc nhau, v ri sau ci g cn li s cng thng trn bnh din ngha? 3.323 Trong ngn ng thng nht, rt thng xuyn c nhng t ng ng nht c nhng dng thc ngha khc nhau_v nh th, thuc v nhng biu tng khc nhau_hoc, hai t c dng thc ngha khc nhau c s dng trong mnh trong cng mt cch nh nhau trn b mt. Mt t ng nh th "l" gi thit nh mt h t, nh l mt k hiu cho tnh ng nht, v nh l mt biu trng cho tn ti; "tn ti" c gi thit nh l mt ni ng t ging nh "i", v "ng nht" nh l mt tnh t; tuy chng ta ni (n gin) v mt ci g , nhng cng ni v din bin ca mt ci g y. (Trong mnh , "ng Lc th mu lc"_trong t th nht l tn ring ca mt ngi v t sau l mt tnh t_nhng t ng ny khng ch khc nhau v ngha: chng l nhng biu tng khc nhau). 3.324 Trong cch ny, s ln ln cn bn nht cng c th d dng c ni ra (ton b trit hc cng y dy nhng ln ln m h nh th). 3.325 trnh nhng ln ln nh th, chng ta phi s dng n ngn ng-k hiu loi tr chng, bng cch khng s dng mt k hiu ng nht cho nhng biu tng khc nhau, v bng cch khng s dng nhng k hiu ging nhau trn b mt m c nhng dng thc ngha khc nhau, tc l ang ni n: ngn ng-k hiu c iu chnh bi ng php lun l_c php lun l.(mu k hiu khi nim ca Frege v Russell l mt kiu ngn ng nh th, mc d n ng, nhng khng th loi tr tt c mi lm ln). 3.326 th chp nhn mt hnh tng bi k hiu ca n, chng ta phi quan st ci cch k hiu c s dng nh th no vi ngha. 3.327 K hiu khng quyt nh mt hnh thc lun l, tr phi n c s dng km theo c php lun l. 3.328 Mt k hiu v dng, th v ngha. y l trng im trong chm ngn ca Ockham. (Nu mi th u c x s nh th l mt k hiu c ngha, th n mi c ngha). ___Chm ngn Ockham thng c bit nh l Li dao co Ockham _ng thi phng tn ti ln qu mc cn thit (Don't multiply entities beyond necessity.) 3.33 ngha ca k hiu khng h ng mt vi tr no trong c php lun l. Tt nhin l c th thit lp c php lun l m khng cn phi cp n ngha ca k hiu: ch c trnh thut miu t ca biu trng l c th c gi nh trc. 3.331

T kho st ny, chng ta li quay v vi "l thuyt kiu mu" ("theory of types") ca Russell. C th nhn ra rng Russell hn phi lm ln, v ng cp ti ngha ca k hiu khi thit lp nhng nguyn tc v chng. 3.332 Mnh khng th ngn biu v chinh n, bi v chnh n khng t bao hm k hiu ca mnh (, l ton b "l thuyt kiu mu"). 3.333 L do v sao mt hm s khng th l tr s ca n, l v k hiu ca mt hm s vn bao hm nguyn mu ca tr s ca n ri, v n khng th t bao hm chnh n. V chng ta th gi nh rng hm s F(fx) c th l chnh tr s ca n: trong trng hp ny s c mt mnh "F(F(fx))", trong , hm F ngoi v hm F trong phi c ngha khc nhau, v ci trong c dng thc O(f(x)) v ci ngoi c dng thc Y(O(fx)). Trong hai hm ny, ch c t "F" l cng thng, nhng t y t n khng c ngha. iu ny hn r rng hn nu thay v "F(Fu)", chng ta vi t "(do) : F(Ou) . Ou = Fu". N quyt nh nghch l ca Russell. 3.334 Nhng nguyn tc ca c php lun l hn c vn dng m khng cn ni ra, mt khi chng ta bit c mi k hiu ring l biu th nh th no. 3.34 Mt mnh c nhng c trng thuc v bn cht v thuc v ngu nhin. Nhng c trng ngu nhin l nhng kt qu c c t cch thc ring m k hiu ca mnh c thit nh. Nhng c trng bn cht l nhng g m khng c chng, mnh s khng th biu trng c ngha ca n. 3.341 Nh th, ci g l bn cht (essential) trong mt mnh , th l ci m tt c nhng mnh c th biu trng trong cng mt ngha cng thng nhau. V cng nh th, ni chung, ci g l bn cht trong mt hnh tng, l ci m tt c mi hnh tng c s dng trong cng mt mc ch, u cng thng vi nhau. 3.3411 Nh th, ngi ta c th ni rng, tn gi thc s ca mt i tng, l ci m mi biu tng biu th n cng thng vi nhau. Nh th, ln lt tt c cc dng thc phi hp u chng t l khng bn cht (unessential) i vi tn gi. 3.342 D cho c mt ci g n phng trong h thng k hiu ca chng ta i na, th cng thng tnh ny khng n phng_rng, khi chng ta quyt nh mt ci g mt cch n phng, th cng c nhng ci g khc tt yu thnh hnh. (Ci g khc ny c hnh thnh t bn cht ca k hiu). 3.3421 Mt dng thc biu th c hu c th khng h trng, nhng n lun lun h trng vi tnh cch l mt kh tnh thuc v dng thc biu hin. V iu ny cng nh th trong trit hc ni chung: Mi mi c th ln lt chng l ci g c, nhng kh tnh hnh thnh mi mt c th li m h ra mt ci g ct li ca th gii. 3.343

nh ngha l nguyn tc chuyn ng t mt ngn ng ny sang mt ngn ng khc. Bt k ngn ng-k hiu chun xc no cng phi c chuyn dch trn c s tha ng vi nhng nguyn tc nh vy. 3.344 Ci c ngha trong mt biu tng l ci cng thng vi tt c mi biu tng, rng nhng nguyn tc v c php lun l s cho php chng ta thay th n. 3.3441 Chng hn, chng ta c th biu trng ci g cng thng vi tt c h k hiu ca hmchn xc, theo cch sau y: chng cng thng vi nhau, v d nh, h k hiu s dng "Pp" ("khng phi l p") v "p C g" ("p hoc g") c th thay th bt k phn t no trong chng. (iu ny p ng cho vic biu th tnh c trng ca phng thc: mt ci g chung c th c m l ra bi kh tnh ca mt h k hiu c nh). 3.3442 S phn tch cng khng gii quyt k hiu cho mt phc hp trong mt cch thc ty tin, v th c l nn c mt gii php khc thch hp mi lc, rng n c t hp trong mt mnh khc. 3.4 Mt mnh xc nh mt ch trong khng gian lun l. S tn ti trong khng gian lun l ny c xc chng duy ch bi chnh s tn ti ca nhng yu t cu thnh_bi s tn ti ca mnh c ngha . 3.41 K hiu ca mnh vi nhng im ta lun l_ l v tr lun l. 3.411 Trong hnh hc, cng nh trong lun l hc, khng gian l mt kh nng, rng: mt ci g c th tn ti . 3.42 Mnh ch c th xc nh mt v tr trong khng gian lun l: tuy nhin, ton th khng gian lun l phi c thit nh bi n. (Nu khng, th s ph nh, tng lun l, kt qu lun lvv, ri s phi gii by ra th cc yu t mi cng nh v ln nhau) (Gin gio lun l bao quanh mt hnh tng thit nh ra khng gian lun l. Sc cng ca mt mnh tc ng vo ton th khng gian lun l). 3.5 K hiu ca mnh , c thch dng v c ngh ra, l mt t tng. _________________________________ 4 A thought is a proposition with a sense. (T nim l mnh c ngha) ngh (t tng) l mt mnh c ngha 4.001 The totality of propositions is language. Tng th ca nhng mnh l ngn ng.

4.022 Con ngi ta s c kh nng thit lp ngn ng c th biu trng mi ngha, m khng cn phi ngh v mi mt t c c ngha nh th no, hay ngha ca n l g_cng ging nh ngi ta ni m khng cn phi bit nhng m thanh c tht ra nh th no. Ngn ng thng nht l mt phn cu to hu c ca con ngi v khng t phc tp hn cu to hu c y.Vic nm bt c ngay t cu to y, rng lun l ca ngn ng l g, ngoi kh nng con ngi. Ngn ng ci trang li t tng. Cng ht nh th, rng t hnh thc b ngoi ca trang phc tht khng th on nh c hnh thc ca ngh n bn di , bi v hnh thc b ngoi ca trang phc khng c thit k c th khm ph hnh dng thc ca thn th, m v nhng mc ch hon ton khc. Nhng qui c ngm m ngn ng thng nht ty thuc vo, th cc k phc tp. 4.003 Hu ht nhng mnh v nhng tra vn c tm thy trong nhng tc phm trit hc, u khng sai, nhng v ngha. Th nn chng ta khng th gii p c nhng tra vn thuc loi ny, m ch c th ch ra rng chng v ngha, th thi. Hu ht nhng mnh v nhng tra vn ca cc trit gia u khi ln t s tht bi ca chng ta trong vic am hiu lun l ca ngn ng chnh mnh. (Chng thuc v cng mt kiu nh tra vn rng ci thin th ng nht hn hay km ci p). V, chng ngc nhin cht no khi nhng vn chng nh su sc nht, thc ra, th chng c vn g c. 4.0031 Ton b trit hc l mt "ph phn ngn ng" (d khng vi ngha ca Mauthner). Russell l ngi thc thi cng vic minh chng rng hnh thc lun l r rng ca mnh khng cn n thc ti m n biu th. 4.01 A proposition is a picture of reality. A proposition is a model of reality as we imagine it. Mnh (yu t) l mt hinh tng ca thc ti. Mt mnh l mt m hnh ca thc ti m chng ta hnh dung. 4.011 T dng v thot nhn ca mt mnh _cng v nh khi ngi ta chun b cho mt bn in_khng c v nh l mt hnh tng ca thc ti m n lin can. Thot nhn, th c v nh nhng k hiu m hc (nhng mu t) c vit ra khng phi l hnh tng ca li ni, cng nh nhng nt nhc c vit ra khng phi l hnh tng ca mt tc phm m nhc vy. V nhng ngn ng k hiu ny cng khng minh chng rng chng l nhng hnh tng m chng tng trng, c trong ngha thng thng. 4.012 Tht r rng rng mt mnh di hnh thc "aRb" p vo mt chng ta nh mt hnh tng. Trong trng hp ny, k hiu r rng c v ging nh ci m chng biu th. 4.013 V nu chng ta hiu thu bn cht ca k t hnh tng ny, th chng ta thy r n khng b hng i bi tnh bt qui tc (nh du "thng" v du "ging" trong k hi u m nhc). Bi v tnh bt qui tc ny miu t ci m n nh biu trng; ch c iu l n vn hnh trong mt cch khc.

4.014 Mt a ghi nhc, tng m nhc, nhng nt nhc c vit ra, v nhng sng m, tt c u i i vi nhau trong cng tng quan ni ti ca s miu t ci gn kt gia ngn ng v th gii thc ti. Tt c chng u c thit lp ph thuc vo mt m thc lun l chung nht. (Ging nh i nam n trong truyn c tch, cp nga ca h, v nhng a hoa hu ca h vy. Tt c u c trong mt ngha lun l nht nh). 4.0141 C mt nguyn tc tng qut trong cch thc ngi nhc s c th t c trong gin nhc giao hng, v trong cch thc giao hng y c th c c t vch k m ca a ghi nhc, v iu ny li s dng chnh nguyn tc u tin, xut pht t gin nhc m ra. y l ci thit lp nn s ng nht ni ti gia nhng s vic ny, m thot trng c v nh chng c kin to bng nhng phng thc hon ton khc nhau. Nguyn tc , l qui lut th hin giao hng thnh ngn ng k hiu m nhc, cng l qui lut chuyn dch ngn ng ny thnh ngn ng ca a ghi nhc. 4.015 Kh tnh ca tt c mi hnh tng, ca tt c mi dng thc miu t trong biu trng, u c bao hm trong lun l ca miu t trnh thut. 4.016 c th hiu c tnh cht ct li ca mt mnh , c l chng ta phi lu tm n vn t tung hnh, n miu t nhng s kin m n din t. V vn t thuc h thng mu t c khai trin t phng thc tng hnh y, cng khng mt i bn cht miu t ca n. 4.02 Chng ta c th thy iu ny t s kin rng: chng ta hiu ngha mt k hiu ca mnh , m khng n phi gii thch cho chng ta. 4.021 Mnh (yu t) l mt hnh tng ca thc ti: v nu ti hiu mt mnh , th ti bit trng hung m n biu th. V ti hiu mnh y m khng cn n ngha ca n gii thch cho ti. 4.022 Mnh chng t ngha ca n. Mnh , nu n ng, th n chng t s vt nh lp nh th no. V n cng ni rng chng c nh lp nh th. 4.023 Mt mnh buc phi gii hn thc ti vo mt trong hai la chn: khng inh hay ph nh. lm iu , n phi gii thch thc ti mt cch hon ton. Mnh l mt miu t trnh thut v mt trng hung. Cng nh s miu t trnh thut mt s vt a ra nhng tnh cht ngoi vi ca s vt , mt mnh miu t thc ti a ra nhng tnh cht ni ti ca n. Mt mnh thit lp mt th gii vi s tr gip ca gin gio lun l, v th ngi ta c th thc s thy rng trong mt mnh , mi ci c thit nh mt cch c lun l, nu n ng. Ngi ta cng c th rt ra nhng kt lun t mt mnh sai. 4.024 Hiu mt mnh , nu n ng, c ngha l bit ci g c hnh thnh. (v l , ngi ta c th hiu n m khng cn phi bit n c ng hay khng). N n gin ch c hiu, bi ngi no hiu c nhng yu t cu thnh ca n.

4.025 Khi chuyn dch mt ngn ng sang mt ngn ng khc, chng ta khng tin hnh bng cch dch thut mi mnh ca ngn ng ny sang mnh ca ngn ng khc, m ch bng cch chuyn dch nhng yu t cu thnh ca mnh . (V t in cng khng ch chuyn dch nhng danh t, m cn c nhng ng t, tnh t, lin tvv; v tt c chng cng c c x trong cng mt cch nh th). 4.026 ngha ca nhng k hiu n gin (t ng) phi c gii thch, nu chng ta mun hiu chng. Tuy nhin, i vi nhng mnh , th chng ta phi t hiu ly. 4.027 Mnh c th thng tri cho chng ta mt ngha mi, ty thuc vo bn cht ct li ca n. 4.03 Mnh phi thng tri mt ngha mi thng qua cch biu trng c. Mt mnh thng bo cho chng ta mt trng hung, v nh th, n phi gn kt mt cch thit yu vi trng hung y. S gn kt , mt cch chun xc, l hnh tng lun l. Mt mnh minh th mt ci g , ch trong chng mc n l mt hnh tng. 4.031 Trong mnh , mt trng hung c thit nh bi phng thc th nghim thm d, nh n vn l nh th. Thay v ni "Mnh ny c ngha nh th, nh th *", chng ta c th ni mt cch n gin, rng "Mnh ny biu trng mt tnh hung nh th, nh th ". _____ Nguyn bn: "diese und diese", hai bn ting Anh: "such and such": khng xc nh r rng, ch nh th thi.. _______ 4.0311 Mt tn gi nh lp mt s vt, mt tn khc cho mt s vt khc, v chng phi kt vi nhau. Trong cch thc ny, ton b nhm hp li_nh l mt hot cnh_biu th cho mt trng hung. 4.0312 Kh tnh ca mnh da trn nguyn l rng k hiu i biu cho i tng. tng nn tng ca ti l: nhng "hng s lun l" (logical constants) khng phi l nhng biu th, v rng khng c biu th cho tnh lun l ca s kin. 4.032 Mt mnh , ch trong chng mc c tnh cch lun l khc chit r rng, th n l mt hnh tng ca mt trng hung. (Ngay c trong mnh "Ambulo-i", l mt a hp: v ng cn i vi mt v ng khc th cho ra mt ngha khc, v v ng vi mt ng cn khc th cng nh th). 4.04 Mnh phi c mt cch chun xc mt s thnh phn c th phn bit c, nh trng hung m n biu th. C hai u ni hm cng mt bi s lun l (ton hc). (So snh C hc ca Hertz, m-en ng lc).

4.041 Bi s ton hc ny, ng nhin, khng th t n l ch ca miu t. D ngi ta khng th b qua n khi miu t. 4.0411. V d, nu chng ta mun biu trng ci m chng ta vit y nh l "(x).fx"_n khng tha ng, v: chng ta khng bi t c ci g ang c tng qut ha. Nu chng ta mun k hiu ha n vi mt v ng "g", v d nh vit l "f(xg)"_iu ny cng khng tha ng, v: chng ta khng bit c phm vi ca ca k hiu-tng qut. Nu chng ta c gng lm iu ny bng cch ra mt biu th vo v tr ca tham s_v d nh vit l "(G,G) . F(G,G)"_iu ny li khng tha ng, v: chng ta khng th thit lp tnh ng nht ca bin s. V c nh th. Tt c nhng dng thc biu th ny u khng tha ng, bi v: chng thiu st mt bi s ton hc tt yu. 4.0412 Cng mt l do, quan nim lun yu thnh n mt "cp mt knh khng gian", th khng tha ng trong vic gii thch ci nhn trong tng quan khng gian, v n khng th gii thch c bi s ca nhng tng quan ny. 4.05 Thc ti c so snh vi mnh . 4.06 Mt mnh c th ng hay sai, ch vi tnh cch l mt hnh tng ca thc ti. 4.061 Khng th b qua c, rng mt mnh c mt ngha vn c lp vi s kin: nu khng, th ngi ta c th s d dng cho rng "ng" v "sai" u l nhng tng quan ng ng gia nhng k hiu v ci m chng biu th. Trong trng hp ny th ngi ta c th ni, v d: "p" biu th ng, cng mt cch vi ci m "Pp" biu th sai. vv... 4.062 Phi chng chng ta khng th t mnh hiu ra c vi nhng mnh sai, cng nh chng ta cho ti by gi tng vi nhng mnh ng?_Cho ti khi no c bit rng chng b cho l sai._Khng phi th, v mt mnh l ng nu chng ta dng n ni ln rng s vt vn hnh trong mt cch thc nht nh, v chng vn hnh nh th; v nu chng ta ni v Pp thng qua p v s vt vn hnh nh cch chng ta ni, th n c hiu theo mt cch mi, rng "p" l ng v l khng sai. 4.0621 Nhng iu quan trng l nhng k hiu "p" v "Pp" c th ni v cng mt s vt. V n chng minh rng khng c ci g trong thc ti tng ng vi k hiu "P" c. S ph nh din ra trong mt mnh khng biu minh ngha ca n (PPp = p). Hai mnh "p" v "Pp" c ngha i lp, tuy nhin tng ng vi chng th ch cng mt thc ti n nht v ng nht. 4.063 Mt cch loi suy minh ha khi nim v chn xc: hy hnh dung mt vt en trn t giy trng: bn c th miu t hnh dng ca ci vt y bng li ni, v mi vt trn giy, d en hay trng. Nu s kin l mt vt en th n tng ng vi mt s kin khng nh, v nu l trng (khng en) th tng ng vi mt s kin ph nh. Nu

ti chn mt vt trn giy (l mt gi tr-chn xc, theo Frege), th vic ny tng ng vi mt gi nh c t ra phn on, vv.vv. Tuy nhin, c th ni rng mt vt l en hay trng, th trc tin ti phi bit khi no th mt vt c gi l trng, khi no gi l en: c th ni ""p" l ng (hay sai)", th ti cng phi xc nh trong bi cnh no m ti gi "p" l ng, v vi cch nh th, ti xc nh ngha ca mnh ny. Gi y th s so snh h l ra iu ny: chng ta c th chn mt im trn giy ngay c khi chng ta khng bit en, trng l g, tuy nhin, nu mt mnh khng c ngha, th n chng tng ng vi mt ci g c, v n khng ch nh mt s vt (mt gi tr-chn xc) c th c tnh cch gi l "ng" hay "sai". ng t ca mt mnh khng phi l "l ng" hay "l sai", nh Frege ngh, tht ra, ci g "l ng" th hn hm cha ng t . 4.064 Mi mnh hn vn c mt ngha: ngha ca n khng c to ra bi s khng nh. ngha ca n chnh l ci c khng nh. V iu ny cng thch dng vi s ph nh, vv. 4.0641 Ngi ta c th ni rng s ph nh phi c tng quan vi khng gian lun l c xc nh bi mnh b ph nh. Mnh ph nh xc nh mt khng gian lun l khc vi khng gian lun l ca mt mnh b ph nh. Mnh ph nh xc nh mt khng gian lun l vi s h tr ca khng gian lun l ca mnh b ph nh. Bi v ci ny miu t n nh l ci ngoi khng gian lun l ca ci kia. Mnh b ph nh c th li b ph nh, v v iu ny t n chng t rng ci b ph nh l mt mnh , v khng ch l mt ci g khi u cho mt mnh . 4.1 Propositions represent the existence and non-existence of states of affairs. (Mnh miu t ra s thnh lp v bt thnh lp ca s thi) Mnh biu th tn ti hay khng-tn ti ca trng hung. 4.11 Tng th ca nhng mnh ng l ton th khoa hc t nhin (hay ton b nhng vn bn ca cc khoa hc t nhin). 4.111 Trit hc khng phi l mt trong nhng khoa hc t nhin. (Thut ng "Trit hc" phi c ngha l mt ci g hoc trn, hoc di, ch khng ng ng vi cc khoa hc t nhin). 4.112 Trit hc nhm mc ch vo s minh bch lun l ca t tng. Trit hc khng phi l mt h thng l thuyt, m l mt nguyn ng. Mt tc phm trit hc bao hm nhng gii minh cn . Trit hc khng thnh tu nhng "mnh trit hc", m ng hn, s minh gii mnh . Khng c trit hc th t tng, nh n vn nh th, l ci gi m mt v bt minh: Nhim v ca trit hc l lm cho n tr nn minh bch v vch cho n nhng ng bin r nt. 4.1121 Tm l hc khng c tng quan gn gi i vi trit hc hn bt k mt khoa hc t nhin no khc c. L thuyt v tri thc, l trit hc ca tm l hc. Chng phi kho lun ca ti v ngn ng-k hiu cng tng ng vi tin trnh t tng m cc trit

gia vn thng cho l ct li ca trit hc ca lun l hc hay sao? Ch trong hu ht cc trng hp, chng vng trong nhng nghin cu tm l hc th yu, v vi phng php lun ca ti cng th, c mt nguy c tng t. 4.1122 Thuyt Darwin chng c g lm vi trit hc hn bt k mt gi thuyt khoa hc t nhin no khc. 4.113 Trit hc t ra gii hn cho bu khng kh qu nhiu tranh ci ca khoa hc t nhin. 4.114 Nht thit phi minh nh gii hn cho nhng g c th t tng c; v, nh th cng minh nh cho nhng g khng th t tng c. Nht thit phi minh nh gii hn cho nhng g khng th t tng c, bi minh nh cho nhng g c th t tng c. 4.115 Nhng g khng th ni c s c minh nh, bi s biu th r rng khc chit nhng g c th ni c. 4.116 Tt c nhng g hon ton c th t tng c, th c th t tng uc mt cch r rng khc chit. 4.12 Mnh c th biu th ton th thc ti, nhng mnh khng th biu th c ci cng thng vi thc ti c th biu th c n, l hnh thc lun l. c th biu th hnh thc lun l, c l chng ta phi t nh v vi nhng mnh mt ni no ngoi lun l, nh th c ngha l ngoi th gii. 4.121 Mnh khng th biu th hnh thc lun l: n c phn nh trong . Ci g tm thy s phn nh ca n trong ngn ng, th ngn ng khng th biu th c. Ci g t n biu trng trong ngn ng, chng ta khng th biu trng n bng phng tin ngn ng. Mnh m l ra hnh thc lun l ca thc ti. N phn chiu hnh thc lun l y. 4.1211 Nh th mt mnh "fa" t l mt i tng hin hin trong ngha ca n. Hai mnh "fa" v "ga" u biu trng mt i tng duy nht, c cp trong chng. Nu hai mnh ny mu thun vi nhau, th cu trc ca chng t l iu . Nu mnh ny theo sau mnh kia, th cu trc ca chng cng t l nh th. V c tip tc nh th. 4.1212 Ci g c th t l ra, th khng th ni c. 4.1213 Gi y, chng ta cng l gii c rng mt khi chng ta c mt ngn ng k hiu m trong mi ci u ng, th chng ta cng c mt quan im lun l chnh xc. 4.122

Trong mt ngha nht nh, chng ta c th ni v tnh cht hnh thc ca i tng v trng hung, hoc, trong trng hp ca s kin, l ni v tnh cht cu trc: v trong cng ngha nh trn, v tng quan hnh thc v tng quan cu trc. (Thay v ni "tnh cht cu trc" ti cng ni "tnh cht ni ti", thay v "tng quan cu trc" l "tng quan ni ti". Ti ra nhng biu trng ny ch ra cn nguyn ca s hn n gia tng quan ni ti v tng quan c bit (tng quan ngoi ti), rt ph bin gia cc trit gia. Tuy nhin, khng th no khng nh bng phng thc ca mnh rng tnh cht ni ti nh th v tng quan c c: ng hn l, iu ny t n hin nhin trong mnh , l ci biu th ra trng hung xc ng v c lin h vi i tng xc ng. 4.1221 Mt tnh cht ni ti ca mt s kin c th c t vo trong c trng ca s kin (v d nh, trong ngha m chng ta ni v nhng nt c trng v din mo mi ngi). 4.123 Mt thuc tnh l ni ti, nu khng th ngh c rng i tng ca n khng c n. (Sc thi ca mu xanh thm ny v sc xanh kia c nh lp, eo ipso-t n, trong tng quan ni ti ca mu sng hn v mu ti hn. Khng th ngh c rng hai i tng ny c th khng nh lp trong tng quan ny) ( y, s s dng bin cch ca t "i tng" tng ng vi s s dng bin cch ca nhng t "thuc tnh" v "tng quan"). 4.124 S tn ti mt tnh cht ni ti ca mt trng hung c th c, khng c biu trng bi phng thc ca mnh : ng hn, t n biu trng trong mnh ang biu trng cho trng hung , bi phng thc ca tnh cht ni ti ca mnh . Tht v ngha khi ch trng rng mt mnh c mt tnh cht hnh thc, cng nh khi ph nhn n. 4.1241 Khng th phn bit r rng nhng hnh thc vi nhau, bng cch ni rng ci ny c tinh cht ny v ci khc c tinh cht khc: bi v nhng tin lm nn ngha qui kt vo c tnh cht cng nh c hnh thc. 4.125 S tn ti ca mt tng quan ni ti gia nhng trng hung c th c, t n biu trng trong ngn ng, bi phng thc ca tng quan ni ti gia nhng mnh biu trng chng. 4.1251 y chng ta gp c gii p cho cu hi nhiu kh ny, rng "tt c nhng tng quan u ni ti hay ngoi ti?". 4.1252 Ti gi mt lot nhng ci c sp t bi mt tng quan ni ti l mt lot hnh thc. S sp t ca mt lot s lng th khng b chi phi bi mt tng quan ngoi ti, m bi mt tng quan ni ti. iu ny cng tha ng vi mt loi nhng mnh : "aRb", "(d : c) : aRx . xRb", "(d x,y) : aRx . xRy. yRb", v c tip tc nh th. (Nu b c trong mt ca nhng tng quan vi a, th ti gi b l phn t ni tip ca a).

4.126 By gi chng ta c th ni n khi nim c tnh hnh thc, trong cng mt ngha m chng ta ni v tnh cht hnh hnh thc. (Ti ra cch biu trng ny trng ra cn nguyn ca s hn tp gia khi nim hnh thc v khi nim ring bit, l ci lan trn khp lun l hc truyn thng). Khi mt ci g ri vo trong phm vi mt khi nim hnh thc nh l mt trong nhng i tng ca n, th n khng th biu trng c bi phng thc ca mnh . Thay vo , n c biu trong chnh k hiu ca i tng ny. (Mt tn gi chng t rng n biu trng cho mt i tng, mt k hiu ca mt s lng biu trng s lng,vv). Tht ra, khi nim hnh thc khng th c biu trng bi phng thc ca mt hm, nh khi nim ring bit c th. Bi c trng ca n_tnh cht hnh thc_khng c biu trng bi phng thc ca hm. S biu trng ca tnh cht hnh thc l yu t c trng ca nhng biu tng nht nh no . Nh th, k hiu cho c trng ca khi nim hnh thc, l yu t c trng r rng ca tt c nhng biu tng m ngha ca chng nm trong phm vi ca khi nim . Nh th, s biu trng nhng c trng ca mt khi nim hnh thc, l mt bin ca mnh , trong ch c yu t c trng r rng l n nh. 4.127 Bin ca mnh , l biu cho khi nim hnh thc, v nhng gi tr ca n biu cho nhng i tng nm trong khi nim . 4.1271 Mi bin l k hiu ca khi nim hnh thc. Bi v mi bin biu th mt hnh thc n nh m tt c mi gi tr ca n c c, v iu ny c th c xem nh l mt thuc tnh hnh thc ca nhng gi tr . 4.1272 Nh vy, tn gi kh bin "x" l k hiu ring cho i tng gi-khi nim (*in nghing ND) nh th. Bt k ni no t "i tng" ("s vt", vv.) c s dng mt cch chnh xc, th n c biu trng trong h k hiu ca tn gi kh bin. V d: trong mnh "C hai i tng m. . . ", c biu trng bi "(dx,y) ". Bt k ni no n c dng vi mt cch khc, th u l mt t-khi nim ring, kt qu em li l nhng gi-mnh v ngha. Nh th, ngi ta khng th ni, v d: "C nhng i tng", nh ngi ta c th ni "C nhng cun sch". V cng nh khng th ni: "C 100 i tng", hay, "C 10 i tng". V tht v ngha khi ni v tng s lng ca nhng i tng. Cng cch l gii cho nhng t "ci phc tp", "s kin", "s lng", vv. Tt c chng u biu cho nhng khi nim hnh thc, c biu trng trong h k hiu khi nim bi nhng bin, khng bi nhng hm hay nhng dng thc (nh Frege v Russell tin tng). "1 l mt con s", hay " Ch c mt con s khng", v tt c nhng biu trng tng t, u v ngha. (Cng v ngha nh khi ni: "Ch c mt s 1", cng nh mun ni "2 + 3 lc 3 gi, th tng ng vi 4" vy). 4.12721 Mt khi nim hnh thc, c ra ngay tc th cho bt k mt i tng no trong phm vi ca n, th c ra. V th, khng th trng ra nhng i tng ph thuc vo mt khi nim hnh thc v chnh khi nim hnh thc t n, nh l nim tin khi c. V d: Khng th trng ra nhng nim tin khi cho c khi nim v mt hm v c nhng hm c trng, nh Russell lm; hay khi nim v mt con s v nhng con s c th. 4.1273

Nu chng ta mun biu trng mt mnh chung trong h k hiu khi nim, "b l ci ni tip ca a", th chng ta cn phi c mt biu trng cho hn nh chung ca mt lot nhng hnh thc: "aRb", "(d : c) : aRx . xRb", "(d x,y) : aRx . xRy. yRb", . biu trng hn inh chung cho mt lot nhng hnh thc, chng ta phi s dng mt bin, bi v khi nim "hn nh ca mt lot hnh thc" l mt khi nim hnh thc. (y l iu m Frege v Russell b st: Phng thc theo m chng ta mun biu trng nhng mnh chung, ging nh trn, th khng ng; n hm cha mt vng nhng sai st). Chng ta c th xc nh hn nh chung cho mt lot nhng hnh thc, bng cch ra hn nh u tin v hnh thc chung ca tin trnh y ra nhng hn nh k tip t mnh ng trc n. 4.1274 Cu hi: mt khi nim hnh thc c tn ti hay khng, l mt cu hi v ngha. Bi v khng mnh no c th tr li c cho mt cu hi nh th. (Nh th, v d nh cu hi: "Mnh xc nh-ch ng bt kh phn, c tn ti hay khng?", th khng th thnh cu hi c). 4.128 Nhng hnh thc lun l u khng c s lng. Do , khng c nhng s vt tri mt cch tin trong lun l, v do , khng c kh tnh cho mt nht nguyn lun hay nh nguyn lun trong trit hc. 4.2 The sense of a proposition is its agreement and disagreement with possibilities of existence and non-existence of states of affairs. ( ngha ca mnh , l nht tr hay khng nht tr vi s thnh lp v bt thnh lp ca s thi) ngha ca mnh , l n nht tr hay khng nht tr vi kh tnh tn ti hay khng tn ti ca trng hung. 4.21 Dng thc n gin nht ca mnh , l mnh yu t, xc minh tn ti ca trng hung. 4.211 l s thit lp c s cho k hiu ca mt mnh , m khng th c mnh yu t no mu thun vi n. 4.22 Mt mnh yu t bao hm nhng tn gi. l mt chui lin h, mt chui mc xch ni kt nhau, ca nhng tn gi. 4.221 Tht r rng rng s phn tch nhng mnh phi mang li cho chng ta nhng mnh yu t, hm cha nhng tn gi trong s ni kt trc tip. Cu hi c khi l: S ni kt nhng mnh nh th din ra nh th no? 4.2211 Cho d th gii l ci phc tp trng trng v hn, n ni mi mt s kin u hm cha v hn nhng trng hung, v mi mt trng hung c hnh thnh t v hn nhng i tng, th cng vn c phi c nhng i tng v phi c nhng trng hung. 4.23

Ch trong chui lin kt ca mnh yu t, mt tn gi mi hin din trong mt mnh . 4.24 Tn gi, l nhng biu tng n gin: Ti ch nh chng bng nhng mu t n ("x", "y", "z"). Ti vit nhng mnh yu t nh l nhng hm ca tn gi, v th chng c hnh thc "fx", "O (x,y)"... vv. Hoc ti ch nh chng bng nhng mu t "p", "q", "r". 4.241 Khi ti s dng hai k hiu vi cng mt ngha n nht v ng nht, th ti biu trng iu ny bng cch t k hiu "=" vo gia chng. Nh th, "a = b" c ngha l: k hiu "b" c th thay th c cho k hiu "a". (Nu ti s dng mt phng trnh c mt k hiu mi "b", biu th rng n s ng vai tr thay th cho mt k hiu a c bit ri, th trng hp ny, cng nh Russell, ti vit phng trnh-nh ngha di hnh thc "a = b Def.". Mt nh ngha l mt nguyn tc thng giao vi nhng k hiu). 4.242 V th, nhng biu trng ca hnh thc "a = b", ch l phng sch biu th c trng. Chng khng ni ra iu g v ngha ca nhng k hiu "a" v "b" c. 4.243 Chng ta c th hiu c hai tn gi m khng cn bit rng chng biu cho cng mt s vt hay hai s vt khc nhau?_Chng ta c th hiu mt mnh vi hai tn gi hin din trong m khng cn bit rng ngha ca chng l ng nht hay khc nhau? Gi s rng ti bit ngha ca mt t ting Anh v ca mt t ting c cng c mt ngha: th i vi ti, khng th khng bit rng chng c ngha ng nht; ti phi c kh nng dch t ny sang t kia. Nhng biu thc nh "a = a", v nhng ci c suy ra t n, u khng phi l nhng mnh yu t, cng chng c cch no khc cho chng c ngha c. (iu ny s c minh nh sau). 4.25 Nu mt mnh yu t l ng, th trng hung y tn ti: nu mt mnh yu t l sai, th trng hung y khng tn ti. 4.26 Nu tt c nhng mnh yu t u c xut, th kt qu l mt s miu t hon ton v th gii. Th gii c hon ton c miu t bng cch xut tt c nhng mnh yu t, thm vo minh xc ci no trong l ng, ci no l sai. i vi mt s n nhng trng hung, c nhng kh nng tn ti v khng-tn ti. V nhng trng hung ny, mi s phi hp c th tn ti, nhng ci cn li th khng tn ti. 4.28 Tng ng vi nhng s phi hp ny, l cng mt s nhng kh nng ca chn _v ngy_i vi s n nhng mnh yu t. 4.3 Truth-possibilities of elementary propositions mean Possibilities of existence and non-existence of states of affairs. (Kh nng tnh chn xc ca mnh yu t l biu hin ca s thnh lp v bt thnh lp ca s thi)

Kh tnh-chn xc ca mnh yu t minh nh kh nng tn ti v khng-tn ti ca trng hung. 4.31 Chng ta c th biu trng nhng kh nng chn xc bi gin sau ("T" ngha l "ng", "F" l "sai"; nhng hng "T's" v "F's" bn di nhng mnh yu t, biu tng ha kh nng-chn xc trong mt cch c th d hiu): p T F q T T F T F F T F T F T F F r T T T F T F F F p T F T F q T T F F p T F

4.4 A proposition is an expression of agreement and disagreement with truth-possibilities of elementary propositions. (Mnh l biu hin ca s nht tr hay khng nht tr vi kh nng tnh chn l ca mnh yu t) Mnh l biu trng v s nht tr hay khng nht tr vi kh nng-chn xc ca mnh yu t. 4.41 Kh nng-chn xc ca mnh yu t l iu kin chn (ng) v ngy (sai) ca mnh . 4.411 Ngi ta c th bt ng vi s gii thiu rng mnh yu t cung cp mt nn tng cho vic l gii tt c mi dng thc mnh khc. Nhng qu tht, s l gii nhng mnh chung chc chn phi ty thuc vo s l gii mnh yu t. 4.42 i vi mt s n nhng mnh yu t, th c nhng cch m mt mnh c th nht tr hay khng nht tr vi kh nng chn xc ca n. 4.43 Chng ta c th biu trng s nht tr vi kh nng-chn xc bng cch lin kt du hiu "T" (true) vi chng trong gin . S thiu vng du hiu ny c ngha l khng nht tr. 4.431

S biu trng v nht tri hay khng nht tr vi kh nng-chn xc ca mnh yu t, l biu trng v iu kin-chn xc ca mt mnh . Mt mnh l s biu trng iu kin-chn xc ca n. (Nh th, Frege tht hu l trong cch s dng chng nh l xut pht im, khi ng gii thch nhng k hiu trong h k hiu khi nim ca ng. Tuy nhin, s gii thch v khi nim chn xc m Frege ra th nhm ln: nu "ci chn" v "ci ngy" thc s l nhng i tng, v l chng minh trong Pp vv., th phng php lun ca Frege trong vic xc nh ngha cho "Pp" s phi lu li trong tnh trng bt xc tuyt i). 4.44 K hiu c t kt qu ca vic lin kt du "T" vi kh nng-chn xc, l k hiu ca mnh . 4.441 Tht r rng rng mt phc th ca nhng k hiu "F" v "T" th khng c i tng (hay phc hp ca nhng i tng) tng ng vi n, cng ging nh khng c phc hp tng ng vi ng thng ng v ng nm ngang, hoc tng ng vi nhng du ngoc, _Khng c "i tng lun l". ng nhin, cng cng mt l gii cho tt c nhng k hiu biu trng nhng ci m gin "T's" v "F's" biu trng. 4.442 V d, k hiu sau l k hiu mnh : ("Vch phn on" ca Frege: "|_", l mt ci g tht v ngha v mt lun l: trong nhng tc phm ca Frege (v c Russell), n ch n gin ch ra rng nhng tc gi ny c gi cho nhng mnh c nh du bi k hiu ny, l ng. Nh th th "|_" khng cn l mt phn t cu thnh mnh na, m ng hn, chng hn, nh l con s ca mnh . Tht khng th i vi mt mnh tuyn b rng t n l ng). Nu th t sp t, hay kh nng-chn xc, trong gin c nh lp mt ln l dt khot bi nguyn tc t hp, th hng dc cui cng t n s l biu trng ca iu kin-chn xc. Nu by gi chng ta vit hng dc ny nh l mt hng ngang, th k hiu ca mnh s tr thnh "(TT-T) (p,q)" hay phc tp hn l "(TTGT) (p,q)". (S v tr nhng cp ngoc n bn tri c xc nh bi s khong mc ca nhng cp bn phi). 4.45 i vi mt s n nhng mnh yu t, c mt s Ln nhng nhm c th c ca iu kin-chn xc. Nhng nhm iu kin-chn xc c th c t kh nng-chn xc ca mt con s nhng mnh yu t c th xp vo trong mt lot. 4.46 Gia nhng nhm c th c ca iu kin-chn xc, c hai trng hp cc oan. Mt trong hai cc oan ny: mnh l ng i vi tt c kh nng-chn xc ca nhng mnh yu t_chng ta gi iu kin-chn xc nh th l c tnh cch ng ngha phn phc (tautological). Cc oan th hai: mnh l sai i vi tt c nhng kh nng-chn xc ca nhng mnh yu t_chng ta gi iu kin-chn xc nh th ny l c tnh cch mu thun. Trng hp u, chng ta gi mnh l ng ngha phn phc, trng hp sau l mu thun. 4.461 Mnh biu th ci n ni v; cn ng ngha phn phc v mu thun th biu th rng chng khng ni g c. Mt ng ngha phn phc khng c iu kin-chn xc no, v n ng mt cch v-iu kin, cn mu thun th ng m khng ng vi iu kin. ng ng phn phc v mu thun u thiu st ngha. (Ging nh t

mt im m hai mi tn bn ra hai hng i nghch vi nhau) (V d: D ti bit rng tri s ma hoc s khng ma i na, th ti cng khng bit g v thi tit c). 4.46211 Tuy nhin, ng ngha phn phc v mu thun khng phi l v ngha. Chng u l thnh phn ca h k hiu, cng nh th "0" l thnh phn ca h k hiu s hc. 4.462 ng ngha phn phc v mu thun khng phi l hnh tng ca thc ti. Chng khng biu th cho bt k mt trng hung no. Bi v ci u th dung nhn tt c mi trng hung c th c, ci sau th khng mt trng hung no. Trong ng ng phn phc, nhng iu kin nht tr vi th gii thc ti_tc nhng tng quan trong biu trng_th trit tiu ln nhau, v th, n khng c trong bt k tng quan biu trng no vi thc ti. 4.463 iu kin-chn xc ca mt mnh xc nh cp m phi ra ca n i vi s kin. (Mt mnh , mt hnh tng, hay mt m hnh, trong ngha ph nh, th ging nh mt vt th rn, n khng li s chuyn ng t do ca nhng vt th khc, v trong ngha khng nh, th ging nh mt khng gian, b gii hn bi thc th rn, trong c khong trng m th rn chon ch). ng ngha phn phc th m ra i vi ton th thc ti_ci ton th v hn_ca khng gian lun l; mu thun th lp y ton th khng gian lun l, khng cha li ch no cho thc ti c. Nh th, c hai u khng th minh nh cho thc ti, trong bt k cch no. 4.464 Mt chn xc ng ngha phn phc th lun lun chc chn, mc m mt mnh c th; mt mu thun th khng th. (Chc-chn, c-th, khng-th: y, chng ta c bng hng dn u tin v cp m chng ta cn cho l thuyt xc sut). 4.465 Kt qu lun l ca ng ngha phn phc v mnh , ni ln cng mt s vic cng nh mnh y ni. Kt qu ny, v vy, l ci ng nht vi chnh mnh . Bi v khng th bin i ci g ct yu ca mt biu tng, m khng thay i ngha ca n. 4.466 Ci g tng ng vi s kt hp minh bch lun l ca cc k hiu, chnh l ci kt hp minh bch lun l ca nhng ngha ca nhng k hiu . Ch nhng k hiu khng c kt hp th tuyt i tng ng vi bt k s kt hp no. Ni cch khc, mt mnh l ng vi mi trng hung, th hon ton khng th l s kt hp nhng k hiu, bi v, nu n l th, th ch c s kt hp ca nhng i tng mi c th tng ng vi n. (V ci g khng phi l mt kt hp lun l, th khng c s kt hp i tng tng ng vi n). ng ngha phn phc v mu thun l nhng trng hp hn nh_thc ra l s gii th_ca s kt hp nhng k hiu. 4.4661 Phi tha nhn rng, nhng k hiu vn cn kt hp vi nhau trong ng ngha phn phc v mu thun: tuy nhin, nhng tng quan ny khng c ngha, chng khng phi l bn cht ca biu tng. 4.5

C v nh gi y c th ra hnh thc mnh chung nht: l, ra mt s miu t trong mnh ca bt k ngn ng-k hiu no, bt k ci g, trong mt cch thc m mi ngha kh hu c th c biu trng bi mt biu tng, th u tha ng cho s miu t y, v, mi biu tng tha ng cho s miu t cng u c th biu trng mt ngha, min l ngha ca tn gi c chn la thch hp. Tht r rng rng ch c ci g ct li trong bn cht ca hnh thc mnh chung nht, th mi c th bao hm trong s miu t ca n_v nu khng, th n s khng l mnh chung nht. S tn ti ca hnh thc mnh chung nht c minh chng bi s kin rng khng th c mt mnh m hnh thc ca n khng th c tin liu trc (tc l, c kin to trc). Hnh thc chung ca mt mnh l: y l phng thc m s vt c nh lp. 4.51 Gi s rng tt c mi mnh yu t u c m ra trc ti: th ti c th n gin hi rng ti c th thit t c mnh nh th no t chng. V n, ti c tt c mi mnh , v iu y xc lp gii hn ca chng. 4.52 Mnh bao gm tt c nhng g sinh ra t tng ca tt c cc mnh yu t (v ng nhin, t vic n l tng ca tt c chng). (Nh th, trong mt ngha nht nh, c th ni rng: Tt c nhng mnh u l mt tng qut ha ca nhng mnh yu t). 4.53 Hnh thc chung ca mnh , l mt bin (s). ____________________________________ 5. A proposition is a truth-function of elementary propositions. (An elementary proposition is a truth-function of itself.) Mnh l hm (s)-chn xc ca nhng yu t mnh . (Mnh yu t l hmchn xc ca chnh n). 5.01 Mnh yu t l bin (s)-chn xc ca mnh . 5.02 Nhng bin ca hm u d dng b xo trn vi nhng tip ng (affixes) ca tn gi. V c bin v hm u cho php ti nhn ra ngha ca nhng k hiu hm cha chng. V d: Khi Russell vit "+c", th "c" l mt tip ng ch nh rng k hiu y, nh l mt ton th, l k hiu-b tc cho nhng con s v s lng. Tuy nhin s s dng k hiu ny l kt qu ca qui c ty , v l ra c th chn mt k hiu n gin, thay v "+c"; tuy nhin, "Pp" th "p" khng phi l mt tip ng m l mt bin: ngha ca "Pp" khng th hiu c tr phi ngha ca "p" c hiu. (Trong tn gi "Julius Cesar", th "Julius" l mt tip ng. Mt tip ng lun lun l mt phn ca trnh thut miu t v i tng m tn gi ca n c chng ta gn thm vo. VD: Cesar ca dng di Julian). Nu ti khng lm th l thuyt ca Frege v ngha ca mnh v hm th da trn s hn n bt minh gia mt bin v mt tip ng. Frege xem mnh lun l nh l tn gi, v bin ca n nh l tip ng ca tn gi . 5.1 Hm-chn xc c th c sp xp trong mt lot. l nn tng ca l thuyt xc sut.

5.101 Hm-chn xc ca mt s c ra ca nhng mnh yu t, c th c trnh by trong mt gin di dng thc nh sau: (TTTT) (p, q) ng ng phn phc: (nu p th l p, v nu q th l q) (p z q . q z q) (FTTT) (p, q) Trong nhng t: Khng phi c p v q. (P(p . q)) (TFTT) (p, q) Nu q th l p. (q z p) (TTFT) (p, q) Nu p th l q. (p z q) (TTTF) (p, q) p hay q. (p C q) (FFTT) (p, q) Khng phi l g. (Pq) (FTFT) (P, q) Khng phi p. (Pp) (FTTF) (p, q) p hay l q, nhng khng phi c hai. (p . Pq : C : q . Pp) (TFFT) (p, q) Nu l p th l p, v nu l q th l p. (p + q) (TFTF) (p, q) " : p (TTFF) (p, q) " : q (FFFT) (p, q) Chng phi p cng chng phi q. (Pp . Pq hay p q) (FFTF) (p, q) p v khng phi q. (p . Pq) (FTFF) (p, q) q v khng phi p. (q, Pp) (TFFF) (p, q) q v p. (q . p) (FFFF) (p, q) Mu thun: (p v khng phi p, v q v khng phi q). (p . Pp . q . Pq). Ti s gi tn cho kh nng-chn xc ca bin-chn xclm cho mt mnh tr nn ng, l c s-chn xc ca mt mnh . 5.11 Nu tt c mi c s-chn xc cng thng vi mt s nhng mnh , ng thi cng u l c s-chn xc ca mt mnh nht nh, th chng ta ni rng chn xc ca mnh ny k tc chn xc ca nhng mnh trn. 5.12 c bit l , nu chn xc ca mt mnh "p" k tc chn xc ca mt mnh khc l "q", th tt c nhng c s-chn xc ca ci sau u l c s-chn xc ca ci trc. 5.121 Nhng c s-chn xc ca mt mnh u c hm cha trong nhng c s-chn xc ca mt mnh khc: p k tc q. 5.122 Nu p k tc q, th ngha ca "p" c hm cha trong ngha ca "q". 5.123 Nu thng sng to ra mt th gii m trong c mt s mnh nht nh no l ng, th cng bi chnh hnh vi sng to y, ngi cng sng to ra mt th gii m trong tt c nhng mnh k tc nhng mnh trn, cng u tr nn ng. V cng nh th, ngi khng th sng to ra mt th gii m trong c mnh "p" ng, m khng sng to ra nhng i tng ca n. 5.124 Mt mnh khng nh mi mnh k tc n. 5.1241 "p . q" l mt trong nhng mnh khng nh "p" v ng thi l mt trong nhng mnh khng nh "q". Hai mnh ny i phn nhau nu khng c mnh no

mang ngha khng nh c hai. Mi mnh u mu thun vi mt mnh khc ph nh n. 5.13 Khi chn xc ca mt mnh k tc t chn xc ca nhng mnh khc, th chng ta c th thy iu ny trong cu trc ca mnh . 5.131 Nu chn xc ca mt mnh k tc t chn xc ca nhng mnh khc, th n c biu trng trong nhng tng quan, m trong hnh thc ca nhng mnh nh lp vi nhau: n cng chng nht thit cn n chng ta thit nh nhng tng quan gia chng, bng cch kt hp chng li vi nhau thnh mt mnh n nht; ngc li, tn ti ca nhng tng quan y l mt kt qu tc th, ca s tn ti nhng mnh y. 5.1311 Khi chng ta hm rng: q k tc p C q v Pp, th tng quan gia nhng hnh thc mnh ca "p C q" v "Pp" c che y li, trong trng hp ny, bi chnh dng thc biu th ca chng ta. Nhng nu thay v "p C q", chng ta vi t, chng hn nh "p|q .| . p|q", v thay v "Pp", "p|p" (p|q = chng phi p cng chng phi q), th mi quan h ni ti s tr nn r rng. (Kh nng suy lun t (x) . fx n fa chng t rng biu tng (x) . fx t n c tnh khi qut trong n). 5.132 Nu p k tc q, th ti c th suy lun t q n p, din dch p t q. Bn cht ca s suy lun ch c th hoch nh t hai mnh . T chng l minh chng kh hu duy nht ca suy lun. "Nguyn tc suy lun", l ci c gi thit cho nhng suy lun chng minh, nh trong nhng tc phm ca Frege v Russell, l v ngha, v c l tha. 5.133 All deductions are made a priori. (Tt c nhng din dch u a priori) Tt c mi din dch u c tnh tin nghim (a priori). 5.134 Mnh yu t khng th c din dch t mt mnh khc. 5.135 Khng c phng thc no c th lm nn mt hnh thc suy din t tn ti ca mt trng hung sang tn ti ca mt trng hung khc, mt trng hung hon ton khc. 5.136 Khng c tng quan nhn qu no minh chng cho mt s suy din nh th. 5.1361 Chng ta khng th suy din nhng bin c v lai t nhng bin c hin ti. Nim tin vo tng quan nhn qu l mt s m tn. 5.1362 T do ch bao hm trong s bt kh tri v nhng tc ng vn cn ang trong v lai. Chng ta ch c th bit c chng, nu quan h nhn qu vn l mt tt yu ni ti, ging nh tng quan nhn qu ca s tt yu lun l. ("A bit rng p l trng hp ", mnh ny khng c ngha nu p l mt ng ngha phn phc).

5.1363 Nu chn xc ca mt mnh khng k tc t s kin rng i vi chng ta, n l mt ci g t minh (self-evident), th t minh tnh (self-evidence) ca n khng c cch no minh nh c nim tin ca chng ta vo chn xc ca n. 5.14 Nu mt mnh k tc t mt mnh khc, th ci sau ni ln nhi u iu hn ci trc, v ci trc ni t hn ci sau. 5.141 Nu p k tc q v q k tc p, th chng l mt mnh n nht v ng nht. 5.142 ng ngha phn phc k tc tt c mi mnh : n khng ni ln ci gi c. 5.143 Mu thun l nhn t chung ca nhng mnh , m khng c mnh no chung vi nhau. ng ng phn phc l nhn t chung ca tt c mi mnh khng chung vi nhau. Ngi ta c th ni: mu thun, trit tiu bn ngoi tt c nhng mnh ; v ng ngha phn phc (tautology), trit tiu bn trong chng. Mu thun l gii hn ngoi ti ca mnh ; ng ngha phn phc l im phi-thc th trung tm ca n. 5.15 Nu Tr l s c s-chn xc ca mt mnh "r", v nu Trs l s c s-chn xc ca mt mnh "s", ng thi vi nhng c s-chn xc ca "r", th chng ta gi t s Trs:Tr l mc xc sut m mnh "r" to ra cho mnh "s". 5.151 Trong mt gin nh 5.101, hy cho Tr l s ca "T's" trong mnh r, v cho Trs l s ca "T's" trong mnh s, nh v trong nhng ct m mnh r c "T's". Khi , mnh r cho mnh s xc sut Trs:Tr. 5.1511 Khng c mt i tng c bit no ring bit cho nhng mnh xc sut. 5.152 Khi nhng mnh khng c nhng bin-chn xc chung vi nhau, th chng ta gi chng c lp vi nhau. Hai mnh yu t cho nhau xc sut 1/2: nu p k tc q, th mnh "q" cho mnh "p" xc sut l 1. Tnh chc chn ca suy din lun l l mt trng hp gii hn ca tnh xc sut. (iu ny thch dng vi ng ngha phn phc v mu thun). 5.153 Mt mnh , trong chnh n, th chng phi l chc chn cng chng phi l khng chc chn. Mt s vic ch c th hoc xy ra, hoc khng xy ra: khng c ci lng chng. 5.154 Gi s rng mt ci vc cha cng mt s nhng tri banh en v nhng tri banh trng (v khng c loi no khc na). Ti ln lt ly mi tri banh ra, ri li t vo trong ci vc. thc nghim ny, khi c tip tc ly banh ra, th ti c th lp nn mt con s banh en xp x vi banh trng. Nh th, con s xp x ny khng phi l mt chn xc ton hc. By gi, nu ti ni "Tnh xc sut trong vic ly banh trng ra,

cng tng ng vi tnh xc sut trong vic ly banh en ra", th iu ny c ngha l: Tt c mi tnh hung m ti bit (bao gm c nhng nh lut t nhin c tha nhn nh l nhng gi thuyt), u khng lm cho xc sut xy ra ca s c ny nhiu hn xc sut ca s c kia. Ni nh th c ngha l, t nh ngha trn, c thu thp d dng xc sut 1/2 cho mi s c. iu ti chng thc bi thc nghim ny l: S xy ra ca hai s c th c lp vi nhng tnh hung m v chng ti khng bit cn k hn c. 5.155 n v nh nht ca mt mnh xc sut l: nhng tnh hung_m v chng, ti khng bit g hn_to ra mc xc sut nh th, nh th , c th xy ra mt s c ring bit. 5.156 Trong cch thc ny, tnh xc sut l s tng qut ha. N h ly n thut trnh tng qut ca hnh thc mnh . Chng ta s dng tnh xc sut ch khi no thiu tnh chc chn_rng nu tri thc ca chng ta v mt s kin thc s khng y , nhng t ra chng ta cng bit mt ci g v hnh thc ca n. (Mt mnh c th thc s l mt hnh tng khng y v mt trng hung nht nh no , tuy nhin, n lun lun l mt hnh tng y v mt ci g ). Mt mnh xc sut l mt kiu trch on t nhng mnh khc. 5.2 Cu trc ca nhng mnh c nh lp trong nhng tng quan ni ti vi nhau. 5.21 c th nu ln tnh vt tri ca nhng tng quan ni ti ny, chng ta c th chp nhn dng thc biu trng sau: chng ta c th biu th mt mnh nh l kt qu ca mt thut ton xut trnh n ra khi nhng mnh khc (l c s ca thut ton ). 5.22 Mt thut ton l mt biu trng tng quan gia cu trc kt qu ca n v cu trc c s ca n. 5.23 Thut ton l ci phi c thi hnh cho mt mnh , rt ra nhng mnh khc t n. 5.231 V ng nhin, iu s ty thuc vo nhng tnh cht hnh thc ca chng, trong s ng dng ni ti trong hnh thc ca chng. 5.232 Tng quan ni ti, bi mt lot nhng tnh cht hnh thc c nh v, th tng ng vi thut ton ra hn nh ca ci ny i vi ci kia. 5.233 Thut ton khng th l xut trc thi im m mt mnh c hnh thnh t mt mnh khc, mt cch c ngha c ngha lun l; tc l, im m t kin to lun l ca cc mnh khi u. 5.234

Hm-chn xc ca mnh yu t, l kt qu ca nhng thut ton vi mnh yu t nh l c s. (Ti gi nhng thut ton ny l nhng thut ton-chn xc). 5.2341 ngha ca mt hm-chn xc ca p l mt hm s nhng ngha ca p. S ph nh, s b sung lun l, s nhn bi lun l, vv., vv., l nhng thut ton. (Ph nh l nghch o ngha ca mnh ). 5.24 Mt thut ton t biu th chnh n trong mt bin. N chng t rng chng ta c th chuyn hnh thc ca mt mnh sang mt mnh khc. N ch ra s khc bit gia nhng hnh thc trong biu trng. (V ci m c s ca thut ton v kt qu m n c cng thng, ch l c s t n). 5.241 Thut ton khng phi l du n ca hnh thc, m ch l ca s khc bit gia nhng mnh . 5.242 Thut ton trch "q" t "p" cng nh trch "r" t "q", v tip tc nh th. Ch c mt cch biu trng iu ny: "p", "q", "r", vv., phi l nhng bin, c biu trng trong mt cch thc chung, vi nhng tng quan hnh thc nht nh. 5.25 S hin din ca mt thut ton khng biu th c trng ca mt mnh . Thc ra, khng c ngn biu no c hnh thnh bi thut ton, m ch bi kt qu ca n, v iu ny ty thuc vo c s ca thut ton. (Thut ton v hm phi khng b ln ln vi nhau). 5.251 Mt hm khng th l tr s ca n, trong khi mt thut ton c th ly kt qu ca chnh n lm c s ca n. 5.252 Ch trong cch thc ny, m mt gii php t hn nh ca mt lot nhng hnh thc n mt lot hnh thc khc, l c th (t khun mu ny n khun mu khc trong h thng ca Russel v Whitehead). (Russell v Whitehead khng dung nhn kh nng ca nhng gii php nh th, nhng h c t lp i lp li hiu qu ca n). 5.2521 Nu mt thut ton c thch dng nhiu ln vi kt qu ca n, th ti gi l s thch dng lp i lp li ca n. ("O"O"O"a" l mt kt qu ca ba ln lp li thch dng ca thut ton "O"E" i vi "a"). Trong cng mt ngha nh th, ti ni v s thch dng lp li ca nhiu hn mt thut ton, i vi mt s nhng mnh . 5.2522 Ti s dng k hiu "[a, x, O'x]" mt cch ph hp cho hn nh chung ca mt lot hnh thc a, O"a, O"O"a, . Biu trng c ng ngoc l mt bin: hn nh u tin ca biu trng c ng ngoc l khi u cho mt lot nhng hnh thc, hn nh th hai l hnh thc ca hn nh x c chn ty t lot y, v hn nh th ba l hnh thc ca hn nh k tip ngay sau x trong lot hnh thc y. 5.2523

Khi nim v s thch dng lp i lp li ca mt thut ton, tng ng vi khi nim "v c tip tc nh th...". 5.253 Mt thut ton c th gii tr hiu nng ca mt thut ton khc. Nhng thut ton c th trit tiu ln nhau. 5.254 Mt thut ton c th trit tiu (v d, ph nh trong "PPp": PPp = p). 5.3 Tt c mi mnh u l kt qu ca nhng thut ton-chn xc da trn mnh yu t. Mt thut ton-chn xc l phng thc m trong mt hm-chn xc c trng t nhng mnh yu t. V bn cht ca thut ton-chn xc, rng cng nh mnh yu t mang li mt hm-chn xc ca chnh n, cng trong cng mt cch nh th, hm-chn xc li mang li mt hm-chn xc xa hn. Khi mt thut ton-chn xc c thch dng cho nhng hm-chn xc ca nhng mnh yu t, n lun lun sinh ra mt hm-chn xc ca ca nhng mnh yu t, mt mnh khc. Khi mt thut ton-chn xc c thch dng cho nhng kt qu ca nhng thut ton-chn xc trong nhng mnh yu t, th lun lun c mt thut ton n nht trong nhng mnh yu t c cng mt kt qu. Mi mnh u l kt qu ca nhng thut ton-chn xc trong nhng mnh yu t. 5.31 Gin 4.31 c mt ngha ngay c khi "p", "q", "r", vv. u khng phi l nhng mnh yu t. V d dng nhn thy rng k hiu ca mnh trong 4.442 biu trng mt hm-chn xc n nht ca nhng mnh yu t, ngay c khi "p" v "q" l hm-chn xc ca nhng mnh yu t. 5.32 Tt c mi hm-chn xc u l kt qu ca s thch dng lp i lp li i vi nhng mnh yu t, ca mt con s hu hn ca nhng thut ton-chn xc. 5.4 Vi im ny, tht hin nhin rng khng c nhng "i tng lun l" hay nhng "hng lun l" (logical constants) (trong ngha ca Frege v Russell). 5.41 L do l: kt qu ca thut ton trong hm-chn xc th lun lun ng nht, bt k lc no chng l mt hm-chn xc n nht v ng nht ca nhng mnh yu t. 5.42 Tht l mt iu t hin nhin (self-evident), rng C, z, vv. u khng tng quan trong ngha m trong bn phi v bn tri vv. u c tng quan. Tnh kh nh lin i (interdefinability) trong "k hi u gc" ca lun l ca Frege v Russell th chng t rng chng khng phi l nhng k hiu gc, vn cn nhng k hiu nh hn cho nhng tng quan. V tht r rng rng ci "z" y, c xc nh bi cch thc ca "P" v "C", l ci ng nht vi mt ci n nht, tng trng bi "P" trong nh ngha ca "C"; v rng, ci "C" th hai l ng nht vi ci u tin; v c nh th... 5.43 Ngay c khi thot nhn th c v nh khng th tin c, rng sau s kin p th c l c v hn nhng ci khc, gi l PPp, PPPPp, vv V tht khng km r rng hn, rng

con s v hn nhng mnh lun l (ton hc) tip theo sau na t nhng "mnh khi u". Tuy nhin, thc ra tt c nhng mnh lun l y u ni ra cng mt s th, tc l khng ni ci g c. 5.44 Hm-chn xc khng phi l hm c th. V d, mt khng nh c th c ra bi ph nh kp: trong trng hp nh th, c phi chng n c suy t mt ngha no , rng ph nh c hm cha trong khng nh? C phi chng "PPp" ph nh Pp, hay n khng nh p_hay c hai? Mnh "PPp" khng phi ni v s ph nh, nh th s ph nh l mt i tng: mt khc, kh nng ph nh c ra trong khng nh. V nu c mt i tng gi l "P", th hn phi theo m "PPp" ni ln mt ci g khc vi "p" ni ln, ch v mnh n nht ni v i tng P, v mnh khc khng th ni. 5.441 S trit tiu ny ca nhng hng lun l hin nhin, cng hin din trong trng hp "P(dx) . Pfx", ni ln cng mt iu nh "(x) . fx", v trong trng hp ca "(dx) . fx . x = a", ni cng mt iu nh "fa". 5.442 Nu chng ta c c mt mnh , th vi n, chng ta cng c c nhng kt qu v tt c nhng thut ton-chn xc c n nh l c s ca chng. 5.45 Nu c nhng k hiu lun l gc, th bt k lun l no khng chng t mt cch r rng chng c thit nh trong tng quan vi nhau nh th no, v khng minh nh c s tn ti ca chng, th s u khng ng. S kin to lun l t nhng k hiu gc, phi c minh nh r rng. 5.451 Nu lun l c nhng nim gc, th chng phi c c lp vi nhau. Nu mt nim gc c ra, th n phi c ra trong tt c mi phi hp m n tng hin din trong . V th, n khng th thot u c ra cho mt t hp, ri sau li c ra cho mt t hp khc. V d: mt khi mt ph nh c ra, th chng ta phi hiu n trong c nhng mnh c hnh thc "Pp" v trong c nhng mnh nh "P(p C q)", "(dx) . Pfx", vv Chng ta khng th thot u trng n ra cho mt dng thc nhng trng hp, v ri li trng n cho mt dng thc khc, v n s li mt s bt xc, cho d trong c hai trng hp ngha ca n cng ging nhau, v khng c l do no minh nh c cho s kt hp nhng k hiu trong cng mt cch thc cho c hai trng hp. (Tm li, kin gii ca Frege v s trng nhng k hiu bng cch nh ngha_trong Nhng Nguyn Tc C Bn Ca S Hc ( The Fundamental Laws of Arithmetic) cng thch dng, mutatis mutandis-vi nhng thay i cn thay i, i vi s trng nhng k hiu gc). 5.452 S trng bt k mt phng sch mi no vo trong h k hiu lun l l mt bin c trng yu. Mt phng sch mi trong lun l, s khng c trng trong trong du ngoc kp hay trong mt ch thch m ngi ta c th gi ln mt khng kh hon ton ngy th. (Nh th trong Nguyn L Ton Hc_Principia Mathemathica_ ca Russell v Whitehead, c hin din nhng nh ngha v nhng mnh tin khi c ngn biu. Ti sao li c s xut hin t ngt ca nhng ngn biu ny? y cn thit mt s nh chnh, nhng khng h c nh chnh no c, hay khng th nh chnh, bi v th tc ny khng hp l). Tuy nhin, nu s trng mt phng thc

mi chng t s cn thit mt im nht nh, th chng ta c th t hi ngay tc khc, rng " im no th s s dng phng thc ny l khng th trnh khi by gi?" v v tr ca n trong lun l phi c minh nh r rng. 5.453 Tt c mi con s trong lun l, c nh lp trong nhu cu ca s minh nh. Hay ng hn, phi tht hin nhin rng khng c nhng con s trong lun l. Khng c con s ni bc no sn c trong lun l c. 5.454 Khng c tnh trng iu phi trong lun l, v khng th c phn loi. Trong lun l, khng th c phn nh bin bit gia ci tng qut v ci c trng. 5.4541 Gii php cho nhng vn lun l phi gin n, bi v n thit nh tiu chun ca s n gin. Con ngi ta lun lun c cm thc rng phi c mt lnh vc m trong cu tr li cho nhng cu hi, c phi hp mt cch i xng_mt tin nghim, a priori_ hnh thnh mt h thng t hm cha. Mt lnh vc ch thuc nguyn tc: Simplex sigillum veri- Ci n gin l biu hin ca chn l. 5.46 Nu chng ta trng nhng k hiu lun l mt cch ng n, th chng ta cng phi ng thi trng ra ngha ca tt c nhng phi hp ca chng; tc l, khng nhng ch "p C q", m cn c "P(p C q)", vv vv Chng ta cng s phi ng thi trng ra hiu qu ca tt c nhng phi hp kh hu ca nhng ngoc kp. V nh th, cng s minh nh r rng rng nhng k hiu gc chung thc s khng phi l "p C p", "(dx) . fx", vv m chnh l hnh thc chung nht ca s phi hp chng. 5.461 C v nh khng h trng, nhng thc s c ngha, rng nhng tng quan-gi nh ca lun l, nh C v z, cn thit nhng du ngoc kp_khng ging vi nhng tng quan thc s. Thc ra, s s dng du ngoc kp cho nhng ci c v nh l k hiu gc, t n l mt minh chng rng chng khng phi l nhng k hiu gc. V cng khng ai s tin tng rng nhng du ngoc kp li c ngha c lp. 5.4611 K hiu cho nhng thut ton lun l, l nhng du chm cu. 5.47 Tht hin nhin rng: bt k ci g m chng ta c th ni trc v hnh thc ca tt c mi mnh , th chng ta nht thit phi c th ni tt c chng trong mt ln. Mt mnh yu t thc s hm cha trong n tt c nhng thut ton lun l. V "fa" ni ln cng mt ci nh "(dx) . fx . x = a". Ci g c s phi hp, th c s hin din ca bin v hm, v u c nhng ci ny, th chng ta c tt c nhng hng lng lun l. Ngi ta c th ni rng hng lng lun l duy nht l ci g m tt c nhng mnh u c chung vi nhau, bi bn cht ca chng. Tuy nhin, l hnh thc mnh chung. 5.471 The general propositional form is the essence of a proposition. (Hai bn dch ting Anh u thng nht trong cch dch ny) (Hnh thc chung ca mnh l bn cht ca mnh ). 5.471

Hnh thc mnh chung, l bn cht ct li ca mt mnh . 5.4711 xut bn cht ca mt mnh , c ngha l xut bn cht ca tt c mi trnh thut miu t, v nh th, l bn cht ct li ca th gii. 5.472 Trnh thut miu t ca hnh thc mnh chung nht, l trnh thut miu t v mt ci n nht v l k hiu gc duy nht trong lun l. 5.473 Lun l phi t nhn pha sau ci ui ca n. Nu mt k hiu c ngha, th n cng c th biu th ngha. Bt k ci g c th trong lun l, th u c cho php. (L do v sao "Socrates l ng nht" khng c ngha g c, l bi v chng c thuc tnh no c th gi l "ng nht" c. Mnh ny v ngha_bi v chng ta tht bi trong mt xc nh ty tin_khng phi v biu tng t n l khng tha ng). Trong mt ngha nht nh, chng ta khng th c sai lm trong lun l. 5.4731 Tnh t minh (self-evidence), ci m Russell ni n qu nhiu, c th c min tr trong lun l, ch v ngn ng t n phng nga mi sai lm lun l._Ci lm cho lun l l mt tin nghim (a priori) th bt kh t tng mt cch phi lun l. 5.4732 Chng ta khng th xut mt k hiu vi mt ngha sai lm. 5,47321 Chm ngn ca Ockham, ng nhin khng phi l mt nguyn tc ty tin, cng khng phi l mt ci g hp l bi thnh cng trong thc nghim, tiu im ca n l: nhng n v khng cn thit trong mt ngn ng-k hiu th th v ngha. Nhng k hiu p ng mt mc ch, th tng ng vi ngha y trong lun l; v nhng k hiu khng p ng mc ch no c, th v ngha trong lun l. 5.4733 Frege ni rng bt k mt mnh c thit nh mt cch chnh ng no cng u c mt ngha. V ti th ni rng bt k mnh c ngha no cng u c thit nh mt cch chnh ng, v, nu n v ngha, th ch bi v chng ta khng xc nh c ngha cho mt vi yu t cu thnh no ca n (cho d chng ta ngh rng chng ta lm th). Nh th, l do m mnh "Socrates l ng nht" khng ni ln mt ngha no, l v chng ta khng minh nh mt ngha thuc tnh cho t "ng nht". V khi n hin din nh l mt k hiu cho tnh ng nht, th n c biu tng ha trong mt cch thc hon ton khc_tng quan biu th ngha l mt ci khc_theo , nhng biu tng hon ton khc trong hai trng hp, m hai biu tng y ch c mt k hiu chung vi nhau, v l mt s c ri ro. 5.474 S lng ca nhng thut ton c bn, th ch ty thuc cn thit vo h k hiu ca chng ta. 5.475 Tt c nhng g c yu cu, l chng ta nn thit lp mt h thng k hiu vi mt s lng ring bit ca nhng th nguyn (dimensions)_vi mt bi s ton hc ring bit.

5.476 Tht r rng rng y khng phi l vn v mt s lng nhng nim tin khi cn phi c biu th ngha, m ng hn, l vn v s biu hin ca mt lut tc. 5.5 Mi hm-chn xc l mt kt qu ca s thch dng lp i lp li nhng mnh yu t ca thut ton "(-----T)(E, ....)". Thut ton ny ph nh tt c nhng mnh trong ngoc kp bn phi, v ti gi n l s ph nh ca nhng mnh y. 5.501 Khi mt biu trng c ng ngoc c nhng mnh nh l nhng iu kin ca n_v trt t ca nhng iu kin y khng phn bit c trong du ngoc_th ti ch nh n bng dng thc "E". "E" l mt bin m gi tr ca n l nhng iu kin ca biu trng c ng ngoc, v du ngoc gii hn bin y biu th rng n l biu trng ca tt c nhng gi tr bn trong du ngoc. (V d: nu E c ba gi tr P, Q, R, th (E) = (P, Q, R)). Ci m nhng gi tr ca bin y l, l mt ci g c qui nh. S qui nh ny l mt trnh thut miu t ca nhng mnh mang bin y nh l biu trng ca chng. Cch thc trnh thut miu t ca nhng iu kin c trong biu trng c ng ngoc, c xut ra nh th no, th khng phi l bn cht ct li. Chng ta c th phn bit ra ba dng trnh thut miu t: 1. Lit k trc tip, trng hp ny chng ta c th thay th d dng bin bng hng, l nhng gi tr ca n. 2. trng mt hm fx m nhng gi tr cho tt c nhng gi tr ca x l nhng mnh c miu t trnh thut. 3. trng mt nguyn tc hnh thc, n chi phi cu trc ca nhng mnh , trong trng hp ny, th biu trng c ng ngoc c c nh l nhng thnh t ca n, l tt c nhng iu kin ca mt lot nhng hnh thc. 5.502 Nh th, thay v "(-----T)(E, ....)", ti vit "N(E)", N(E) l ph nh ca tt c nhng gi tr ca bin E ca mnh . 5.503 Tht r rng rng chng ta c th biu trng d dng cch thc m nhng mnh c th c kin to vi thut ton ny nh th no, v chng khng th c kin to vi thut ton ny nh th no; nh th, vic tm ra mt biu trng chnh xc l c th. 5.51 Nu E ch c mt gi tr, th N(E) = Pp (khng phi p); nu n c hai gi tr, th N(E) = Pp . Pq. (khng phi p cng khng phi q). 5.511 Nh th no m lun l_ci lun l m chong tt c, ci phn nh th gii thc ti_li c th s dng c nhng sng kin khc thng v nhng th php c d nh th? Ch bi v tt c chng u c lin kt nhau trong mt mng li hon ho v hn, mt ci gng phn chiu v i. 5.512 "Pp" l ng, nu "p" l sai. V th, trong mnh "Pp", khi n ng, th "p" mt mnh sai. Vy th nh th no m chuyn bin "P" ny li c th tha ng vi thc ti?

Tuy nhin trong "Pp", th khng phi l "P" ph nh p, ng hn, l ci g chung cho tt c nhng k hiu ca h k hiu ny, ph nh p. 5.513 Chng ta c th ni rng: ci g chung cho tt c mi k hiu khng nh c p v q, l mnh "p . q"; v rng: ci g chung cho tt c mi k hiu khng nh hoc l p hoc l q, l mnh "p C q". V cng nh th, chng ta c th ni rng: hai mnh i lp nhau nu chng khng c ci g chung vi nhau, v rng: mi mnh ch c mi mt ph nh, v ch c mi mt mnh hon ton ngoi n. Nh th, trong h k hiu ca Russell th cng th, n biu th rng "q : p C Pp" ni ln cng mt iu nh "q", v rng "p C p" khng ni ln iu g c. 5.514 Mt khi mt h k hiu c thit lp, th trong s c mt nguyn tc chi phi cu trc ca tt c mi mnh ph nh p, mt nguyn tc chi phi cu trc ca tt c mi mnh khng nh p, v mt nguyn tc chi phi cu trc ca tt c mi mnh khng nh p hoc q, v c tip tc nh th. Nhng nguyn tc ny tng ng vi nhng biu tng, v ngha c phn nh trong chng. 5.515 Nhng biu tng ca chng ta, cn phi c minh chng rng n ch c th l nhng mnh c phi hp vi nhau bi "C", ".", vv V iu ny thc s tha ng, bi v biu tng "p" v "q" t n tin cho "C", "P", vv Nu k hiu "p" trong "p C q" khng i din mt k hiu phc hp, th n khng th t n c ngha, ngoi tr trng hp ca nhng k hiu "p C p", "p . p", vv, l ci c cng ngha nh p, th hn phi thiu i ngha. Tuy nhin, nu "p C p" khng c ngha, th "p C q" cng khng th c ngha. 5.5151 C phi chng k hiu ca mt mnh ph nh phi c kin to cng vi k hiu ca mnh khng nh? V sao khng th biu trng mt mnh ph nh bng chnh phng thc ca mt s kin ph nh? (V d: gi s rng "a" khng nh lp trong mt tng quan nht nh vi "b", th iu ny c th c s dng ni rng aRb l khng tha ng). Tuy nhin, ngay c trong trng hp ny, mnh ph nh c kin to bng cch s dng gin tip ca khng nh. Mnh khng nh bao hm mt cch tt yu s tn ti ca mnh ph nh v vice versa-ngc li th cng th. 5.52 Nu E c nhng gi tr ca n, l tt c nhng gi tr ca mt hm fx cho tt c nhng gi tr x, th: N(E) = P(dx) . fx. 5.521 Ti tch ri tt c mi khi nim ra khi nhng hm-chn xc. Frege v Russell xut tnh ph bin trong s kt hp xut lun l vi kt qu lun l. iu ny khin cho mnh "(dx) . fx" v "(x) . fx" tr nn kh hiu, c hai nim u b nhng vo trong . 5.522 Ci g c hu cho k hiu-ph bin, trc tin l biu th cho mt nguyn mu lun l, v k tip, l n trng s vt tri ca nhng hng. 5.523

K hiu-tng qut hin din nh l mt tr s. 5.524 Nu i tng c xut, th ng thi, chng ta cng c xut tt c mi i tng. Nu mnh yu t c trng, th ng thi, tt c mi mnh yu t u c trng. 5.525 Khng ng khi din t mnh "(dx) . fx" bng ngn t, rng "fx l c th", nh Russell lm. Tnh xc sut, kh tnh v bt kh tnh ca mt trng hung khng c biu trng bi mnh , m bi biu trng l mt ng ngha phn phc, mt mnh c ngha, hay l mt mu thun. Ci ngha c trc m chng ta vn hng yu thnh, phi thuc v chnh bn thn biu tng. 5.526 Chng ta c th miu t th gii thc ti mt cch hon ton bi phng thc ca nhng mnh c tng qut ha mt cch y , tc l, khng c tng quan tin khi vi bt k mt tn gi no cho mt i tng ring bit no. 5.5261 Mt mnh c tng qut ha y , ging nh mi mnh khc, l mt hp . (iu ny c minh chng bi s kin rng trong "(dx, O) . Ox" chng ta phi cp ti "O" v "s" mt cch ring bit. C hai u c tng quan biu v th gii, cng ht nh trong trng hp nhng mnh khng c tng qut ha). l du hiu ca mt biu tng phc hp, rng n c ci g cng thng vi nhng biu tng khc. 5.5262 Tnh cch chn (ng) hay ngy (sai) ca mi mnh thc s lm nn nhng bin i no trong cu hnh tng qut v th gii. V phm vi m tng ca cc mnh yu t cho php m ra cho cu hnh th cng ng nht mt cch chun xc vi ci c gii hn bi nhng mnh hon ton tng qut. 5.53 Ti biu trng tnh ng nht ca i tng bi tnh ng nht ca k hiu, v khng bi s s dng mt k hiu cho tnh ng nht. Ti biu th tnh d bit ca nhng i tng bi tnh d bit ca nhng k hiu. 5.5301 Tht s t n hin nhin rng: tnh ng nht khng phi l mt tng quan gia nhng i tng. iu ny s tr nn tht r rng nu ngi ta suy nghim, v d, mnh "(x) : fx . z . x = a". iu m mnh ny ni, th n gin rng ch c a mi tha mn c cho hm f, v khng phi rng ch c nhng s vt c mt tng quan nht nh tha mn cho hm f . ng nhin, khi th c th ni rng a thc s c tng quan vi a; tuy nhin biu trng iu , chng ta cn n t thn ca k hiu-ng nht. 5.5302 nh ngha ca Russell v k hiu "=" khng tha ng, bi v theo , chng ta khng th ni c rng hai i tng c chung tt c mi tnh cht. 5.5303

Ni thng ra, th ni v hai s vt rng chng ng nht, l v ngha; v ni v mt s vt rng n ng nht vi chnh n, l khng ni mt iu g c. 5.531 Th nn, ti khng vit "f(a, b) . a = b", m vit "f(a, a)" hay "f(b, b)"; v khng vi t "f(a, b) . Pa =b", m vit "f(a, b)". 5.532 V tng t, ti khng vit "(dx, y) . f(x, y) . x = y", m vi t "(dx) . f(x, x)"; v khng vit "(dx, y) . f(x, y) . Px = y", m vit "dxm y) . f(x, y)". 5.5321 Nh th, v d, thay v vit "(x) : fx z x = a", chng ta vi t "(dx) . fx . z : (dx, y) . fx. fy". V mnh "Ch c mt x tha mn cho f( )", chng ta s c l "(dx) . fx : P(dx, y) . fx . fy". 5.533 K hiu-ng nht, v th, khng phi l mt yu t cu thnh c tnh bn cht ca h k hiu khi nim. 5.534 V gi y th chng ta nhn ra rng trong mt h k hiu khi nim ng, th nhng gi-mnh ging nh "a = a", "a = b . b = c . z a = c", "(x) . x = x", "(dx) . x = a", vv th ngay c vic vit chng ra, cng khng th. 5.535 iu ny cng bc b tt c nhng vn lin h vi nhng gi-mnh nh th. Tt c nhng vn m "Tin ca v hn" ca Russell mang li, u c th c dt im ti y. Ci m tin ca v hn y mun ni, s t n biu trng trong ngn ng, thng qua s tn ti ca v hn nhng tn gi vi nhng ngha khc nhau. 5.5351 C nhng trng hp nht nh khin cho ngi ta phi biu trng di dng thc "a = a" hay "a z p" v nhng dng thc ging nh th. Thc s, iu ny xy ra khi ngi ta mun ni v nhng nguyn mu, v d nh, v mnh , s vt, vv Nh th, trong Nguyn L Ton Hc (Principles of Mathematics) ca Russell, mnh "p l mt mnh "_vn v ngha_ xut ra s din dch biu tng "p z p" v t vo nh mt gi thit trc nhng mnh nht nh, loi tr tt c ra khi v tr ca bin, ngoi tr mnh . (Tht v ngha khi t ci gi thit "p z p" trc mt mnh , bo m rng bin ca n s c hnh thc ng. Nu ch bi v mt ci phi-mnh , vi t cch l mt bin, th gi thit y tr nn khng sai, nhng v ngha; v bi v nhng bin ca dng thc lm sai y khin cho mnh t n v ngha, v th n t duy tr chnh n khi nhng bin sai lm, cng ging ht nh hay cng ti t nh chnh ci gi thit v ngha, c p t vo vi mc ch y). 5.5352 Cng mt cch thc nh th ngi ta mun biu trng "Khng c s vt vo c", bng cch vit "P(dx) . x = x". Tuy nhin, cho d y l mt mnh i na, th chng phi l n ng trong cng mc vi iu ny hay sao: nu trong thc t "c nhng s vt" m chng khng ng nht vi chnh chng? 5.54

Trong hnh thc mnh chung, nhng mnh hin din trong nhng mnh khc, ch nh l c s ca nhng thut ton-chn xc. 5.541 Thot nhn th c v nh mt mnh cng c th hin din trong mt mnh khc trong mt phng thc khc. c bit l vi nhng hnh thc nht nh ca mnh tm l hc, nh: " A tin tng rng p l trng hp y" v "A c ngh p", vv V nu suy xt iu ny mt cch hi ht b mt, th n c v nh l mnh p i din mt tng quan no cho i tng A. (V trong l thuyt hin i v tri thc (ca Russell, Moore, vv) th nhng mnh ny c hiu bng cch ny). 5.542 Tuy nhin, tht r rng rng "A tin tng rng p", "A c ngh p", v "A ni p" u cng dng thc ""p" ni p": v iu ny th khng dnh dng g vi mt tng quan no gia mt s kin v mt i tng, m ng hn, l tng quan ca nhng s kin thng qua tng quan vi i tng ca chng. 5.5421 iu ny cng minh chng rng: Khng c mt ci g nh l linh hn_ci ch th, vv_khi n c cu mang trong tm l hc pht trn b mt ca chng ta hin nay. Thc ra, mt linh hn a hp th khng cn l mt linh hn na. 5.5422 Gii thch ng n cho hnh thc ca mnh , "A tc to ra phn on p", th tt nhin phi minh chng rng mt phn on th khng th l mt b phn ri rc v ngha. (L thuyt ca Russell khng tha mn c yu cu ny). 5.5423 Nhn thc mt phc hp c ngha l nhn thc rng nhng yu t cu thnh ca n u tng quan vi nhau trong mt kiu cch nh th. Khng nghi ng g iu ny cng gii thch l do v sao c th c hai cch nhn mt hnh nh l mt khi lp phng; v cng gii thch tt c nhng hin tng ging nh vy. (Nu ti nhn vo v tr u tin gc c nh du a, v v ch lut mt vo gc b, th gc a nh hin ra pha trc, v vice versa-ngc li th cng th). 5.55 Gi y chng ta phi gii minh cho vn v tt c nhng hnh thc kh hu ca mnh yu t, mt cch tin nghim (a priori). Mnh yu t bao hm nhng tn gi. Tuy nhin, v chng ta khng th trng ra con s ca nhng tn gi vi nhng ngha khc nhau, nn chng ta cng khng th trng ra cu to ca mnh yu t. 5.551 Nguyn tc c bn ca chng ta l: khi no mt vn c th quyt nh c hon ton bi lun l, th n tt nhin phi c th quyt nh c hon ton bi lun l, m khng v vi thm g na. (V nu chng ta ng vo mt v tr, m t chng ta phi tm kim trong th gii mt gii p cho mt vn nh th, th iu ny chng t rng chng ta ang tip tc i trn mt li mn hon ton sai lm). 5.552 Ci "kinh nghim" m chng ta cn cho vic am hiu lun l, th khng phi l, mt ci g hay mt ci khc l trng hung ca s vt, m l, mt ci g tri li khng phi l mt kinh nghim. Lun l l ci tin quyt (prior*_in nghing DG) i vi tt c

mi kinh nghim_rng mt ci g l nh th. N l ci c trc i vi cu hi "Nh Th No?", ch khng phi l ci c trc i vi cu hi "L Ci G?". 5.5521 V nu khng nh th, th lm sao chng ta c th s dng c lun l? Chng ta c th nh v n nh th ny: Nu c lun l, mc d nu khng c th gii, th lm sao c th c c mt lun l rng c th gii? 5.553 Russell ni rng c nhng tng quan n gin gia nhng s lng khc nhau v s vt (c bit). Tuy nhin, gia nhng s lng no? V gi thit ny c quyt nh nh th no? _Bng kinh nghim? (Chng c mt s lng vt tri sn c no c). 5.554 Hon ton ty tin khi xut bt k mt hnh thc c bit no. 5.5541 Gi s rng c th gii p c vn mt cch tin nghim, d ti c th hay khng th ng v tr m t ti cn n mt k hiu cho mt tng quan vi 27 hn nh, biu cho mt ci g . 5.5542 Tuy nhin, c thc s hp thc hay khng, khi hi mt cu hi nh th? Chng ta c th thit nh mt hnh thc ca k hiu, m khng cn bit rng c ci g tng ng vi n hay khng? C ngha khng khi hi rng ci g phi c mt ci g hnh thnh? 5.555 R rng rng chng ta c mt khi nim no v mnh yu t tht xa ri vi hnh thc lun l ring bit ca n. Nhng khi no th c mt h thng lun l c th cho php chng ta sng to ra nhng biu tng, h thng l ci quan trng cho lun l v khng phi l nhng biu tng c bit. V bt k cch no, thc s c th rng trong lun l ti s phi gii quyt nhng hnh thc m ti c th to ra? Ci m ti phi gii quyt, phi l ci m bi chnh n m ti c th to ra n. 5.556 Khng th c mt th t lp lang (hierarchy) cho nhng hnh thc ca mnh yu t. Chng ta ch c th d kin ci do chnh chng ta kin to. 5.5561 Hin thc thuc kinh nghim b hn nh bi tng ca nhng i tng. Hn nh cng t n hin nhin trong tng ca nhng mnh yu t. Th t lp lang l, v tt nhin phi l, ci c lp vi thc ti. 5.5562 Nu chng ta bit hon ton trn c s lun l rng tt nhin phi c nhng mnh yu t, th tt c nhng ai hiu c nhng mnh trong hnh thc cha c phn tch ca chng, cng u phi bit n. 5.5563 Thc ra, tt c mi mnh trong ngn ng thng nht ca chng ta, nh chng c nh lp, u c trt t lun l hon ho_rng vic n gin cng tt m chng ta phi nh thc ha y, khng phi l ci ging nh chn xc, m chnh l chn

xc t n trong ton th tnh ca n. (Vn ca chng ta khng phi l tru tng, m c l l ci c th nht hin c). 5.557 S thch dng lun ca lun l quyt nh mnh yu t no hin din. Lun l khng th on nh trc c ci g ph thuc vo s thch dng ca n. Tht r rng rng lun l tt nhin khng phi xung t vi s thch dng ca n, m lun l phi trong t th tip xc vi s thch dng ca n. V th, lun l v s thch dng ca n tt nhin phi khng dm ln nhau. 5.5571 Nu ti khng th c, mt cch tin nghim, c mnh yu t no, th n lc xut nhng mnh yu t nh th, r rng s dn n v ngha. 5.6 Hn nh ca ngn ng ti, l hn nh ca th gii ti. 5.61 Lun l xuyn sut th gii: Hn nh ca th gii, cng l hn nh ca lun l. V th chng ta khng th ni trong lun l, "Th gii c ci ny trong n, v ci ny, m khng phi l ci kia". Bi v vi gi thit on nh ci s xy ra, chng ta ang loi tr nhng kh nng nht nh no ; v iu ny khng th ng, v n yu thnh rng lun l s vt ra ngoi hn nh ca th gii; cng nh v ch trong cch n c th nhn c nhng hn nh t mt chiu hng khc. Chng ta khng th t tng ci g chng ta khng th t tng, v th, ci g chng ta khng th t tng, th chng ta cng khng th ni. 5.62 S lu ny cung cp ci cha kha gii quyt vn , rng c bao nhiu chn xc trong duy ng lun. V ci g m ngi theo ch ngha duy ng nh ni u rt ng, ch c iu n khng th ni ra c, m n t biu l. Th gii, l th gii ti: iu ny hin nhin trong s kin rng hn nh ca ngn ng (ci ngn ng m ch c mi mnh ti hiu c) l hn nh ca th gii ti. 5.621 Th gii v tn sinh l mt. 5.63 Ti l th gii ti. (Ci tiu v tr). 5.631 Khng tn ti mt ci g nh l ch th t duy hay ch th cu mang nhng tng,. Nu ti vit mt cun sch vi nhan l "Th gii, nh ti nhn thy n", th ti hn phi tnh n c mt bo co v thn xc ti, v hn phi ni ra b phn no ph thuc vo ch ti, v ci g khng thu c v n, vv y l phng php lun phn lp ch th, ng hn, minh chng rng trong ngha trng yu, khng tn ti ch th. Bi v ch duy c n, ch th, l ci khng c cp n trong cun sch ca ti. 5.632 Ch th khng thuc v th gii. Ch th l hn nh ca th gii. (Ch th khng thuc v th gii. Ch th l gii hn ca th gii)

5.633 Ch th siu hnh c tm ra u, trong th gii? Bn s ni rng iu ny ging ht nh trng hp ca con mt v trng nhn. Tuy nhin, bn thc s khng nhn thy con mt. V khng c ci g trong trng nhn cho php bn suy din rng n, c nhn bi con mt. 5.6331 Bi v dng thc ca trng nhn chc chn khng ging iu ny: 5.634 iu ny c lin h vi s kin rng khng c b phn no trong kinh nghim ca chng ta ng thi cng l tin nghim (a priori). Bt k ci g chng ta nhn, cng c th l mt ci khc vi chnh n. Bt k ci g chng ta miu t trnh thut, u c th l ci g khc vi chnh chnh n. Khng c trt t tin nghim no trong s vt. 5.64 Ti y, c th nhn thy rng duy ng lun, khi nhng h ly ca n c eo ui n k cng, th n li trng hp vi thc ti lun thun ty. Ci ng ca duy ng lun co li thnh mt cht im khng c trng , v , cn li thc ti ng hnh vi n. 5.641 Nh th, thc s c mt ngha, khi trit hc ni v ci ng trong cch thc phi-tm l hc. Ci du nhp bn ng vo trong trit hc, l s kin rng "th gii l th gii ti". Ci ng trit hc khng phi l con ngi, khng phi l thn xc con ngi, hay linh hn con ngi m tm l hc c lin h, m l ch th siu hnh, hn nh ca th gii_khng phi l mt phn t ca n. ____________________________________ 6. The general form of a truth-function is [p, E, N(E)]. This is the general form of a proposition. [p, E, N(E)](Hnh thc chung ca quan s chn l l [p, E, N(E)]) Hnh thc chung ca hm-chn xc l [p, E, N(E)]. y cng chnh l hnh thc chung ca mnh . 6.001 Ci m hnh thc chung ny ni v, chnh l: Tt c mi mnh u l kt qu ca s thch dng lp i lp li i vi nhng mnh yu t ca thut ton N(E). 6.002 Nu chng ta trng ra hnh thc chung m theo mnh c cu trc, th vi n, chng ta cng trng ra hnh thc chung m theo mt mnh c hnh thnh t mt mnh khc, bi phng thc ca thut ton. 6.01 Nh th, hnh thc chung ca mt thut ton /"(n) l [E, N(E)]" (n) (= [n, E, N(E)]). y l hnh thc chung nht cho s chuyn dch t mt mnh sang mt mnh khc. 6.02

V y l cch th m chng ta n vi nhng s lng. Ti xut ra nh ngha sau x = /0x Def., /'/v'x = /v+1'x Def. Nh th, tng thch vi nguyn tc ny, ci g lin h vi nhng k hiu th chng ta vit thnh x, /'x, /'/'x, /'/'/'x, ... , trong cch sau /0'x, /0+1'x, /0+1+1'x, /0+1+1+1'x, ... . Theo , thay v "[x, E, /'E]", ti vit "[/0'x, /v'x, /v+1'x]". V ti xut ra nhng nh ngha k tip 0 + 1 = 1 Def., 0 + 1 + 1 = 2 Def., 0 + 1 + 1 +1 = 3 Def., (v c tip tc nh th). 6.021 S lng l ch s ca thut ton. 6.022 Khi nim v s lng l, mt cch gin n, ci cng thng vi tt c mi s lng, chnh l hnh thc chung ca s lng. Khi nim v s lng l bin s. V khi nim ng thc ca s lng l hnh thc chung ca tt c mi trng hp c bit, ca ng thc thuc v s lng. 6.03 Hnh thc chung ca mt s nguyn l [0, E, E +1]. 6.031 L thuyt v lp phn loi, th hon ton tha thi trong ton hc. iu ny c lin quan n s kin rng tnh tng qut trong ton hc khng phi l tnh tng qut ngu nhin. 6.1 The propositions of logic are tautologies. (Mnh lun l hc l mt mnh hng chn: lun lun ng.) Mnh ca lun l hc l mnh ng ngha phn phc (tautologies). 6.11 V th, mnh lun l hc khng ni ln iu g c. ( l nhng mnh phn tch). 6.111 Tt c nhng l thuyt khin cho mt mnh lun l c v nh c ni dung, u sai lm. Ngi ta c th ngh rng, v d, t ng "ng" v "sai" c hiu nh l hai tnh cht trong nhng tnh cht khc, v nh th th im ng ch l, mi mnh u c mt trong hai tnh cht ny. Trong l thuyt ny, c v nh mi th u n, tr tnh hin nhin_mt v d, nh mnh : "Mi hoa hng u hay vng", th c v nh khng hin nhin, mc d n ng.Thc ra, th mnh lun l vn bao hm tt c nhng tnh cch ca mt mnh khoa hc t nhin, v y l du hiu chc chn rng n c gii thch mt cch sai lm. 6.112 S gii thch ng n v mnh lun l hc, l phi tch ring chng vo mt cp c hu, khng ng ng vi tt c mi mnh khc. 6.113 y l c trng ca nhng mnh lun l, rng ngi ta c th nhn bit l n ng ch thng qua biu tng. V iu ny t n bao hm ton th trit hc trong lun l hc. V cng nh th, y l mt s kin trng yu, rng tnh cch chn hay ngy ca nhng mnh phi-lun l khng th nhn bit ch bi mnh . 6.12

Mnh lun l hc l mnh ng ngha phn phc, iu ny minh chng tnh hnh thc_tc tnh lun l_ca ngn ng v ca th gii. S kin rng mt mnh ng ng phn phc b th ch bi cch thc c hu trong vic ni kt nhng yu t cu thnh, to nn c trng cho lun l hc vi nhng yu t cu thnh ca n. Nu cc mnh , khi chng c ni kt li trong mt cch thc nht nh no , thnh ra mt mnh ng ngha phn phc, th chng phi c nhng tnh cht c tnh cu trc nht nh no . Vic chng thnh mt mnh ng ngha phn phc khi kt hp vi nhau, chng t rng chng vn c nhng tnh cht cu trc nh th. 6.1201 V d: Vic nhng mnh "p" v "Pp" ni kt vi nhau tr thnh mt mnh ng ngha phn phc "(p.Pp)", chng t rng chng mu thun vi nhau. Vic nhng mnh "p z q", "p" v "q" phi hp vi nhau thnh mt mnh ng ngha phn phc "(p z q). (p) :z: (q)", iu ny ch ra rng: q n t p v p z q. Hay mnh ng ng phn phc "(x). fxx :z: fa" ch ra rng fa n t (x). fx. vv 6.1202 Tht r rng rng, ngi ta c th t ti cng mt mc tiu, bng cch s dng mnh mu thun thay v mnh ng ngha phn phc. 6.1203 tha nhn mt biu trng nh l mt ng ngha phn phc, trong trng hp khng c k hiu-tng qut hin din trong , th ngi ta c th s dng phng php trc quan sau y: thay v "p", "q", "r", ti vit "TpF", "TqF", "TrF" . V d nh, nhng t hp ng ti biu trng bng cch ng ngoc, v ti dng ng k biu trng tng quan ca tnh cch ng hay sai ca ton th mnh vi nhng t hp ng ca nhng bin-chn xc, trong cch thc sau. Nh th k hiu ny, chng hn nh, s biu trng mnh p z q. By gi, bng cch v d, ti mun th nghim mnh P(p Pp) _nguyn tc mu thun_ xc nh rng n c phi l ng ngha phn phc hay khng.. Trong h k hiu ca chng ta, dng thc "PE" c vit nh dng thc "E . n". V th, mnh P(p . Pp) c nh sau. Nu y chng ta thay th "p" cho "q" v th nghim phn t T v F bn ngoi ni kt vi nhng phn t bn trong nh th no. Kt qu s l: tnh cch chn ca ton th mnh th tng quan vi tt c nhng t hp ng ca bin, v tnh cch ngy th khng tng quan vi nhng t hp ng. 6.121 Nhng mnh lun l hc biu minh tnh cht lun l ca mnh , bng cch phi hp chng li vi nhau, hnh thnh nhng mnh khng ni ln iu g c. Phng thc ny cng c th c gi l phng thc-s khng. Trong mt mnh lun l, nhng mnh c t trong t th cn bng vi nhau, v tnh trng cn bng ny biu th cu to lun l m nhng mnh ny phi l. 6.122 Tip tc iu ny th chng ta c th thc s thc hnh m khng c mnh lun l; v trong mt h k hiu ph hp, chng ta c th thc s tha nhn tnh cht hnh thc ca mnh , ch bi xt duyt mnh t n. 6.1221 I Nu, chng hn nh, hai mnh "p" v "q" trong t hp "p z q" sinh ra mt ng ngha phn phc, th tht r rng rng q k tc t p. V d, chng ta xt hai mnh t chng, rng "q" k tc "p z q ,p", nhng cng c th chng t bng cch ny:

chng ta phi hp chng thnh "p z q. p :z: q", v ri chng t rng y l mt ng ng phn phc. 6.1222 iu ny h ra mt cht nh sng cho cu hi v sao m mnh lun l khng th c chng thc bi kinh nghim, cng chng g hn l khng th b bc b bi n. Mt mnh lun l, khng nhng ch tt nhin l khng th bc b bi bt k mt kinh nghim kh hu no, m n cng tt nhin khng th c chng thc bi bt k mt kinh nghim kh hu no c. 6.1223 Gi y r rng v sao m ngi ta thng cm thy rng dng nh chng ta phi "mc nhn" ci "chn xc ca lun l". L do l: chng ta c th mc nhn n trong hn m chng ta c th mc nhn mt h k hiu tha ng. 6.1224 V gi y cng tr nn r rng v sao lun l hc c gi l l thuyt ca hnh thc v ca suy lun. 6.123 Tht r rng rng: nguyn tc ca lun l th khng th no n lt n li thnh vn cho nguyn tc lun l. (Nh Russell ngh, rng khng c mt nguyn tc c bit no v mu thun cho ring mi "kiu" mu thun, mt nguyn tc , v n khng c p dng cho chnh n). 6.1231 c trng ca mnh lun l l khng c gi tr tng qut. C gi tr tng qut, ngha l khng hn g so vi, c gi tr mt cch ngu nhin cho tt c mi s vt. Mt mnh khng tng qut ha, c th l ng ngha phn phc, cng nh mt mnh tng qut ha. 6.1232 Gi tr tng qut ca lun l c th c gi l bn cht, i phn vi gi tr tng qut ngu nhin ca nhng mnh nh "Tt c mi ngi u phi cht". Nhng mnh nh kiu "tin kh quy" (axiom of reducibility) ca Russell, th khng phi l mnh lun l, v iu ny gii thch cho ci chng ta ang cm thy, rng ngay c khi nhng mnh l ng, th tnh cch "ng" ca chng ch c th l kt qu ca mt ngu nhin may mn. 6.1233 Khng th hnh dung c mt th gii m tin kh quy li khng c gi tr. Tuy nhin, r rng rng lun l khng c vic g lm vi cu hi l liu th gii ca chng ta c thc s ging nh th hay khng. 6.124 Mnh lun l hc miu t ci gin gio kin to ca th gii, hay ng hn, chng biu trng n ra. Chng khng c "vn ch th". Chng gi nh rng tn gi c tng v mnh yu t c ngha, v l tng quan ca chng vi th gii. R rng rng mt ci g v th gii, tt nhin phi c biu th bi s kin rng t hp nht nh ca nhng biu tng_m bn cht ca chng bao hn s kh hu ca mt tnh cht xc nh_u l nhng ng ngha phn phc. iu ny hm cha nhn t quyt nh. Chng ta ni rng mt s s vt chng ta s dng biu tng mt cch ty tin, v mt s khc th khng. Trong lun l, th ch c ci sau mi biu

trng, tuy nhin, iu y c ngha rng: Lun l khng phi l mt lnh vc m trong chng ta biu trng ci m chng ta mun biu trng vi s h tr ca nhng k hiu, m ng hn, l mt ci g m trong , bn cht ca nhng k hiu tt yu mt cch tuyt i t ni v chng. Nu chng ta bit c php lun l ca bt k mt ngn ng-k hiu no, th chng ta c xut tt c nhng mnh ca lun l hc. 6.125 C kh tnh_thc s c kh tnh ngay c theo khi nim c v lun l hc_ xut trc mt trnh thut miu t ca tt c mi mnh "ng" mt cch lun l. 6.1251 Nh th, khng th c ngc nhin bt ng trong lun l. 6.126 Ngi ta c th suy lng rng mt mnh c ph thuc vo lun l hay khng, bng cch suy lng nhng tnh cht lun l ca biu tng. V y chnh l ci chng ta lm khi "minh chng" mt mnh lun l. V, chng ta kin to mnh lun l t nhng mnh khc m ch cn s dng nhng nguyn tc lin h vi nhng k hiu, m khng h bn khon g ngha ca mnh v tng ca biu tng. S minh chng mnh lun l bao gm trong tin trnh sau y: Chng ta xut chng t nhng mnh lun l khc bng cch ln lt thch dng nhng thut ton nht nh, m lun lun pht sinh ra thm nhng ng ngha phn phc t nhng mnh tin khi. (V thc ra, ch c nhng ng ngha phn phc tip theo sau mt ng ngha phn phc). ng nhin, cch thc chng minh rng mnh lun l l ng ngha phn phc, th khng phi l hon ton l bn cht i vi lun l, nu ch bi v nhng mnh tin khi cho minh chng, m khng c mt cn c no chng minh rng chng l nhng ng ngha phn phc. 6.1261 Tt c u tng ng, trong sut tin trnh lun l v kt qu ca n. (V th, khng c s ngc nhin bt ng). 6.1262 Minh chng lun l ch l mt th php my mc thun cho vic tha nhn ng ngha phn phc trong nhng trng hp phc tp. 6.1263 Thc ra, tht s mi th u qu l liu nu c th chng minh c mt mnh c ngha, t nhng mnh khc, v cng c th nh th i vi mt mnh lun l. Tht r rng ngay t ch xut pht rng: Cn c lun l ca mt mnh c ngha, v, cn c trong lun l, phi l hai vic hon ton khc nhau. 6.1264 Mt mnh c ngha ni ln mt ci g , c minh chng bi cn c ca n, n l nh th. Trong lun l, th mi mt mnh l hnh thc ca mt cn c cho minh chng. Mi mt mnh ca lun l, l mt modus ponens_phng thc khng nh, c biu trng trong k hiu. 6.1265 Lun lun c th l gii lun l trong cch thc nh th, rng mi mnh u l cn c minh chng chnh n.

6.127 Tt c mi mnh lun l hc u trong tnh trng tng ng: khng phi l trng hp m mt s chng l nhng mnh c suy ra mt cch bn cht. Mi ng ngha phn phc u t n chng minh rng n l mt ng ngha phn phc. 6.1271 R rng rng s lng ca nhng "mnh gc ca lun l" l ty tin, v ngi ta c th suy lun l ra t mt mnh gc, chng hn, bng cch thit nh mt cch n gin nhng sn phm lun l t nhng mnh gc ca Frege. (C l Frege s cho rng khi y chng ta s khng cn c mnh gc c tnh t minh trc tip na. Tuy nhin, iu ng ch im rng mt t tng gia nghim mt nh Frege m li phi thnh cu n t minh tnh nh l mt tiu chun cho mnh lun l). 6.13 Logic is not a body of doctrine, but a mirror-image of the world. Logic is transcendental. Lun lhc khng phi l mt th hin ca hc thuyt, m l mt gng phn chiu nh tng ca th gii. Lun l l tin nghim (transcendental). 6.2 Mathematics is a logical method. The propositions of mathematics are equations, and therefore pseudo-propositions. (S hc l phng php lun l) (Mnh ca s hc l ng thc. Theo , n l ngh t mnh -mnh phng ging nh) Ton hc l th php lun l. Mnh ca ton hc l ng thc. Nh th, l gimnh . 6.21 Mt mnh ton hc khng biu trng t tng. 6.211 Thc ra, trong cuc sng thc, th mt mnh ton hc khng bao gi l ci m chng ta mong mun. ng hn, chng ta s dng mnh ton hc ch trong suy lun t nhng mnh khng ph thuc vo ton hc, ra thnh nhng ci khc, cng khng ph thuc vo ton hc. (Trong trit hc, cu hi "Thc ra chng ta s dng t ny hay mnh ny lm g?" nhiu ln dn n nhng phn tnh c gi tr). 6.22 Lun l ca th gii, ci c biu minh trong nhng ng ngha phn phc bi nhng mnh lun l hc, c biu minh trong nhng ng phn ton hc. 6.23 Nu hai biu trng c phi hp bng phng thc k hiu ng thc, th c ngha l chng c th thay th ln nhau. Tuy nhin, chng phi c biu th trong hai biu trng t n, cho d iu ny c hp l hay khng. Khi hai bi u trng c th thay th ln nhau, th l c trng cho hnh thc lun l ca chng. 6.231 Mt tnh cht khng nh c th c phn nh nh l mt ph nh kp. Mt tnh cht ca "1 + 1 + 1 + 1" c th c phn nh nh l "(1 + 1) + (1 + 1)". 6.232 Frege ni rng hai biu trng c cng mt tng (Bedeutung) ging nhau, nhng ngha (Sinn) th khc nhau. Tuy nhin, im ct li v tnh ng phn, l n khng tt

yu minh chng rng hai biu trng ni kt bi k hiu ca ng thc c cng ngha, bi v iu ny c th c nhn thy trong biu trng t n. 6.2321 V kh tnh ca minh chng nhng mnh ton hc ch n gin c ngha l: tnh xc chng ca chng c th c nhn thc, m khng cn thit n vic: ci chng biu trng, t n s c so snh vi nhng s kin, xc inh tnh xc thc ca chng. 6.2322 Khng th xc nhn tnh ng nht gia ngha ca hai biu trng. Bi v, c th xc nhn bt k iu g v ngha ca chng, th ti phi bit ngha ca chng, v ti khng th bit ngha ca chng m khng bit l chng c ngha ng nht hay d bit. 6.2323 Mt ng thc ch nh du quan im m t ti cn nhc hai biu trng y: N nh du tnh tng ng ca chng trong ngha. 6.233 Cu hi rng c cn thit trc quan hay khng cho gii p ca nhng vn ton hc, phi c ra cu tr li rng: trong trng hp ny, ngn ng t n cung ng ci trc quan cn thit . 6.2331 Tin trnh nghim suy lm ny sinh ra ci trc quan . Suy nghim khng phi l mt thc nghim. 6.234 Mathematics is a method of logic. (Ogd., v DB&BG) . (S hc l phng php ca lun l). 6.234 Ton hc l mt phng php ca lun l hc. 6.2341 c trng ct li ca phng thc ton hc l s dng phng trnh thc. V, bi phng thc ny m mi mnh ton hc phi tin hnh khng c ngn biu*. ______ Bn ting Anh ca Ogden: "Mi mnh ton hc u phi t minh" (every proposition of mathematics must be self-evident). 6.24 Phng thc m bi ton hc t ti phng trnh thc ca n, l phng thc hon i. V phng trnh thc biu th kh tnh hon i ca hai biu trng v, xut pht t mt s phng trnh thc, chng ta tin ti nhng phng trnh thc mi bi hon i nhng biu trng khc nhau trong tng ng vi nhng phng trnh thc . 6.241 Nh th, cn c chng minh ca mnh 2 t 2 = 4, tin hnh nh sau: (/v)n'x = /v x u'x Def., /2 x 2'x = (/2)2'x = (/2)1 + 1'x = /2' /2'x = /1 + 1'/1 + 1'x = (/'/)'(/'/)'x =/'/'/'/'x = /1 + 1 + 1 + 1'x = /4'x. 6.3

S truy cu h thng lun l, c ngha l, s truy cu v mi ci lm ch th cho lut tc. V, bn ngoi lun l, th tt c mi th u l ngu nhin. 6.31 Ci gi l nguyn tc qui np khng th no c kh nng l mt nguyn tc lun l, bi l hin nhin rng l mt mnh c ngha. _V th, n cng khng th l mt nguyn tc tin nghim (a priori). 6.32 Lut nhn qu khng phi l mt lut tc, l hnh thc ca lut tc. 6.321 "Lut nhn qu"_ l mt ci tn gi chung chung. Cng ging nh trong c hc, chng hn, c "nguyn l ti thiu", nh lut v ng tc ti thiu. Cng nh th, trong vt l hc th c lut nhn qu, l lut tc v hnh thc tc to. 6.3211 Thc ra, ngi ta thm ch phng nh rng phi c mt "lut tc v ng tc ti thiu" ngay c trc khi h bit chnh xc c n vn hnh nh th no. ( y, lun lun nh th, ci g l mt tin nghim nht nh, th cng chng t rng n l mt ci g c tnh thun lun l). 6.33 Chng ta khng c mt tn iu tin nghim trong mt lut bo ton, m ng hn, l mt nhn thc tin nghim v kh tnh ca hnh thc lun l. 6.34 Tt c mi mnh nh th, bao gm nguyn l tc l, nhng nguyn tc ni tip ca lin tc tnh trong thin nhin, v nguyn l ti thiu trong thin nhin, vv vv, tt c u l ni quan tin nghim v nhng hnh thc m trong mnh khoa hc c th c nm vo. 6.341 C hc Newton chng hn, n p t mt hnh thc thng nht i vi trnh thut miu t v th gii. Chng ta hy hnh dung mt b mt mu trng vi nhng m en bt qui tc trn . Khi chng ta ni rng d chng c to ra mt hnh nh no i na, th ti cng lun lun c th miu t v n gn xp x nh ti mong mun, bng cch ph ln mt li vung c mn thch hp, v ri ni rng mi mt li l mu trng hay en. Vi cch ny, th ti p t mt hnh thc thng nht cho s miu t trnh thut v b mt . Hnh thc c tnh cch ty chn, v ti c th t c cng mt kt qu vi cch s dng tm li c mng hnh tam gic hay lc gic. C th l khi s dng mng li hnh tam gic th chng ta c th miu t b mt n gin hn, ngha l, c l chng ta s miu t chnh xc vi mt mng li hnh tam gic th, hn l vi mt mng li hnh vung tinh (hay ngc li), v c th C hc xc nh mt hnh thc trnh thut miu t th gii bng cch ni rng: tt c mi mnh c s dng trong trnh thut miu t th gii, phi c hnh thnh trong mt cch thc c qui nh, t mt h thng nhng mnh c qui nh_l nhng tin ca c hc. Nh th, n cung cp nhng vin gch nh hnh kin to nn cng trnh khoa hc, v n ni rng "Bt k kin trc no m bn mun dng ln, cho d l g i na, th mt cch no n cng phi c xy dng nn bi nhng vin gch nh hnh ny, v ch bi chng m thi". Cng ging ht nh bi h thng s m m chng ta c th vit ra bt k con s no chng ta

mun, cng nh th, bi h thng c hc, chng ta nht thit c th vit ra bt k mnh v c hc no chng ta mun). 6.342 V gi y, chng ta c th thy c v th tng quan gia lun l hc v c hc. (Mng li c l cng bao gm nhiu hn mt loi mt li: chng hn nh chng ta c th s dng c hai dng tam gic hay lc gic). Kh tnh ca trnh thut miu t mt hnh tng, ging nh mt trong nhng nh dng chng ta cp trn bi mt mng li vi c dng thc qui nh, th khng ni cho chng ta mt iu g v hnh tng c. (V n tha ng cho tt c mi hnh tng nh th). Tuy nhin, ci c trng cho hh tng l ci c th miu t hon ton bi mt mng li c th vi mt ln c th ca li. Cng nh th, kh tnh ca trnh thut miu t th gii bi phng thc c hc Newton khng ni vi chng ta iu g c v th gii, nhng ci c th ni cho chng ta mt iu g v n, l phng thc c th m n c th trnh thut miu t v n bi nhng phng tin ca n. Chng ta cng c th c ni mt iu g v th gii, bi s kin rng n c th c trnh thut miu t mt cch n gin vi mt h thng c hc hn l vi nhng h thng khc. 6.343 C hc l mt n lc xy dng, da theo mt n n c, tt c nhng mnh ng m chng ta cn thit cho trnh thut miu t v th gii. 6.3431 Nhng nh lut vt l, vi tt c b my lun l ca chng, vn hy cn ni v nhng i tng ca th gii mt cch gin tip. 6.3432 Chng ta khng nn qun rng bt k mt trnh thut miu t no v th gii bi phng thc c hc, u vn s thuc v dng thc mt cch hon ton tng qut y. Chng hn nh, n s chng bao gi cp n khi lng-cht im c th, n s ch ni v bt k khi lng-cht im no chung chung no . 6.35 Mc d nhng m trn bc hnh ca chng ta (xem 6.341,ND) l nhng hnh c tnh cht hnh hc, th nhng r rng rng hnh hc khng ni ln iu g c v hnh dng v v tr thc s ca chng. Tuy nhin mng li y c tnh cht hnh hc thun ty; tt c nhng tnh cht ca n c th c trng mt cch tin nghim. Nhng nguyn tc ging nh nguyn l tc l, vv u thuc v mng li y v khng thuc v ci m mng li y miu t. 6.36 Nu lut nhn qu tn ti, th c l n s c t trong cch sau y: Tn ti ca lut tc t nhin. Tuy nhin, ng nhin khng th ni c rng: lut tc ca t nhin t n hnh thnh ngha. 6.361 Ngi ta c th ni, theo thut ng ca Hertt, rng ch c nhng mi quan h ch quan i vi lut tc, l c th t tng c. 6.3611 Chng ta khng th so snh mt tin trnh vi "din tin thi gian"_khng c mt ci g nh th c_m ch c th vi mt tin trnh khc (chng hn nh vn hnh ca mt my m nhp). V th, chng ta c th miu t mt khong thi gian, ch da trn

mt tin trnh khc no . C ci g cng tng ng chun xc nh th i vi khng gian: v d, khi ngi ta ni rng khng th xy ra c hai s kin (m ci ny loi tr ci kia), v khng c ci g u tin lm nguyn nhn hnh thnh cho ci ny, hn l ci kia. y thc s l mt vn , rng: Chng ta khng th miu t mt trong hai s kin, tr phi tm ra c mt tnh bt-i xng no ca c hai. V nu mt khi tnh bt-i xng nh th c tm ra, th chng ta c th xem n nh l nguyn nhn hnh thnh ca ci ny, v l nguyn nhn khng-hnh thnh ci kia. 6.36111 Vn nn ca Kant v tay phi v tay tri, khng th c trng khp, tn ti ngay c trong hai th nguyn. Thc ra, n ch tn ti trong khng gian n-th nguyn tng ng vi mi vai tr, a v b, khng th no trng khp, tr phi chng c dch chuyn khi khng gian ny. Tht khng thch ng rng chng khng th lm cho trng khp nhau c. Mt gng tay phi c th c t vo tay tri, nu n c th xoay vng trong khng gian bn th nguyn. 6.362 Ci g c th trnh thut miu t, th cng c th xy ra: v ci m lut nhn qu loi tr ra, th trnh thut miu t cng khng th. 6.363 Th tc ca qui np php bao gm s chp nhn nh l ng ci nguyn tc n gin nht c th ha gii vi kinh nghim ca chng ta. 6.3631 Tuy nhin, th tc ny khng c mt minh chng lun l no, ngoi tr ch mt minh chng c tnh cch tm l hc. R rng rng khng c c s no tin rng trong thc t kh nng tnh ca ci c th xy ra, li nhn thc c. 6.36311 Mt tri s mc ngy mai, l mt gi thuyt, v iu ny c ngha rng chng ta khng bit ngy mai n c mc hay khng. 6.37 Khng c mt s p t no khin cho mt ci g phi xy ra, bi v mt ci g xy ra. Tnh tt yu duy nht tn ti, l tnh tt yu lun l hc. 6.371 Ton b khi nim hin i v th gii c sng to ra trn c s o, rng ci c gi l nhng lut tc ca t nhin, u l nhng thch gii v hin tng t nhin. 6.372 Nh th, con ngi hin nay dng li nhng lut tc v t nhin, i x vi chng nh l ci g bt kh xm phm, cng nh Thng v nh Mnh c i x trong nhng thi i xa. V thc ra, c hai s th ny u ng v u sai: cho d quan nim ca tin nhn sng t hn trong mc m h c th c mt tiu ch cui cng sng t v c tha nhn, trong khi h thng hin i ca chng ta c gng khin cho n c v nh l mi th u c gii thch thuyt minh. 6.373 Th gii c lp vi ch ca ti. 6.374

Ngay c khi tt c nhng g ti mong mun u xy ra, th iu ny cng vn ch l mt c n c ban sng bi tc mnh, nh th c ngha l: v khng c mt mi quan h lun l no gia ch v th gii, xc chng cho iu y; v mi quan h vt l c gi thit l ng y, t n chc chn khng phi l ci g m ch ca chng ta c th. 6.375 Tnh tt yu duy nht tn ti l tnh tt yu lun l, cng nh th, tnh bt kh duy nht tn ti l tnh bt kh lun l. 6.3751 Chng hn, s hin hu ng thi ca hai mu cng mt ch trong mt trng nhn l khng th, tc l tnh bt kh lun l trong thc ti, v n c khng ch bi cu to lun l ca mu sc. Chng ta hy nghim suy v s mu thun ny din ra nh th no trong vt l hc, t nhiu nh sau: mt ht in t khng th c hai tc cng mt lc, iu ny c ngha l, n khng th ng thi tn ti hai ni, c ngha l, nhng ht in t tn ti nhng v tr khc nhau, th khng th ng nht. (Hin nhin rng kt qu lun l ca hai mnh yu t khng th l ng ng phn phc, cng khng th l mu thun. Ngn biu rng mt im trong mt trng nhn c hai mu khc nhau cng mt lc, l mt mu thun). 6.4 All propositions are of equal value. (Tt c mi mnh u c gi tr v v duyn) Tt c mi mnh u ng gi v v v. 6.41 ngha ca th gii phi bn ngoi th gii. Trong th gii, mi ci u l nh chng l, v mi ci xy ra nh chng xy ra nh th, trong n, gi tr khng tn ti_v nu n thc s tn ti, th n khng c gi tr. Nu c bt k mt gi tr no c th c, th n phi bn ngoi ton th quyn vc ca nhng g xy ra v hnh thnh. Bi v tt c nhng g xy ra v hnh thnh u l ngu nhin. Ci g khin cho chng tr thnh khng-ngu nhin th khng th c trong th gii, v nu chng xy ra v hnh thnh trong th gii, th t chng l ngu nhin. Nhng gi tr, ch tn ti bn ngoi th gii. 6.42 Chnh v th, mnh lun l hc cng khng th tn ti. Mnh khng th biu trng ci g cao hn n. 6.421 It is clear that ethics cannot be put into words. Ethics is transcendental. (Ethics and aesthetics are one and the same.) (Lun l hc th khng th biu hin c bng ngn ng, iu ny r rng. Lun l hc c tnh siu vit) Tht hin nhin, rng lun l hc khng th biu trng c bi ngn t. Lun l hc c tnh cch siu nghim (transcendental). (Lun l hc v M hc l mt v ng nht). 6.422 Khi mt nguyn tc lun l c thit nh di hnh thc "Ngi nn..", th ngh u tin ca con ngi ta s l "V ci g k tip, nu ti lm nh th, nu ti khng lm nh th?". Tuy nhin, r rng rng lun l hc khng lm "ci g k tip" trng pht hay tng thng c, trong ngha thng thng ca khong mc ny. Th nn vn

 ca chng ta v nhng h qu ca hnh vi th khng nht thit quan trng_t nht, th nhng h qu cng khng phi l nhng s kin quan tm. Bi v phi c mt ci g ngay trong vn chng ta thit nh. Rng nht thit phi c mt loi trng pht lun l v tng thng lun l, nhng n phi tn ti ngay trong chnh hnh vi t n. (V cng tht hin nhin l s tng thng phi mang li nim vui, v s trng pht phi em li hi tic). 6.423 Ni v ch trong chng mc l ch th ca nhng thuc tnh lun l, l mt iu khng th. V ch, nh l mt hin tng, cng ch l phm vi quan tm ca tm l hc. 6.43 Nu tc ng thin hay c ca ch s thc s lm bin i th gii, th n ch c th bin i hn nh ca th gii, khng phi l s kin_khng phi l ci c th biu trng c bng phng thc ngn ng. Ni gn, th hiu qu hn l ci g hnh thnh hu nh mt th gii khc. N phi, nh thng ni, trn ri li khuyt nh l mt ton th. Th gii ca mt ngi hnh phc th khc vi th gii ca mt k bt hnh. 6.431 Cng nh th vi ci cht, th gii khng thay i, n tin n mt chung cuc. 6.4311 Ci cht khng phi l mt s kin trong nhn sinh: Chng ta khng sng th nghim ci cht. Nu chng ta nh ngha vnh cu khng nh l tn tc v hn trong thi gian, m l v-thi gian tnh, th cuc sng vnh hng ty thuc vo nhng ai hin ang sng. Cuc sng ca chng ta khng c chung cuc, trong chnh cch thc m trong tm nhn ca chng ta khng c gii hn. 6.4312 Khng ch khng c mt bo m chc chn no cho tnh bt t ca linh hn trong thi gian, tc l cho s sng st vnh vin sau ci cht, m cn, trong bt k trng hp no i na, th ci gi thuyt khoc lot y cng hon ton tht bi trong vic thnh tu mc tiu m n hng lun lun hng ti . Hay l mt b n kh hiu ch c ha gii bng chnh s sng vnh vin? C phi chng s sng vnh hng kia t n vn b n kh hiu hn chnh cuc sng m chng ta ang sng? Gii p cho s b n kh hiu ca cuc sng trong khng gian v thi gian, th nm ngoi khng gian v thi gian. (Chc chn khng phi l gii p ca bt k vn no m khoa hc t nhin yu cu). 6.432 Lm sao no m s vt tn ti trong th gii li l mt vic hon ton bng quan i vi nhng g cao hn chng. Thng khng t biu l mnh ra trong th gii. 6.4321 Nhng vic y ch gp phn cho vic thit nh vn , khng phi cho vic gii p n. 6.44 Vn khng phi l s vt tn ti trong th gii b n huyn nhim nh th no, m l n tn ti nh th no trong th gii ang tn ti. 6.45

Nhn th gii sub specie aeterni-dui ci nhn ca vnh cu, l nhn n nh l mt ton th_mt ton th c hn nh. Nhn tri th gii nh l mt ton th c hn nh_ chnh l ci i vi chng ta vn b n huyn nhim. ______ sub specie aeternitatis: Di ci nhn ca vnh cu, dng ng ca Spinoza trong tc phm Ethc-Lun L Hc______ 6.5 Con ngi ta, i vi nhng cu tr li khng th bng ngn ng, th cu hi cng khng th bng ngn ng. Khng tn ti nhng cu b n huyn hoc khng th gii. Phm, nu c th thit nh c mt cu hi, th cng c th tr li c cu hi . 6.51 Hoi nghi lun, nu n c c tra vn ch m n khng th tra vn, th khng phi l n khng th lun bc c, m r rng l n v ngha. Bi v hoi nghi, ch c th tn ti ch no tra vn c th tn ti, tra vn ch tn ti ch no c th thit lp cu tr li, v cu tr li ch c th tn ti ch no c th ni c. 6.52 We feel that even when all possible scientific questions have been answered, the problems of life remain completely untouched. Of course there are then no questions left, and this itself is the answer. Chng ta thy rng cho d tt c nhng vn khoa hc c th vi n u c gii p, th nhng vn ca nhn sinh vn c hon ton cn y nguyn nh th. ng nhin, khi y th chng cn vn no na c, v iu ny t n l cu tr li i vi nhn sinh. 6.521 Gii p cho mi vn nhn sinh c nhn nhn khi mi vn u trit tiu. (Chng phi y l l do v sao m nhng ngi sau mt thi gian di hoi ngh, nhn ra c ngha nhn sinh tr nn r rng i vi h, th li khng th ni c ngha y hnh thnh t ci g na?). 6.522 There are, indeed, things that cannot be put into words. They make themselves manifest. They are what is mystical. (ng nhin, tn ti nhng g khng th ni c. N t biu l chnh n. l nhng ci thn b) Thc s, c nhng ci khng th ni ln c bng ngn t. Nhng ci y t chng biu minh. l nhng g huyn nhim. 6.53 Phng php lun ng n trong trit hc, c l thc s theo cch thc sau: Khng ni ci g ngoi ci c th ni c, tc l, nhng mnh ca khoa hc t nhin, tc l, ci m khng c g lm vi trit hc. V ri, khi no c ai chng, mun ni iu g c tnh cch siu hnh, th ch r cho hn ta thy rng hn tht bi trong vic xut nhng k hiu nht nh cho mnh ca hn. Mc d c l s khng tha mn c cho ngi y_ci ngi khng cm thy rng chng ta ang dy d cho anh ta trit hc_th phng php ny c l l phng php duy nht nghim mt ng n. 6.54 My propositions are elucidatory in this way: he who understands me

finally recognizes them as senseless, when he has climbed out through them, on them, over them. (He must so to speak throw away the ladder, after he has climbed up on it.) He must transcend these propositions, and then he will see the world aright. Nhng mnh ca ti, l minh gii trong cch ny: c gi no thu hiu ti, sau khi xuyn thu chng, ng bn trn chng, vt qua chng, th cui cng cng nhn ra rng chng v ngha. (Ngha l ngi y vt i ci thang, sau khi ln bn trn n). Sau khi vt qua khi nhng mnh ca ti, c gi hn s nhn thy, mt cch chn xc, th gii. ___________________ 7. What we cannot speak about we must pass over in silence.( David Pears and Brian McGuinness) Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent. (Ci g khng th ni c, th phi im lng_Ogden) (Ngi ta, v ci g khng th ni c, th phi im lng) Con ngi ta, ci g khng th ni c, hy cha n li trong im lng.