5

RURAL ROADS
J.K. Mohapatra and B.P. Chandrasekhar

A community without roads does not have a way out A poor man, Juncal, Ecuador If we get the road, we would get everything else, community centre, employment, post-office, telephone A young woman, Little Bay, Jamaica Many of the poor communities are isolated by distance, bad road conditions, lack of or broken bridges and inadequate transport. These conditions make it difficult for people to get their goods to market and themselves to place of work, to handle health emergencies, to send children to school, and to obtain public services. Narayan et al. 2000

INTRODUCTION

ural Road connectivity is a key component of rural development, since it promotes access to economic and social services, thereby generating increased agricultural productivity, non-agriculture employment as well as non-agricultural productivity, which in turn expands rural growth opportunities and real income through which poverty can be reduced. A study (Fan et al. 1999) carried out by the International Food Policy Research Institute on linkages between government expenditure and poverty in rural India has revealed that an investment of Rs 1 crore in roads lifts 1650 poor persons above the poverty line. Public investment on roads impacts rural poverty through its effect on improved agricultural productivity, higher non-farm employment opportunities and increased rural wages. Improvement in agricultural productivity not only reduces rural poverty directly by increasing income of poor households, it also causes decline in poverty indirectly by raising agricultural wages and lowering food prices (since poor households are net buyers of foodgrains). Similarly,

increased non-farm employment and higher rural wages also enhance incomes of the rural poor and consequently, reduce rural poverty. This study estimated that while the productivity effect of government spending on rural roads accounts for 24 per cent of total impact on poverty, increased non-farm employment accounts for 55 per cent and higher rural wages accounts for the remaining 31 per cent. Further, of the total productivity effect on poverty, 75 per cent arises from the direct impact of roads in increasing incomes, while the remaining 25 per cent arises from lower food prices (15 per cent) and increased wages (10 per cent). Similar results are found in other developing countries. The study by the same institute (Fan et al. 2000)) in China revealed that with every 10,000 Yuan (about $1200) spent on rural roads eleven persons are lifted above the poverty line. Living Standard Survey in Vietnam in 2002 showed that populations living within 2 km of all-weather roads have lower poverty rates as noted in the draft Vision Document for Rural Roads, 2006 (MoRD, 2006). Statistical evidence apart, the link between poverty and lack of accessibility is quite apparent. Nearer home, a household survey (APERP, 1997) conducted in the state of Andhra Pradesh indicated that the rural road improvements lead to substantial reduction in freight charges, increase in household income, more employment opportunities, and expansion of cultivated land as shown in Figures 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3.

STATUS OF RURAL ROADS IN INDIA

Roads are classified under a time-honoured system into National Highways (NHs), State Highways (SHs), Major District Roads (MDRs), Other District Roads (ODRs), and Village Roads (VRs), with well-recognized standards for construction and maintenance laid out in respect of each

110

India Infrastructure Report 2007

Annual Average Income and Expenditure per Household
30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

Connected Annual Average Income in Rs

Unconnected Annual Average Expenditure in Rs

Fig. 5.1 Comparative Average Income and Expenditure of Connected and Unconnected Villages
Average Goods Transportation Cost

Rupees Quintal per Km

3 Badly Maintained Roads 2 Fair-Weather Roads

All Weather Roads in Good Condition

Fig.5.2 Goods Transportation Cost on Different Types of Roads

Impacts of Improvement on Roads
25% 6% 10% 14%

24%

21%

Bringing outside Teachers Bringing outside Doctors Purchase of more fertilizers

Expansion of cultivated land More seasonal work opportunities Higher intensity of cultivation

Fig. 5.3 Impact on Standard of Living from Improvement on Roads

(SGRY), scarcity relief funds, and untied funds devolved by States. Consequently, it is difficult, if not impossible, to assess the exact amount that is being spent for the maintenance and construction of ODRs and VRs. The overlapping of responsibilities and the fragmentation of funds between agencies for maintenance and development of roads is a source of inefficiency and confusion. Quite often, the only point where all these responsibilities and funds converge is at the level of the local implementing officer, the Assistant Executive Engineer, who is used by all agencies named above for implementation. This thinly spread management structure is inefficient; it does not ensure good monitoring or downward accountability and unnecessarily complicates planning. India has a rural road network of about 2.7 million km developed with an investment of almost Rs 35,000 crore, estimated to have a replacement value of about Rs 180,000 crore. This constitutes over 80 per cent of the total road network, however, about a million km length of the road does not meet the technical standards required. According to government statistics, by year 2000, India had connectivity to almost all villages with populations of over 1500, 86 per cent with 1000 to 1500 inhabitants, and 43 per cent of villages with less than 1000 population (Figure 5.4). Successive plans aimed at achieving higher road densities and managed to over achieve it (Table 5.1). Even though, the total length of rural roads targetted at the end of the Lucknow Plan appeared to be large, it must be noted that almost 100,000 km of the roads were constructed under different employment generation schemes and poverty alleviation programmes such as Food for Work, National Rural Employment Programme and Jawahar Rojgar Yojana. The roads were of indifferent quality constructed by unskilled labour. The objective of these programmes was provision of sustenance support to the rural people. The technical standards of asset quality were not insisted upon and construction was often restricted to earthen tracks with no provision even for
Number of villages connected (%)
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 By 1980 By 1985 By 1990 By 1995 By 2000

category. Generally speaking, there are clearly understood demarcations of responsibility in terms of governmental offices expected to deal with each category. However, while the activity mapping with respect to NHs and SHs is clear cut, with respect to MDRs, ODRs, and VRs, these distinctions are blurred. In many states, though PRIs are assigned responsibilities with respect to ODRs and VRs, a plethora of agencies and line departments undertake formation and repairs of roads. These include the state governments PWD wing, the Agricultural Produce Marketing Committees (APMCs), parallel bodies created by multilateral agencies, Forest department, Development authorities and so on. There are several general funds that are used for roads, apart from special schemes tied to specific road projects. Thus roads are repaired using Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana

Rupees

Village Population
>1500 10001500 <1000 Total

Fig. 5.4 Connectivity Status Source: Planning Commission & MoRD (2006).

Rural Roads
Table 5.1 Basis for assessment, assessed targets and expected densities in the Road Development Plans. Name of the Plan Nagpur Plan (194361) Basis of fixation of targets Length of ODRs + VRs assessed on the basis of number of villages with population 500 and less, 5011000, 10012000, and 20015000. Length based on the number of villages with population less than 500, 5001000, 10002000, and 20005000 Length assessed on the basis of number of villages and towns. Targets km 332,335 Achievement km 500,802 Target density (All roads)

111

0.32 km per sq km

Bombay Plan (196181) Lucknow Plan (198101)

651,780

912,684

0.46 km per sq km

2,189,000

2,994,000

0.82 km per sq km

cross drainage or side drainage. Since water is the main enemy of the sustainability of roads, roads constructed under such employment generation schemes were often not durable. Rural roads have suffered greatly due to lack of systematic planning. While rural road development plans provided for a network structure and target lengths of different types of roads, specific connectivity requirements of individual settlements (villages/habitation) and issues of regional imbalances were not adequately addressed. This led to more than one connection for the same village resulting in redundancy and development of a large unmanageable network. While constructing rural roads, adequate care was not taken in adopting need based designs, parameters for pavement construction, quality assurance, and quality control. Multiplicity of organizations involved in the rural roads development led to uncoordinated efforts, adhoc decisions, and a lopsided network structure.

Gaps in the Planning Process

The planning of the network structure was not taken seriously. The structure of the network was not subjected to evaluation through the assessment of indices concerning accessibility, connectivity, circuitry and so on. Though the conceptual plans and targets had been worked out, the absence of detailed work plans resulted in a non-integrated network, with several missing links and critical bridges. This invariably resulted in the loss of mobility due to discontinuities in the network and forced circuitous journeys. During the development of the roads interfaces among the hierarchical roads were not properly addressed, resulting in deficiency in the functionality and efficiency of the total network.

of roads, the total system suffers often resulting in undesirable ruralurban migration. Investments are concentrated only in the higher order roads for construction and maintenance with rural roads receiving less priority than they deserve. Rural households are deprived of their legitimate right to basic access. This calls for policies and programmes that aim at developing an integrated network with due priorities and necessary interfaces. In the context of rural roads, a higher degree of care is required at the planning stage to integrate connectivity needs of scattered settlements. The construction of a road connecting a habitation must be augmented by means of transportation, enhanced by appropriate facility creation in health, education and so on. The utility of the network can be best appreciated with such integration of accessibility with social infrastructure. Keeping this in mind, the central government constituted the National Rural Roads Development Committee (NRRDC) in January 2000. The report of NRRDC 2000 resulted in the formulation of the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) with an aim to provide all-weather roads to almost all rural habitations in the country (MoRD 2000).

PRADHAN MANTRI GRAM SADAK YOJANA

Launching and Operationalization of PMGSY
Based on the recommendations of NRRDC the GOI launched the PMGSY on 25 December 2000 under the Ministry of Rural Development, as a 100 per cent centrally sponsored scheme. Fifty per cent of the cess on high speed diesel was earmarked for financing this scheme. The primary objective of PMGSY is to provide connectivity, by way of allweather roads (with necessary culverts and cross drainage structures operable throughout the year) to unconnected habitations in the rural areas in such a way that habitations with populations of 1000 persons and above are covered in three years (20003) and all unconnected habitations with a

Need for Integrated Network Development

Conceptually, traffic flows from the lower order settlements to the higher ones in pursuit of opportunities. If planning fails to capture this phenomenon with appropriate integration

112

India Infrastructure Report 2007

Box 5.1 The Concept and Utility of Core Network

The DRRP is a compendium of the existing and proposed road network system in the district which clearly identifies the proposed roads for connecting the yet unconnected habitations to already connected habitations or all-weather roads, in an economically efficient way. While selecting the connectivity to the unconnected habitation by single all weather road, optimization principle is applied through Utility Value and Road Index for linkage of the selected habitation with an already connected habitation. The Core Network (CN) is a subset of DRRP and represents the minimum network that ensures connectivity to all the eligible habitations through single all weather roads. This enables continuity with the nearest market centre (either existing or a potential one). This network is the minimum network that is to be kept in good condition. It consists of identified link routes and through routes. Link Route: Link Routes are the roads connecting a single habitation or a group of habitations to through routes or district roads leading to market centres. Through Route: Through routes are the roads which collect traffic from several link roads or a long chain of habitations and lead it to marketing centres either directly or through the higher category of roads.
Source: Ministry of Rural Development.

population of 500 persons and above by the end of the Tenth Plan Period (2007). In respect of the Hill States (North-East, Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttaranchal) and the Desert Areas (as identified in the Desert Development Programme) as well as the Tribal (Schedule V) areas the objective would be to connect habitations with population of 250 persons and above. Detailed guidelines were issued to all the states for the implementation of PMGSY, identifying state nodal agencies, Executing agencies, and Programme Implementation Units (PIUs). Guidelines also envisaged the setting up of State Level Standing Committees (SLSCs) for monitoring and coordinating programme implementation. Guidelines were provided for project preparation, scrutiny, tendering, execution, quality management, monitoring of the project, maintenance, as well as procedures for fund flow.

starting point of the exercise. The Core Network will be the basic instrument for prioritization of construction, upgradation, and allocation of funds for maintenance. The concept of DRRP and CN are important to achieve network efficiency (Box 5.1). A typical Block map with DRRP and Core Network are shown in Figures 5.5 and 5.6 respectively.

Quality Control System

Under the PMGSY, quality is sought to be ensured through a three-tier Quality Control System, in which the Executing
District Rural Roads Plan Simdega Block, Simdega District, Jharkhand
N W S Katasaru E

Institutional Development under PMGSY

To ensure efficient, streamlined execution of works under PMGSY, a series of interventions have been made to enhance the programme implementation capacity of the states and to ensure on time completion, cost management, and rigorous quality control. These interventions are summarized below.
Chiarikani

Lelong Gondalipani Asanbera Bhundupani Sarlonga Kuskela Jamadori

DRRP and Core Network

The concept of Core Network has been operationalized for the first time, under PMGSY, in order to focus on the set of roads considered essential to provide connectivity to all habitations of the desired size. The District Rural Road Plan (DRRP) which inventorizes the entire Road Network is the

0250 251500 Ghaghari 5011000 Bhelwadih Kindardega Basatpur 1000 and above Kobang Pahargurda Hathabari Banabira Kesalpu Pakartanr Kairbera Danargurda Kongseri Kinbira Kamtara Paledih Tamara Taisera Maskera Biru Belkarcha Kulkera Dumardih Manesera Sikiriatar Chiksura Fulwatanga Sokari Arani Sarkhutoli Tabhadih Ankara Barkatangar Sogara EhuSabera Birkera Sewai Bandojore Madhuban Khotitoli Hawatoli Kochedega Koliadamar Baghlatta Bangru Sunsewai Ghosara Kudrum Birkera Bhawarpani Sarja Tilga Pithara Kasaidohar Guida Bigari Barabarpani Thailkobera Tumdegi Chotabarpani Kharwagartha Bindhaitoli Belgar Jogbalrai Katukona Merumloya Tina Barkichhapa Muia

Purnapani Takaba Karamukh Hardibera Khanjaloya Bengarpani Keondih

POPTOTAL

0 1 2

Million less

Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi

Fig. 5.5 DRRP for a Typical Block

Rural Roads
Core Network Plan Simdega Block, Simdega District, Jharkhand
N W S Katasaru Lelong Gondalipani Asanbera Bhundupani Sarlonga Kuskela Jamadori Ghaghari E

113

the integrated development of all rural roads schemes, including PMGSY. Funds for the PMGSY programme are routed to these SRRDAs and are operated by the designated officers in each of the district PIUs, under a works accounting system specifically designed for PMGSY by the Institute of Public Auditors of India (IPAI).

Kindardega Hathabari Banabira Kinbira

0250 251500 5011000 Bhelwadih 1000 and above Pahargurda Kairbera Danargurda Kongseri Kamtara Paledih Tamara Taisera Maskera Biru Belkarcha Kulkera Dumardih Manesera Sikiriatar Chiksura Fulwatanga Sokari Arani Sarkhutoli Tabhadih Ankara Barkatangar Sogara EhuSabera Birkera Sewai Bandojore Madhuban Khotitoli Hawatoli Kochedega Koliadamar Baghlatta Bangru Sunsewai Ghosara Kudrum Birkera Bhawarpani Sarja Tilga Pithara Kasaidohar Guida Bigari Barabarpani Thailkobera Tumdegi Chotabarpani Kharwagartha Bindhaitoli Belgar Jogbalrai Katukona Merumloya Tina Barkichhapa Muia Basatpur Kobang Kesalpu Pakartanr

Chiarikani

Purnapani Karamukh Takaba Hardibera Khanjaloya Bengarpani Keondih

POPTOTAL

Technical Agencies
Fifty State Technical Agencies (STAs), mainly National Institutes of Technology and Government Engineering Colleges of repute have been identified in consultation with the state governments to advise and assist the Executing Agencies by scrutinizing the project proposals prepared by the state governments, providing requisite technical support to the state governments, and undertaking training programmes. The NRRDA has also identified seven Principal Technical Agencies (PTAs) to act as the Regional Coordinators of the STAs as well as the extended arms of NRRDA in the pursuit of its objectives. The PTAs oversee the activities of the STAs in the region, carry out random checks of the Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) scrutinized by STAs, evaluate specifications and practices, develop course material for training programmes, and act as resource institutions. The PTAs are also to assist the NRRDA in quality audit of roads. The identified PTAs are the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), IIT, Mumbai, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bangalore, IIT, Kharagpur, IIT Roorkee, Birla Institute of Technology, Pilani, and National Institute of Technology, Warangal.

0 1 2

Million less

Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi

Fig. 5.6 Core Network for the Above Block

Agency is primarily responsible for maintaining quality through its executive engineers, at the district level, as well as through an independent Quality Control Agency, whether departmental or otherwise, which is responsible to the officers of the Executing Agency or the Nodal Department independent of the field engineers at the state level. In addition, the NRRDA engages National Quality Monitors (NQMs) to verify at random the quality of road works. The reports of the NQMs are sent to the state government for necessary action. About 21,000 inspections have been carried out so far, out of which about 18,000 works have been found satisfactory. Any infringement/deficiency, detected by the NQMs, is rectified before the State Authorities can make further payments.

Rural Roads Manual

The original manual, called Manual on Route Location, Design, Construction and Maintenance of Rural Roads was brought out by the Indian Roads Congress as a publication in 1979 (IRC: SP:201979). Following the launch of the PMGSY, the Ministry of Rural Development constituted three Committees in January 2001 to go into various aspects of rural road construction and the manuals on these different aspects brought out by the committees were combined into a separate Rural Roads Manual and published as an IRC publication (IRC:SP: 202002) in supercession of the earlier manual (MORD 2004a and 2004b). This manual is now the basis of all works under the PMGSY.

Online Management & Monitoring System

A web-based Online Management & Monitoring System (OMMS) is being used for the PMGSY. The website can be accessed at www.omms.nic.in. A new website has also been developed by the Rural Connectivity Division containing details of the PMGSY Schemes, Guidelines, Agencies involved, role and responsibilities, progress, and so on and can be accessed at www.pmgsy.nic.in.

Streamlined Administration and Accounting

State Rural Roads Development Agencies (SRRDAs) have been set up in all states with the task of functioning as the dedicated agency of the state nodal department for rural roads to ensure

Standard Bidding Documents

To standardize the tendering process of the states, a Standard Bidding Document has been prepared which is used by all states for procurements of works under PMGSY.

114

India Infrastructure Report 2007

objectives, assessment was also made for the upgradation of the existing rural roads in all the states (Table A5.2). The target for connectivity/upgradation includes new connectivity to about 60,000 habitations of 1000 plus population, to 81,000 habitations of 500 plus population and to 29,000 habitations of 250 plus population. Total cost of new connectivity is about Rs 79,000 crore. Upgradation of about 370,000 km rural roads at a cost of Rs 53,000 crore is also planned. Thus, the total envisaged cost of the PMGSY is about Rs 132,000 crore.

Book of Specifications and Standard Data Book

In order to streamline the process of estimating and to standardize contracts, a separate Book of Specifications and Standard Data Book have been prepared for rural roads. State governments have been advised to publish Annual Schedule of Rates for rural roads based on these documents.

Operations Manual
The NRRDA has prepared an Operations Manual which is utilized by all the Executing Agencies in the field in the implementation of projects cleared under the PMGSY. This is expected to provide clear and uniform guidelines to the executing agencies in the states in regard to standards, specifications, guidelines, and prioritization criteria.

Achievements under PMGSY.

Proposals under PMGSY prepared by the states are being cleared in different phases since 2001. The physical and financial status and achievements so far under PMGSY are summarized in Table A5.3. While completion of over 90,000 km of roads under the scheme may appear impressive as compared to the past record in the rural roads sector, actual achievements have fallen far short of the targets originally envisaged. The original goal set under the scheme was to provide connectivity to all unconnected habitations with a population of 1000 or more by 2003 and all unconnected habitations with a population of 500 and above by the end of the 10th Plan period (by year 2007). All habitations with a population of 250 or more in the hill states, desert areas, and tribal areas were also targetted to be covered by 2007. As against these programme targets originally set, the proposals cleared so far are expected to provide connectivity to only 56,638 habitations. The status of habitation coverage so far under this scheme has been indicated in Table 5.2. With only 15.8 per cent of habitations having been actually connected so far, it is evident that the scheme would miss the 10th Plan target by a huge margin. Recognizing this slippage the time frame for providing full connectivity to habitations with population above 1000 (above 500 in hill, desert and tribal areas) has been reset under Bharat Nirman.
Table 5.2 Connectivity Status under PMGSY* No. of habitations covered by projects approved 28,361 21,942 6335 56,638

Maintenance Management
Huge assets are being created as a result of construction of new roads and upgradation of existing roads in order to provide full farm-to-market connectivity. Guidelines provide for the ways and means to ensure regular and systematic maintenance of the assets created under PMGSY. The state governments are expected to take steps to build up capacity in the District Panchayats and devolve funds and functionaries unto them to enable them to manage maintenance contracts for rural roads. All PMGSY roads (including associated main rural links/ through routes of PMGSY link routes) are covered by 5-years maintenance contracts entered into along with the construction contract, with the same contractor, as per the standard bidding document. Maintenance funds to service the contract are to be budgeted by the state government and placed at the disposal of SRRDA in a separate maintenance account. The states have also been advised to prepare comprehensive maintenance management plans. While these interventions have brought about some degree of professionalism in the programme management and fostered a culture of quality in the rural roads sector, the absorption capacity of the states as well contractors is still well below the levels required to achieve the targets set under Bharat Nirman.

Assessment of Targets
All states have been requested to prepare DRRPs as compendiums of all existing roads and those roads proposed for connecting the unconnected target habitations, starting from Block Maps and identification of the Core Network Based on such maps which were prepared with full inventory, eligible habitations have been identified as per programme guidelines and the length required as well as the costs at constant prices assessed (Table A5.1). In tune with the
Population category 1000 and above 500999 250499 Total

No. of eligible habitations 59,855 81,466 31,451 172,772

No. of habitations connected 16,081 8602 2620 27,303

Note: *June 2006. Source: Ministry of Rural Development.

Rural Roads

115

PMGSY under Bharat Nirman

Announced as a time bound business plan for augmenting rural infrastructure, Bharat Nirman has rural roads as one of the six components. The targets announced by the Finance Minister in his budget speech on 28 February 2005 seek to provide all-weather connectivity to all habitations having population of 1000 or more (500 or more in hill, tribal and desert areas) by 2009. While the primary objective of PMGSY has been to provide last mile connectivity to all eligible unconnected habitations, in order to ensure full farm-tomarket connectivity Bharat Nirman also includes an upgradation component. It is estimated that under Bharat Nirman 66,802 habitations would be provided new connectivity with a road length of 146,185 km. Besides, 194 thousand km of existing through routes of the Core Network would be upgraded/renewed. The total investment on rural connectivity under Bharat Nirman has been estimated at Rs 48 thousand crore over 20059. The year wise targets for new connectivity and upgradation have been detailed in Table A5.4 and Table A5.5.

Critical Evaluation of PMGSY

Evaluation by Planning Commission
An evaluation was carried out by the Planning Commission in the year 2005 to: 1. assess the extent to which objectives of the programme have been achieved; 2. make a qualitative assessment of the physical and financial performance of the programme; 3. assess the impact of the programme on socio-economic conditions of the residents of villages provided with road connectivity under the programme; and 4. identify the constraints in the implementation of the programme and make suggestions to modify the same. The study covered ten states in the country with fourteen districts selected for the micro level study. Physical performance at the state level varied from as low as 28.77 per cent to well above 92 per cent with an average of about 60 per cent (Planning Commission, 2005). Similarly the achievements in the selected districts varied from 78 per cent to about 98 per cent. In many cases the performance at district level was found to be generally above the state performance. The evaluation revealed that cost of construction per km varied from state to state as well as among the districts. Financial performance at the state level exhibited similar trends with fund utilization varying from 33.89 per cent to over 90 per cent in different states. The evaluation study noted that the 3 Tier Quality Control System prescribed by PMGSY yielded good results and the quality of roads constructed was generally rated as Very Good.

The reasons for shortfall in targets as identified by the evaluation team included procedural impediments, new work practices that consumed more time, non availability of land, local panchayats not being taken into confidence, scarcity of skilled labourers, and prolonged monsoons in certain states. In order to achieve targets the study suggested augmentation of resources, provision of cash compensation for acquisition of land, speedier identification of unconnected habitations, periodic updation of on-line information, realistic fixation of upgradation target, complete involvement of Panchayat institutions, enhancement of time limit for completing projects, adoption of centralized tendering system, meticulous project preparation, avoidance of multiple agencies, deployment of exclusive staff for PMGSY, utilization local labour, efforts for lowering of construction costs and constitution of a state level vigilance committee. In short, programme evaluation revealed that PMGSY has succeeded in providing connectivity to most deserving habitations, although the pace of implementation in some states is rather slow. The selection strategy was found to be okay and quality was found to be generally good. PMGSY has improved the accessibility of beneficiary villagers and resulted in higher incomes. Notwithstanding the fact that there are certain measures required to be taken for meeting its objective, the critical evaluation complimented the efforts that have gone into and hoped for better performance in future.

Performance Audit by C&AG

A performance audit of the programme was conducted by the Comptroller and Auditor General between JanuaryJune, 2005, covering the period during 20005 (C&AG 2006). The services of CRRI New Delhi were commissioned for technical inspection of more than fifty roads for assessing the quality of the roads constructed under PMGSY (MoRD 2004). The audit also covered the effectiveness of operationalization and utility of OMMS and focused on the deficiencies, problems of software, validation checks, security features, and lack of utilization of OMMS for monitoring the programme. While the objective of the PMGSY at the time of its launch was to provide connectivity to all 1000+ habitations, only about 24 per cent of the target set was achieved during the first five years of the programme. The database used at the time of launch appears to be inadequate for setting the targets and also the guidelines were not firmed up properly. In the absence of clarity in the guidelines, bias towards upgradation was noticed in the project proposals of the first two phases. The estimated fund requirement of Rs 58,200 crore was also found to be unrealistic in the light of the fact that the revised estimate for achieving the same objective was found to be more than Rs 130,000 crore. Adequate measures have not been taken for the mobilization of funds, in tune with the targets set, which can be seen from the fact that only Rs 12,290

116

India Infrastructure Report 2007

software including validation checks and after imparting effective training to the users; and 4. It was ensured through focused monitoring that there were no deviations from sanctioned specifications to prevent sub standard quality of work.

crore were mobilized up to March 2005. Discrepancies in non-utilization of funds in some states revealed spends in purposes beyond those specified in the guidelines. Efforts were not made to ensure integration of other related on-going schemes in securing programme objectives. Abandoning of works sanctioned and incompleteness of connectivity came to light during the performance audit in almost fourteen states. Completion was found to have overshot by large margins, time limits set in the guidelines, providing evidence of inadequate project management. The audit noticed poor competition among tenderers in more than ten states. The absorption capacities of states and PIUs were not adequately understood for the implementation of the programme. The performance audit also noticed certain deficiencies in the quality monitoring mechanism and quality of the final product. Even though OMMS is a step in the right direction, its utilization as a monitoring tool is not achieved and several deficiencies in the system management were noticed. Based on the deficiencies noticed in the evaluation process, CAG made the following recommendations: 1. There is a need for firming up of targets on realistic database. 2. The ministry should also firm up the targets on the basis of funds that can be actually provided and utilized. 3. The ministry in coordination with the state government should ensure that the guidelines are scrupulously followed. 4. States should be advised to support the project proposals with correct and relevant documents proving the availability of land free of all encumbrances. 5. The states should be advised to take prompt action against the contractors in case of failure to honour to time or quality commitments. 6. The independent quality assurance should be reinforced by involving independent research and educational institutions. 7. Ministry should issue detailed directives for greater attention to project preparation and exercise periodical checks. 8. Ministry should persuade the states to make suitable provisions for maintenance. 9. All efforts must be made to correct the deficiencies in the OMMS to create an additional tool for monitoring and management. Audit examination revealed that the performance of the programme could have improved if 1. The magnitude of the programme and the capacity of the states had been assessed realistically, funds of the required magnitude provided and frequent revision of guidelines and the data on unconnected eligible habitations to be covered under the programme avoided; 2. The DRRP and the CN were complete and based on reliable data; 3. OMMS were introduced promptly along with the programme after ensuring and obtaining satisfactory proof of the reliability of all the features and facilities in the

Impact Assessment of PMGSY on Rural Economy

Ministry of Rural Development commissioned a series of quick assessments of socio-economic impact of PMGSY in Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. These studies were conducted by independent agencies during January to February, 2004 (MoRD 2004). Major findings of these studies are as follows.

Impact on agriculture
Construction of the PMGSY roads has substantially benefitted farmers. Prior to the construction of the PMGSY roads, farmers found it difficult to sell agricultural goods in bigger markets located far away from their villages. PMGSY road connectivity has led to a better transport systems during all seasons. Farmers mentioned that the problem of not being able to access the markets during monsoon has been solved by the construction of roads. This impact has been greatly felt in the states of West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Assam and so on. The PMGSY roads have made it easier to transport agricultural inputs to villages which has led some farmers to switch from food crops to cash crops (such as ginger, jute, sugarcane, sunflower). An increase in the number of families rearing goats/sheep for commercial purposes was mentioned by beneficiaries in the states of Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. Many families have bought cycles after the construction of the road to be able to carry dairy products for sale to nearby towns.

Employment generation
After the construction of PMGSY roads, an improvement in the employment situation in terms of more job opportunities, avenues for self-employment, and so on were observed. Onfarm employment opportunities also increased due to shift from grains to cash crops and also multiple cropping particularly in the state of Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and Mizoram. More people are going to nearby towns and villages for odd jobs like selling woods, vegetables, dairy products and locally made items like pickles, papad and so on due to expansion of local industries, which in turn has generated employment opportunities.

Rural Roads

117

Cottage industry
Beneficiaries reported that the pottery and brick making industry of Orissa has benefited from the PMGSY roads. Cottage industries of Tamil Nadu, Handloom industry of West Bengal, and agro industry in Assam also benefitted from road connectivity.

Transport services
The benefits of rural connectivity have been felt most keenly in Mizoram and Rajasthan where PMGSY roads have made it easier for the beneficiaries to cope with the difficult terrain. There has been an increase in ownership of bicycles and two wheelers especially in the states of Assam, Rajasthan, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu. Also, there has been an improvement in the public as well as the private transport systems in all the states.

Health
There has been an overall improvement in access to health facilities like PHCs, sub-centres, and district hospitals in the states of West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh. Positive impact was observed on accessibility to preventive and curative health care facilities; better management of infectious diseases, and attending to emergencies and increase in frequency of visits by health workers. Improvement in antenatal and post-natal care was observed by beneficiaries, thereby decreasing obstetrics emergencies, in the states of Mizoram, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. Road connectivity and an improved transport system enabled families to opt for institutional deliveries in hospitals outside the village. Decrease in infant and child mortality especially in the states of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal was reported.

Quality of life
An immediate and direct impact of providing rural road connectivity was observed in the quality of life as cooking gas became available in villages. The states of Mizoram, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal reported conversion of kuchcha houses to pucca houses. The connectivity led to sudden escalation of prices of land adjacent to the PMGSY roads. This also led to an increase in the sale of land for commercial purposes.

Poverty alleviation
The roads, directly or indirectly have provided opportunities for on-farm and offfarm employments as well as selfemployment. With the improvement in on-farm and non-farm employment opportunities, beneficiaries in all the states reported increase in their average household income, thus, reduction in poverty.

Education
With the construction of PMGSY roads, there has been an improvement in the accessibility to education facilities. This has resulted in increased school enrolment and school attendance in all the states, especially, in the number of girls going to schools in Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. Most parents mentioned that they were now more confident about sending their daughters to schools unescorted. Moreover, regular attendance of the teachers throughout the year is observed and greater willingness is evident among parents to send boys and girls for higher studies and college education outside their villages.

Distributional and equity issues

Though it has been revealed through several impact studies that rural roads have multidimensional beneficial impacts on the rural community, these benefits may not be equitably distributed. Well-off households with better resource endowments, capabilities, and skill sets generally derive more benefits from the improved access as compared to poor households. This calls for prior indepth analysis of the potential input from the major stakeholders with a view to devising appropriate mitigation measures to make this scheme inclusive in terms of its benefits. Though rural roads provide accessibility, the assurance on transport availability and affordability must be looked into. For instance, a rural road serving as a means of transportation may permit people to use their own mode of transport, but unless public or intermediate public transportation is available, the benefit of the rural road will not reach all. Further, even when public transport service is available, the affordability to use the services may once again put the very poor at a disadvantage. In short, roads are clearly a critically enabling condition for improvement of living conditions and quality of life in rural areas. Distribution of economic benefits can now be

Governance and public services

The road connectivity has increased the frequency of visits by government officials and grass root level functionaries like health workers/Auxilliary Nurse and Midwives (ANMs), Village Level Workers (VLWs) and Village Anganwadi Worker (VAWs) in Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal. There has been an improvement in accessibility to banks, the Post and Telegraph offices, and quicker access to the police.

118

India Infrastructure Report 2007

meticulous field investigations; it is also equally important to adopt the optimal technology for construction. Under PMGSY, executing agencies are required to prepare DPRs, which are then scrutinized and vetted by the designated STAs (reputed engineering colleges). While this institutional development in project planning and preparation is a marked improvement over the previous practice, approving projects on the basis of line-estimates, the extent to which it has succeeded in optimizing the cost of construction is yet to be investigated in detail. Currently, cost varies from Rs 1516 lakh per unit length to as high as Rs 4550 lakh per unit length in different states (Table A5.6). Probable reasons for cost variation include topography of the local area, distance from the availability of construction material, earthwork required and so on (Box 5.2).

ensured to all sections through the creation of complementary activities for broadening livelihood opportunities to economically weak sections of the rural society.

Cost Trends under PMGSY

Cost of road construction is mainly determined by the type of terrain, soil condition, projected traffic, availability of construction materials, rainfall, and other environmental factors. As such, cost of construction under PMGSY varies widely across states and even within a state and across districts. Cost of construction also depends on the choice of technology used and labourmachine mix. In a labour-surplus economy like India, it is, therefore, not only necessary to design the rural roads on the basis of

Box 5.2 Why Cost varies across Regions A typical rural road consists of compacted sub-grade, granular sub-base, base-course with graded aggregate and thin bituminous surface course in the form of pre-mix concrete with a seal coat. In order to ensure the serviceability of the road through out the year with safety, necessary cross drainage (CD) structures, side drains, road signs, and other road furniture should be an integral part of the rural road. The detailed analysis of cost variation of rural roads was carried out at IIT, Roorkee covering 480 roads in 50 districts of Bihar, Uttaranchal, and Uttar Pradesh. The analysis decomposed the cost of construction into cost towards site clearance, retaining walls, CD structures, earthwork, sub-base, base-course, and surface course. The average cost of different components per km of the sample analysed is presented in the table below. Table B5.2.1 Average Cost Variation of Rural Roads in Bihar, UP, and Uttaranchal Cost per km of (in Rs lakh) Name of the State Bihar U.P. Uttaranchal No. of roads analyzed 44 382 54 Avg. No. of CD structure 3 3 8 Av. TranspDist. of ortation quarry Cost/ (km) km 108 145 37 7.61 6.02 4.76

Construction 20.7 19.2 26.6

Site clearing .06 .04 2.47

Retaining CD wall structure 0 0.01 2.76 1.05 1.34 3.54

Earth work 1.83 1.90 1.59

Sub-base 5.56 6.71 4.77

Base 7.97 5.84 6.01

Surface 3.79 2.86 3.88

The analysis clearly brought out that: 1. Total cost of construction is 33 per cent higher in hill areas than in plain areas. 2. On an average, the number of cross drainage structures required per km of road in plain area is 3, whereas in the hilly region this requirement is 8. This explains the higher cost of CD works in Uttaranchal (Rs 6.3 lakh) as compared to the cost of these works in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh (Rs 1.05 lakh and Rs 1.35 lakh respectively) 3. The cost of site clearance is a significant component of the total cost in hilly areas (Rs 2.47 lakh in Uttaranchal), whereas it is negligible in plain areas (Rs 40006000 per km in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh). 4. The haulage cost for bringing construction material is more in the state of Bihar (Rs 7.61 lakh) followed by Uttar Pradesh (Rs 6.02 lakh) compared to Uttaranchal (Rs 4.76 lakh). This explains higher cost of construction in Bihar as compared to Uttar Pradesh even though the regional and climatic conditions are similar. The analysis also revealed that even within a state, cost variation can be significant across the districts owing to the site specific conditions. The findings of the study warrant greater attention to detailed site investigations and technology option study at the time of preparing of DPR.

Rural Roads

119

ALTERNATIVES TO REDUCE COST OF RURAL ROAD CONSTRUCTION

Moderation of Geometric Standards
Based on the recommendations of NRRDC, the widths of formation and pavement have been fixed at 7.5 m and 3.75 m respectively, though, the Rural Roads Manual permit 6 m and 3 m roadway and carriageway when the expected traffic is 100 motorized vehicles. However, most states are adopting the higher widths, regardless of the traffic volume, resulting in higher cost of construction. Therefore, it is necessary to estimate the base year traffic realistically for adopting lower geometrics to reduce the cost. Association of American State Highway and Transport Officials (AASHTO), USA has suggested lower geometric standards for very low volume roads.

Need-based Stage Construction

Under PMGSY, all roads are built with full provisions including the base and surface courses at one go. However, in many parts of the country on the new roads, connecting the habitations of lower population by link roads, the traffic expected definitely is less and a good gravel surfaced road with necessary drainage and protection systems in place can serve the rural population effectively. As and when the traffic builds up over time the roads can be strengthened through the provision of base and surface courses. This results in almost 40 per cent cost reduction in the initial stage, enabling larger coverage in a given budget. However, keeping in view the difficulties in the maintenance of gravel roads as well as the dust problem, efforts should be made to develop appropriate sealing techniques for the gravel surfaces borrowing experiences from abroad as well as R&D efforts in our country.

Use of Locally Available Material

The situation in many states indicates non-availability of materials of requisite standards in nearby areas. Material haulage is resulting in very high cost. If the available technologies are exploited, it is possible to reduce the cost of long haulages by utilizing locally available materials, including the marginal aggregates and industrial waste material. One of the proven technologies for the use of local soil and marginal aggregates is stabilization. The stabilization process could be mechanical or chemical. Several types of stabilizing agents have proved to suit different conditions of soil and environment. Noteworthy among them are stabilization with lime or cement or a combination of lime and cement. In addition to these standard technologies, other types of technologies which are also being tried include the use of rice husk ash, phosphogypsum, and sodium chloride.

A major constraint in the use of local material lies in the procedures adopted by the field agencies and lack of awareness and exposure. It is possible to popularize the use of stabilization techniques through appropriate training and capacity building of the field engineers. The reluctance of the field agencies to deviate from the conventional methods and to try out innovative technologies also calls for attitudinal changes through HRD interventions. In addition to the stabilization techniques, there is a large array of technologies to promote the use of industrial waste/ by products in road building. Use of the industrial waste materialsfly ash, steel and copper slag, and marble dust has already been field tested (Box 5.3). In addition, techniques suitable for conditions of low bearing capacity soils, marshy lands, location with drainage problems are also available. Research studies indicate that natural geo-textiles such as coir have huge potential for application on rural roads in areas where subgrade is of poor quality. Based on the experiences of the use of Jute Geo Textiles (JGT), Ministry of Rural Development in collaboration with Jute Manufactures Development Council is implementing a pilot project to test the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of different types of JGT under different soil and environmental conditions (Box 5.4). Similar experimentation through pilot project for the other technologies will be tried in the construction of rural roads under PMGSY, so as to enable standardization and popularization of cost effective solutions. Recently, a number of environment friendly enzymes have come into the markets such as fuzibeton, terrazyme, and earthzyme which are expected to provide excellent riding surfaces when mixed with in-situ or suitable borrowed soil. This technology is designed to eliminate the use of aggregates. As such, these materials can also be tried out in the rural roads construction once their efficacy is proved in the local conditions through pilot projects. Some field studies have shown that life cycle cost of cement concrete roads under certain circumstances would be much less than conventional bituminous construction. This may be due to avoidance of huge routine maintenance and periodical maintenance costs in the conventional construction. Costeffectiveness of cement concrete roads in rural areas should, therefore, be field-tested for life-cycle cost through a pilot project under PMGSY.

MAINTENANCE OF RURAL ROADS

Rural roads need to be maintained at a minimum level of acceptable serviceability. Lack of adequate and timely maintenance is bound to accelerate the process of deterioration of the roads, which in turn results in loss of time, agriculture output, access, and eventually the asset itself. Further,

120

India Infrastructure Report 2007

Box 5.3 Use of locally available materials Anil Kumar Sagar

FLY ASH FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION WORKS

Coal is the most easily available fuel for power generation in India. Huge quantities of fly ash are produced as waste by-product of coal combustion. The present annual generation of fly ash is estimated to be about 140 million tonnes. The physical and chemical properties of fly ash depend upon the type of coal, its grinding and combustion techniques, collection, and disposal systems. Fly ash reacts with lime in presence of moisture to form cementitious compounds. This is known as pozzolanic activity. The pozzolanic property of fly ash enables it to be used as an alternate binder in place of cement. While coarser fly ash can be used as fill material, the finer ash can be used for replacement of sand and cement in road construction works. Use of fly ash for rural road work has been covered in IRC:SP:20 2002 and Rural Road Manual (MoRD, 2004b and Vittal, 2000). Sub-base course can be constructed using pond ash or bottom ash replacing conventionally used moorum. Laboratory and field studies conducted in India and abroad have established that fly ash can be adopted for stabilization of sub-base/base. Fly ashes are cohesionless materials, and therefore non-plastic in nature while soil particles are generally cohesive. Mixing of soil and ash in suitable proportions improves the gradation and plasticity characteristics of the mix, thereby improving the strength. Addition of small amounts of lime greatly improves the strength characteristics of fly ash stabilized layers. 3 to 5 per cent of lime is used depending upon the quality of lime. The use of stabilized fly ash sub-base/base courses would be particularly attractive in locations where fly ash is easily available and supply of aggregate is expensive. The proportion 1:2:9 of lime, fly ash and moorum or sand has been found to provide the best performance. Fly ash can be utilized for constructing semi-rigid pavements in the form of lime-fly ash concrete, dry lean fly ash concrete. Pavements constructed using these mixes possess higher flexural strength than flexible pavements and hence they are classified as semirigid pavements. Fly ash can be used for construction of rigid pavements also by using cement-fly ash concrete, high performance concrete, roller compacted concrete and so on. Fly ash can be used in place of soil to construct road embankments. Typically in developed urban and industrial areas, natural borrow sources are scarce, and as a result borrow soil is very expensive. Environmental degradation caused due to use of top soil for embankment construction is also very high. Fly ash can provide an economical and suitable alternative material to earth for construction of embankments. Coal ash can be used for construction of embankments of rural road projects near thermal power plants. The notification issued by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India dated August 27, 2003 has made usage of coal ash compulsory in all projects being undertaken within 100 km radius of the thermal power plant. The notification states that, No agency, person or organisation shall, within a radius of 100 km of a thermal power plant undertake construction or approve design for construction of roads or flyover embankments in contravention of the guidelines/specifications issued by the Indian Road Congress (IRC) as contained in the specification No. SP:58 of 2001 (Kumar et al. 2005). Various demonstration projects involving use of fly ash have been undertaken. One such project was the construction of Salarpur Dadupur rural link road using fly ash. The project was taken up by the CRRI in collaboration with NTPC Ltd under the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) initiative. The site is situated at a distance of 5 km from National Capital Power Station (NCPS), Dadri in U.P. Salarpur and Dadupur villages are part of a same panchayat and have a combined population of about 2000 persons. The length of the Salarpur-Dadupur link road is about 1.4 km. In this project bottom ash was used as embankment fill material and fly ash collected in dry form was used for stabilization and as admixture in roller compacted concrete. The embankment was constructed using bottom ash as core material with soil cover of 30 cm thickness. Fly ash stabilized using cement (8 per cent cement and 92 per cent fly ash) was used for laying base course (compacted thickness of 10 cm). Fly ash and cement were mixed in a concrete mixer and water required to bring moisture content to Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) was added during mixing. The mix was manually laid to conform to grade and camber. Compaction was carried out using static roller. The stabilised layer was cured for seven days by sprinkling water at frequent intervals before placing the subsequent layer. A total quantity of about 5000 tonnes of ash was used for both fill and pavement works in this project. Keeping in view the fact that the link road is located in a remote area and only light traffic is expected to ply on the road, the pavement is providing satisfactory service. The construction work was taken up in March 2002 and completed in about 60 days. The total construction cost of the road was Rs 13.51 lakh. Since disposal of fly ash is a problem for thermal power plants, it has also been argued that fly ash be provided at a negative cost to the TPP. In such cases, fly ash is provided free of cost to the road manufacturer and the cost of transportation of fly ash to the site is borne by the thermal power plant.

IRON AND STEEL SLAG FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION

Steel making is a strategic requirement of the economy of developing nation like India. Many steel plants have been set up in our country. However, production of iron and steel is associated with the generation of waste materials like slag. Normally, production of

Rural Roads

121

one tonne of steel results in generation of one tonne of solid waste. Big steel plants in India generate about 29 million tonnes of waste material annually. In addition, there are several medium and small plants all over the country. Slag reduces the porosity and permeability of soil, thus increasing the water logging problem. It causes respiratory ailment among nearby residents, contaminates ground water, and adversely affects the landscape of the area. Slag can be used as pavement material in a variety of forms. It can be used as a base or sub-base material either in bound or unbound condition. It meets all the requirements set forth by the MoRTH. As per IRC:372001, Rs 5 lakh per km can be saved by using slag as road material (Kumar et al. 2002). It is evident that steel plant by-products, either as such or in suitable combination, can be used in sub-base or base course layer of a road pavement. In order to compare the structural performance of these materials test sections were constructed using slags at Rourkela in 19967. Post construction performance monitoring showed that the test sections are comparable to control sections constructed using conventional materials.

MARBLE DUST
Widely found in Rajasthan, it is a waste material of marble industry. It has been shown that the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the sub-soil may be increased by upto 40 per cent to 50 per cent by mixing 15 per cent to 25 per cent of marble dust depending upon the nature of soil. Thus the cost of construction may be reduced considerably.

PHOSPHOGYPSUM
It is a by-product of phosphoric acid based fertilizer plants. It can be used to stabilize black cotton soils as it reduces the shrinkage and swelling of black cotton soil. The fertilizer plant of Indogulf Corporation located at Dalhej, Gujarat has demonstrated usage of this technology. The cost of road after phosphogypsum stabilization is about 25 per cent less than the normal construction cost (Misra et al. 2004).

MUNICIPAL WASTES IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION

It is estimated that the average daily refuse generation in a metropolitan city like Delhi is approximately about 4000 tonnes. Disposal of this large quantity of wastes need careful planning. Presently, municipal corporations dispose these solid wastes mainly through sanitary land fill method and composting. While organic wastes are used for composting to yield manure, inorganic wastes are difficult to dispose. Under the aegis of Ministry of Environment and Forests, a project was taken up at CRRI to use inorganic part of the processed wastes in road construction. A small length of the road in north Delhi was identified for construction as test section. Soil samples were collected from subgrade and borrow areas to study their strength and geotechnical characteristics in order to design suitable pavement cross sections using inorganic part of the municipal wastes in appropriate layers of the proposed test section. The processed waste not being a suitable material in itself, additives like local soil, cement, lime, fly ash were used in different proportions in sub-base/base course construction. Pavement specifications were developed for construction of test section at the identified site. The construction work was completed satisfactorily in May 1996. Waste plastic has also been used in the construction of rural roads. A pilot road namely Saint Tirisulam road at Saint Thomas Mount Panchayat Union in Kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu was laid by the joint effort of Government of Tamil Nadu and Government of India. The technical support was provided by CRRI, IIT Chennai, and Theyagarajar College, Madurai. The road was laid using waste plastic mixed bituminous mix. This road had better resistance to raveling and offered more resistance to stripping and formation of pot holes. The aggregates coated with plastics and binders presented better resistance to water.

USE OF DHANDLA IN CENTRAL RAJASTHAN

Due to non-availability of hard stone within economical distances in desert areas, particularly in Central Rajasthan, road construction has been posing serious problems, especially in rural areas. It is a common observation in desert areas that on account of the noncohesive nature of desert sand sub-grade, the sub-base material has the tendency to sink into the subgrade resulting in deformations of various shapes and sizes. These deformations are subsequently reflected in the road surface causing either immobility or hampering the vehicular traffic. It is, therefore, considered an essential pre-requisite to provide adequate support to the pavement for better performance. This could be achieved either by stabilizing the desert sand sub grade with additives or by providing additional thickness in the sub-base. Such treatments would result in increased cost of road construction. The Central and Western parts of Rajasthan have, at present, quite thin density of population where the rate of growth in the volume of traffic on rural roads is not expected to rise at a fast rate in the near future. It is quite imperative, therefore, to utilize the locally available road materials to the maximum possible extent. A calcareous material locally known as Dhandla is found in abundance under an overburden of 1.5 to 2.5 metres. Dhandla, being quite soft, gets completely crushed under the road roller. It has been found that the bearing capacity of Dhandla was considerably improved when compacted manually and could be effectively used in the lower layer of low-volume roads. Test tracks have been laid using Dhandla. It is seen that substantial economy can be achieved by using this low grade material for road construction.

122

India Infrastructure Report 2007

Box 5.4 Pilot Project on Application of Jute Geo-Textile in Rural Roads

Jute Geo-Textile (JGT) is a natural technical textile laid in or on soil to improve its engineering properties. JGT is made out of yarn obtained from the jute plant. It has high moisture absorption capacity, excellent drapability, and high initial tensile strength. It is environment friendly, biodegradable, easily available, and economical. Use of JGT leads to natural consolidation of sub-grade soil and has a potential to enhance the CBR value of the sub-grade by 1.5 to 3 times. Use of JGT dates back to as early as in 1920s when it was tried in some sections of a road at Dundee in Scotland. It was also used in a major road in Calcutta by the British in 1934. The NRRDA has taken up a pilot project in collaboration with the Jute Manufacturers Development Council (JMDC) to demonstrate the potential benefits of the use of JGT in construction of rural roads. This pilot project aims at standardization of different types of JGT. Under the pilot project, ten roads have been selected in Assam, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa covering a length of 47.84 km (Table B5.4.1). Central Road Research Institute has been engaged as a technical consultant for this project for project preparation, quality control, monitoring, and performance evaluation. Table B5.4.1 Details of Jute Geo-Textile Pilot Projects State Name of the Road Road Length (km) 5.50 4.00 5.10 3.14 4.80 5.50 4.80 6.20 4.20 4.60 47.84 Conventional Cost (Rs lakh) 289 183 141 89.5 173 189 243 321 190 205 2023 42 Cost with JGT (Rs lakh) 246 162 140 74 159 171 188 303 157 193 1783 37

Orissa Orissa Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh West Bengal West Bengal Assam Assam

Jaipur-Mahananagal MDR14 to Chatumary Berasia to Semrakalan Approach road Ghelawan village to PMGSY Road Kodavabani to Khursi Khairjhiti to Ghirghoisa Road Notuk to Dingal Nandanpur to Marokhana High School Rampur Satra to Dumdumla UT Road to Jarabari/Barnagaon Total Cost Average Cost/km

The detailed projects reports indicate that use of JGT would reduce the total cost of construction by Rs 2.40 crore and the average cost by Rs 5 lakh per km. All the projects are now in progress. CRRI would monitor performance of the roads upto 18 months after completion of each road.
Source: National Rural Roads Development Agency.

rehabilitation cost is high with increase in the vehicle operating costs. In case of loss of asset there may be isolation. Regular maintenance of rural roads is a critical precondition for sustaining the positive impacts that roads bring to rural communities. Routine minor maintenance is often neglected not only because of lack of funds, but also because there is little political capital, or mileage in maintaining roads regularly as the outcome is not highly visible. Instead, politicians prefer to authorize major rehabilitation or reconstruction after the road has deteriorated considerably. Though this is a

universal phenomenon, it is time this issue of sustainable rural roads maintenance is taken seriously. The maintenance strategies adopted in PMGSY require that the maintenance cost be borne by the respective state governments. This strategy assures maintenance of the road in the initial five years of construction. The problem of maintenance beyond that is still unresolved. The concept of projectized maintenance cost may be thought of and the options of mobilizing funds for maintenance need to be studied, in order to keep up the sustainability of the rural roads.

Rural Roads
Strategies adopted in different countries enable us to identify the main requirements for ensuring sustainable rural roads maintenance as summarized below: 1. Policy decision on maintenance and commitment of the government for the preservation of rural road assets deviating from the bias towards new construction. There is an urgent need to projectize the cost of maintenance at the time of planning the new construction itself, in order to achieve sustainability. 2. Development of Technical Standards for design and construction along with a streamlined Quality Assurance System as these have a bearing on subsequent maintenance. 3. Adopting suitable Maintenance Management System for planning, implementation for optimal use of constrained resources, with clear policy of prioritization and supported by well-defined documentation of database. 4. Institutional arrangements with clearly identified functions and functionaries. 5. A dependable funding mechanism for maintenance. 6. Capacity building for the institutions as well as contractors with necessary training for improvement of technical skills and adoption of innovative methods of executing the maintenance operations, in tune with the present day technology. 7. Involvement of local governments and community at the appropriate levels for undertaking maintenance of rural roads with a systematically designed awareness programme bringing out the consequences of inadequate and deferred maintenance. 8. Need based Research and Development (R&D) efforts.

123

to about Rs 80,000 per year (at current prices). As such, the annual requirement per km of the rural roads maintenance covering routine and periodic maintenance is Rs 1 lakh per km per year. Based on the length of the rural roads, particularly of the CN, estimation of fund requirement can be worked out for budgeting purposes. However, with the availability of full or partial budget, the maintenance strategy that may be adopted is presented below.

Organizational Shortcomings
As multiple agencies are involved in the construction and maintenance of rural roads, there is dilution of responsibility and lack of accountability for maintenance. Further, there is virtual absence of an institutionalized mechanism for inventorization and pavement condition survey. There is no planning and management system for rural roads for identification and prioritization of the required maintenance interventions. The Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), particularly the District Panchayats are expected to ultimately take over the responsibility of rural roads, particularly for maintenance. However, in most states, hardly any progress is noticeable with regard to transfer of funds, functions, and functionaries to the District Panchayats. As a result, it has not so far been possible to put in place a decentralized community participation mechanism to ensure proper upkeep and maintenance of rural roads. Currently, the work of maintenance is being undertaken both departmentally and through contractors. However, a very large percentage of the available funds is spent on salaries and wages leaving grossly insufficient amounts for non-wage maintenance components. Though financial audit of public expenditure on maintenance is undertaken by the C&AG in the states, there is no formal arrangement in place for technical audit processes to enhance focus on asset management. As a large part of rural roads network is with the state governments and ultimately maintenance of PMGSY roads would also rest with state governments, there is a need to reevaluate and relook at the maintenance of rural road network (Box 5.5).

Estimation of Fund Requirements for Maintenance

Annual routine maintenance for rural roads is estimated to be around Rs 20,000 per km/year on an average and periodic renewal may cost about Rs 4 lakh for a 5 year cycle amounting
Table 5.3 Alternate Maintenance Strategies for Rural Roads Budget Full Requirement 50% of Full Requirement 25% of Full Requirement Less than 25% of Full Requirement Maintenance Strategy Carry out full length Routine Maintenance/ Renewals in rural Core Network (CN). Carry out Routine Maintenance over full length of rural CN. Carry out Renewals of rural Through Routes. Carry out only Routine Maintenance for full length of rural CN. Carry out routine maintenance of Rural Through Routes in CN as per prioritization based on PCI and AADT

ROLE OF PANCHAYATI RAJ INSTITUTIONS

Keeping in view the Indian conditions a decentralized maintenance model has been suggested by Sikdar (2006) (Box 5.6). This model defines the extent of responsibility at each level, suggests how exactly each level would carry out its mandated responsibilities and what kind of technical, financial, and organizational support would be required for building the capacity at each level. The model needs to be piloted to evolve a workable system of decentralized maintenance of rural roads through the empowerment of the

124

India Infrastructure Report 2007

Box 5.5 Relook at Maintenance of Rural Roads Anil Kumar Sagar

MAINTENANCE STRATEGY
The basic elements of the strategy based on the maintenance needs are as follows:

Road Vision
The state governments should formulate a long term vision covering all aspects of maintenance, the funds available through PMGSY and other poverty alleviation and employment generation programmes.

Norms for Maintenance

A study should be undertaken to determine the quantum of funds required for maintenance works. This would include routine and periodic maintenance for earth, WBM, black-top roads in different traffic, and climatic conditions prevailing in various states. Minimum essential requirements and those considered desirable for better level of service should be spelt out including allowances for emergency works and special repairs. Not all roads are maintainable. It is necessary to identify the maintainable part of the road network and preserve the assets by setting up an appropriate maintenance regime. Maintainable roads may be defined as all roads with drainage and gravel surface that are in a reasonable condition, so that routine maintenance is possible without need for extensive rehabilitation.

Fund Allocation
A dedicated fund for maintenance of roads like the one in Uttar Pradesh needs to be set up in all states. The state governments should realize that a decision to construct a road implies that it will be maintained subsequently. The source of these funds could be cess on petrol and diesel, additional cess on agricultural produce, additional royalty on mining and quarries, road maintenance fee in the form of annual road tax on vehicles, and surcharge on insurance premium for vehicles. The fund should be managed in a transparent manner and systems and procedures need to be established to ensure accountability.

Core Network
The State PWDs should identify the core roads for each district. It would be appropriate to give priority of maintenance to roads in the core network. The states should formulate a five year plan for removing the basic deficiencies in the core road network in the first instance and other roads subsequently.

Improved Monitoring
A system of performance evaluation should be introduced. Some of the performance indicators that can be considered for the purpose are percentage of maintenance expenditure to required expenditure as per norms, percentage of core road network actually subjected to periodic maintenance, and percentage of core road network in poor condition. A few African countries which had set up dedicated road funds for maintenance are regularly monitoring improvements in road condition. Performance audits should relate financial flows and physical performance indicators to the condition of roads.

Creation of Maintenance Management System

A simple but rational maintenance management system for rural roads should be developed. The system should help in providing network condition, road inventory, and need based priorities based on deterioration prediction models, annual maintenance plans for a given budget, multi year road work programming, and impact on deterioration of roads for which funds are not allocated. A survey should be conducted to establish a pavement condition index (PCI) of village roads as a tool for prioritization. A further sub-prioritisation needs to be done on the basis of annual average daily traffic (AADT). For roads that cannot be maintained, a systematic approach to appraisal is needed to determine whether they should be rehabilitated or upgraded. Such an approach should take account of the life cycle costs of the road, its function and benefits and availability of resources.

Ensuring quality
One of the factors leading to high levels of maintenance is lack of compaction of earthwork, sub-base and base courses, and poor attention to drainage works during construction of rural roads. Low crust thickness in some cases also contributes to early deterioration.

Review gang labour system

In some countries, a system of mobile gangs and reorganization of maintenance operations for improved efficiency of the existing gangs either as a patrol gang system or area wide system has been introduced. A strategy for redeployment of existing gang labour into labour cooperatives and outsourcing of maintenance work to medium and small contractors need to be looked into.

Rural Roads

125

Responsibility of PRIs
PRIs could be made responsible for maintenance of some non-core village roads and gang labour transferred to them. Some functions, functionaries and funds (3 Fs) need to be transferred to PRIs. Experience of road maintenance in some of the South American countries where such strategies have been successful can serve as reference. A summary of contracting the work of routine maintenance to community based micro enterprises in Peru is given in the following section.

Drainage
Provision of adequate drainage is a critical requirement. A drainage audit must be undertaken for all existing rural roads and deficiencies in this respect removed in a time bound manner. Initial design for new roads should take into account such requirements in any case.

Maintenance of WBM roads

A good length of rural roads has Water Bound Macadam (WBM) surface. Their maintenance is a major problem. Generally, these roads deteriorate very fast under the traffic and often develop poor riding surface. A thin gravel surfacing is found to be effective in Andhra Pradesh for the repair of these roads.

Financing of Road Maintenance

Some states have created a State Road Fund that is used for maintenance of roads. A part of this fund is also used for maintenance of rural roads. Such funds are also used in African countries like Ghana and Zambia. However, the criteria for utilization of these funds are not very clear. There is a need to support the management committee of the fund by a lean but strong professional cell for effective administration of the fund and strengthening the operation process and putting in place scientific principles of prioritization of maintenance treatments based on regular condition survey of roads. The current system of monitoring of physical and financial targets does not give a clue to the improvements achieved in condition of roads. Despite the creation of a dedicated fund for road maintenance, the amounts available for maintenance from all sources continue to be inadequate. There is a shortfall of over 60 per cent in availability of funds compared to needs. Practically, no funds are allocated for maintenance of roads constructed by departments other than the state PWD. A detailed estimate of funds required for maintenance of rural roads on realistic basis is needed with clear break up for routine and periodic maintenance for earth, water-bound macadam, black-top roads in different traffic and climatic conditions prevailing in different parts of the country. The norms should consider the frequency of various maintenance tasks required. Minimum essential requirements and those considered desirable for better level of service should be spelt out including allowance for emergency works and special repairs. To begin with the MoRTH report on norms for maintenance can serve as a starting point (MoRTH 2000).

Renewal Cycle for Rural Road Maintenance

A disturbing feature in the maintenance policy laid down by the state governments relates to the renewal cycle provided for rural roads. In UP, a period of 8 year cycle has been indicated for rural roads. Technically, it is well known that not only traffic but also environment plays a key role in the life of the top wearing coat with bituminous binder (because of oxidation effect of bitumen) and that is why, the Road Maintenance Manual of UP provides for a renewal cycle of 4 years. The inadequacy of funds alone does not appear to be a sound logic in giving a go by to the norms laid down as a result of experience and experimentation on the ground (Gupta 2003). The expert committee set up under the chairmanship of the Director General (Road Development) and Special Secretary to the Government of India recommended norms for maintenance which are as follows: Table B5.5.1 Maintenance Norms for Rural Roads Category of Roads ODR/VR (Plains) Traffic Group 150450 0150 Rainfall Less than 3000 mm More than 3000 mm Less than 3000 mm More than 3000 mm SD-I SD-II PC 20mm MSS 20mm 5 4 5 4 5 4 SDBC 25mm 5 4 5 4 MR-I

SD = Surface Dressing; PC=Premix Carpet; MSS=Mix Seal Surface; SDBC=Semi-Dense Bituminous Carpet; MR=Metal Renewal. Source: (MoRTH 2000). The cycle recommended by the Expert Committee of the MoRTH is ideal and could be the target to be achieved at least in respect of the core rural roads network.

126

India Infrastructure Report 2007

In absence of a proper road inventory and condition survey, it is not possible to make a precise estimate of the maintenance funds required annually in respect of rural roads. There is no organized data base for roadsinventory, condition, and traffic counts which can help in formulation of need based maintenance plan. The budget grants for maintenance are usually distributed in a lump sum manner assigned to road length. Only financial monitoring of expenditure against allotment is carried out. Maintenance works are not subject to strict budgetary discipline. The system of performance budget whereby details of physical achievements against prespecified targets (activity and work-wise) does not exist in many states. Maharashtra has developed suitable formats for performance budgeting and can serve as a good reference.

Rural Road Co-operative for Maintenancethe Finnish experience

The Government of Finland has promoted rural road maintenance using road cooperatives. A road cooperative is a rural road maintenance organisation whereby a road is maintained by the people living along it. The Finnish Government has provided a legal framework which stipulates the right-of-way, cooperative ownership, and the formula for distribution of maintenance costs amongst the road users and property holders along the road. Participation in the road cooperative is compulsory for property owners who use the road. The cost of road maintenance is shared amongst the members of the cooperative depending on the benefits to each member in the form of the size of the holding and the created traffic. Each cooperative holds an annual general meeting to decide the fees, to accept new members and to audit the previous years accounts. (Isotalo 1992)

Routine Maintenance by Community Based Micro-enterprises in Peru

In Peru, the Rural Roads Project (RRP) has set up a cost-effective routine maintenance system based on contracting out labourintensive maintenance works to micro-enterprises, local cooperatives, and other community based organizations. The composition of the micro-enterprises varies according to the length of the road. Their average size is about thirteen people and the average length of the roads covered under a contract is about 34.6 km. Typically, micro-enterprises are made up of eleven to twenty people living close to the road. Priority is given to unemployed people who have previous experience in construction works. The micro-enterprises are engaged through performance based contracts with Peru Roads Department (PCR) and paid on a monthly basis. Micro-enterprise members designate their president and executive council, and determine how the monthly payment is allocated to the various uses (wages, tools, rentals, transportation, savings, and other investments). On an average, wages account for 89 per cent of the expenditure. Micro-enterprises carry out simple works, continuously throughout the year, to clean the ditches and culverts, control vegetation, filling potholes and ruts, maintaining the surface camber, remove small landslides and undertake other emergency works. They have also demonstrated capacity to build retaining walls and small bridges and handle El Nino emergency works under the guidance of PCR. The micro enterprise is a cost effective way of keeping the roads rehabilitated in good condition. The programme generates direct employment for its members. The micro-enterprise becomes a focal point for community work and communal activities to ensure continuous support from the community.

Lessons for India

Using community based micro-enterprises has important lessons for India that has a very high percentage of unskilled labourers living in rural areas. The study highlights the active involvement of people in maintaining their own roads. Importance of group work can also not be neglected. It has been shown by people organized into groups that they can face the harshest of situations. MoRD has started an ambitious programme Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) wherein people in villages are organized into groups for self employment. These groups can provide a good beginning for taking up road maintenance works in rural areas. Since rural roads carry low volume traffic, the requirements for routine road maintenance will be minimal as compared to periodic maintenance or rehabilitation. The Government also provides funds to generate employment in rural areas by schemes such as Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY), National Food for Work Program (NFFWP), and National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS). However, under the present guidelines, funds available under these schemes cannot be spent for maintenance of existing assets. Moreover, the schemes stipulate formation of proper estimates before taking up any work. However, funds for routine maintenance should not wait for preparation of estimates. Under routine maintenance, funds should be given on a normative basis. Formation of estimates would delay maintenance works and defeat its very purpose. The guidelines under these schemes can be suitably modified so that groups of people can work for routine road maintenance. This would have the dual benefit of providing employment as well as ensuring adequate maintenance of roads. Typically, a village is connected by one road. In such cases, one group in the village may be given the task for maintaining that road. However, in villages with multiple connectivity, more than one group may be formed for routine maintenance works. A group should consist of eleven to twenty men who should be given preliminary training for taking up road maintenance works. The training can be given by existing state PWD engineers or master trainers specially trained for this purpose. Funds for training can be provided through the SGSY scheme.

Rural Roads

127

State PWD NREGs SGSY

GROUP

Routine Roads Maintenance

Fig. B5.5.1 Model for Rural Road Maintenance

As in Peru, the state PWD department may also enter into a contract with these groups so that the groups are ensured a steady source of income and middlemen are eliminated. Depending on their performance, the groups should also be given incentives so that their needs for other equipment are also taken care of. After gaining enough experience in routine maintenance, these people may also be considered for taking up periodic maintenance, obviously, under strict control of the state PWD. The above scheme would have the benefits of routine road maintenance, employment in rural areas, poverty reduction, no extra requirement of funds for maintenance, feeling of ownership amongst the rural masses, a step towards decentralization keeping in spirit of the 73rd amendment, creation of workforce for maintenance in all rural areas, effective planning for road maintenance, and control on routine maintenance (Figure B5.5.1).
Note: Views expressed here are of the author of the box.

Box 5.6 A Proposed Model of Community Participation in Rural Road Maintenance Ensuring sustainability of rural roads requires (i) rigorous planning and design, (ii) an effective delivery system, (iii) mobilization of adequate resources, and (iv) appropriate technology and mechanism for the maintenance interventions. The three-tier Panchayati Raj System (PRIs), which has come into existence by virtue of the 73rd Amendment of the constitution, offers an excellent opportunity to institutionalize a hierarchical, decentralized system of maintenance with more technical and complex operations assigned to the district level and the most routine and low technology operations to be tackled by the village panchayats through the maintenance gangs (MGs). The model envisages formation of MGs with four or five able-bodied villagers to be selected from the village itself and imparted training on simple maintenance activities. The suggested model of allocation of maintenance responsibility is as follows: Table B5.6.1 Model of Allocation of Maintenance Responsibility Admn./Orgn Unit District Block (Intermediate panchayat) Central village gang (for a group of villages) Maintenance gang of village Extent of Road Length, km. 5001000 50100 810 Responsibility Planning and assessment of maintenance needs regularly; rehabilitation and renewal works periodically every 57 years. Procurement of materials and equipment/implements & distribution to central village gang (CVG). Collection of materials and equipment/implements from Block HQ and storing for distribution to MG. Execution of routine maintenance by the MG of the village.

12

Each MG would be made responsible for maintaining 12 km of road located very close to the village. The intermediate panchayat level set up will have the responsibility to procure and store materials (aggregates and cold bituminous emulsion) and implements required for maintenance which will be distributed to the central village gangs (CVGs) for further distribution to the MGs of the villages. Normal agricultural/household implements used by villagers would actually be utilized for carrying out maintenance works. A specially made push-cart will be used by the MG for transporting materials and implements to the sites for maintenance works. A manually operated pug-mill fitted to the push-cart will be used for mixing the aggregates and bitumen for producing the cold mix to be used in maintenance of bituminous layer. A calibrated small metal container of known volume can be used for batching of the mix and a normal rammer will be used for manual compaction of the repaired shoulder, side slope, side drain, or location of the crack

128

India Infrastructure Report 2007

repaired. The proposed framework envisages availability of engineers at the district level to assess the maintenance needs and current pavement conditions every 6 months in rotation and to pass on the status report to the intermediate panchayat for onward transmission to the village panchayats. The district level maintenance unit will have facilities for periodic maintenance and renewal interventions based on pavement condition evaluation. Fair and equitable distribution of funds and material resources for operationalising this arrangement will be ensured by the functionaries at the district and the intermediate level. The proposed model allocates responsibility to the three-tiers of the panchayats commensurate with the capacity available at each level. The model also envisages competition among the panchayats and MGs to increase effective community participation in maintenance of rural roads through the PRIs.
Source: Sikdar (2006).

Box 5.7 Citizen Monitoring of Rural Roads Citizens and taxpayers, being the ultimate users, have a right to demand good quality roads. However, this right cannot be divorced from their duty to exercise due diligence and vigilance in order to ensure proper utilization of funds spent and to ensure that the quality of the assets created meet the prescribed standards. It is, therefore, necessary to evolve and institutionalize a system of monitoring the quality of road works by the citizens. For this purpose, however, the essential requisite and features of successful citizen participation need to be demonstrated and validated experimentally. In this context, a pilot project has been taken up, under PMGSY, in collaboration with Public Affairs Centre, Bangalore, to demonstrate the utility of involving the citizens in monitoring of road construction. Under the pilot project, sixteen rural road projects will be identified in four districts in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (two districts in each state). Each of the identified roads will be citizen monitored in sections up to 50 per cent of their length. Each critical stage of road construction will be monitored by the citizen volunteers with appropriate quality checks. In each road, the citizen monitors will act as relay teams handing over responsibility to the next monitoring team after construction of a section of the road is completed and monitored. For each road project three to four citizens will be chosen to act as the core group of monitors. The monitors could be Civil Engineering students from the nearby colleges, volunteers from civil society organizations, citizen associations, Gram Panchayats, Mahila Mandals, and so on. However, they must have minimum requisite literacy/education and should have commitment and enthusiasm to perform the required tasks. These citizen monitors will be imparted basic training at convenient field locations by the experts with the help of a simple booklet detailing their tasks relating to monitoring and quality control. They would also be provided with a basic field kit of testing devices. A package of simple physical tests for monitoring and quality assurance of rural road projects will be designed under the guidance of eminent domain experts specifying the devices and testing modalities. In-house and on-site training would be provided to the citizen monitors for carrying out these field tests. Greater participation of rural citizens will be secured by treating the citizen monitors as focal points of the local groups. The citizen monitors are expected to assume leadership role and train others from the village to participate in the monitoring process. Four road experts would be identified for each state, to provide peer guidance and to assist the citizen monitors. The experts will also carryout certain tests which are beyond the competence of the citizen monitors and which require more sophisticated testing devices not included in the standard tool kits. Each expert would undertake ten to fifteen field inspections during the pilot phase. The duration of the pilot phase is expected to be six months. All the processes involved in this exercise would be fully documented for experience sharing and for developing a replicable model for citizen monitoring of infrastructure projects on a wider scale.

PRIs for which resources available under SGSY and NREGS can be pooled as suggested in Box 5.5. Since construction and maintenance of rural roads is almost exclusively funded through public expenditure, it is the tax payers money that needs to be accounted for. Besides, the ultimate recipients of the service, the road users, should be made aware of the investment made in the creation of the assets and they should also be entitled to assess the cost effectiveness and quality of the assets created for their benefit. Institutionalization of a system of social audit by the citizens and the road users is, therefore, essential, even though

monitoring road construction and maintenance involves a high degree of technical proficiency and competence. In this connection, it may be worthwhile to mention that under PMGSY, states have been advised to fix citizen information boards displaying physical and financial details of the project, quantity of materials to be used and persons responsible for construction and supervision. This is a measure to enhance the level of transparency in programme implementation. Further a pilot project has been initiated through the Public Affairs Centre, Bangalore, to involve the citizens in monitoring road quality (Box 5.7).

Rural Roads

129

WAY FORWARD
The debate is whether one ought to centralize or decentralize rural road development and maintenance. Protagonists of centralization assert that roads have certain special characteristics that make them different from other dispersed rural infrastructure. First, good roads require a reasonably high and uniform standard of construction and repair and second, roads are not necessarily used by the local residents alone. In the pursuit of standardization and adherence to norms, centralization can also be carried to extremes, putting wide powers in the hands of a few, totally eliminating scope for community participation and flexibility for local initiatives and innovations. PMGSY is a CSS and capital is provided by the central government to the state governments to build the road network as per the central government norms. The key issue remains of maintenance of this network as it is handed over to the state government after constructing the road. State governments are obliged to provide from their budgets for its maintenance.

Promoting use of Labour Intensive Technology

While the poor households face fundamental deficiencies in their assets to capture benefits of the opportunities that a rural road may bring, one aspect of the rural road development, which benefits the poor directly, is the opportunity that construction and maintenance of these roads offer for employment when labour intensive methods are used. Experience from Asian and African countries reveals that the principal gains for the poor from rural road programmes is through employment generated during the construction. Although employment on road construction is temporary in nature, this provides an opportunity for the workers to accumulate savings which can provide the necessary start up capital to invest in alternative livelihoods to cross the threshold of poverty. Labour intensive, intermediate technologies are expected to generate five to six times more jobs in construction of rural roads as compared to the highly equipment oriented methods used for the highways. Furthermore, adoption of labour intensive construction methods need not affect the quality of works adversely, contrary to the popular belief. It has been successfully demonstrated in Cambodia and Peoples Republic of China that the quality of works, using labour intensive methods, can be atleast as good as that of the contractors using heavy machineries. There is, therefore, a need to incentivize and promote use of labour intensive techniques for rural road programmes with a focus on poverty reduction.

Ensuring Community Participation

Intensive community participation is being widely recognized as a major requirement for ensuring long term sustainability of investment on rural infrastructure. Participatory planning and management facilitates assessment of the needs of the rural households in order to create integrated utilities for them. Such an approach also provides opportunities to the community to reinforce their identity as a key stakeholder and to exercise their choices and rights freely. This promotes a sense of ownership of the assets created and provides incentive for their participation in construction and subsequently, in the management of the assets. While designing systems for community participation and management, however, there is an important concern which needs to be properly addressed. When community management entails cash or labour contributions, the burden generally falls disproportionately on the poor households, since they may be forced to contribute free labour time leaving less time for them to engage in their primary productive tasks. This might adversely affect their ability to meet subsistence needs and food security. They may also be forced to contribute towards maintenance of infrastructure assets, which they rarely use. What we should really aim at in the involvement of the community is the assessment of needs and decisions regarding maintenance and management. This will ensure that community participation is inclusive and pro-poor, since the poor will develop a stake in using and maintaining the appropriate roads which serve their needs.

Decentralization of Maintenance
Rural roads, by their very nature, are small in size and are dispersed over a wide geographical area. Construction and maintenance of rural roads are, therefore, not easily amenable to centralized supervision and monitoring. Efficiency considerations weigh in favour of a decentralized system for maintenance and management of rural roads. Case studies of different developing countries have shown that regular maintenance of rural roads is a critical pre-condition for sustaining the positive impact which these assets generate for the rural community. Ensuring adequate and timely maintenance, both routine and periodic, however, requires not only adequate availability of funds, but also major institutional reform. This is because the institutional responsibility for rural roads is often not very clearly established. In many states there appears to be lack of clarity, at least in practice at the field level, over who is responsible for maintaining which roads and also over the sources of funding their maintenance requirements. In the absence of proper institutional systems, very often there is no transparency and objectivity with regard to prioritization and selection of roads, maintenance

130

India Infrastructure Report 2007

are currently being black topped irrespective of the projected traffic. Indeed a whole range of proven, cost effective pavement options are now available as alternatives to bitumen surface for low volume rural roads. Most of these paving options require relatively smaller capital investments and optimize use of local materials and use intermediate labour based technology. A policy and institutional framework needs to be developed to mainstream these alternatives for rural roads. Providing all weather connectivity helps in promoting economic growth and alleviates poverty. The PMGSY has accelerated works in connecting habitations all over the country and its impact on rural economy is perceptible not only in economic life of people but in social life as well. There is no clear policy on maintenance of these newly created assets, though all PMGSY roads are covered by five years maintenance contracts entered into along with the construction contract, with the same contractor. But as funds are to be provided through the state budget, there are no earmarked funds for the maintenance of rural roads. There is little doubt that rural roads are vital to agrobased industry and rural development, to create jobs, and to make the countrys growth more broad based. As all-weather road network through PMGSY is expanding we are witnessing social and economic change beyond our expectations. Though a watertight system to maintain this vast network is not in place, it is unlikely that village community would let it fall into disuse.

and rehabilitation. The ability to get a road included in the annual maintenance programme or a rehabilitation scheme, consequently, tends to depend heavily on the political strength and influence that the beneficiary community can exert. Poorer and more backward areas and communities are likely to suffer under such a regime since they are less likely to have the capacity and the power to lobby effectively for better roads. There is a clear case, therefore, to move towards an efficient system of decentralized maintenance of the rural roads by empowering the PRIs. It is hoped that a clear road map for this purpose would be set out at least in the 11th Five Year Plan.

Cost Benefit Framework for Investment on Rural Roads

It is a common perception that all-weather roads should be necessarily black topped. Black topping, no doubt, provides better riding quality and stability to the surface as well as pavement structure. It prevents water percolation and arrests the dust problem. However, black topping of fully constructed crust becomes necessary only on the roads carrying high traffic volumes. Investment of this type on roads connecting smaller habitations with low traffic volumes can be rarely justified on economic considerations. This calls for need based road construction keeping in view the expected economic returns from the investment. While the rural roads Manual treats gravel road with necessary cross drainage and protection work as an all-weather road, almost all the roads under PMGSY

Rural Roads

131

ANNEXE
Table A5.1 Length and Cost of Rural Roads required for New Connectivity under PMGSY Eligible Unconnected Habitations 1000+ 500999 250499 Length Length Length No. (km) No. (km) No. (km) 167 43 6149 11,717 2604 0 472 0 262 785 2622 156 117 5804 203 71 9 47 21 3850 103 2906 16 577 203 171 8839 11,941 59,855 668 303 7900 26,687 12,213 0 1038 0 1734 3454 5298 103 116 25,131 633 355 31 236 280 7946 205 7063 78 1426 260 1299 16,300 13,192 133,949 417 105 4196 6203 6313 20 2288 2 853 942 4178 118 303 10,645 794 187 150 114 32 6738 433 6073 138 1825 706 667 15,358 11,668 81,466 1668 854 6671 6664 14,709 40 4027 26 3389 2722 8943 397 323 31,403 1961 633 553 948 478 13,652 774 19,468 541 3552 1205 4251 22,300 9803 161,955 396 267 2799 0 3644 35 1493 0 2379 1065 3896 602 18 2043 754 340 597 124 41 3805 0 2036 164 238 1182 1767 87 1679 31,451 990 1954 4416 0 10,634 50 2387 0 7709 2236 7204 1367 21 3730 1774 1143 2078 837 231 7776 0 5417 488 281 1516 4880 125 657 69,901 Cost for connectivity under PMGSY (Rs million) 4520 8390 51,950 66,470 76,700 100 10,210 60 34,900 27,720 36,420 2250 950 121,990 7680 5170 6930 5910 2490 69,620 1610 40,630 3280 7870 9610 22,990 87,560 70,200 784,180

S. Name No. of State 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

No. of Unconnected habitations

Total length to be covered (km) 3326 3111 18,987 33,351 37,556 90 7452 26 12832 8412 21445 1867 460 60,264 4368 2131 2662 2021 989 29,374 979 31,948 1107 5259 2981 10,430 38,725 23,652 365,805

Andhra Pradesh 2679 Arunachal Pradesh 2654 Assam 15,786 Bihar 24,321 Chhattisgarh 24,202 Goa 55 Gujarat 8127 Haryana 23 Himachal Pradesh 11,340 Jammu & Kashmir 3946 Jharkhand 21,036 Karnataka 4608 Kerala 440 Madhya Pradesh 34,771 Maharashtra 6892 Manipur 1142 Meghalaya 2752 Mizoram 392 Nagaland 127 Orissa 28,299 Punjab 920 Rajasthan 20,729 Sikkim 410 Tamil Nadu 5318 Tripura 3803 Uttaranchal 8654 Uttar Pradesh 61,554 West Bengal 35,667 Total 330,647

Source: www.pmgsy.org

132

India Infrastructure Report 2007

Table A5.2 Length and Cost of Rural Roads Required for Upgradation under PMGSY Length of Core Network (Rural Roads) Through roads Link roads Total State (km) (km) Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttaranchal Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Total 8576 2750 10,551 12,746 12,536 71 2982 6567 5894 3585 7978 8141 305 25,330 8905 1343 2312 1117 805 19,138 7484 14,821 485 14,317 1637 4321 40,363 13,410 238,470 57,495 9154 16,632 38,898 29,040 788 40,668 6387 23,577 15,238 29,677 58,539 15,734 79,380 72,130 7284 7120 2396 6003 61,257 17,751 75,304 2408 52,561 4704 17,124 111,404 36,991 895,642 66,071 11,904 27,183 51,644 41,576 859 43,650 12,954 29,471 18,822 37,654 66,679 16,039 104,710 81,035 8627 9432 3513 6807 80,395 25,235 90,125 2893 66,878 6341 21,446 151,767 50,400 1,134,112 Length of Estimated upgradation cost (km)to be covered (km) (Rs Million) 17,201 4123 13,046 18,581 16,892 190 9082 7525 9431 5870 12,429 16,921 2665 37,237 19,724 2435 3380 1476 1705 28,327 10,147 26,117 846 22,201 2343 6890 57,074 18,958 372,816 25,820 7260 33,400 27,770 27,850 190 9720 13,150 16,600 11,400 17,280 18,720 4190 57,420 27,650 3750 6020 2650 2510 43,480 12,500 27,750 1150 30,190 4760 12,100 99,720 45,330 590,330

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Source: www.pmgsy.org

Rural Roads
Table A5.3 Physical and Financial status and achievements under PMGSY Statement showing Physical & Financial progress under PMGSY (PhasesI to VI + ADB/WB) (Rs in crores, length in kms) Value Amount of released proposals (up to cleared 25.05.06) 3 4 1632.95 1011.47 437.74 179.46 1601.11 721.29 1384.03 592.80 2220.21 1078.26 9.72 10.00 438.34 284.87 258.08 201.18 1353.08 482.80 312.40 145.35 633.03 504.41 759.36 506.24 196.73 121.97 5103.92 2102.50 684.75 596.21 273.04 104.33 145.72 123.17 333.23 225.50 194.43 161.56 2240.95 1445.56 217.90 176.30 4490.81 2395.60 298.37 111.26 724.18 491.87 200.99 96.39 2916.29 2193.87 360.83 215.33 2328.20 1203.45 31750.39 17483.00 No. of road works 5 No. of road Length of works road works completed completed (up to (up to May, 06) May, 06) 7 8 8535.35 1096.08 1558.26 1609.76 4998.56 158.70 2373.75 1107.85 2742.21 91.30 2317.95 5015.49 345.80 10529.22 3245.59 688.84 661.91 978.60 1582.37 5137.43 815.11 15427.75 1503.68 3121.72 437.07 13657.31 508.36 3471.40 93717.42

133

S. No. State 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 2 AP Arunachal Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana HP J&K Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala MP Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura UP Uttaranchal West Bengal Grand Total

Length of road works 6

% of % Exp. completed % Length to amount road works completed Exp. released (up to (up to up to (up to May, 06) May, 06) May, 06 May, 06) 9 77.82 75.56 49.46 47.26 43.65 80.00 73.34 69.37 33.86 14.80 69.79 79.02 43.34 40.83 70.20 61.84 82.42 58.77 83.17 57.74 81.10 49.34 32.42 66.74 65.92 71.13 44.86 53.61 59.94 10 11 12 90.42 70.97 84.50 85.16 100.92 53.20 96.37 81.21 74.48 41.08 81.54 79.73 61.76 98.31 81.50 93.94 75.83 72.62 66.69 79.35 94.59 80.41 76.51 74.57 80.51 74.04 69.91 77.22 82.86 64.25 914.62 61.35 127.36 35.53 609.50 30.72 504.84 45.47 1088.23 0.00 5.32 73.04 274.54 70.32 163.38 36.13 359.57 8.90 59.71 68.94 411.28 69.27 403.63 41.31 75.33 39.80 2066.99 63.06 485.94 54.37 98.01 81.57 93.40 64.09 163.75 79.25 107.74 53.99 1147.02 63.54 166.77 49.97 1926.34 78.62 85.13 61.93 366.78 51.95 77.60 64.34 1624.25 27.89 150.53 45.38 929.36 52.61 14486.92

4580.00 13284.10 3564.00 446.00 1786.65 337.00 1294.00 4385.87 640.00 1297.00 5239.60 613.00 2094.00 10993.84 914.00 90.00 178.16 72.00 1553.00 3250.02 1139.00 111.00 1575.51 77.00 1506.00 7590.09 510.00 277.00 1025.81 41.00 629.00 3362.37 439.00 1921.00 7240.01 1518.00 443.00 837.04 192.00 5562.00 26456.59 2271.00 2148.00 5146.84 1508.00 849.00 1266.84 525.00 347.00 811.43 286.00 114.00 1526.83 67.00 208.00 1996.67 173.00 2880.00 9514.74 1663.00 508.00 1282.78 412.00 8865.00 30877.01 4374.00 182.00 1912.48 59.00 2604.00 5040.68 1738.00 311.00 841.38 205.00 11186.00 21227.95 7957.00 292.00 1822.86 131.00 1274.00 7650.14 683.00 53571.00 178124.29 32108.00

Source: www.pmgsy.org

134

India Infrastructure Report 2007

Table A5.4 Bharat NirmanTargets for New Connectivity (Length in km, Habitations in Numbers)

Sl. Name of No. the State 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

20056 Length Habs 0 22 421 896 478 0 230 0 127 57 526 0 0 768 0 11 35 12 9 493 0 743 22 0 66 1236 95 787 7034

20067 Length Habs

20078 Length Habs

20089 Length Habs

Total Length Habs

Andhra Pradesh 0 Arunachal Pradesh 162.5 Assam 605.852 Bihar 1665.831 Chhattisgarh 1501.365 Goa 0 Gujarat 402.955 Haryana 0 Himachal Pradesh 464.583 Jammu & Kashmir 169.972 Jharkhand 1051.779 Karnataka 0 Kerala 0 Madhya Pradesh 2602.139 Maharashtra 0 Manipur 100 Meghalaya 123.609 Mizoram 82.746 Nagaland 93.318 Orissa 1055.95 Punjab 0 Rajasthan 2153.615 Sikkim 75.031 Tamil Nadu 0 Tripura 94.774 Uttar Pradesh 1966.416 Uttaranchal 380.609 West Bengal 739.378 Total 15,492.42

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 637.5 85 646.875 86 671.875 105 2118.75 298 2864.063 1988 3889.845 2701 5793.46 4022 13,153.22 9132 3928.75 2062 6121.425 3214 7230.306 3784 18,946.312 9956 4367.606 1310 6450.644 2007 8255.181 2514 20,574.796 6309 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 429.723 246 438.675 251 438.675 251 1710.028 978 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 795.833 209 638.542 166 479.167 123 2378.125 625 1059.49 352 1781.869 593 1405.099 466 4416.43 1468 2594.39 1295 1812.298 901 2319.31 1155 7777.777 3877 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6162.451 1760 8326.848 2399 10,470.17 2905 27,561.608 7832 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 460.714 48 464.286 48 719.048 74 1744.048 181 135.971 39 140.091 40 144.211 41 543.882 155 274.819 39 277.884 39 306.498 43 941.947 133 104.529 10 109.507 10 114.485 11 421.839 40 1985.609 874 2524.021 1087 4427.774 1993 9993.354 4447 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3629.519 1252 3554.217 1225 2123.494 732 11,460.845 3952 104.042 30 108.043 31 132.053 37 419.169 120 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 261.74 183 354.701 248 447.661 313 1158.876 810 2390.632 1504 2059.213 1295 1378.701 867 7794.962 4902 422.008 106 1025.641 257 1020.299 255 2848.557 713 2572.767 2738 3265.307 3473 3643.359 3876 10,220.811 10,874 35,182.16 16130 43,989.93 20,071 51,520.83 23,567 14,6185.34 66,802

Source: www.pmgsy.org

Rural Roads
Table A5.5 Bharat Nirman Targets for Upgradation (Length in Kms) Sl. No. 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 Name of the State 2 Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttaranchal West Bengal Total 20056 Length 3 1821.494 0 0 0 0 190.114 0 229.358 0 0 0 2573.529 524.109 0 4334.365 0 0 0 0 0 423.729 0 0 1297.71 0 0 0 0 11,394.408 20067 length 4 2258.652 0 2005.71 2393.617 1986.063 190.114 1557.971 1146.789 1515.923 1007.584 2108.433 2573.529 628.931 5189.543 4334.365 0 587.583 257.998 246.914 4438.574 1483.051 4764.543 196.85 2824.427 373.737 7158.962 889.454 2549.942 54,669.259 20078 Length 5 2258.652 0 2269.808 3510.638 3240.418 190.114 1557.971 1146.789 1694.268 920.91 2123.494 2573.529 524.109 6614.379 4334.365 0 587.583 257.998 246.914 4663.144 1483.051 4653.74 137.795 2824.427 383.838 6956.031 1283.354 2878.965 59,316.284 20089 Length 6 2258.652 0 2219.843 3390.958 3222.996 190.114 1413.043 1238.532 1503.185 1007.584 1987.952 2573.529 524.109 6823.53 4334.365 0 665.189 216.718 370.371 5059.445 1680.791 3656.51 98.425 4167.939 414.141 14,408.12 1270.648 4054.053 68,750.742 Total Length 7 8597.45 0 6495.361 9295.213 8449.477 760.456 4528.985 3761.468 4713.376 2936.078 6219.879 10,294.116 2201.258 18,627.452 17,337.46 0 1840.355 732.714 864.199 14,161.163 5070.622 13,074.793 433.07 11,114.503 1171.716 28,523.113 3443.456 9482.96 194,130.693

135

Source: www.pmgsy.org

136

India Infrastructure Report 2007

Table A5.6 Cost Trends under PMGSY State 20001 NC UP 6.72 0.00 41.74 17.82 0.00 0.00 11.46 0.00 11.22 18.78 26.18 8.09 17.58 12.07 0.00 0.00 12.81 0.00 17.17 16.33 11.62 0.00 11.96 0.00 0.00 25.17 17.45 7.25 12.88 0.00 19.49 9.61 3.19 8.48 5.50 0.00 23.45 3.67 6.17 15.41 10.51 8.76 NA 7.69 0.00 2.27 12.69 0.00 7.68 1.21 8.86 5.98 3.93 18.70 16.73 20013 NC UP 14.69 12.29 26.06 21.52 16.03 16.81 11.68 0.00 14.19 24.99 19.18 10.55 20.55 14.85 16.05 11.36 30.60 17.53 16.74 20.70 16.54 9.06 33.03 15.42 25.16 20.80 28.55 27.12 11.49 0.00 25.55 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.85 17.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.49 12.53 9.63 11.55 0.00 0.00 0.00 12.77 12.98 12.65 0.00 11.31 12.32 0.00 0.00 20.26 0.00 20034 NC UP 10.23 15.02 31.24 32.57 22.03 25.07 17.25 0.00 21.39 34.90 23.73 0.00 29.40 21.00 20045 NC UP 15.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 21.97 0.00 0.00 0.00 16.53 0.00 0.00 20056 NC UP 0.00 51.03 40.36 23.00 17.53 0.00 23.03 18.99 0.00 19.08 22.79 10.82 23.28 0.00 20067 NC UP

1 Andhra Pradesh 2 Arunachal Pradesh 3 Assam 4 Bihar 5 Chhattisgarh 6 Goa 7 Gujarat 8 Haryana 9 Himachal Pradesh 10 Jammu & Kashmir 11 Jharkhand 12 Karnataka 13 Kerala 14 Madhya Pradesh 15 Maharashtra 16 Manipur 17 Meghalaya 18 Mizoram 19 Nagaland 20 Orissa 21 Punjab 22 Rajasthan 23 Sikkim 24 Tamil Nadu 25 Tripura 26 Uttar Pradesh 27 Uttaranchal 28 West Bengal Source: www.pmgsy.org

No proposal 24.96 0.00

19.59 0.00 No proposal 13.29 0.00 0.00 17.48 14.30 0.00 30.95 20.85 0.00 20.97 20.67 24.36 0.00 10.80 0.00 0.00

0.00 30.41 20.31

17.48 25.26 17.45

22.45

19.88

18.01 11.03 No proposal 32.28 0.00 16.74 0.00 11.13 10.90 18.39 0.00 16.11 0.00 12.37 0.00 33.32 0.00 14.61 0.00 48.91 0.00 22.32 16.81 13.83 29.12 0.00 0.00

19.56 11.30 No proposal 37.52 0.00 32.63 0.00 16.71 0.00 26.40 21.29 17.63 19.07 13.28 0.00 43.67 0.00 15.17 11.22 55.17 0.00 24.45 17.73 18.02 31.92 23.52 35.03

26.08 24.69 18.27 28.42 17.01 46.09 25.15

33.25 0.00 17.42 33.11 0.00 0.00 17.25 18.81 0.00

38.86

0.00

Rural Roads

137

REFERENCES
APERP (1997). Rural Transport Survey 1997Andhra Pradesh Economic Restructuring Project, World Bank, Washington D.C. C&AG (2006). Performance Audit of PMGSY, C&AG Report No. 13, 2006, GOI, New Delhi. Fan, S., L. Zhang, and X. Zhang (2000). Growth, Inequality, and Poverty in Rural China: The Role of Public Investments. Research Report 125, International Food Policy Research Institute, Fan, Shenggen and Peter B.R. Hazell and Sukhdeo Thorat (1999). Linkages between Government Spending, Growth, and Poverty in Rural India, Research reports 110, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington DC. Gupta, D.P. (2003). Maintenance of Rural Roads: Developing Policy and Implementation Plan for Uttar Pradesh, mimeo, Government of Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow. Isotalo, Jukka (1992). Community Participation in Rural Road Maintenance: Finnish Experience and Lessons for Sub-Saharan Africa, Transportation, Water and Urban Development Department, The World Bank, Transport No. RD-13. Washington, D.C. Kumar, P., H.C. Mehndiratta and S. Rokade (2005). Use of Reinforced Flyash in Highway Embankments, Highway Research Bulletin, 73, pp. 113. Kumar, P., S.S. Jain and L.N. Singh (2002). Use of Steel Industry Slag in Bituminous MixesIndian Experience, Highway Research Bulletin, 67, pp. 1326. Misra, A.K., R. Mathur, P. Goel and V.K. Sood (2004). Use of PhosphogypsumAn Industrial By-Product in Stabilisation of Black Cotton Soils, Highway Research Bulletin, 70, pp. 6575. MoRD (2000). Empowerment of Rural India through Connectivity, Ministry of Rural Development, May, 2000. (2004). Impact Assessment of Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak YojanaPMGSY, Ministry of Rural Development, 2004. (2004a). Specifications for Rural Roads, Indian Roads Congress. Ministry of Rural Development, New Delhi. (2004b). Rural Road Manual: IRC:SP:202002, Indian Roads Congress. Ministry of Rural Development, New Delhi. (2006). Rural Roads Development Plan: Vision2025 (Draft), Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, New Delhi. MoRTH (2000). MoRTH: Norms by the Expert Group 2000, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi. Narayan, Deepa, Raj Patel, K. Shafft, A. Rademacher and S. KochSchulte (2000). Voices of the Poor. Crying out for Change, The World Bank, Oxford University Press. Planning Commission (2005). A quick Concurrent Evaluation of PMGSY, Project Evaluation office (PEO), Planning Commission, New Delhi. Sikdar P.K. (2006). Proposed model of Community Participation in Rural Road Maintenance, Indian Highways, Vol. 34, No.6, Special No. June. Vittal, U.K.G. (2000). Use of fly ash in Roads and Embankments, in Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Fly Ash Disposal and Utilisation organized by CBIP and Fly Ash Mission.