English Grammar 101

A Review of the Essentials David A. deSilva

Parts of Speech

Nouns Pronouns Verbs Adjective Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections

Parts of Speech (2)

Nouns: words that name persons, places, things, or ideas Pronouns: words that stand in for a noun Verbs: words that express action or state of being Adjectives: words that describe nouns or pronouns Adverbs: words that describe verbs Prepositions: words that connect a noun and its modifiers to another component of the sentence Conjunctions: words that join nouns, verbs, or other parts of a sentence Interjections: words that express emotion, shock, and the like.

Parts of a Sentence

Every sentence has a subject and a predicate.

The subject is the noun or the pronoun that the sentence says something about; The predicate is what is said about that noun or pronoun, i.e., what that noun does or what that noun is. Jesus wept. (John 11:35 NIV)

Jesus is the subject: the sentence is about Jesus. wept is the predicate what is said about Jesus.

Subjects and Predicates

And no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth was able to open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:3 NRSV)

no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth is the subject; the main subject would be one; the rest is composed of modifiers (or descriptors) was able to open the scroll or to look into it is the predicate; the main predicate would be was; the remaining words are complements and objects.

Subjects and Predicates (2)

When he had taken the scroll, the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders fell before the Lamb, each holding a harp and golden bowls full of incense, which are the prayers of the saints. (Rev 5:8 NRSV)

The subject is in italics; all the rest is predicate (when he had tells when the elders fell). Predicates can be split up; subjects do not always come first. In this sentence, we find a compound subject (more than one subject): (1) creatures and (2) elders.

Subjects and Predicates (3)

And the elders fell down and worshiped. (Rev 5:14b NRSV)

In this example, we find a compound predicate: the subject governs more than one verb (1) fell down and (2) worshiped

Then I saw between the throne and the four living creatures and among the elders a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth. (Rev 5:6 NRSV)

In this example, the subject is one word: I

Subjects and Predicates (4)

Sentences starting with there or it: these words are often used as a kind of place marker for the real subject of a sentence.

There will be earthquakes in various places; there will be famines. (Mk13:8NRSV)

Grammatically speaking, the sentence is: Earthquakes will be [=will occur] in various places; famines will be [=will happen]. The grammatical subjects are earthquakes and famine, not there and there.

Subjects and Predicates (5)

But in these sacrifices there is a reminder of sin year after year. (Heb10:3NRSV)

Grammatically speaking, the sentence is: But a reminder of sins is in these sacrifices year after year. The real subject is reminder.

It is senseless to give a pledge, to become surety for a neighbor. (Prov17:18NRSV)

Grammatically speaking to give a pledge is the subject (to become surety for a neighbor is set in apposition). To give a pledge is senseless.

Complements

Alongside the verb, the predicate often contains other essential parts of the sentence. These may include:

Direct objects Indirect objects Predicate nominatives Predicate adjectives

Complements (2)

Direct Objects and Indirect Objects occur with action verbs:

The direct object receives the impact of the action. Put another way, the subject enacts the verb upon the direct object. I baptize you with water for repentance. (Mt 3:11 NRSV). The subject (I) enacts the verb (baptize), but it is the direct object (you) that gets dunked.

Complements (3)

He went and took the scroll. (Rev 5:7 NRSV)

The Lamb (he) does the going and taking; the scroll is the object affected by the Lambs actions. The scroll is the direct object.

Bear fruit worthy of repentance. (Mt 3:8 NRSV)

In this imperative sentence, fruit is the thing that has to be borne: it is the direct object of the command, bear.

Complements (4)

Indirect Objects: nouns or pronouns that are the indirect recipients of the action, often the beneficiaries of the action (to or for whom the action happens).

By your blood you ransomed for God saints from every tribe and language and people and nation. (Rev 5:9 NRSV).

The subject is you; the main verb of the predicate, ransomed,; saints are the ones actually ransomed, hence the direct object. God is the indirect object: the ransoming of the saints has an indirect effect on God, for whom the action happens.

Complements (5)

God is able from these stones to raise up children to Abraham. (Matt 3:9 NRSV)

Looking at the infinitive to raise up, the direct object of the infinitive is children, the entities actually raised up; the indirect object is Abraham, to whom (i.e., in whose favor) these children are raised up.

Complements (6)

Predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives occur with verbs expressing being or a state of being (also called linking verbs).

God is able (Matt 3:9 NRSV).

Subject: God; verb: is; able is a predicate adjective. The whole point of the sentence is to link God with this quality, or predicate this quality upon God.

Complements (7)

You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its seals. (Rev 5:9 NRSV)

Subject: you; main verb: are; worthy is another predicate adjective (followed by two complementary infinitives, to take and to open, further describing this worthiness).

No one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)

worthy is still a predicate adjective, since was found (= was proven to be) is still a state of being verb.

Complements (8)

Jesus Christ is Lord (Phil 2:11 NRSV)

Subject: Jesus Christ; main verb: is; Lord is a noun that is being predicated of Jesus Christ it is a predicate nominative.

Sometimes a direct object can also have a complement in the form of an adjective or noun predicated, in effect, upon it.

You have made them a kingdom and priests to our God. (Rev5:10ESV) them is the direct object, but a kingdom and priests is also specifically what God made them the phrase is an object complement.

Kinds of Sentences

Declarative: sentences stating something (whether fictive or real, narrative or argument).

I began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)

Interrogative: sentences asking a question (thus calling for some declarative statement in response).

Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Rev 5:2 NRSV)

Kinds of Sentences (2)

Sometimes an interrogative statement is in transposed word order: the subject is most easily found when one reformulates the question as a statement.

What did you go out into the wilderness to look at? (Mt11:7NRSV)

What is not the subject; it is, in fact, the object of the preposition at. The subject is you: You did go out into the wilderness to look at ____.

Kinds of Sentences (3)

Imperative: sentences that issue commands.

Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come near. (Mt 3:2 NRSV) Bear fruit worthy of repentance. (Mt 3:8 NRSV) "Do not weep. (Rev 5:5 NRSV) In all these examples the subject You is not expressed, but is understood. Repent, you, for the kingdom.

Kinds of Sentences (4)

There are 1st and 3rd person commands as well, in which the subject will be expressed.

1st person plural: Let us hold fast to our confession. (Heb4:14NRSV) 3rd person singular: Let him who is without sin among you be the first to throw a stone at her. (Jn8:7ESV) 3rd person plural: If any want to become my followers, let them deny themselves and take up their cross and follow me. (Mt16:24NRSV)

Nouns

Words that denote a person, place, thing, or idea Can be proper nouns (e.g., Peter, Judea) or common nouns (e.g., disciple, region) Can have number: singular, disciple; plural, disciples (note: usually there is a change of form) Special ending for possessive/genitive case: the Lords day, the nations tribute

Nouns

6 Then I saw between the throne and the four living creatures and among the elders a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth. 7 He went and took the scroll from the right hand of the one who was seated on the throne.

Nouns

6 Then I saw between the throne and the four living creatures and among the elders a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth. 7 He went and took the scroll from the right hand of the one who was seated on the throne.

Pronouns

Words used in place of a proper or common noun. A pronoun generally has an antecedent a specific noun named earlier in the discourse for which the pronoun is standing in.

Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns have person, number, and case.

Singular (nominative): I (1st) , you (2nd) , he, she, it (3rd) Plural (nominative): we (1st) , you (2nd) , they (3rd) Singular (objective): me, you, him, her, it Plural (objective): us, you, them

Personal Pronouns
And I began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. Then one of the elders said to me, "Do not weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has conquered, so that he can open the scroll and its seven seals."

Personal Pronouns
And I began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. Then one of the elders said to me, "Do not weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has conquered, so that he can open the scroll and its seven seals."

Possessive Pronouns

Singular: mine, yours, his, hers, its Plural: ours, yours, theirs

He is the atoning sacrifice for our sins, and not for ours [= our sins] only but also for the sins of the whole world. (1 John 2:2) My beloved is mine and I am his. (Song 2:16)

Possessive Pronouns vs. Possessive Adjectives

Pronouns: stand in for nouns he atoned not only for their sins, but ours. Ours stands in for the noun sins. Adjectives: describe nouns he atoned for our sins. Our describes a noun in the sentence.

Intensive and Reflexive Pronouns

Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Intensive: He himself was not the light, but he came to testify to the light. (John 1:8) Reflexive: "Is he going to kill himself? Is that what he means by saying, 'Where I am going, you cannot come'? (John 8:22)

Definite Relative Pronouns

Introduce subordinate clauses that, as a whole, function as adjectives (supplying additional information about some noun or pronoun). As with most pronouns, the definite relative pronoun points back to some antecedent (some noun to which it is referring) Who, whom (objective case of who), whose (possessive case of who), which/that

Relative Clauses

The relative pronoun introduces a relative clause with a verb and, often, objects, modifiers, and prepositional phrases. The entire clause modifies some noun or pronoun in the main sentence (the antecedent of the relative pronoun). A relative clause generally could have been written as a separate sentence:

You love Lazarus. Lazarus is sick. He [Lazarus] whom you love is sick. (John 11:3)

Relative Pronouns (and relative clauses)

He went and took the scroll from the right hand of the one who was seated on the throne. This is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah spoke. (Matt 3:3) I baptize you with water for repentance, but one who is more powerful than I is coming after me, whose sandals I am not worthy to carry. (Matt 3:11)

Indefinitive relative pronouns

The relative pronoun can also be used where there is no antecedent, sometimes generalized (whoever, whatever) Whoever denies me before others, I also will deny before my Father in heaven. (Matt 10:33) Remember then what you received and heard (Rev 3:3)

Interrogative Pronouns

Used to ask questions; no antecedent Who? What? Which? Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Rev 5:2)

Demonstrative Pronouns

Used to point out particular objects. This, these; that, those Nearer demonstratives: this, these Farther demonstratives: that, those

Demonstrative Pronouns

This [= this person] is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah spoke. (Matt 3:3) Then one of the elders addressed me, saying, "Who are these [=these people], robed in white, and where have they come from? (Rev 7:13) Blessed are those [=those people] who mourn, for they will be comforted. (Matt 5:4)

Indefinite Pronouns

These pronouns do not refer to specific persons or things, but rather to general types or classes. Anyone, anybody, anything; someone, somebody, something; everyone, everybody, everything; none, nobody, nothing; all, few, many, several, etc.

Indefinite Pronouns

Blessed is anyone who takes no offense at me. (Matt 11:6) The kingdom of heaven may be compared to someone who sowed good seed in his field. (Matt 13:24) For many are called, but few are chosen. (Matt 22:14)

Reciprocal Pronouns

Pronouns indicating that the individual members of a collective subject act back on other members of the group. One another, each other I give you a new commandment, that you love one another. (John 13:34) What are you discussing with each other while you walk along? (Luke 24:17)

Appositives

Nouns or pronouns can be used simply to rename another noun or pronoun in the sentence. The second noun or pronoun is said to stand in apposition to the first, and is like a parenthetical comment.

A Savior, Christ, the Lord, is born for you today in Davids city (Luke 2:11) Paul and Timothy, servants of Jesus Christ, to all the saints. (Phil 1:1) Ananias came down with some elders and an attorney, a certain Tertullus, and they reported their case against Paul. (Acts 24:1)

Verbs

Action

Jesus wept. I saw a mighty angel. He went and took the scroll. no one was able. You are worthy.

State of being

Verbs (2)

English verbs are often formed by a combination of one or more helping verbs with a main verb.

The Lion has conquered. You were slaughtered. They will reign on earth.

Helping verbs are an essential part of the formation of the various voices, tenses, and aspects of the English verb.

Helping Verbs Listed

Common Helping Verbs:

Do, does, did Has, have, had Am, are, is, were, was, be, being, been Can, could May, might Must Shall, should, ought [to] Will, would

Modal Helping Verbs

Verbs: Person and Number

1st Person

Singular: I heal. Plural: We heal. Singular: You heal. Plural: You (Yall) heal. Singular: He, she, it heals. Plural: They heal.

2nd Person

3rd Person

Verbs: Voice

Active: The subject of the sentence performs the action of the verb, often upon one or more objects.

He went and took the scroll. They will reign on earth.

Passive: The action of the verb is done to the Subject of the sentence.

You were slaughtered. They were baptized by him in the river Jordan.

Verbs: Tense (all examples are in active voice)

Present

Simple: I baptize. Progressive: I am baptizing. Simple: I baptized. Progressive: I was baptizing. Simple: I will baptize. Progressive: I will be baptizing.

Past

Future

Verbs: Tenses (2)

Present Perfect

Simple: I have baptized. Progressive: I have been baptizing. Simple: I had baptized. Progressive: I had been baptizing. Simple: I will have baptized. Progressive: I will have been baptizing.

Past Perfect (Pluperfect)

Future Perfect

Verbs: Tenses (Passive Examples)

Present

Simple: I am baptized. Progressive: I am being baptized. Simple: I was baptized. Progressive: I was being baptized. Simple: I will be baptized. Progressive: I will be being baptized. (Not regularly used.)

Past

Future

Verbs: Tenses (Passive Examples)

Present Perfect

Simple: I have been baptized. Progressive: N/A Simple: I had been baptized. Progressive: N/A Simple: I will have been baptized. Progressive: N/A

Past Perfect (Pluperfect)

Future Perfect

Verbs: Moods

Indicative: Narrating Facts or Purported Facts

John was baptizing in the Jordan River. Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is near. "If this man were a prophet, he would have known who and what sort of woman this is who is touching him, for she is a sinner." (Luke7:39ESV)

Imperative: Giving Commands

Subjunctive: Unreal Situations

Verbal Forms

Infinitives: the bare form of the verb

Present Active (time contemporary with or subsequent to main verb): To heal, to save, to call Present Passive: To be healed, to be saved, to be called Perfect Active (time prior to main verb): To have healed, to have loved Perfect Passive: To have been healed, to have been loved Stative: To be, to have been

Infinitives: Uses

As a noun:

Subject of verb: To live is Christ, and to die is gain. (Phil 1:21 ESV)

What is?

Object of verb: I want to know Christ. (Phil 3:10 NRSV)

I want what?

Infinitive: Uses (2)

As an adjective:

By faith Sarah herself received power to conceive. (Heb 11:11 NRSV)

The infinitive answers the question what kind of power?

Infinitive: Uses (3)

As an adverb:

Abraham obeyed when he was called to go out. (Heb 11:8 NRSV)

Supplies more information about the verb called

God is not ashamed to be called their God. (Heb 11:16)

Supplies more information about the adjective ashamed, perhaps giving the circumstances

Participles

Active: baptizing

While baptizing by the river, John was arrested. Baptized by John, Peter and Andrew went out to preach.

Passive: baptized

Participles can form additional voices and tenses with helping verbs, e.g.:

Perfect Active: having baptized Having baptized many, Johns reputation spread. Perfect Passive: having been baptized Having been baptized by John, the tax collectors repented.

Participles: Usage

Adjectival Participial Clauses: the participles describes some noun or pronoun

I saw in the right hand of the one seated on the throne a scroll written on the inside and on the back, sealed with seven seals (Rev 5:1 NRSV) The participle seated introduces a clause that further describes the one; the participles written and sealed introduce clauses giving additional information describing the scroll.

Participles: Usage (2)

Adverbial Participial Clauses: the participle gives more information about the action of the main verb

These all died in faith, not having received the things promised, but having seen them and greeted them from afar, and having acknowledged that they were strangers and exiles on the earth. (Heb 11:13 NRSV)

[not] having received and having seen and greeted and having acknowledged all describe under what circumstances these all died.

They were baptized by him in the river Jordan, confessing their sins. (Matt 3:6 NRSV)

Confessing supplies information about the circumstances under which the people were being baptized.

Gerunds (Participles acting as Nouns)

The gerund looks like the present participle in form: baptizing, seeing, healing As a gerund, however, the word acts as a simple noun, naming the particular action.

To me, living is Christ and dying is gain (Phil 1:21 NRSV). Living and Dying are both fulfilling the role of nouns as subjects of the verb is.

Verbals and their Complements

Participles, Infinitives, and Gerunds can take all the complements that a normal verb can take:

Adverbs Direct Objects Indirect Objects Adverbial Prepositional Phrases Predicate Nominatives

Adjectives

Words used to describe nouns or pronouns. Adjectives are words that answer questions like what kind of ____? or which _____? or how many _____? Attributive Adjectives (simple descriptors):

Then I saw in the right hand of the one seated on the throne a scroll written on the inside and on the back, sealed with seven seals; and I saw a mighty angel proclaiming with a loud voice, Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Rev 5:1-2 NRSV)

Adjectives (2)

Predicate Adjectives: the point of the sentence is to link a noun or pronoun with a descriptor by means of a linking verb (a form of be, become, etc.)

No one in heaven or on earth or under the earth was able to open the scroll (Rev 5:3)

No one [S] was [V] able [Pred Adj]

No one was found worthy. (Rev 5:4) You are worthy to take the scroll. (Rev 5:9)

Adjectives (3)

Substantive Adjectives: Adjectives can be used as nouns, as in the title, The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly.

Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth. Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy. (Mt5:5, 7NRSV)

meek and merciful are actually adjectives. Here it is understood that Jesus is talking about those who are meek or the meek ones.

Adjectives (4)

Adjectives have degrees

Positive: holy, righteous, good

you are my strong refuge (Ps71:7)

Comparative: holier, more righteous, better

And the LORD made his people stronger than their enemies (Ps105:24)

Superlative: holiest, most righteous, best

The anger of God rose against them and he killed the strongest of them (Ps78:31)

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that give more information about the action of the sentence i.e., the verb or about an adjective or even another adverb. Adverbs often answer questions like:

How? Why? Where? When? Under what circumstances? To what degree or extent? (This is the sense in which adverbs generally describe adjectives and other adverbs.)

Adverbs often, but do not always, end in -ly

Adverbs (2)

I began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)

How was John weeping?

I know you are enduring patiently and bearing up for my name's sake. (Rev 2:3 ESV)

How are the believers enduring?

When the disciples heard this, they were greatly astonished. (Matt 19:25 NIV)

To what extent were the disciples astonished?

Adverbs (3)

Like adjectives, adverbs can be compared:

Positive: bitterly Comparative: more bitterly Superlative: most bitterly Well, better, best Little, less, least Badly, worse, worst

Irregular comparisons also exist:

Caution: When adverbs look like prepositions

And when he had looked around at everything, as it was already late, he went out to Bethany with the twelve. (Mark 11:11).

Around is often used as a preposition, as in I heard the voice of many angels around the throne (Rev 5:11 NASU). In Mk 11:11, however, around describes the action of looking Where did Jesus look?

Prepositions

Prepositions stand before a noun or pronoun (and its descriptors) to create a prepositional phrase. The entire prepositional phrase will describe some other noun or pronoun in the sentence (acting adjectivally) or the verb in the clause to which it is related (acting adverbially).

Prepositions (2)

Some common prepositions in prepositional phrases (from Mt 3:112):

in the wilderness from the coming wrath to yourselves at the root of the trees into the granary with unquenchable fire

Common Prepositions

About, above, according to, across, after, against, along, alongside [of], among, around, at, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside(s), between, beyond, by, concerning, despite, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, instead of, into, like, near, of, off, on, out of, over, past, since, through, throughout, to, together with, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, up to, with, within, without

Prepositions (3)

I tell you, God is able from these stones to raise up children to Abraham. Even now the ax is lying at the root of the trees; every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire. (Mt 3:9-10 NRSV)

Adverbial prepositional phrases:

from these stones (giving information about the raising) to Abraham (ditto) at the root (where is the ax lying?) into the fire (where is it being thrown?) of the trees (giving information about what root)

Adjectival prepositional phrase

Prepositions (4a)

Then I saw in the right hand of the one seated on the throne a scroll written on the inside and on the back, sealed with seven seals. And no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth was able to open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:1, 3 NRSV)

Prepositions (4b)

Then I saw in the right hand [adv.: where saw?] of the one [adj.: describes what hand] seated on the throne [adv.: where seated?] a scroll written on the inside [adv.: how or where written?] and on the back [adv.], sealed with seven seals [adv.: sealed by what means or how?]. And no one in heaven [adj.: describes one] or on earth [adj.] or under the earth [adj.] was able to open the scroll or to look into it [adv.: look where?]. (Rev 5:1, 3 NRSV)

Caution

Many words that can function as prepositions can also function as other parts of speech!

Since can be a preposition, conjunction, or adverb To can be a preposition (to the river), or it can be part of an infinitive (to come, to sing, to look)

FUNCTION determines what a word is in a given context

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are used to link words or phrases together (coordinating conjunctions), set them in relationship to one another (correlative conjunctions), or subordinate one clause to another, usually giving some indication of the logical relationship between those clauses (subordinating conjunctions).

Conjunctions (2)

Coordinating Conjunctions: and, or, but, so, yet:

No one in heaven or on earth or under the earth was able to open the scroll or to look into it. Rev 5:3 NRSV)

The first two conjunctions link three prepositional phrases together as one overarching unit of modifiers describing one The last conjunction links two infinitives, connecting both as complements to was able

Conjunctions (3a)

You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its seals, for you were slaughtered and by your blood you ransomed for God saints from every tribe and language and people and nation. (Rev 5:9 NRSV)

Conjunctions (3b)

You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its seals, for you were slaughtered and by your blood you ransomed for God saints from every tribe and language and people and nation. (Rev 5:9 NRSV)

The first and links two infinitives as complements to worthy (worthy of what?) The second and links two clauses as part of the rationale introduced by for (you were slaughtered and you ransomed) The last three occurrences of and link four nouns as the common objects of the preposition from

Conjunctions (4)

Correlative (bothand, neithernor, not only but also, eitheror):

At that time his voice shook the earth, but now he has promised, Yet once more I will shake not only the earth but also the heavens. (Heb 12:28 ESV)

The not onlybut also coordinates earth and heaven as twin objects of the verb shake, while also establishing a stronger relationship between the two objects.

Store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust consumes and where thieves do not break in and steal. (Matt 6:20 NRSV)

neither and nor link moth and rust as two subjects of the verb consumes.

Conjunctions (5)

Subordinating Conjunctions (when, while, after, before, since; where; whether; as, as if; because; though, although; if, unless; so, so that, in order that; as as; rather than) Used to connect noun or adverb clauses to some other element in the sentence

Conjunctions (6)

And I began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. Then one of the elders said to me, Do not weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has conquered, so that he can open the scroll and its seven seals. Then I saw between the throne and the four living creatures and among the elders a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth. (Rev 5:4-6 NRSV)

because introduces a subordinate clause specifying CAUSE so that introduces a subordinate clause specifying RESULT as if introduces a subordinate clause specifying MANNER

Conjunctive Adverbs

Not to be confused with subordinating conjunctions, these adverbs can also be used to indicate the relationship between independent clauses:

Accordingly, also, anyway, besides, certainly, consequently, conversely, finally, furthermore, hence, however, incidentally, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, specifically, still, subsequently, then, therefore, thus

Interjections

Words usually expressing surprise or emotion, drawing attention to something or some experience.

And those who passed by derided him, wagging their heads and saying, Aha! You who would destroy the temple and rebuild it in three days, save yourself, and come down from the cross! (Mk 15:29-30 ESV) His disciples said, "Ah, now you are speaking plainly and not using figurative speech! (Jn 16:29 ESV)

Kinds of Sentences and Clauses

Clauses: groups of related words containing a subject and a verb.

Independent (or main) clauses: An independent clause expressed a grammatically complete thought and can stand alone as a complete sentence.

John the Baptist appeared in the wilderness of Judea. (Matt 3:1 NRSV) John wore clothing of camel's hair with a leather belt around his waist, and his food was locusts and wild honey. (Matt 3:3 NRSV) a compound of two independent clauses.

Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (2)

Dependent (subordinate) clauses: these clauses are not complete sentences, but must always be attached to a main (independent) clause. because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV) so that he can open the scroll and its seven seals. (Rev 5:5 NRSV) as if it had been slaughtered . (Rev 5:6 NRSV) In each of these three examples, there is a subject (bold) and verb (italic), but none can stand as a complete sentence.

Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (3)

By faith Sarah herself received power to conceive, even when she was past the age, since she considered him faithful who had promised. (Heb 11:11 NRSV)

By faith Sarah herself received power to conceive. (Main clause; could stand alone as a complete sentence) even when she was past the age (Subordinate clause) since she considered him faithful who had promised (Subordinate clause)

Kinds of Sentences and Clauses (4)

Phrases:

These are related groups of words that do not contain both a subject and a verb, e.g., prepositional phrases and participial phrases. in the right hand of the one seated on the throne sealed with seven seals proclaiming with a loud voice having seven horns and seven eyes into all the earth

Functions of Subordinate Clauses

Adjectival (most often involving relative clauses introduced by relative pronouns)

This is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah spoke. (Matt 3:3 NRSV) Every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire. (Matt 5:10 NRSV) One who is more powerful than I is coming after me. (Matt 5:11 NRSV)

These can be introduced also by where, when, why, and whose

He has risen. Come and see the place where he lay. (Matt 28:6 NIV) Still answers the question, What place?

Functions of Subord. Clauses (2)

Adverbial

Temporal (when does the action of the main clause take place?)

When he had taken the scroll, the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders fell before the Lamb. (Rev 5:8 NRSV) You knew that I reap where I have not sowed and gather where I scattered no seed. (Matt 25:26 ESV) I saw a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered. (Rev 5:6 NRSV)

Location (where does the action of the main clause take place?)

Manner (by what means or in what manner does the action of the main clause take place?)

Functions of Subord. Clauses (3)

Cause (for what reason does the action of the main clause take place?)

I began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)

Concession (despite what does the action of the main clause take place?)

Although he was a son, he learned obedience from what he suffered. (Heb 5:8 NIV)

Condition (under what circumstances would the action of the main clause take place?)

If anyone hears my voice and opens the door , I will come in and eat with him, and he with me. (Rev 3:20 NIV)

Functions of Subord. Clauses (4)

Purpose (to what end does the action of the main clause take place?)

They watched Him, and sent spies who pretended to be righteous, in order that they might catch Him in some statement. (Luke 20:20 NASU)

Result (to what effect did the action of the main clause take place?)

The Lion of the tribe of Judah has conquered, so that he can open the scroll and its seven seals. (Rev 5:5 NRSV)

Functions of Subord. Clauses (5)

Noun Clauses: the clause as a whole plays a role usually assigned to a noun (like subject, direct object, object of a preposition).

When he heard that Archelaus was reigning over Judea in place of his father Herod, he was afraid to go there. (Matt 2:22 ESV) the whole that clause is the direct object of he heard What you sow must die before it is given new life (1 Cor 15:36 NJB) What you sow functions, as a whole, as the subject of the sentence.

Note: because noun clauses often play an integral role in the main clause, they are often not separable from the main clause (as adjectival and adverbial clauses are).