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,, (OHNWURQLNL HOHPHQWL L VNORSRYL

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93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH
1DELMHQH HVWLFH X HOHNWULQRP L PDJQHWVNRP SROMX

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1DERM SURWRQD MH GDNOH L]QRVRP MHGQDN D SUHG]QDNRP VXSURWDQ QDERMX HOHNWURQD GRN MH PDVD SURWRQD L QHXWURQD ]D SXWD YHD RG PDVH HOHNWURQD 0DVD LRQD QHNRJ HOHPHQWD GDQD MH L]UD]RP
mI = a mP

JGMH MH D DWRPVND WHLQD SURPDWUDQRJ HOHPHQWD .RG YHOLNLK EU]LQD NUHWDQMD HVWLFD WM NDGD EU]LQD JLEDQMD Yie nije zanemariva u odnosu na EU]LQX VYMHWORVWL JRUH QDSLVDQH YULMHGQRVWL ]D PDVX SRMHGLQH HVWLFH QH YULMHGH 7DGD WUHED X]HWL X RE]LU UHODWLYLVWLNX NRUHNFLMX ]D PDVX SD GRELYDPR VOLMHGHL L]UD]
m= m0 v 1 c
2

JGMH MH P PDVD PLURYDQMD SURPDWUDQH HVWLFH Y MH EU]LQD HVWLFH D c = 3 108 PV MH EU]LQD VYMHWORVWL 8 YHLQL SULPMHQD VH X]LPD QHNRULJLUDQD YULMHGQRVW PDVH MHU VX EU]LQH JLEDQMD HVWLFD UHODWLYQR PDOH
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 1DELMHQD HVWLFD X HOHNWURVWDWLNRP SROMX
3URPRWULPR JLEDQMH HOHNWURQD LOL QHNH GUXJH HVWLFH X YDNXXPX HVWLFD PRH ELWL X VWDQMX 1 PLURYDQMD LOL JLEDQMD RGUH HQRP EU]LQRP GDNOH LPD NLQHWLNX HQHUJLMX E K = mv 2 'D EL 2 HVWLFD GRELOD EU]LQX PRUD ELWL XEU]DQD WM QD QMX PRUD GMHORYDWL QHND VLOD HVWLFX PRHPR XEU]DWL QD GYD QDLQD GMHORYDQMHP IL]LNH VLOH QD PDVX GMHORYDQMHP HOHNWULQH VLOH QD QDERM
qe C = 1.76 1011 WM VLOD QD QDERM MH 1011 SXWD PDQMD RG VLOH QD me0 kg PDVX RQD VLOD NRMD H SRNUHQXWL HOHNWURQ 8WMHFDM JUDYLWDFLMVNH VLOH QD JLEDQMH ]DQHPDUXMHPR .DGD VH QDELMHQD HVWLFD PDVH P L QDERMD T QDOD]L X HOHNWULQRP SROMX QD QMX GMHOXMH VLOD NRMD MH SURSRUFLRQDOQD MDNRVWL HOHNWULQRJ SROMD
& & F = qE
=D HOHNWURQ YULMHGL RPMHU

& =DPLVOLPR HVWLFX PDVH P L QDERMD T 1D QMX GMHOXMH VLOD F 3RWR MH RYD HVWLFD SURPLMHQLOD VWDQMH JLEDQMD SRNUHQXOL VPR MH L] VWDQMD PLURYDQMD PRUD VH MDYLWL 1HZWRQRYD VLOD UHDNFLMH & & ma JGMH MH a DNFHOHUDFLMD 6OLND
& ma
P T
& & F = qE
6OLND 1DELMHQD HVWLFD X HOHNWULQRP SROMX 8 VWDQMX UDYQRWHH MH

& & m a = qE & q & a= E m & q & & & & & axi + a y j + az k = Exi + E y j + Ez k m

& & & JGMH VX i , j , k MHGLQLQL YHNWRUL 7HPHOMHP UHODFLMD PRHPR QDSLVDWL VXVWDY RG VNDODUQH MHGQDGEH
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH q Ex m q ay = Ey m q az = Ez m ax = d q vx = Ex dt m d q vy = Ey dt m d q vz = Ez dt m

d2 q x = Ex 2 m dt 2 d q y = Ey 2 m dt 2 d q z = Ez 2 m dt

7HPHOMHP VXVWDYD MHGQDGEL PRHPR RGUHGLWL SXWDQMX HVWLFH X SDUDPHWDUVNRP REOLNX V YUHPHQRP W NDR SDUDPHWURP 3RWR VH SURPDWUD HVWLFD X HOHNWURVWDWVNRP SROMX WM SROMH VH QH PLMHQMD X YUHPHQX PRHPR SLVDWL
& U & U & U & E = gradU ( x, y, z ) = x i + y j + z k U Ex = x U Ey = y U Ez = z

RGDNOH VOLMHGL
d 2x q U = 2 m x dt 2 d y q U = 2 m y dt d 2z q U = 2 m z dt

3RQRYLPR MR MHGQRP RYH MHGQDGEH YULMHGH ]D VOXDM JLEDQMD HVWLFH X HOHNWURVWDWVNRP SROMX 7 P T W 8 P T W 8 6OLND HVWLFD X NRQ]HUYDWLYQRP SROMX
& v1
7
& v2
,PDPR MR MHGQX PRJXQRVW SURPDWUDQMD RYRJ IHQRPHQD $NR MH SROMH NRQ]HUYDWLYQR RQGD MH X WRPH SROMX ]EURM HQHUJLMD X YUHPHQVNRP WUHQXWNX W MHGQDN ]EURMX HQHUJLMD X YUHPHQVNRP WUHQXWNX W XNROLNR VH REMH SURPDWUDQH WRNH QDOD]H QD WUDMHNWRULML NRMRP VH JLED QDELMHQD HVWLFD 6OLND =EURM HQHUJLMD MH VXPD NLQHWLNH L SRWHQFLMDOQH HQHUJLMH HVWLFH SD PRHPR SLVDWL
1 2 1 2 mv1 + qU 1 = mv 2 + qU 2 2 2

NLQHWLND HQHUJLMD
SRWHQFLMDOQD HQHUJLMD QDERM [ SRWHQFLMDO
7HPHOMHP JRUQMH MHGQDGEH PRHPR GRELWL L]UD] ]D NUDMQMX EU]LQX Y 1 2 1 mv 2 = q (U 2 U 1 ) + mv12 2 2 2q v 2 = v12 (U 2 U 1 ) m $NR X W YULMHGL Y L 8 RQGD MH
v2 = 2 q U2 m

7HPHOMHP MHGQDGEH PRHPR SULPLMHWLWL GD HVWLFH V QHJDWLYQLP QDERMHP SRNUHHPR GMHORYDQMHP 8 ! GRN MH ]D SR]LWLYQR QDELMHQH HVWLFH SRWUHEQR 8 =D VLWXDFLMX NDG SRNUHHPR HOHNWURQ L] VWDQMD PLURYDQMD
1 2 mv2 = qU 2 2 (EK = EP )

=ERJ RSHQLWR YUOR PDOLK L]QRVD HQHUJLMD HOHNWURQD ]D MHGLQLFX HQHUJLMH VH RELQR X]LPD HOHNWURQYROW H9 -HGDQ H9 SUHGVWDYOMD NLQHWLNX HQHUJLMX HOHNWURQD NRML MH L] VWDQMD PLURYDQMD XEU]DQ SRWHQFLMDOQRP UD]OLNRP RG 9 'DNOH
1eV = 1.6 10 19 J .
1DGDOMH HPR SURPDWUDWL LVNOMXLYR JLEDQMH HOHNWURQD D RSL REOLFL MHGQDGEL YULMHGH L ]D LRQH SD VH QXPHULNH YULMHdnosti za njih mogu dobiti uvrtavanjem njihovog iznosa za masu i QDERM
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH (OHNWURQ X KRPRJHQRP HOHNWURVWDWVNRP SROMX
8 KRPRJHQRP SROMX QHPD SURPMHQH MDNRVWL SROMD GDNOH QHPD SURPMHQH MDNRVWL SROMD QL QD SXWDQML NRMRP VH JLED HOHNWURQ 7DNYD SROMD VH IRUPLUDMX X SURVWRUX L]PH X GYLMH EOLVNH SORDVWH HOHNWURGH 6OLND (OHNWURQ PRH ELWL X PLURYDQMX SD JD SROMH XEU]DYD LOL PRH XOLMHWDWL X SROMH UD]OLLWLP EU]LQDPD UD]QL VPMHURYL L L]QRVL
6OLND (OHNWURVWDWVNR SROMH L]PH X SORDVWLK HOHNWURGD D .RQILJXUDFLMD HOHNWURGD N NDWRGD D DQRGD G XGDOMHQRVW L]PH X HOHNWURGD 8 QDSRQ EDWHULMH E 5DVSRGMHOD SRWHQFLMDOD L]PH X GYLMH UDYQH L SDUDOHOQH HOHNWURGH %DWHULMD V QDSRQRP 8 RPRJXDYD VWYDUDQMH HOHNWURVWDWVNRJ SROMD L]PH X SORDVWLK HOHNWURGD (OHNWULQR SROMH MH XVPMHUHQR SUHPD NDWRGL L PRH VH RSLVDWL VOLMHGHRP MHGQDGERP
E= Ua d

8NROLNR MH HOHNWURQ X WUHQXWNX W HPLWLUDQ L] NDWRGH LML MH SRWHQFLMDO RGDEUDQ NDR UHIHUHQWDQ WM MHGQDN QXOL V EU]LQRP Y X VPMHUX HOHNWULQRJ SROMD GLIHUHQFLMDOQD MHGQDGED JLEDQMD YLGL MHGQDGEX JODVL d 2 x q0 U a = dt 2 m0 d 1DNRQ LQWHJULUDQMD GRELMHPR
q U dx = v = 0 a t + C1 dt m0 d

%XGXL GD MH X WUHQXWNX W
SRHWQD EU]LQD Y
Y ]D EU]LQX HOHNWURQD VH GRELMH

dx q 0 U a = t + vk dt m0 d

D ]D SRORDM HOHNWURQD NRQVWDQWD &
x= q0 U a t 2 + vk t m0 d 2
.RQVWDQWD LQWHJUDFLMH X RYRP VOXDMX LH]DYD MHU VH ]D W HOHNWURQ QDOD]L QD NDWRGL JGMH MH [ ,] MHGQDGEL L SURL]OD]L GD EU]LQD UDVWH OLQHDUQR V YUHPHQRP D SULMH HQL SXW [ UDVWH NYDGUDWLQR V YUHPHQRP 2YDNYR JLEDQMH MH X]URNRYDQR NRQVWDQWQRP VLORP XVOLMHG HOHNWULQRJ SROMD L PRHPR UHL GD MH JLEDQMH DQDORJQR JLEDQMX SUHGPHWD X JUDYLWDFLMVNRP SROMX 8NROLNR MH SRHWQD EU]LQD Y PRHPR QDSLVDWL VOLMHGHH MHGQDGEH JLEDQMD
v= dx q 0 U a = t dt m0 d

x=
q0 U a t 2 m0 d 2
SD NRPELQLUDQMHP SRVOMHGQMH GYLMH MHGQDGEH GRELMHPR L]UD] ]D EU]LQX QHRYLVDQ R YUHPHQX
v=
2q 0 U m0

JGMH MH 8 SRWHQFLMDO QD ELOR NRMHP PMHVWX D NRML MH X VOXDMX KRPRJHQRJ SROMD RGUH HQ UHODFLMRP
U= Ua x d

=D SURPDWUDQL VOXDM QHPD EU]LQH X \ L ] VPMHUX SD WDNR QL SURPMHQD SRORDMD X WLP VPMHURYLPD MHU MH SRHWQD EU]LQD X VPMHUX SROMD 8 RYRP VOXDMX MH WUDMHNWRULMD SUDYDF .DGD MH SRHWQD EU]LQD SURL]YROMQR RULMHQWLUDQD WUDMHNWRULMD HOHNWURQD H ELWL SDUDEROD
& 3ULPMHU 1HND HOHNWURQ V EU]LQRP v a X H X KRPRJHQR HOHNWURVWDWVNR SROMH 6PMHU NUHWDQMD HOHNWURQD SDUDOHOQR V RVL [ MH RNRPLW QD HOHNWURVWDWVNR SROMH NRMH MH SDUDOHOQR V RVL \ SD PRHPR SLVDWL
& & & E = E y = ( E ) j & E = E = konst.

& U & E = gradU = j y & U E = y
q d 2x = e 0 2 me 0 dt q d2y = e E 2 me 0 dt q d 2z = e 0 2 me 0 dt
x = C1t + C 2
y=
qe t2 E + C1t + C 2 me0 2
z = C1t + C 2
8 SRHWQRP WUHQXWNX W
YULMHGL [
Y
Y Y!
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=D [ NRPSRQHQWX PRHPR SLVDWL

x = C1t + C 2 XW
[
= 0, v X = v a = C1 x = v a t C2
=D \ NRPSRQHQWX PRHPR SLVDWL y= qe t 2 XW E + C1t + C 2 me 0 2 \

C2 = 0, C1 = 0 MHU MH Y!
y =
qe t2 E me 0 2
=D ] NRPSRQHQWX PRHPR SLVDWL

z = C1t + C 2 XW
]
C2 = 0, v Z = 0 = C1 z = 0
'RELOL VPR VXVWDY
x = va t
q x 1 y = e E 2 x 2 SDUDEROD RNUHQXWD SUHPD JRUH qe t t = y= E va me 0 2v a me0 2

2
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8&
6OLND (OHNWURQVNL WRS 2WNORQ HOHNWURQD X NDWRGQRM FLMHYL 8 SUHWKRGQRP SRJODYOMX SULPMHUX L GRGDWNX RSLVDQR MH GMHORYDQMH HOHPHQDWD NRML VX RVQRYD NDWRGQH FLMHYL 1D VOLFL SULND]DQL VX ELWQL VDVWDYQL GLMHORYL NDWRGQH FLMHYL D WR VX HOHNWURQVNL WRS RWNORQVNH SORLFH L ]DVORQ VD VORMHP IRVIRUD
6OLND 2WNORQ HOHNWURQD X NDWRGQRM FLMHYL .DWRGD MH QDSUDYOMHQD RG PHWDOQRJ RNVLGa koji ima veliku izdanost pri termionskoj emisiji. *UD HQD MH NDR FLMHY XQXWDU NRMH VH QDOD]L DUQD QLW 8$ ,]PH X NDWRGH L DQRGH VWYDUD VH HOHNWURVWDWLNR SROMH XVOLMHG NRMHJ VH HOHNWURQ SULYODL ND SR]LWLYQRM DQRGL 2WNORQVNH SORLFH LPDMX VYRM L]YRU QDSDMDQMD 8( ,]YRU HOHNWURQD $ PRUDPR GRYHVWL QD LVWL SRWHQFLMDO NRML SUHWSRVWDYOMDPR GD YODGD SR VUHGLQL VXVWDYD RWNORQVNLK SORLFD .DG QH EL ELOR RWSRUQLND RQGD EL SROMH L]PH X SORLFD ELOR SRWSXQR QHRYLVQR R SROMX L]PH X $ L . .RG L]YRUD QDSDMDQMD VWUXMD SR GRJRYRUX LGH RG SOXVD SUHPD PLQXVX .UR] RWSRUQLN VH stvara pad napona. Po dogovoru je + tamo gdje struja ulazi u otpornik. Pad napona je u naem VOXDMX LVWL QD RED RWSRUQLND 1D WDM QDLQ VPR SRVWLJOL GD MH SRWHQFLMDO DQRGH LVWL NDR SRWHQFLMDO QD VUHGLQL SROMD L]PH X QDSRQVNLK SORLFD 8 MH QDSRQ NRMLP XEU]DYDPR HOHNWURQH D 8( je napon kojim otklanjamo elektrone, tj. mijenjamo izgled slike na ekranu. Za zatitu GMHORYDQMD YDQMVNLK SROMD QD WRN HOHNWURQD HVWR VH HNUDQ VSDMD V DQRGRP GDMH PX VH SR]LWLYQL SRWHQFLMDO 8 7R L]JOHGD NDR PHWDOQL SUVWHQ RNR HNUDQD PHWDOL]DFLMD 2GUHGLPR WRNH 7) L 70 ,] L SURL]OD]L
y=
qe U D 2 x 2 me 0 2dv a
q va = 2 e U a me0
y=
UD 2 x 4dU a

l 6D VOLNH PRHPR RLWDWL NRRUGLQDWH WRNH 7 ) O \ ) L 70 L + , d s 2

y1 = UD 2 l 4dU a

SD MH NRHILFLMHQW VPMHUD X 70
= y1
x + b WDQJHQWD y t = y1
U Dl 2dU a
U Dl 2 U l U l2 U l U l2 = D l + b b = D yt = D x D 4dU a 2dU a 4dU a 2dU a 4dU a

l poto je i 70 QD WDQJHQWL XYUVWLPR 70 L + , d s X MHGQDGEX 2
dS =
U Dl l U l2 L + D 2dU a 2 4dU a
GDNOH DSVROXWQD YULMHGQRVW YHUWLNDOQRJ RWNORQD UDXQD VH L] L]UD]D
dS =
U D lL 2dU a

.DR WR VOLMHGL L] MHGQDGEH RWNORQ H ELWL WR YHL WR VX RWNORQVNL QDSRQ GXLQD SORLFD L XGDOMHQRVW SORLFD RG ]DVORQD YHL D QDSRQ XEU]DQMD L UD]PDN SORLFD PDQML 2VMHWOMLYRVW NDWRGQH FLMHYL 6 GHILQLUD VH NDR RPMHU RWNORQD L RWNORQVNRJ QDSRQD
S=
dS lL = U D 2dU A

& WR MH YHL DQRGQL QDSRQ PDQMD MH RVMHWOMLYRVW YHL 81 YHD v a PDQML XWMHFDM HOHNWULQRJ SROMD PDQML RWNORQ 1D NUDMX REMDVQLPR SRMDYX VYLMHWOH WRNH QD HNUDQX GR NRMH GROD]L XVOLMHG VXGDUD HOHNWURQD V SRYrinom ekrana. .DGD HOHNWURQ SRJRGL DWRP IRVIRUD LOL QHNRJ PDWHULMDOD SUHGDMH PX GLR VYRMH HQHUJLMH 2YDM viak energije akumulira se u atomu tako to elektroni iz elektronskih ljuski prelaze u via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
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 1DELMHQD HVWLFD X PDJQHWRVWDWVNRP SROMX 6LOD NRMRP PDJQHWVNR SROMH GMHOXMH QD QDELMHQX HVWLFX MH
& & & F = qv B

& & JGMH MH v B YHNWRUVNL SURGXNW EU]LQH HOHNWURQD L PDJQHWVNH LQGXNFLMH 6LOD MH X QMXWQLPD DNR VX L RVWDOH MHGLQLFH GDQH X 0.6 VXVWDYX T $V Y PV L % 7 'DNOH VLOD NRMD GMHOXMH QD QDELMHQX HVWLFX RNRPLWD MH QD VPMHU JLEDQMD HVWLFH L QD PDJQHWVNR SROMH
8VOLMHG GMHORYDQMD VLOH HVWLFD GRELMH XEU]DQMH

& & F = ma
& q & & a = vB m

,] MHGQDGEH XVOLMHG SULURGH YHNWRUVNRJ SURGXNWD SURL]OD]L GD VLOD QD QDELMHQX HVWLFX LH]DYD XNROLNR VH HVWLFD JLED X VPMHUX SROMD
& i & & v B = vx Bx & j & k & & & v z = i (v y B z v z B y ) + j ( v z B x v x B z ) + k (v x B y v y B x ) Bz
vy By

a=
& & q & i (v y B z v z B y ) + j (v z B x v x B z ) + k (v x B y v y B x ) m

8NROLNR VH MHGQDGED UDVWDYL QD NRPSRQHQWH GRELYDMX VH VOLMHGHH MHGQDGEH ]D JLEDQMH HOHNWURQD X PDJQHWVNRP SROMX X SUDYRNXWQRP NRRUGLQDWQRP VXVWDYX
d 2x q = (v y B z v z B y ) 2 m dt 2 d y q = (v z B x v x B z ) 2 m dt 2 d z q ( ) = v B v B x y y x dt 2 m

%XGXL GD MH VPMHU VLOH XYLMHN RNRPLW QD VPMHU EU]LQH L SROMD HQHUJLMD QDELMHQH HVWLFH VH SURODVNRP NUR] PDJQHWRVWDWVNR SROMH QH PLMHQMD
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 3ULPMHU .UXQD SXWDQMD

& 1D VOLFL MH SULND]DQD QDELMHQD HVWLFD NRMD V EU]LQRP v X H X KRPRJHQR PDJQHWVNR SROMH
z
F v B y
6OLND 3ULPMHU SRQDDQMD HVWLFH X PDJQHWRVWDWVNRP SROMX SRHWQL XYMHWL

& & & & & 2SHQLWR ]QDPR GD MH v = v x i + v y j MHU MH B = Bk
& & & & =D SULPMHU QD VOLFL LPDPR GD X WUHQXWNX W YULMHGL v = v x i WM F = Fj 8YUVWLPR SR]QDWH YULMHGQRVWL X MHGQDGEX
d 2x q = ( v y B ) 2 m dt 2 d y q = (v x B ) 2 m dt 2 d z q 0 0 = = dt 2 m d 2x q = v y B 2 dt m 2 d y q = vx B 2 dt m 2 d z = 0 dt 2

& q & & & q a = v B a = vB = a m m

8 JRUQMLP MHGQDGEDPD T P Y L % VX NRQVWDQWQH YHOLLQH 2YR MH MHGQROLNR JLEDQMH 7R YULMHGL DNR VH PLMHQMD VDPR VPMHU DNFHOHUDFLMH 2ERGQD EU]LQD H ELWL NRQVWDQWQD 1DELMHQD HVWLFD X PDJQHWVNRP SROMX QH GRELYD GRGDWQX NLQHWLNX HQHUJLMX 0DJQHWVNR SROMH VDPR NULYL SXWDQMX HVWLFH D NLQHWLND HQHUJLMD MH RGUH HQD LVNOMXLYR SRHWQRP EU]LQRP Y *RUQMH WYUGQMH GRNDLPR LQWHJULUDQMHP L]UD]D

vx = vy = q yB + C1 m

q xB + C2 m v z = C3
v x = v v y = v z = 0 C1 = v
8YUWDYDQMHP SRHWQLK XYMHWD X W
C 2 = 0 C3 = 0
[
vx = vy =
q yB + v m
q xB m vz = 0

3RWR VH XNXSQD EU]LQD NLQHWLND HQHUJLMD QH PLMHQMD PRHPR SLVDWL

2 v = vx + v2 y
GDNOH
q q 2 xB + yB v = v m m
mv mv x2 + y qB = qB

-HGQDGED MH ]DSUDYR MHGQDGED NUXQLFH SR NRMRM VH HVWLFD JLED LML MH UDGLMXV
r=
y
mv = konst. qB

(0,r) F B v X
6OLND 5H]XOWDQWQD SXWDQMD HVWLFH

3UHWKRGQH ]DNOMXNH L PRJOL VPR GRELWL L SRVWDYOMDQMHP VDPR RVQRYQLK MHGQDGEL
F = qBv = ma
WH L]MHGQDDYDQMHP FHQWULIXJDOQH VLOH NRMD VH UD]YLMD ]D YULMHPH JLEDQMD HVWLFH SR NUXQLFL VD VLORP NRMX VWYDUD PDJQHWVNR SROMH
mv 2 = qBv r
,] MHGQDGEH PRHPR ]DNOMXLWL GD H UDGLMXV ]DNULYOMHQRVWL SXWDQMH RYLVLWL R PDVL HVWLFH 1D RYDM QDLQ PRHPR RGUHGLWL GD OL VH QHNL HOHPHQW QDOD]L VDP LOL MH SULVXWDQ L QHNL QMHJRY L]RWRS v qB = = r m NXWQD EU]LQD QH RYLVL R EU]LQL f (v ) 3HULRG URWDFLMH PRHPR SLVDWL NDR
T= 1 2 2 2m = = = f (v ) f 2f qB
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v r = 5.68 10 12 B 11 = 1.76 10 B 1 T = 3.57 10 11 B 10 f = 2.8 10 B 8RELDMHQH YULMHGQRVWL LQGXNFLMH VX RNR 7 D ]D YUOR MDNH PDJQHWH 7
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH .DWRGQD FLMHY V RWNODQMDQMHP SRPRX PDJQHWRVWDWVNRJ SROMD

-HGQD RG YDQLK SULPMHQD NUXQRJ JLEDQMD MH PDJQHWVNL RWNORQ HOHNWURQD X NDWRGQRM FLMHYL 6OLND
homogeno magnetostat.polje
qE mE0
va
b T1(l,y1) ds l L T2(l/2+L,ds) EKRAN x
dio kruznice
6OLND 2WNORQ HOHNWURQD SRPRX PDJQHWRVWDWVNRJ SROMD , X RYRP VOXDMX YULMHPH SUHOHWD PRUD ELWL YUOR PDOR LQDH QH PRHPR JRYRULWL R PDJQHWRVWDWVNRP SROMX PDJQHWVNR SROMH VH NDR L HOHNWULQR VLQXVQR PLMHQMD =D VOXDM SULND]DQ VOLNRP SUHWSRVWDYOMDPR GD VH UDGL R VWURJR RJUDQLHQRP PDJQHWVNRP SROMX WR LQDH QLMH WRQR =D WUDMHNWRULMX HVWLFH X KRPRJHQRP PDJQHWVNRP SROMX RSHQLWR PRHPR SLVDWL
x 2 + (y r ) = r 2
2

=D HOHNWURQ PRHPR SLVDWL

x 2 + (y + r ) = r 2
2

MHU MH L] r =
me 0 v a D ]QDPR GD MH q e < 0 3RWR HOLPR RGUHGLWL RWNORQ HOHNWURQD G2 qe B SRWUHEQR MH RGUHGLWL MHGQDGEX SUDYFD NRML SUROD]L WRNDPD 73 O\3 L 74 O/G2 'HULYLUDMPR SR [ X
2 x + 2( y + r ) y = 0 y = x y+r
y = y1 ; x = l
1 = yT
l y1 + r
7DNR HU DNR L] HNVSOLFLWQR QDSLHPR \

y = r r 2 x 2

'YD PRJXD UMHHQMD SUHGVWDYOMDMX JRUQMX L GRQMX WRNX SUHVMHND NUXQLFH X QDHP VOXDMX RQD SUHGVWDYOMD NUXQLFX SR NRMRM VH HOHNWURQ RWNODQMD X PDJQHWRVWDWLNRP SROMX V SUDYFHP SDUDOHOQLP V RVL \ X QDHP VOXDMX SUDYDF RGJRYDUD GHVQRP UXEX SROMD .DNR SUHWSRVWDYOMDPR D WDNR MH SULND]DQR L QD VOLFL GD MH U ! O, za rjeenje uzimamo gornju WRNX SUHVMHND NUXQLFH V SUDYFHP GDNOH RQX X NRMRM MH \ YULMHGQRVW PDQMH QHJDWLYQD 8YUVWLPR OL YULMHGQRVWL NRRUGLQDWD WRNH 7 3 GRELMHPR
m v y1 = r + r l = e 0 + qe B
2 2
me 0 v 2 q B l e

8YLMHN MH r >> y1 SD YULMHGL
yT
l r

l l2 l2 l2 l2 l2 l2 y = x + b b = y1 + = r + r 2 l 2 + = r + r 1 2 + r + r + = r r r r r r r GDNOH
l2 l l2 b y x+ r r r
SD NDG XYUVWLPR NRRUGLQDWH WRNH 74 YULMHGL

l l l 2 l 2 lL dS L + + = r 2 r 2r r
l 2 << lL d S lL r

lL r lLq e B dS = me 0 v a dS 3R]QDYDMXL RYLVQRVW SRHWQH EU]LQH HOHNWURQD L DQRGQRJ QDSRQD PRHPR SLVDWL


va = 2
qe Ua me 0 me 0 qe qe 1 1 = lLB = lLB 2q eU a 2 me 0 U a 2 me 0 Ua
lLBq e dS = me 0

2VMHWOMLYRVW MH MHGQDND RPMHUX RWNORQD L LQGXNFLMH

S = lL qe 1 2 me 0 Ua

GDNOH 6 a
1 Ua
2VMHWOMLYRVW QDP JRYRUL R WRPH NROLND MH YHOLLQD DPSOLWXGH QD HNUDQX $NR QDSRQL QLVX MDNR YHOLNL RVMHWOMLYRVW QH RSDGD PQRJR QL DNR NRULVWLPR NDWRGQX FLMHY V HOHNWURVWDWVNLP RWNORQRP 1 ]D NRMX YULMHGL 6 a D ]D YHH QDSRQH NRULVWLPR NDWRGQX FLMHY V PDJQHWRVWDWVNLP Ua RWNORQRP ]ERJ PDQMHJ XWMHFDMD 85 8 RVFLORVNRSX VH NRULVWH NDWRGQH FLMHYL V HOHNWURVWDWVNLP RWNORQRP GRN VH X 79 L UDGDUVNLP XUH DMLPD NRML ]DKWLMHYDMX ]QDWQR YHH QDSRQH 85 NRULVWH NDWRGQH FLMHYL V PDJQHWVNLP RWNORQRP 1DSRPHQD JRUQML L]YRG PRJDR VH SRMHGQRVWDYQLWL SROD]HL RG SUHWSRVWDYNH GD ]D PDOH l d NXWRYH RWNORQD YULMHGL tg = = S VOLQL WURNXWL r L
& $NR VPMHU SRHWQH EU]LQH HOHNWURQD v a SULOLNRP XODVND X PDJQHWRVWDWVNR SROMH QLMH RNRPLW QD & VPMHU PDJQHWVNH LQGXNFLMH B WDGD H UH]XOWDQWQD SXWDQMD HOHNWURQD LPDWL REOLN ]DYRMQLFH 8NXSQD SXWDQMD ELWL H VXSHUSR]LFLMD NUXQRJ JLEDQMD HOHNWURQD XVOLMHG NRPSRQHQWH EU]LQH & & RNRPLWH QD B L JLEDQMD XVOLMHG NRPSRQHQWH EU]LQH SDUDOHOQH V B NRMD VH QHH PLMHQMDWL V YUHPHQRP
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH *LEDQMH QDELMHQH HVWLFH SRG LVWRYUHPHQLP GMHORYDQMHP HOHNWURVWDWVNRJ L PDJQHWRVWDWVNRJ KRPRJHQRJ SROMD

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putanja rezultat je toga to magnetsko polje djeluje samo na onu komponentu brzine koja je na QMHJD RNRPLWD SD SURMHNFLMD SXWDQMH QD UDYQLQX RNRPLWX QD VPMHU SROMD LPD REOLN NUXQLFH (OHNWULQR SROMH H X SUDYFX VYRJ GMHORYDQMD MHGQROLNR XEU]DYDWL QDELMHQX HVWLFX WR UH]XOWLUD SURPMHQOMLYLP NRUDNRP ]DYRMQLFH 2SHQLWR PRHPR SLVDWL
& & & & & F = ma = qE + qv B

SD VOLMHGL

& q & & & a= E+vB m

WR GDOMH PRHPR QDSLVDWL SRVHEQR ]D VYDNX NRPSRQHQWX

d 2x q = (E x + v y B z v z B y ) dt 2 m d2y q = (E y + v z B x v x B z ) m dt 2 2 d z q = (E z + v x B y v y B x ) dt 2 m

3ULPMHU 3XWDQMD HOHNWURQD X REOLNX FLNORLGH 3URPDWUDMPR SXWDQMX HOHNWURQD DNR VX HOHNWULQR L PDJQHWVNR SROMH PH XVREQR RNRPLWL NDR WR MH SULND]DQR QD VOLFL %U]LQD HVWLFH X WUHQXWNX XODVND X SROMH MHGQDND MH QXOL +RPRJHQR PDJQHWVNR SROMH LQGXNFLMH % GMHOXMH X VPMHUX QHJDWLYQH RVL ] GRN KRPRJHQR HOHNWULQR SROMH SORDVWRJ NRQGHQ]DWRUD LMH VX HOHNWURGH UD]PDNQXWH ]D G D L]PH X NRMLK MH SULNOMXHQ QDSRQ 8 GMHOXMH X VPMHUX QHJDWLYQH RVL \

z B d

E 0
x0 ym x
6OLND 3ULPMHU SXWDQMH HOHNWURQD X HOHNWURVWDWVNRP L PDJQHWRVWDWVNRP SROMX =D QD VOXDM PRHPR SLVDWL
& & & & E = jE y E = jE & & & & B = k B z B = k B Ex = Ez = 0 Bx = B y = 0

RGQRVQR E y = E Bz = B 8YUWDYDQMHP MHGQDGEH X GRELMHPR q q dy d 2x = e vy B = e B 2 me me dt dt q d 2 y qe dx = ( Bv x E ) = e ( B E ) 2 me me dt dt
d2z =0 dt 2

8 SUHWKRGQLP UD]PDWUDQMLPD VPR YH ]DNOMXLOL GD H WUDMHNWRULMD ELWL X ;< UDYQLQL RNRPLWR QD % L X UDYQLQL V ( SD ] NRPSRQHQWX L] MHGQDGEH GDOMH QHHPR UD]PDWUDWL

8YUWDYDQMHP MHGQDGEH X L UMHDYDQMHP WH GLIHUHQFLMDOQH MHGQDGEH GRELMH VH rjeenje za \, a nakon toga uvrtavanjem G\GW X MHGQDGEX L UMHHQMH ]D [ 'DNOH LQWHJULUDQMHP X] SR]QDWH SRHWQH XYMHWH W G[GW G\GW G]GW [ \ ] GRELMHPR
q dx = e By dt me

SD XYUWDYDQMHP X PRHPR QDSLVDWL

q U d 2 y qe + B y= e LOL y + a 2 y = b 2 m m d dt e e
2
WR MH QHKRPRJHQD GLIHUHQFLMDOQD MHGQDGED GUXJRJ UHGD V NRQVWDQWQLP NRHILFLMHQWLPD .RQDQL L]UD] X]LPDMXL X RE]LU SRHWQH XYMHWH JODVL
x=
qe B qe B m t sin m t e e mU q B y= e 2 cos e t 1 me q e dB meU q e dB 2

z=0
JLEDQMD X VPMHUX RVL ] QHPD MHU QHPD SRHWQH EU]LQH QL HOHNWULQRJ SROMD X WRP VPMHUX *LEDQMH RSLVDQR MHGQDGERP SUHGVWDYOMD FLNORLGX X UDYQLQL ;< .RRUGLQDWD [ VWDOQR UDVWH V YUHPHQRP L VUHGQMD EU]LQD NRMRP VH HOHNWURQ GX WH RVL JLED MHGQDND MH 8G% .RRUGLQDWD \ VH NUHH VWDOQR L]PH X QXOH L PDNVLPDOQH YULMHGQRVWL =DQLPD QDV PDNVLPDOQD YULMHGQRVW ]D cos
qe B t = +1 y = 0 me q B mU ]D cos e t = 1 y = 2 e 2 = y max me q e dB
$NR HOLPR GD HOHNWURQ GLUD HOHNWURGX NULWLQD PDJQHWVND LQGXNFLMD

y max = d 2meU m 1 =dd = 2 eU 2 B qe q e dB
$NR QDV ]DQLPD QD NRMHP PMHVWX [ H HOHNWURQ GRGLUQXWL DQRGX LOL LPDWL PDNVLPXP RQGD MH
cos(2k + 1) = 1
qe B t = (2k + 1) me
k = 0,1,2,...
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH ]D N MH t =

me YULMHPH QDVWXSDQMD SUYRJ PDNVLPXPD SD MH qe B

x= meU q e dB 2 q e B me q e B me meU = q dB 2 ( 0 ) m q B sin m q B e e e e e
x=
(OHNWURVWDWVNH OHH
me U q e dB 2
3URPDWUDMXL SRQDDQMH ]UDNH VYMHWORVWL L QMHQRJ ORPD SULOLNRP SURODVND NUR] RSWLNL UD]OLLWD VUHGVWYD PRH VH SULPLMHWLWL VOLQRVW V JLEDQMHP HOHNWURQD X SRGUXMX SURPMHQOMLYRJ SRWHQFLMDOD X HOHNWURVWDWVNLP SROMLPD 2YDNYD DQDORJLMD RPRJXDYD QDP SRMHGQRVWDYQMHQMH RGUH HQLK SUREOHPD X HOHNWURQLFL 3ULVMHWLPR VH 6QHOORYRJ ]DNRQD 6OLND
sin 1 n 2 = sin 2 n1

JGMH VX 6 L 7 NXWRYL NRMH WYRUL ]UDND VYMHWORVWL V QRUPDORP QD JUDQLQX SORKX GRN VX Q 6 L Q7 SULSDGDMXL LQGHNVL ORPD
6OLND ,OXVWUDFLMD 6QHOORYRJ ]DNRQD 6DGD SURPRWULPR WR VH GRJD D V HOHNWURQRP NRML GROD]L GR JUDQLQH SORKH NRMD UD]GYDMD GYD SRGUXMD UD]OLLWLK SRWHQFLMDOD 6OLND

v1
1 1 d 2 2 v2 U1 U2 U2 > U1
6OLND 3URPMHQD VPMHUD HOHNWURQD SULOLNRP SUHODVND L] SRGUXMD SRWHQFLMDOD 86 X SRGUXMH SRWHQFLMDOD 87 3ORKH UD]OLLWLK SRWHQFLMDOD 86 L 87 QDOD]H VH YUOR EOL]X G MH YUOR PDOL ,]PH X QMLK MH & HOHNWURVWDWVNR SROMH E 3ROMH X]URNXMH SURPMHQX NLQHWLNH HQHUJLMH HOHNWURQD L WR VDPR RQH NRPSRQHQWH EU]LQH NRMD MH SDUDOHOQD V WLP SROMHP 7DQJHQFLMDOQH NRPSRQHQWH H RVWDWL QHSURPLMHQMHQH SUROD]RP L] WRNH X WRNX ,] VOLNH PRHPR RLWDWL YULMHGQRVWL WDQJHQFLMDOQLK NRPSRQHQDWD EU]LQH SD PRHPR SLVDWL
v1 sin 1 = v 2 sin 2
LOL DQDORJQR 6QHOORYRP ]DNRQX L] MHGQDGEH
sin 1 v 2 = sin 2 v1

%U]LQD HOHNWURQD PRH VH NDNR MH YH SRND]DQR LVND]DWL UHODFLMRP v1 = v2 = 2q e U1 me 2q e U2 me

SD NRPELQLUDQMHP MHGQDGEL L GRELMHPR
sin 1 U2 = sin 2 U1
WM DNR MH U 2 > U 1 1 > 2


U1 v
U2 U3 U1 < U2 U3 F
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
r= mv qB
'UXJLP ULMHLPD RYLVQR R YHOLLQL UDGLMXVD U ]QDPR GD OL MH HVWLFD NRMX PDVHQLP Vpektrometrom ispitujemo osnovni element ili izotop (Vie atoma koji imaju isti atomski broj WM EURM SURWRQD DOL UD]OLLWL PDVHQL EURM 5DG PDVHQRJ VSHNWURPHWUD PRH VH SRGLMHOLWL X HWLUL NRUDND .RUDN ,RQL]DFLMD $WRP VH LRQL]LUD L]EDFLYDQMHP MHGQRJ ili vie elektrona kako bi dobili pozitivni ion. Maseni VSHNWURPHWUL XYLMHN UDGH V SR]LWLYQLP LRQLPD
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH .RUDN 8EU]DQMH ,RQL VH XEU]DYDMX NDNR EL LPDOL QHNX NLQHWLNX HQHUJLMX

.RUDN 2WNODQMDQMH ,RQL VH RWNODQMDMX PDJQHWVNLP SROMHP RYLVQR R QMLKRYRM Pasi. to su laki, vie se otklanjaju. .ROLLQD RWNODQMDMD WDNR HU RYLVL L R EURMX SR]LWLYQLK QDERMD X LRQX GUXJLP ULMHLPD R WRPH NROLNR VPR HOHNWURQD L]EDFLOL X SUYRP NRUDNX WR MH LRQ YLH QDELMHQ YLH H VH RWNODQMDWL .RUDN 'HWHNFLMD =UDND LRQD NRML SUROD]H NUR] VWURM HOHNWULQR VH GHWHNWLUD
Akceleracija Ionizacija Elektromagnet
Vaporizirani uzorak Ogibanje
U vakuumsku pumpu
Detekcija
Pojacalo Prikaz
6OLND 2VQRYQL HOHPHQWL PDVHQRJ VSHNWURPHWUD
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

Naboju iona (Ioni s 2 ili vie pozitivnih naboja vie se otklanjaju od onih s jednim SR]LWLYQLP QDERMHP
2YL IDNWRUL NRPELQLUDQL VX X RPMHU PDVDQDERM 1D SULPMHU DNR QHNL LRQ LPD PDVX L QDERM RPMHU PDVDQDERM MH ,RQ V PDVRP L QDERMHP H WDNR HU LPDWL RPMHU PDVH L QDERMD 1D VOLFL F WRN LRQD $ se najvie otklanja RQ VDGUL LRQH V QDMPDQMLP RPMHURP PDVDQDERM 7RN LRQD & VH QDMPDQMH RWNODQMD SD WR ]QDL GD RQ LPD QDMYHL RPMHU PDVDQDERM 3URXDYDQMH LRQD MH MHGQRVWDYQLMH DNR SUHWSRVWDYLPR GD MH QDERM VYLK LRQD 1DMYHL EURM LRQD X VSHNWURPHWUX ]DLVWD L LPD RYDNDY QDERM SD MH RPMHU PDVDQDERM LVWL NDR L PDVD LRQD
D
Elektromagnet Ulazni tok iona Tok iona C
Tok iona B
E
Pozitivni ion
Tok iona A
Tok iona B
Metalna kutija Vod do pojacala
elektroni
G 6OLND 3RMHGLQH ID]H UDGD PDVHQRJ VSHNWURPHWUD D ,RQL]DFLMD E 8EU]DQMH F 2WNODQMDQMH G 'HWHNFLMD
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

osnovni element izotop B K A

skala moze biti bazdarena u m, q/m, m/q
6OLND 3ULND] UH]XOWDWD QD PDVHQRP VSHNWURPHWUX /LQHDUQL DNFHOHUDWRU /LQHDUQL DNFHOHUDWRUL VX XUH DML NRG NRMLK VH SULPMHQMXMX HOHNWURVWDWVND SROMD NDR RVQRYQD D PDJQHWRVWDWVND NDR SRPRQD DNR VX SRWUHEQD &LOM RYLK XUH DMD MH SRVWL]DQMH YHOLNLK XEU]DQMD QDELMHQLK HVWLFD SR]LWLYQL LRQL LOL HOHNWURQL 8UH DML UDGH QD SULQFLSX HPLVLMH QDELMHQLK HVWLFD QD MHGQRP NUDMX L SRVWXSQLP XEU]DYDQMHP WLK HVWLFD X SUDYRFUWQRM YDNXXPVNRM FLMHYL GR SRVWL]DQMD NRQDQH EU]LQH RGQRVQR NLQHWLNH HQHUJLMH 6OLND
pom. anoda
EK = (mv2)/2
UA
6OLND /LQHDUQL DNFHOHUDWRU
vakuumska cijev
.DWRGD MH ]DSUDYR HOHNWURQVNL LOL LRQVNL WRS $NR VH UDGL R SR]LWLYQLP LRQLPD ULMH NDWRGD VKYDDPR VDPR VLPEROLNL Za dobivanje velikih brzina potrebni su vrlo veliki naponi. Takve napone je teko dobiti, a NDGD L GRELMHPR WDNR YHOLNL QDSRQ SRVWRML PRJXQRVW SURERMD 6WRJD MH SRWUHEQR HVWLFH SRVWXSQR XEU]DYDWL D WR VH SRVWLH QL]RP SRPRQLK DQRGD FLOLQGULQRJ FMHYDVWRJ REOLND ,]D VYDNH SRPRQH DQRGH VH SRYHDYD QDSRQ D WLPH L EU]LQD HVWLFD 8QXWDU FLOLQGUD HVWLFH VH JLEDMX NRQVWDQWQRP EU]LQRP 3RYHDQMHP EU]LQH GROD]L GR NRUHNFLMH PDVH m0 m = WH GROD]L GR NRHQMD 'D EL VH SRVWLJOD YHOLND NLQHWLND HQHUJLMD FLMHYL 1 v2 / c2 PRUDMX ELWL YUOR GXJH QSU 6WDQIRUG P (8 0H9 NP (8 *H9 &(51 (8

*H9 X L]JUDGQML +DPEXUJ NP *H9 =ERJ YHOLNH GXLQH FLMHYL GR XWMHFDMD GROD]L L ]DNULYOMHQRVW =HPOMH SD VH NRUHNFLMD SXWDQMH YUL SRPRX PDJQHWVNRJ SROMD &LNORWURQ &LNORWURQL VH WDNR HU NDR L OLQHDUQL DNFHOHUDWRUL NRULVWH ]D XEU]DYDQMH HVWLFD 1D VOLNDPD L SULND]DQL VX W]Y 'ovi koji zapravo predstavljaju uplji valjak SUHVMHHQ SR SROD L UD]PDNQXW 6SRMHQL VX QD YLVRNRIUHNYHQWQL RVFLODWRU 9)2 L QDOD]H VH X HOLQRM NRPRUL L] NRMH MH LVWLVQXW ]UDN 8 VUHGLQL L]PH X 'RYD QDOD]L VH L]YRU QDELMHQLK HVWLFD
magnet N
vakuumska pumpa
6OLND &LNORWURQ 'RYL X PDJQHWVNRP SROMX 3RORYL VX PDVLYQL RG SXQRJ KRPRJHQRJ HOLND 3ROMH L]PH X PDJQHWD MH KRPRJHQR 8 MHGQRP WUHQXWNX MH MHGQD VWUDQD SR]LWLYQD D GUXJD QHJDWLYQD 1HJDWLYQL ' WDGD SULYXH q SR]LWLYQH LRQH 8 WUHQXWNX NDG LK MH SULYXNDR RQL GRELMX EU]LQX v = 2 U A L XOete u uplji m poluvaljak (D). Tu vie nema djelovanja elektrostatskog polja, ali djeluje magnetsko polje i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
1 = konst.; = 2f = konst. L PLMHQMD QDSRQ X T WRQR RGUH HQLP WUHQXWFLPD .XWQD EU]LQD HVWLFH PRUD ELWL NRQVWDQWQD L PRUD RGJRYDUDWL 7 0RHPR SLVDWL
2VFLODWRU LPD ILNVQX IUHNYHQFLMX f =

v v qB v r = = konst. = = konst. mv r m r r= qB

=ERJ VYH YHH EU]LQH GROD]L GR SURPMHQH PDVH L RQGD vie nije konstantna. Zbog toga je SRWUHEQR PRGXOLUDWL 9)2 SR IUHNYHQFLML GD EL VYDNL SXW NDG HVWLFD L]OD]L L] MHGQRJ 'D ]ERJ SURPLMHQMHQH PDVH D WLPH L SURPLMHQMHQH NXWQH EU]LQH VXSURWQL ' SRVWLJDR WUDHQL SRODULWHW X pravom trenutku, odnosno u trenutku naputanja prethodnog DD RG VWUDQH QDELMHQH HVWLFH 8 VXSURWQRP VOXDMX QDVWDOR EL NRHQMH 2QL FLNORWURQL NRML UHJXOLUDMX IUHNYHQFLMX QD]LYDMX VH VLQNURFLNORWURQL
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

,]YHGL L]UD] ]D EU]LQX L WUDMHNWRULMX HOHNWURQD L]PH X GYLMH SORDVWH HOHNWURGH SR]QDWRJ UD]PDND L QDSRQD PH X QMLPD WR MH YULMHPH SUHOHWD L ]DWR MH RQR YDQR" 1DYHGLWH RVQRYQH GLMHORYH NDWRGQH FLMHYL L QMLKRYX IXQNFLMX WR MH RVMHWOMLYRVW L R NRMLP YHOLLQDPD RQD RYLVL" =ERJ HJD QDELMHQD HVWLFD X PDJQHWVNRP SROMX QH GRELMD NLQHWLNX HQHUJLMX" 1DSLLWH L]UD] ]D XEU]DQMH QDELMHQH HVWLFH QDVWDOR XVOLMHG GMHORYDQMD PDJQHWVNRJ SROMD 2SLL WUDMHNWRULMX QDELMHQH HVWLFH X PDJQHWVNRP SROMX RGJRYDUDMXRP MHGQDGERP 2 HPX RYLVL RVMHWOMLYRVW NRG NDWRGQH FLMHYL V PDJQHWVNLP RWNORQRP" =D NRMH SULPMHQH NRULVWLPR NDWRGQH FLMHYL V RWNORQRP SRPRX HOHNWURVWDWVNRJ SROMD D za koje one s magnetostatskim poljem i zato? 1DYHGLWH SULPMHU SXWDQMH HOHNWURQD NRML VH LVWRYUHPHQR QDOD]L X HOHNWURVWDWVNRP L PDJQHWRVWDWVNRP SROMX .DNR JODVL 6QHOORY ]DNRQ" 2EMDVQLWH SURPMHQX VPMHUD HOHNWURQD SULOLNRP SUHODVND L] SRGUXMD YLHJ SRWHQFLMDOD X SRGUXMH QLHJ SRWHQFLMDOD L REUDWQR 1D HPX VH WHPHOML UDG PDVHQRJ VSHNWURPHWUD" .RML VX RVQRYQL GLMHORYL PDVHQRJ VSHNWURPHWUD" .RMD MH UD]OLND L]PH X OLQHDUQRJ DNFHOHUDWRUD L FLNORWURQD" Zato sinkrociklotroni imaju promjenjivu frekvenciju oscilatora?


6YRMVWYD PHWDOD L SROXYRGLD

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kloru, to ]QDL GD VH RED DWRPD LRQL]LUDMX L VYDNL ]D VHEH LPD SRSXQMHQH OMXVNH 1D&O 6LOD NULVWDOQH YH]H MH HOHNWURVWDWVNH SULURGH L UH]XOWDW MH LRQL]DFLMH ,RQVNL NULVWDOL YUOR VODER YRGH VWUXMX SRJRWRYR QD QLLP WHPSHUDWXUDPD 0HWDOQL NULVWDOL Ioni kristalne reetke nastali su otputanjem valentnih elektrona. Ti elektroni QLVX YH]DQL X] VYRMH PDWLQH DWRPH L NUHX VH VORERGQR NUR] LWDY NULVWDO 6ORERGQL HOHNWURQL VX X]URN YHOLNH VSHFLILQH YRGOMLYRVWL PHWDOQLK NULVWDOD 6LOH NULVWDOQLK YH]D L]PH X LRQD kristalne reetke su elektrostatske prirode i ostvaruju ih slobodni elektroni. .RYDOHQWQL NULVWDOL 8 RYRP VOXDMX VH VLOH NULVWDOQH YH]H RVWYDUXMX GLMHOMHQMHP YDOHQWQLK HOHNWURQD L]PH X VXVMHGQLK DWRPD SDURYL HOHNWURQD ]DMHGQLNL NUXH RNR REMH MH]JUH 6LOH NULVWDOQLK YH]D VX L RYGMH HOHNWURVWDWVNH SULURGH DOL VH QH PRJX REMDVQLWL NODVLQRP &RXORPERYRP VLORP YH YDOQRP SULURGRP HOHNWURQD 8GUXLYDQMH YDOHQWQLK HOHNWURQD X NRYDOHQWQH YH]H LPD ]D SRVOMHGLFX GD NRYDOHQWQL NULVWDOL VODER YRGH VWUXMX D QD WHPSHUDWXUL DSVROXWQH QXOH XRSH QH YRGH Sa stajalita elektronike osnovna podjela jest na: YRGLH SROXYRGLH L]RODWRUH 2YD SRVOMHGQMD SRGMHOD ]DVQLYD VH QD UD]OLNDPD X YULMHGQRVWL VSHFLILQRJ RPVNRJ RWSRUD PDWHULMDOD $NR MH VSHFLILQL RWSRU R SP 10 3 cm WDGD VH UDGL R YRGLX ]D YULMHGQRVW
R SP > 10 6 cm ULMH MH R L]RODWRULPD 6SHFLILDQ RWSRU YRGLD UDVWH V SRUDVWRP WHPSHUDWXUH GRN VSHFLILDQ RWSRU SROXYRGLD RSDGD V SRUDVWRP WHPSHUDWXUH LDNR PRH XQXWDU RGUH HQRJ LQWHUYDOD WHPSHUDWXUQH VNDOH L UDVWL 3RGMHOX YUVWLK WLMHOD QD YRGLH SROXYRGLH L L]RODWRUH PRJXH MH L]YULWL XJODYQRP QD RVQRYX YUVWH VLOD NULVWDOQH YH]H =D QDMYHL EURM YRGLD WLSLQL VX PHWDOQL NULVWDOL D ]D SROXYRGLH L L]RODWRUH LRQVNL L NRYDOHQWQL NULVWDOL
VSHFLILQRJ RWSRUD 10 3 cm < RSP < 10 6 cm JRYRULPR R SROXYRGLX D ]D YULMHGQRVWL
(QHUJHWVNH YUSFH X YRGLLPD 9RGL MH HOHPHQW VXVWDYD NRML VDPR XVPMHUDYD HOHNWULQX HQHUJLMX RQD SXWXMH RNR YRGLD 8 VXSUDYRGOMLYRP VWDQMX PHWDOL VX VNRUR LGHDOQL YRGLL WM JXELFL HQHUJLMH NRML VX WRSOLQVNRJ NDUDNWHUD VX ]DQHPDULYL 6XSUDYRGOMLYRVW VH SRVWLH QD YUOR QLVNLP WHPSHUDWXUDPD

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bombardiranjem povrine metala (metalnih oksida) vanjskim elektronLPD LOL QHNLP GUXJLP HVWLFDPD VHNXQGDUQD HPLVLMD (QHUJLMH HOHNWURQD X PHWDOX VX VWDWLVWLNL UDVSRUH HQH WM QHPDMX VYL HOHNWURQL XQXWDU QHNRJ SRMDVD HQHUJLMD MHGQDNH HQHUJLMH 8]LPDMXL X RE]LU VWDWLVWLNX UDVSRGMHOX HQHUJLMD HOHNWURQD PL HPR GDNOH SURPDWUDWL FLMHOL HOHNWURQVNL REODN D QH MHGQX LOL GYLMH HVWLFH (OHNWURQL GD EL VH JLEDOL PRUDMX LPDWL QHNX HQHUJLMX =D UD]OLNX RG IL]LNH NRMD VH ]DVQLYD QD NODVLQRM VWDWLVWLFL NYDQWQD IL]LND MH SRND]DOD GD SUL WHPSHUDWXUL RG o K moraju postojati NYDQWQD JLEDQMD HOHNWURQD 2YR MH RVQRYD UD]PDWUDQMD NRMLP HPR REMDVQLWL SRQDDQMH VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD X PHWDOLPD 6OLND
ACBDFEHGPIRQDTSCU r SWVCD XYIR` IRQabB SRGWc dYSCeRfgGWcRAhfWipabD aD VWSCURD q
E E
s
VPcYa SCqPQpcvGWcdeCSPVWSRBbDpUCct I D dYcWabDpIGWIRB eRD tfIRBbdgD t IWVCf
VtbIB StbcWabGWShipaRUCcgIvGWIRQDTIR` IRQabB SG B cWwhD GhfPyx ed
T1 >T2 T1>0 T2
za T >0 T1 >T2
T1
VPSut IvQBbD VCfC` t cYwWcYEyxC dYcRdYS dYSWPIvAWSCipa STt cWabDGCDt ICURGWcvB cWwCD GWc
icRdYSIRBbdgD t IWVhfB cWwhD GhfEfgGWI VPICcgSCUIBdgD t IWVWI
T2 EF EF T=0 0 0 0.5 1
6OLND 5DVSRGMHOD HQHUJLMD VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD X PHWDOX GHVQR =DSRVMHGQXWRVW HQHUJHWVNLK UD]LQD RG VWUDQH HOHNWURQD X RYLVQRVWL R WHPSHUDWXUL OLMHYR
f(E,T)dN dn = dE dE
f(E,T)

2EMDVQLPR SUYR GHVQX VWUDQX VOLNH 1D VOLFL MH ]DSUDYR SULND]DQD )HUPL'LUDFRYD UDVSRGMHOD WM IXQNFLMD NRMD RGUH XMH YMHURMDWQRVW GD MH QHNR HQHUJHWVNR VWDQMH ]DSRVMHGQXWR HOHNWURQRP L NRMD VH PRH PDWHPDWLNL QDSLVDWL QD VOLMHGHL QDLQ 1 f (E,T ) = E EF JGMH VX (f )HUPLMHYD UD]LQD ( NLQHWLND HQHUJLMD 7 DSVROXWQD WHPSHUDWXUD N %ROW]PDQQRYD NRQVWDQWD 1.38 10 23 J / K 2YD MHGQDGED L]YHGHQD MH QD RVQRYX 3DXOLMHYRJ SULQFLSD LVNOMXLYRVWL QD MHGQRP HQHUJHWVNRP QLYRX PRH ELWL VDPR MHGDQ HOHNWURQ L +HLVHQEHUJRYRJ XYMHWD QHRGUH HQRVWL
1+ e
kT
WR MH WHPSHUDWXUD QLD QMHQD NULYXOMD MH EOLD SUDYRNXWQRM NULYXOML 6YH NULYXOMH VLJXUQR SUROD]H NUR] WRNX (f $NR LPDPR YRGL QD DSVROXWQRM QXOL QH PRH SRVWRMDWL QL MHGQD UD]LQD L]QDG (f 1D WRM WHPSHUDWXUL VYL GR]YROMHQL HQHUJHWVNL QLYRL GR (f VX VWYDUQR ]DSRVMHGQXWL $OL YH PDOR L]QDG . QSU . PRHPR LPDWL HQHUJLMH L]QDG (f 'RYROMQD MH PLQLPDOQD WHPSHUDWXUD L]QDG DSVROXWQH QXOH SD GD SRVWRML QHND YMHURMDWQRVW YUOR PDOD GD H L HQHUJHWVNH UD]LQH L]QDG (f LSDN ELWL ]DSRVMHGQXWH 0RHPR ND]DWL GD MH )HUPLMHY QLYR RQDM HQHUJHWVNL QLYR LMD MH YMHURMDWQRVW ]DSRVMHGQXD MHGQDND ]D QHNX NRQDQX WHPSHUDWXUX D RGUH HQ MH UDVSRGMHORP HQHUJHWVNLK UD]LQD L XNXSQLP EURMHP HOHNWURQD /LMHYD VWUDQD VOLNH SUHGVWDYOMD UDVSRGMHOX JXVWRH HOHNWURQD SR HQHUJHWVNLP UD]LQDPD L PRH VH RSLVDWL L]UD]RP f ( E , T )dN dn = S ( E ) f (E , T ) = dE d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f VDPR JLEDWL XQXWDU PHWDOD VWYDUDMX VWUXMX D L]QDG WH QRYH UD]LQH H HOHNWURQL L]OLMHWDWL L] PHWDOD ]D WR MH SRWUHEQR VDYODGDWL EDULMHUX L]OD]D 3URPRWULPR VDGD MHGQDGEX
f (E,T ) = 1 1+ e
E EF kT
.ULYXOMD SULND]DQD QD VOLFL L JRUQML L]UD] VH VDPR DSURNVLPDWLYQR VODX $NR MH 1 1 $NR MH E E F + 3kT E E F 3kT RQGD PRHPR SUHWSRVWDYLWL GD MH f ( E , T ) = 1 + e 3
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH RQGD LPDPR f ( E , T ) =

1 e 3 f ( E , T ) = e 3 1+ e E EF kT
NODVLQD 0D[ZHOO%ROW]PDQQRYD
YMHURMDWQRVW
f(E,T)
T=0 K
0.5
T=2500 K
EF
6OLND 'LMDJUDP )HUPLMHYH YMHURMDWQRVWL QD WHPSHUDWXUL . UDGQD WHPSHUDWXUD YROIUDPD ,]OD] HOHNWURQD L] PHWDOD 9MHURMDWQRVW GD QHNL HOHNWURQ L]D H L] PHWDOD L HQHUJLMH NRMH VX SRWUHEQH GD EL XRSH PRJDR L]DL L] PHWDOD REMDVQLW HPR SRPRX VOLNH
6OLND 'LMDJUDP HQHUJLMD VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD X PHWDOX

1D VOLFL (g MH HQHUJLMD EDULMHUH ( h MH L]OD]QL UDG HQHUJLMD NRMD MH SRWUHEQD GD EL HOHNWURQ izaao iz metala). ; SUHGVWavlja dubinu prodora u metal, odnosno povrinu metala, odnosno YDQMVNL SURVWRU 'HVQD VWUDQD VOLNH SUHGVWDYOMD YH SR]QDWX NULYXOMX NRMD QDP JRYRUL R SRWHQFLMDOQRM HQHUJLML HOHNWURQD X PHWDOX WM R HQHUJLML NRMX HOHNWURQ PRUD LPDWL GD EL XRSH PRJDR L]DL L] PHWDOD $NR MH WHPSHUDWXUD . VYL HOHNWURQL QDOD]H VH GR HQHUJHWVNH UD]LQH (f 7DGD QL MHGDQ HOHNWURQ QHPD HQHUJHWVNX UD]LQX YHX RG )HUPLMHYH D (f QLMH GRYROMQD GD HOHNWURQ L]D H L] PHWDOD (g !(f (g (f ( h .DNR WHPSHUDWXUD UDVWH WDNR VH SRYHDYD HQHUJLMD HOHNWURQD DOL VH PLMHQMD L UDVSRGMHOD JXVWRH SR HQHUJHWVNLP UD]LQDPD -HGDQ GLR HOHNWURQD PDOL EURM H LPDWL HQHUJLMH YHH RG (g 7DM GLR HOHNWURQD PRH L]DL L] PHWDOD GDNOH GROD]L GR HPLVLMH HOHNWURQD 8 QHNLP VOXDMHYLPD GRYROMQH VX L PDQMH WHPSHUDWXUH GD GR H GR HPLVLMH QSU NRG RNVLGQLK PDWHULMDOD 0RHPR ]DNOMXLWL GD MH SRVWL]DQMH HPLVLMH RYLVQR R )HUPLMHYRM UD]LQL (f L HQHUJHWVNRM EDULMHUL ]D RGUH HQL PHWDO Svi metali nemaju jednaku krivulju koncentracije elektrona. to je koncenWUDFLMD HOHNWURQD YHD YLD MH SR YULMHGQRVWL L )HUPLMHYD UD]LQD 7D YULMHGQRVW VH NUHH RG H9 9HOLLQD L]OD]QRJ UDGD ]D PHWDOH VH NUHH RG H9 %DULMHUD VH PRH VPDQMLWL MDNLP HOHNWURVWDWVNLP SROMHP 7LPH VH SRVWLH XSDQMH HOHNWURQD L] PHWDOD WM QD WDM QDLQ VPDQMXMHPR ( h .DUDNWHULVWLQH HQHUJHWVNH YUSFH ]D PHWDO SULND]DQH VX QD VOLFL
6OLND (QHUJHWVNH YUSFH ]D PHWDO =D VWDQMH 7 . VYL HOHNWURQL VH QDOD]H X RVMHQDQRP SRGUXMX L QH SRVWRML QLNDNYD PRJXQRVW HPLVLMH 8 VOXDMX SRYHDQMD WHPSHUDWXUH MHGDQ GLR HOHNWURQD SUHOD]L X W]Y YRGOMLYX YUSFX L SRG XWMHFDMHP YDQMVNRJ SROMD WL HOHNWURQL PRJX YRGLWL HOHNWULQL QDERM $NR HQHUJLMD QDUDVWH L]QDG (g , dolazi do emisije, ali tada vie ne govorimo o metalu. (PLVLMD HOHNWURQD L] PHWDOD 7HUPLRQVND HPLVLMD 7HUPLRQVND HPLVLMD QDVWDMH ]DJULMDYDQMHP PHWDOD 0HWDO H QDSXVWLWL VDPR RQL HOHNWURQL LMD MH HQHUJLMD X VPMHUX JUDQLQH SRYULQH PHWDOD YHD RG SRWHQFLMDOQH EDULMHUH (g QD JUDQLFL NDWRGDYDNXXP 3RWUHEQX HQHUJLMX HOHNWURQL GRELYDMX ]DJULMDYDQMHP PHWDOD 1D SULPMHU ]D NDWRGX RG YROIUDPD MH UDGQD WHPSHUDWXUD . SD MH NRG WH WHPSHUDWXUH HQHUJLMD

SRMHGLQDQRJ HOHNWURQD ( i H9 7D HQHUJLMD MH ]QDWQR PDQMD RG SRWUHEQRJ L]OD]QRJ UDGD NRML MH RNR SXWD YHL 7XPDHQMH SRMDYH HPLVLMH HOHNWURQD SUL WLP WHPSHUDWXUDPD ]DVQLYD VH QD LQMHQLFL VWDWLVWLNLK UD]GLRED DVLPSWRWVNL UHS SULND]DQ X SUHWKRGQLP SRJODYOMLPD LQMHQLFD GD VH HOHNWURQL SRQDDMX SR VWDWLVWLNLP UD]GLREDPD RPRJXDYD REMDQMHQMH HPLVLMH HOHNWURQD L] PHWDOD =D RELQH NDWRGH L]OD]QL UDG VH NUHH RNR ( h H9 (OHNWURQ PRH QDSXVWLWL PHWDO NDGD MH X VPMHUX JUDQLQH SRYULQH QSU VPMHU [ NRRUGLQDWH NLQHWLND HQHUJLMD EDUHP MHGQDND (g SD PRHPR SLVDWL 2E B vX me .RPSRQHQWH EU]LQD X GUXJLP VPMHURYLPD PRJX ELWL SURL]YROMQH 6XPLUDQMHP VYLK HOHNWURQD NRML PRJX ELWL HPLWLUDQL X VPMHUX RNRPLWRP QD JUDQLQX SRYULQX PRHPR GRELWL L]UD] ]D JXVWRX VWUXMH WHUPLRQVNH HPLVLMH
J e = AT 2 e
EW kT

JGMH MH $ NRQVWDQWD (PSLULMVND YULMHGQRVW NRQVWDQWH $ L]QRVL A = 60 10 4 A / m 2 K 2 2GDWOH PRHPR QDSLVDWL ]D MDNRVW VWUXMH VOLMHGHL L]UD]
I e = S J e = SAT 2 e
EW kT

JGMH MH 6 povrina katode i ima dimenziju Pj 6HNXQGDUQD HPLVLMD 8NROLNR HVWLFH QSU HOHNWURQL LRQL LWG XGDUDMX X QHNL YUVWL PDWHULMDO PRH VH SULPLMHWLWL GD H WDM PDWHULMDO HPLWLUDWL HOHNWURQH 2YLVQR R YUVWL PDWHULMDOD L HQHUJLML HVWLFD NRMH XGDUDMX X PDWHULMDO YDULUDW H L NROLLQD HPLWLUDQLK HOHNWURQD HVWLFH NRMH XGDUDMX X YUVWL PDWHULMDO QD]LYDMX VH SULPDUQH HVWLFH D HPLWLUDQL HOHNWURQL L] PHWDOD VHNXQGDUQH HVWLFH 7HKQLNL MH QDMYDQLMD VHNXQGDUQD HPLVLMD L]D]YDQD HOHNWURQLPD 6OLND
Te Te Te
Ik l m n
To
6OLND 6HNXQGDUQD HPLVLMD 2PMHU HPLWLUDQLK VHNXQGDUQLK HOHNWURQD QD MHGDQ SULPDUQL HOHNWURQ R]QDLPR V 7DM NYRFLMHQW MR VH QD]LYD L IDNWRU VHNXQGDUQH HPLVLMH 'DNOH PRHPR SLVDWL

sek prim

JGMH VX ,pqr L ,sPtu v VWUXMH VHNXQGDUQLK RGQRVQR SULPDUQLK HOHNWURQD =D SULPMHU SULND]DQ QD VOLFL WDM RPMHU L]QRVL ,QDH ]D PHWDOH MH RNR D ]D RNVLGH GR 'D EL HOHNWURQ PRJDR L]ELWL GUXJH HOHNWURQH PRUD LPDWL HQHUJLMX RG EDUHP H9 D PDNVLPXP HPLVLMH VH SRVWLH HQHUJLMRP RG QHNROLNR VWRWLQD H9 Kompozitne povrine OHJXUH VX XYLMHN L]GDQLMH RG LVWLK PDWHULMDOD SD L RG ]EURMD L]GDQRVWL SRMHGLQLK VDVWDYQLK GLMHORYD OHJXUD )RWRHPLVLMD Kod fotoemisije izboj (emisija elektrona) nastaje zbog svjetlosnog udara na povrinu metala 6OLND
Tw VYMHWORVW (0 YDO Te Te Te
PHWDO
6OLND )RWRHPLVLMD )RWRHPLVLMD RYLVL R MDNRVWL VYMHWORVWL 9H RGDYQR MH GRND]DQD SURSRUFLRQDOQRVW L]PH X EURMD HPLWLUDQLK HOHNWURQD VWUXMH IRWRHPLVLMH L MDNRVWL UDGLMDFLMH NRMD SDGD QD NDWRGX 0H XWLP RVLP RYH YH]H SULPLMHHQR MH L GD ]D QHNH YUVWH VYMHWORVWL QH GROD]L GR HPLVLMH elektrona bez obzira na jakost radijacije. Ova pojava razjanjena je tek 1905. godine. Naime, SR]QDWR MH GD VH VYMHWORVW VDVWRML RG QL]D NRPSRQHQDWD RG LQIUDFUYHQH GR XOWUDOMXELDVWH 6YDND ERMD LPD VYRMX YDOQX GXOMLQX WM IUHNYHQFLMX $NR MH IUHNYHQFLMD VYMHWORVQH NRPSRQHQWH LVSRG QHNH JUDQLQH YULMHGQRVWL WDNDY VYMHWORVQL YDO QH PRH SURL]YHVWL IRWRHPLVLMX EH] RE]LUD QD QMHJRYX MDNRVW .DG VH SULEOLLPR LQIUDFUYHQRP GLMHOX VSHNWUD QHPD HPLVLMH (LQVWHLQ MH GRND]DR GD PRUD YULMHGLWL UHODFLMD h EW
JGMH MH K 3ODQFNRYD NRQVWDQWD h = 6,626 10 34 Js IUHNYHQFLMD UDGLMDFLMH D ( h SRWUHEDQ E L]OD]QL UDG 'DNOH ]D VYH IUHNYHQFLMH LVSRG = W QHPD HPLVLMH h 3R]QDWD UHODFLMD NRMD SRYH]XMH YDOQX GXOMLQX L IUHNYHQFLMX VYMHWORVQH ]UDNH MH

c c =

JGMH MH F EU]LQD VYMHWORVWL 8YUWDYDQMHP RYH MHGQDGEH X MHGQDGEX GRELMHPR
LOL
c EW ch h EW

JGMH MH 1 A = 10 10 m
0
1,986 10 15 0 A EW
'RGDWDN 6SHNWUDOQD RVMHWOMLYRVW IRWRHPLVLMH *RUQMD YULMHGQRVW YDOQH GXOMLQH NRG NRMH GROD]L GR IRWRHPLVLMH RGUH HQD MH NYDQWQLP XYMHWRP L]UDHQLP UHODFLMRP 6YDND IRWRNDWRGD LPD UD]OLLWX RVMHWOMLYRVW ]D SRMHGLQH YDOQH GXOMLQH UDGLMDFLMH D WD VSHNWUDOQD RVMHWOMLYRVW MH NDUDNWHULVWLQD ]D RGUH HQL PDWHULMDO .ULYXOMH VSHNWUDOQH RYLVQRVWL SULND]DQH VX QD VOLFL
% 150 Li Na K 100 Cs - cezij
relativna osjetljivost
ljudsko oko 50 Cs
0 4000 modro 4460 5350 5500 vidljiva svjetlost 7600 crveno (A)
6OLND )RWRHOHNWULND VSHNWUDOQD RVMHWOMLYRVW QHNLK PHWDOD L OMXGVNRJ RND ,] VOLNH MH YLGOMLYR GD H DNR HOLPR SRVWLL RVMHWOMLYRVW EOLVNX OMXGVNRP RNX QDMEROMH UH]XOWDWH GDWL IRWRNDWRGD RG FH]LMD ELMHOD VYMHWORVW $NR HOLPR YUOR VHOHNWLYQX RVMHWOMLYRVW SRJRGQL VX NDOLM . QDWULM 1D LOL OLWLM /L 1MLKRYH YDOQH GXOMLQH VH NUHX RNR PRGUH QLMDQVH VYMHWORVWL
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 3ROXYRGLL L HQHUJHWVNH YUSFH X SROXYRGLLPD

Kada smo u poglavlju 2.1. vrLOL SRGMHOX YUVWLK WLMHOD V RE]LURP QD VSHFLILQL RPVNL RWSRU QDYHOL VPR GD SROXYRGLL LPDMX YULMHGQRVWL VSHFLILQRJ RPVNRJ RWSRUD PDWHULMDOD L]PH X 10 3 cm L 10 6 cm 1DGDOMH QD VOLFL SULND]DQ MH L]JOHG HQHUJHWVNLK YUSFL X YRGLX JGMH MH YLGOMLYR GD VH YDOHQWQD L YRGOMLYD HQHUJHWVND ]RQD GRGLUXMX 5D]OLND X UDVSRUHGX HQHUJHWVNLK YUSFL YRGLD L SROXYRGLD MH NOMXQD ]D UD]XPLMHYDQMH QMLKRYRJ UD]OLLWRJ SRQDDQMD SD HPR VDGD GHWDOMQLMH REMDVQLWL HQHUJHWVNH YUSFH NULVWDOD 'D EL VH QDERML X SROXYRGLLPD PRJOL NUHWDWL WUHEDMX LPDWL RGUH HQH HQHUJLMH 1DV QDMYLH ]DQLPDMX JHUPDQLM *H L VLOLFLM 6L $WRP JHUPDQLMD LPD JODYQH OMXVNH . / 0 1
.DNR X YDQMVNRM YDOHQWQRM OMXVFL LPDPR HOHNWURQD NDHPR GD MH JHUPDQLM YDOHQWQL HOHPHQW 6LOLFLM LPD JODYQH OMXVNH . / 0
3D NDHPR GD MH L VLOLFLM YDOHQWQL HOHPHQW 2ED RYD HOHPHQWD VH QDOD]H X NULVWDOQRP VWDQMX 8 WDNYRP VH VWDQMX 6OLND YDOHQWQL HOHPHQWL NULVWDOL]LUDMX QD QDLQ YDOHQWQRJ YH]LYDQMD DWRPL VH VSDMDMX WDNR GD VYDNL DWRP VYRP VXVMHGX SRVXGL HOHNWURQ
6OLND Shematski prikaz modela kristalne reetke za Ge ili Si 1D DSVROXWQRM QXOL QHPD QLNDNYRJ NUHWDQMD HOHNWURQD SD MH LWDYD XQXWUDQMRVW NULVWDOD SURPDWUDPR MH NDR PLNURVWUXNWXUX X VWDQMX PLURYDQMD .DNR WHPSHUDWXUD UDVWH GROD]L GR YLEUDFLMH HOHNWURQL YDQMVNH OMXVNH SRVWLX YHH HQHUJLMH L SRVWRML PRJXQRVW GD VH RWNLQX RG VYRMLK YDOHQWQLK YH]D L SRVWRMH NDR VORERGQL HOHNWURQL XQXWDU NULVWDOD 5D]ORJ ]ERJ NRMHJD VH

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vezani elektroni u atomu pa nas njihove energetske razine ponajvie zanimaju.
Ge E EG N EV EG EC E EC Si
M L K
M L K
EV
6OLND (QHUJHWVNH UD]LQH ]D VLOLFLM L JHUPDQLM =DSUDYR ]DQLPD QDV VDPR PDNVLPDOQD HQHUJHWVND UD]LQD NRMX LPDMX HOHNWURQL YDQMVNH OMXVNH HQHUJLMD ( x MH JUDQLFD YDOHQWQH YUSFH 'D EL QHNL PDWHULMDO SRVWLJDR VORERGQH HOHNWURQH SRWUHEQR LP MH GRGDWL HQHUJLMX NRMD H LP RPRJXLWL RWNLGDQMH RG YDOHQWQLK YH]D L GDWL VORERGX NUHWDQMD XQXWDU NULVWDOD 7R MH ELWQD UD]OLND RG PHWDOD (OHNWURQL NRG SROXYRGLD QH SUHOD]H GLUHNWQR X YRGOMLYX YUSFX QHJR SRVWRML ]DEUDQMHQD YUSFD 6OLND
E EC EG EV za T=0 valentna vrpca
ovdje su elektroni vezani valentnim vezama
vodljiva vrpca zabranjena vrpca
Pri razini EC pocinje vodljiva vrpca (C-conductivity)
6OLND (QHUJHWVNH YUSFH SROXYRGLD
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH =D LULQX ]DEUDQMHQH YUSFH PRHPR SLVDWL EG = EC EV JGMH ( y SUHGVWDYOMD UDG RG VWDQMD YDOHQWQLK YH]D GR RVORER HQMD HOHNWURQD 1D VREQRM WHPSHUDWXUL QL MHGDQ HOHNWURQ QH PRH SUHVNRLWL ]DEUDQMHQX YUSFX *H 6L . . . . (y (y (y (y H9 H9 H9 H9

=D SROXYRGLH LULQD ]DEUDQMHQH YUSFH QH SUHOD]L H9 (QHUJLMD ( z NRMX HOHNWURQ GRELMH QD H9 $OL X SUDNVL VH LSDN WHPSHUDWXUL 7 L]QRVL ]D 7 . VREQD WHPSHUDWXUD ( z GRELMH VWUXMD L QD VREQRM WHPSHUDWXUL ]ERJ VWDWLVWLNH UDVSRGMHOH 3ULPMHVH X SROXYRGLLPD 3ROXYRGLL X NRMLPD QHPD QLNDNYLK SULPMHVD D NDNYH VPR RSLVLYDOL X SUHWKRGQRP SRJODYOMX VX W]Y LQWULQVLQL LOL LVWL SROXYRGLL LVWL SROXYRGLL SROXYRGLL X LVWRP NULVWDOQRP VWDQMX QD VREQRM WHPSHUDWXUL LPDMX MHGDQ PDOL EURM VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD 6OLND
E n slobodnih elektrona -qe T>0 EV EC - EV = EG +qe
EC
6OLND LVWL SROXYRGL SUL VREQRM WHPSHUDWXUL 8 SULPMHUX SULND]DQRP QD VOLFL HOHNWURQD LPD HQHUJLMX YHX RG ( { 7R ]QDL GD VX VH SUHNLQXOH NRYDOHQWQH YH]H PH X DWRPLPD NRMH VX LK GUDOH SD MH VWRJD DWRPD RVWDOR EH] YDOHQWQLK HOHNWURQD .DR SRVOMHGLFD RWNLGDQMD HOHNWURQD L QMLKRYRJ SUHODVND X YRGOMLYX YUSFX DWRPL NRML VX LK VDGUDYDOL VX VDGD SR]LWLYQR QDELMHQL 1HGRVWDMXL HOHNWURQL X YDOHQWQRM YUSFL QDVWRMH VH SRSXQLWL SUHX]LPDQMHP HOHNWURQD L] VXVMHGQLK NRYDOHQWQLK YH]D LPH VH QHXWUDOL]LUD SR]LWLYDQ QDERM 7DM SURFHV VH SRWRP QDVWDYOMD MHU VDGD VXVMHGQL DWRP SRVWDMH SR]LWLYQR

QDELMHQ L QDVWRML SUHX]HWL QHNL HOHNWURQ RG VXVMHGQLK DWRPD 'DNOH X] JLEDQMH HOHNWURQD X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL SRVWRML L JLEDQMH X QHNRPSOHWQR SRSXQMHQRM YDOHQWQRM YUSFL 3UHPD WRPH X LQWULQVLQRP SROXYRGLX WUDQVSRUW QDERMD VH RGYLMD X GYLMH HQHUJHWVNH YUSFH LOL SRMDVD 8 YRGOMLYRM YUSFL JLEDMX VH VORERGQL HOHNWURQL GRN X YDOHQWQRM YUSFL JLEDQMH YDOHQWQLK HOHNWURQD opisujemo gibanjem pozitivnog naboja tzv. upljina (Slika 2.13). Iako prividno putuju XSOMLQH ]DSUDYR X VXSURWQRP VPMHUX SXWXMX HOHNWURQL SRSXQMDYDMXL XSOMLQH
smjer gibanja elektrona 1. stanje 2. stanje 3. stanje 4. stanje 5. stanje prividni smjer gibanja supljina
6OLND 3ULYLG JLEDQja upljina U primjeru prikazanom na slici 2.12. nastaje 5 upljina u valentnoj vrpci. Elektron je nositelj QHJDWLYQRJ QDERMD T| , a upljina je nositelj pozitivnog naboja T| 8 LQWULQVLQLP SROXYRGLLPD QRVLWHOML VH GDNOH VWYDUDMX UD]ELMDQMHP YDOHQWQLK YH]D SD VH QRVLRFL XYLMHN VWYDUDMX X SDURYLPD D ]D QMLKRYH NRQFHQWUDFLMH YULMHGL n = p = ni = p i JGMH MH Q NRQFHQWUDFLMD VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL S koncentracija upljina u valentnoj vrpci Q} S} LQWULQVLQH NRQFentracije elektrona i upljina 'RELYHQD VWUXMD MH SUHPDOD GD EL ]DGRYROMLOD QDH ]DKWMHYH WRND VWUXMH X SROXYRGLX NRML VH QDOD]L X HOHNWULQRP SROMX =DWR SULOLNRP NULVWDOL]DFLMH NULVWDOX UDYQRPMHUQR GRGDMHPR SRJRGQH SULPMHVH 1D WDM QDLQ GRELMH VH GDOHNR YHL EURM VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD L XSOMLQD QD VREQRM WHPSHUDWXUL D WDNYH SROXYRGLH X NRMLPD SULPMHVH LPDMX ELWDQ XWMHFDM QD HOHNWULND VYRMVWYD QD]LYDPR HNVWULQVLQL SROXYRGLL 2QHLHQMD VH REDYOMDMX GRGDYDQMHP SHWHURYDOHQWQLK L WURYDOHQWQLK SULPMHVD 3HWHURYDOHQWQH SULPMHVH H SRVWLL YHOLNR SRYHDQMH VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD GRQRU D WURYDOHQWQH H SRVWLL YHOLNR SRYHDQMH EURMD XSOMLQD DNFHSWRU .DGD VH SROXYRGL RQHLVWL V SHWHURYDOHQWQLP QHLVWRDPD GRELMH VH SROXYRGL 1WLSD LOL GRQRU 6OLND D D GRGDYDQMHP WURYDOHQWQLK SULPMHVD GRELYDPR SROXYRGL 3WLSD LOL DNFHSWRU 6OLND D 6LOLFLMX VH QDMHH GRGDMH WURYDOHQWQL DOXPLQLM $O WH ERU % LOL SHWHURYDOHQWQL IRVIRU 3 D JHUPDQLMX WURYDOHQWQL DOXPLQLM $O LOL JDOLM *D RGQRVQR

SHWHURYDOHQWQL DUVHQ $V LOL DQWLPRQ 6E 2QHLHQMD VH NUHX RG ~ GR WM QD ~ DWRPD NULVWDOD LPDPR DWRP SULPMHVH 1WLS LPD YHOLNX NROLLQX VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD D 3WLS YHOLNX NROLLQX SR]LWLYQLK XSOMLQD , NRG YUOR QLVNLK WHPSHUDWXUD 150 C) se svi VORERGQL HOHNWURQL XSOMLQH QHLVWRD SRMDYH X YRGOMLYRP RGQRVQR YDOHQWQRP SRMDVX YUSFL
+4
+4
+4
vodljiva vrpca
+4
+5
+4
ED EG valentna vrpca
+4
+4 a)
+4 b)
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od visokih koncentracija donora diskretni donorski nivo se iri X YUOR X]DN SRMDV HQHUJLMD .DG MH NRQFHQWUDFLMD GRQRUD 1 YHD RG 5 1015 cm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e upljinu, a ionizacijom je daje u valentnu YUSFX

+4
+4
+4
vodljiva vrpca
+4
+3
+4
EG EA valentna vrpca
+4
+4 a)
+4 b)
6OLND D $NFHSWRUVND SULPMHVD LPD WUL YDOHQWQD HOHNWURQD E (QHUJHWVNL QLYR DNFHSWRUD MH EOL]X YDOHQWQH YUSFH
DONOR (N-TIP) EG ED 5 5 5 5 T=0 0 4 4 4 4 EA 0 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 EG AKCEPTOR (P-TIP)
EG ED + + + + T>0 0 + 4 4 4
EG
EA 0 + + 4 + 4 + 4 +
6OLND (QHUJHWVNH YUSFH SROXYRGLD 1 L 3 WLSD SUL WHPSHUDWXUL DSVROXWQH QXOH L VREQRM WHPSHUDWXUL (y HQHUJLMD EDULMHUH ]DEUDQMHQH YUSFH ( HQHUJLMD GRQRUD ( HQHUJLMD DNFHSWRUD 3UHWSRVWDYLOL VPR GD MH RG HWLUL DWRPD LVWRJ NULVWDOD VDPR MHGDQ UD]ELR YDOHQWQX YH]X D VYL DWRPL SULPMHVH GDMX VORERGQH QRVLWHOMH 2EMDVQLPR VDGD VOLNX

'RQRU 1D WHPSHUDWXUL DSVROXWQH QXOH QHPDPR VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL 0DOLP ]DJULMDYDQMHP VYL HOHNWURQL NRML VX YH]DQL X] GRQRUVNH DWRPH DWRPD QD VOLFL SUHEDFXMX VH X YRGOMLYL SRMDV 1MLKRYL PDWLQL DWRPL VH LRQL]LUDMX 7DNR HU PRH GRL L GR UD]ELMDQMD kovalentne veze. Kao posljedica razbijanja te veze nastaje upljina ispod nulte razine YDOHQWQD YUSFD L VORERGDQ HOHNWURQ X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL 0RHPR XRLWL GD MH EURM VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL HOHNWURQD QD VOLFL YHL RG EURMD XSOMLQD X YDOHQWQRM YUSFL XSOMLQD QD VOLFL SD NDHPR GD VX X VOXDMX SROXYRGLD 1 WLSD YHLQVNL QRVLWHOML QDERMD elektroni, a manjinski upljine. $NFHSWRU 1L X XYRP VOXDMX QHPDPR VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL QLWi upljina u YDOHQWQRM YUSFL SUL WHPSHUDWXUL DSVROXWQH QXOH 3RYHDYDQMHP WHPSHUDWXUH DWRPL WURYDOHQWQLK SULPMHVD SULYODH HOHNWURQH VXVMHGQLK HWYHURYDOHQWQLK DWRPD WR SURX]URNXMH LRQL]DFLMX DWRPD QHLVWRD L VWYDUDQMH XSOMLQD LVSRG QXOWH UD]LQH 7DNR HU L X RYRP VOXDMX PRH GRL GR SXFDQMD NRYDOHQWQH YH]H L]PH X HWYHURYDOHQWQLK DWRPD WR ]D SRVOMHGLFX LPD VORERGQL HOHNWURQ X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL L XSOMLQX X YDOHQWQRM 0RHPR XRLWL GD MH EURM VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL HOHNWURQ QD VOLFL Panji od broja upljina u valentnoj vrpci (5 XSOMLQD QD VOLFL SD NDHPR GD VX X VOXDMX SROXYRGLD 3 WLSD YHLQVNL QRVLWHOML QDERMD upljine, a manjinski elektroni. =DNOMXDN 1WLS SROXYRGLD SRVMHGXMH YHOLNL EURM VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD LMH VH HQHUJLMH QDOD]H X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL 3WLS SROXYRGLD LPD YHOLNL EURM VORERGQLK XSOMLQD LMH VH HQHUJLMH QDOD]H X YDOHQWQRM YUSFL 8 1WLSX VWUXMX LQH VORERGQL HOHNWURQL SRG GMHORYDQMHP YDQMVNRJ SROMD D X 3WLSX VWUXMX LQH VORERGQH XSOMLQH SRG GMHORYDQMHP YDQMVNRJ SROMD 8 1WLSX SROXYRGLD VORERGQL HOHNWURQL VX YHLQVNL LOL PDMRULWHWQL QRVLWHOML QDERMD D VORERGQH XSOMLQH VX PDQMLQVNL LOL PLQRULWHWQL QRVLWHOML QDERMD 8 3WLSX SROXYRGLD VORERGQH XSOMLQH VX YHLQVNL LOL PDMRULWHWQL D VORERGQL HOHNWURQL VX PDQMLQVNL LOL PLQRULWHWQL QRVLWHOML QDERMD *HQHUDFLMD L UHNRPELQDFLMD QRVLWHOMD QDERMD 1RVLWHOML QDERMD VH WLMHNRP YUHPHQD JHQHULUDMX VWYDUDMX L UHNRPELQLUDMX VSDMDMX 3UL WHPSHUDWXUL YHRM RG . ]D QDD UD]PDWUDQMD MH QDMYDQLMD WHPSHUDWXUD RG . QHSUHVWDQR VH VWYDUDMX QRYL QRVLWHOML QDERMD L LVWR WDNR QHSUHVWDQR QHVWDMX SRVWRMHL QRVLWHOML QDERMD YH]XMX VH ]D YUVWH VWUXNWXUH $NR VORYRP J R]QDLPR JHQHUDFLMX EURM QRVLWHOMD QDERMD FP~ V D VORYRP U UHNRPELQDFLMX WDNR HU EURM QRVLWHOMD QDERMD FP~ V PRHPR QDSLVDWL
g=r

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sa upljinom proporcionalna koncentraciji upljina i jednaka k p JGMH MH k IDNWRU SURSRUFLRQDOQRVWL RYLVDQ R WHPSHUDWXUL 8NXSDQ EURM UHNRPELQDFLMD MH SURSRUFLRQDODQ L NRQFHQWUDFLML HOHNWURQD SD PRHPR QDSLVDWL
r = k n p = g


Generacija je neovisna o broju elektrona u vodljivoj vrpci i upljina u valentnoj vrpci (osim za YUOR YLVRNH NRQFHQWUDFLMH QRVLWHOMD MHU MH RQD UH]XOWDW UD]ELMDQMD YDOHQWQLK YH]D 3UHPD WRPH X] NRQVWDQWDQ XPQRDN NRQFHQWUDFLMH HOHNWURQD L XSOMLQD JHQHUDFLMD MH SURSRUFLRQDOQD QMLKRYRP XPQRNX EH] RE]LUD QD QMLKRY PH XVREQL RPMHU S Q S Q 9ULMHGL MHGQDNRVW
r = k n1 p1 = k n 2 p 2 = k ni2 = g
RGQRVQR
n0 p 0 = ni2

=DNRQ R WHUPRGLQDPLNRM UDYQRWHL MHGQDGED 3URGXNW UDYQRWHQLK NRQFHQWUDFLMD HOHNWURQD X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL n0 i upljina u valenWQRM YUSFL p 0 X QHNRP SROXYRGLX QD GDQRM WHPSHUDWXUL NRQVWDQWDQ MH L MHGQDN NYDGUDWX LQWULQVLQH NRQFHQWUDFLMH ,] ]DNRQD R WHUPRGLQDPLNRM UDYQRWHL SURL]OD]L GD H PLQRULWHWQLK QRVLWHOMD ELWL PDQMH WR MH PDMRULWHWQLK QRVLWHOMD YLH ,QWULQVLQD NRQFHQWUDFLMD PRH VH L]UDXQDWL L] MHGQDGEH n = C T e
2 i 3 EG ET

JGMH MH & NRQVWDQWD X PDORM PMHUL RYLVQD R PDWHULMDOX ( irina zabranjene vrpce u eV N %ROW]PDQQRYD NRQVWDQWD 1.38 10 23 JK 1 ( NDUDNWHULVWLQD WHPSHUDWXUQD HQHUJLMD HOHNWURQD NRMD VH UDXQD L] ET = kT / q = T / 11605 H9 1L MHGDQ HOHNWURQ X SROXYRGLX QH PRH LPDWL HQHUJLMX YHX RG ( D PDQMX RG ( ]DEUDQMHQD vrpca). to je energija ( YHD ]D RGUH HQX WHPSHUDWXUX H ELWL PDQML EURM QRVLWHOMD QDERMD to je ( YHD LPDPR YLH VORERGQLK QRVLWHOMD 1D RVQRYX MHGQDGEH PRHPR L]UDXQDWL LQWULQVLQH NRQFHQWUDFLMH ]D VLOLFLM L JHUPDQLM *H 6L 3UL 7 . *H 6L
n0 p 0 = ni2 = 3.1 10 32 T 3 e n0 p 0 = ni2 = 1.5 10 33 T 3 e
ni = 2.5 1013 cm 3
9100 T

14030 T
ni = 1.5 1010 cm 3
Silicij je temperaturno otporniji od germanija i zato se vie koristi u primjeni.
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH .RQFHQWUDFLMD QRVLWHOMD QDERMD

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koji imaju viak ilL PDQMDN HOHNWURQD X RGQRVX QD DWRPH LVWRJ NULVWDOD 'DNOH PRHPR SLVDWL N D + p 0 = N A + n0
3UHWSRVWDYOMD VH GD VX VYL GRQRUL L DNFHSWRUL LRQL]LUDQL GDNOH VYL HOHNWURQL NRML SRWMHX RG donora su u vodljivom pojasu, a sve upljine koje SRWMHX RG DNFHSWRUD VX X YDOHQWQRM YUSFL =D SUHWSRVWDYOMHQL VOXDM D NRML MH UHDODQ SUL VREQRM WHPSHUDWXUL VYL GRQRUL L DNFHSWRUL VX LRQL]LUDQL WM 1 L 1 R]QDDYDMX NRQFHQWUDFLMH LRQD NRMH VX MHGQDNH NRQFHQWUDFLMDPD QMLKRYLK DWRPD 8 JRUQMRM MHGQDGEL S L Q SUHGVWDYOMDMX EURM VORERGQLK XSOMLQD SROXYRGLD RGQRVQR EURM VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD SROXYRGLD 3R]LWLYQL LRQ MH SR]LWLYDQ MHU MH LPDR YLDN HOHNWURQD NRMH MH SXVWLR X VORERGQL WRN YRGOMLYX YUSFX QSU ELR MH SHWHURYDOHQWDQ D RVQRYQR VWDQMH MH HWYHURYDOHQWQR 7R QLMH XSOMLQD MHU QHPD WHQGHQFLMX SULYODHQMD HOHNWURQD VWDELODQ MH VD HWYHURYDOHQWQRP YH]RP L QH WUHED PX MR MHGDQ HOHNWURQ D NRQFHQWUDFLMH LQWULQVLQLK SROXYRGLD =D LQWULQVLQH SROXYRGLH ]ERJ ]DQHPDULYH NRQFHQWUDFLMH QHLVWRD YULMHGL n 0 = p 0 = ni = p i
,QWULQVLQH NRQFHQWUDFLMH ]D VLOLFLM L JHUPDQLM PRHPR RGUHGLWL L] MHGQDGEL L E NRQFHQWUDFLMH HNVWULQVLQLK YRGLD 1WLSD =D SROXYRGLH 1WLSD SULQFLS R HOHNWULNRM QHXWUDOQRVWL JODVL N D + p 0 = n0
ODQ V NRQFHQWUDFLMRP DNFHSWRUVNLK LRQD MH L]RVWDYOMHQ MHU MH NRQFHQWUDFLMD DNFHSWRUVNLK LRQD NRG SROXYRGLD RYRJ WLSD PQRJR PDQMD RG NRQFHQWUDFLMH GRQRUVNLK LRQD
N D >> N A = N D N A N D N D + p 0 n0 n 0 ND
.DNR X UDYQRWHQRP VWDQMX YULMHGL ]DNRQ R WHUPRGLQDPLNRM UDYQRWHL MHGQDGED PRHPR SLVDWL

2 N D n0 + p 0 n0 n0 2 N D n0 + ni2 n0 2 n0 N D n0 ni2 0

5MHHQMHP JRUQMH NYDGUDWQH MHGQDGEH GRELMHPR ]D NRQFHQWUDFLMX PDMRULWHWQLK QRVLWHOMD Q

n0 =
2 ND + ND + 4ni2

'DNOH SR]QDYDQMHP NRQFHQWUDFLMH GRQRUD 1 PRJXH MH QD VYDNRM WHPSHUDWXUL X] LVNOMXHQMH YUOR QLVNLK WHPSHUDWXUD RGUHGLWL UDYQRWHQX NRQFHQWUDFLMX VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD Koncentraciju minoritetnih upljina S GRELMHPR L] L]UD]D p0 = F NRQFHQWUDFLMH HNVWULQVLQLK YRGLD 3WLSD $QDORJQR ]DNOMXLYDQMX SURYHGHQRP ]D 1WLS SROXYRGLD PRHPR ]DNOMXLWL N A >> N D N A = N A N D N A p 0 N A + n0 SD NRQFHQWUDFLMH L]UDXQDPR L] ni2 n0
p0
2 NA + NA + 4ni2
2
n0 = ni2 p0

.RG YHOLNLK WHPSHUDWXUD GROD]L GR EU]RJ SRUDVWD LQWULQVLQLK NRQFHQWUDFLMD Q .RQFHQWUDFLMH GRQRUVNLK 1 L DNFHSWRUVNLK LRQD 1 UDVWRP Q SRVWDMX ]DQHPDULYH 8 WRP VOXDMX PRHPR SLVDWL =D 7!!
2 4ni2 >> N D 2 2 4ni >> N A
n0
1 (N D + 2ni ) 2 1 p 0 (N A + 2ni ) 2
P tip N tip
L GDOMH

n 0 ni p 0 ni p 0 ni n0 ni to su izrazi koje smo YH YLGMHOL NDGD VPR UD]PDWUDOL LVWH SROXYRGLH 0RHPR ]DNOMXLWL GD VH SULPMHVQL SROXYRGL NRG UHODWLYQR YLVRNLK WHPSHUDWXUD SRQDD NDR LVWL SROXYRGL )HUPLMHYD UD]LQD =D LVWH SROXYRGLH )HUPLMHYD UD]LQD VH QDOD]L X VUHGLQL ]DEUDQMHQH YUSFH .RG SROXYRGLD 3 WLSD )HUPLMHYD UD]LQD MH EOLD GRQMRM UD]LQL ]DEUDQMHQH YUSFH D ]D SROXYRGLH 1WLSD JRUQMRM UD]LQL ]DEUDQMHQH YUSFH 6OLND
E EG EF 0 a) EF=EG/2 EF 0 b) 0 c) E EG P - tip E EG EF N - tip
6OLND )HUPLMHYH UD]LQH ]D LQWULQVLQHD L HNVWULQVLQH SROXYRGLH E F 'HJHQHULUDQL SROXYRGL SVHXGRPHWDO LPD ]QDWQR YHX NRQFHQWUDFLMX QHLVWRD RG XRELDMHQH FP LQDH RNR 8 WRP VOXDMX GROD]L GR SRUHPHDMD )HUPLMHYH UD]LQH 6OLND 2YL SROXYRGLL LPDMX WROLNR VORERGQLK QRVLWHOMD GD GMHOXMX NDR YRGLL
E EG P - tip E EF EG N - tip
0 EF
6OLND )HUPLMHYD UD]LQD ]D SVHXGRPHWDOH ,] MHGQDGEH VH PRH SRND]DWL GD MH XNXSDQ EURM HOHNWURQD NRQFHQWUDFLMD X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL MHGQDN

n0 = N C e
E F EG kT

JGMH MH
2 mc kT N C = 2 h2
3/ 2

HIHNWLYQD JXVWRD NYDQWQLK VWDQMD X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL D P HIHNWLYQD PDVD HOHNWURQD 7DNR HU PRH VH GRND]DWL GD MH UDYQRWHQD NRQFHQWUDFLMD XSOMLQD X YDOHQWQRM YUSFL
p0 = N V e
EF kT

JGMH MH
2 mv kT N V = 2 h2
3/ 2

HIHNWLYQD JXVWRD NYDQWQLK VWDQMD X YDOHQWQRP SRMDVX D P efektivna masa upljine. $NR ]DQHPDULPR UD]OLNX L]PH X HIHNWLYQLK PDVD HOHNWURQD L XSOMLQD L L]MHGQDLPR LK V PDVRP VORERGQRJ HOHNWURQD PRHPR SLVDWL
N C = N V = 4.82 1015 T 3 / 2 (cm 3 )

=D LQWULQVLDQ SROXYRGL YULMHGL

n0 = p 0 N C e
E F EG kT
= NV e
EF kT

RGDNOH PRHPR SLVDWL E F EG = E F E F = EG / 2 /RJDULWPLUDQMHP MHGQDGEL L PRHPR SRND]DWL GD YULMHGH L RHNLYDQH YULMHGQRVWL )HUPLMHYH UD]LQH ]D SROXYRGLH 1WLSD L 3WLSD SULND]DQH QD VOLFL ,] ]D SROXYRGL 1WLSD VOLMHGL
E F = EG kT ln
NC n0

8YMHW HOHNWULNH QHXWUDOQRVWL ]D SROXYRGL 1WLSD JODVL N D + p 0 = n0 D ]D LWDYR HNVWULQVLQR SRGUXMH YULMHGL N D n0 ,] QDYHGHQRJ VOLMHGL
E F = EG kT ln
NC ND

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH LOL X HOHNWURQYROWLPD H9

E F = EG N kT N C T ln = EG ln C q ND 11605 N D

(eV )

)HUPLMHY QLYR ELWL H EOLH YUKX ]DEUDQMHQRJ SRMDVD WR MH NRQFHQWUDFLMD GRQRUD 1 ) via i to MH WHPSHUDWXUD QLD ,] MHGQDGEH ]D SROXYRGL 3WLSD VOLMHGL
E F = kT ln NV p

.DNR XYMHW HOHNWULNH QHXWUDOQRVWL ]D RYDM WLS SROXYRGLD JODVL N A + n0 = p 0 D ]D LWDYR HNVWULQVLQR SRGUXMH MH p 0 N A VOLMHGL
E F = kT ln NV NA

LOL X HOHNWURQYROWLPD H9
EF = N kT N V T ln = ln V q N A 11605 N A
(eV )

8 SROXYRGLX 3WLSD )HUPLMHY QLYR OHL LVSRG VUHGLQH ]DEUDQMHQH YUSFH L WR EOLH QMHQRP GQX WR MH NRQFHQWUDFLMD DNFHSWRUD YLD L WHPSHUDWXUD QLD
E E E E n EC EG EV EC EF EV EC EF EV EC EF EV p x a) dN/dE b) f(E,T) c)
1
dn/dE (dp/dE) d)
6OLND ,OXVWUDFLMD RGUH LYDQMD UDVSRGMHOH JXVWRH HOHNWURQD L XSOMLQD SR HQHUJLML ]D LVWL SROXYRGL D(QHUJHWVNL VSHNWDU LVWRJ SROXYRGLD E 5DVSRGMHOD JXVWRH HQHUJHWVNLK QLYRD F )HUPLMHYD VWDWLVWLND UDVSRGMHOD G 5DVSRGMHOD JXVWRH HOHNWURQD L XSOMLQD SR HQHUJLML

1D VOLFL SULND]DQ MH QDLQ RGUH LYDQMD UDVSRGMHOH JXVWRH HOHNWrona i upljina po energiji ]D LVWL SROXYRGL 5DVSRGMHOD JXVWRH HOHNWURQD L XSOMLQD SR HQHUJLML G GRELMH VH XPQRNRP UDVSRGMHOH JXVWRH HQHUJHWVNLK QLYRD E L )HUPLMHYRP VWDWLVWLNRP UDVSRGMHORP F 'RGDWDN 6 RE]LURP QD 3DXOLMHYR QDHOR NRMH RJUDQLDYD EURM PRJXLK HOHNWURQD QD QHNRM HQHUJHWVNRM UD]LQL WH SROD]HL RG +HLVHQEHUJRYLK XYMHWD QHRGUH HQRVWL PRH VH L]YHVWL ]DNRQ UDVSRGMHOH JXVWRH HQHUJHWVNLK QLYRD SR HQHUJLML
dN 4 3/ 2 = 3 (2m ) E 1 / 2 dE h
(QHUJLMD ( MH HQHUJLMD HOHNWURQD L]UDXQDWD RG GQD SURPDWUDQH ]RQH *RUQMD MHGQDGED YULMHGL ]D PHWDOH L HOHNWURQH X YRGOMLYRM YUSFL SROXYRGLD UDXQDMXL SUL WRPH HQHUJLMX RG GQD YRGOMLYH ]RQH 6WDYOMDMXL ( ( XPMHVWR ( GRELMHPR
dN 4 (2m )3 / 2 ( E EC )1 / 2 = dE h 3
1D LVWL QDLQ VH GRELMH L UDVSRGMHOD HQHUJetskih nivoa za upljine:
dN 4 (2m )3 / 2 ( EV E )1 / 2 = dE h 3
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
E
6OLND 6YDNL SXW L]PH X VXGDUD HOHNWURQ VH SRPLH X SUDYFX HOHNWULQRJ SROMD
E=0
E <> 0
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 6LOD NRMD GMHOXMH QD HOHNWURQ MHGQDND MH

& & F = qe E

.DNR VPR YH QDYHOL VLOD MH VXSURWQRJ VPMHUD RG VPMHUD HOHNWULQRJ SROMD MHU MH QDERM HOHNWURQD QHJDWLYDQ $NFHOHUDFLMD NRMX HOHNWURQ GRELMH ]ERJ GMHORYDQMD VLOH PRH VH L]UD]LWL VOLMHGHRP MHGQDGERP & & qe E a= me Ubrzavanje se vri od jednog do drugog sudara. Prilikom sudara elektron mijenja smjer NUHWDQMD SD PRHPR VPDWUDWL GD MH QHVWDOR NRPSRQHQWH EU]LQH X VPMHUX SROMD 1DNRQ VXGDUD SRQRYR SRLQMH XEU]DYDQMH SD EU]LQD X VPMHUX SROMD SRQRYR UDVWH RG QXOH %U]LQD HOHNWURQD X SUDYFX SROMD ]DYLVL R YUHPHQX L]PH X VXGDUD ,]QRV VUHGQMH EU]LQH X SUDYFX SROMD PRHPR L]UDXQDWL L] q 1 v = a i = e i E = n E 2 2 me JGMH MH m2 q n = e i 2me V s D QD]LYD VH SRNUHWOMLYRVW HOHNWURQD 3RNUHWOMLYRVW RYLVL R WHPSHUDWXUL L VYRMVWYLPD SROXYRGLD 7R MH YLGOMLYR L L] MHGQDGEH MHU YULMHPH L]PH X VXGDUD HOHNWURQD RYLVL R WHPSHUDWXUL L YUVWL SROXYRGLD 1DLPH ]DJULMDYDQMHP SROXYRGLD HOHNWURQL GRELYDMX YHH HQHUJLMH GROD]L GR VWYDUDQMD YHHJ EURMD VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD NRML VH EUH VH NUHX SD MH L EURM VXGDUD HOHNWURQD V GUXJLP HOHNWURQLPD L UHHWNRP YHL 3RVOMHGLFD YHHJ EURMD VXGDUD MH PDQMH YULMHPH L]PH X VXGDUD HOHNWURQD Za upljine vrijedi
p =
GDNOH RSHQLWR
q e i 2m p
m2 V s

vd = E
JGMH MH Y EU]LQD GULIWD LOL SRPDND L NDH QDP NRMRP H VH EU]LQRP SRPLFDWL VORERGQL QRVLWHOM QDERMD DNR VH SROXYRGL QDOD]L X HOHNWULQRP SROMX MDNRVWL ( 1D . *H 6L
m2 m2 n = 0.38 p = 0.18 Vs Vs 2 m m2 n = 0.135 = 0 . 048 p Vs Vs
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 9RGOMLYRVW SROXYRGLD

=ERJ SRVWRMDQMD HOHNWULQRJ SROMD NUR] SUHVMHN SROXYRGLD H VH MDYLWL VWUXMD , 6OLND 3R GRJRYRUX VPMHU VWUXMH MH VPMHU NUHWDQMD SR]LWLYQRJ QDERMD *XVWRD VWUXMH MH NROLLQD QDERMD NRMD SURWMHH NUR] RGUH HQL SUHVMHN SROXYRGLD X MHGQRM VHNXQGL
y E IP IN I = IN + IP
6OLND (OHNWULQD VWUXMD X SROXYRGLX .DNR NRQFHQWUDFLMD QRVLWHOMD RYLVL R WHPSHUDWXUL UDVWH SRUDVWRP WHPSHUDWXUH D SRNUHWOMLYRVW WDNR HU RYLVL R WHPSHUDWXUL SDGD SRUDVWRP WHPSHUDWXUH L YRGOMLYRVW RYLVL R WHPSHUDWXUL 2YLVQRVW YRGOMLYRVWL R WHPSHUDWXUL SULND]DQD MH QD VOLFL
5$'12 32'58-(
OR J

&
7
6OLND =DYLVQRVW YRGOMLYRVWL RG UHFLSURQH YULMHGQRVWL WHPSHUDWXUH *XVWRD VWUXMH GULIWD SR]LWLYQLK L QHJDWLYQLK QRVLWHOMD QDERMD QDSLVDQD MH VOLMHGHLP L]UD]RP
7 UDVWH
7
7
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH J dP = q e p v dP = q e p P E = P E J dN = q e n v dN = q e n N E = N E

JGMH MH P YRGOMLYRVW SR]LWLYQRJ QDERMD D N YRGOMLYRVW QHJDWLYQRJ QDERMD 1D RVQRYX JRUQMH MHGQDGEH PRHPR QDSLVDWL RSX UHODFLMX ]D JXVWRX VWUXMH GULIWD Jd = E SD ]DNOMXXMHPR GD MH J d = J dP + J dN = ( P + N )E = E = P + N = q e (p P + n N )
3UL QLVNLP WHPSHUDWXUDPD SRGUXMH & QD VOLFL V SRUDVWRP WHPSHUDWXUH UDVWH YRGOMLYRVW ]ERJ SRUDVWD NRQFHQWUDFLMH QRVLWHOMD NRML QDVWDMH LRQL]DFLMRP SULPMHVD 1D WHPSHUDWXUL 7 VX VYH SULPMHVH LRQL]LUDQH SD VH GDOMLP SRUDVWRP WHPSHUDWXUH SRGUXMH % YRGOMLYRVW PDOR VPDQMXMH ]ERJ VPDQMHQMD SRNUHWOMLYRVWL D SURPMHQD NRQFHQWUDFLMH MH PDOD 6YH SULPMHVH VX ionizirane, a temperatura je jo uvijek preniska za ionizaciMX DWRPD SROXYRGLD 3RUDVWRP WHPSHUDWXUH L]QDG 7 SRGUXMH $ SROXYRGL VH SRLQMH SRQDDWL NDR LVWL SROXYRGL (vodljivost uglavnom ovisi od stvorenih parova upljinaHOHNWURQ 5DGQR SRGUXMH MH SRGUXMH % *XVWRD MH GHILQLUDQD MDNRX SROMD L YRGOMLYRX NRMD MH NDUDNWHULVWLND EURMD MHGQLK L GUXJLK QDERMD L QMLKRYH SRNUHWOMLYRVWL $NR VH UDGL R LVWRP SROXYRGLX QHPDPR NRQFHQWUDFLMH Q L S QHJR Q Q S Q
= q e ni ( P + N )
=D 1WLS SROXYRGLD YULMHGL D ]D 3WLS

n ND = qe N D N p << n n << p = qe N A P p NA

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difuzije je proporcionalna gradijentu koncentracije upljina u smjeru osi [ 'LIX]LMVND VWUXMD H

X VOXDMX LVWLK JUDGLMHQDWD NRQFHQWUDFLMH ]D UD]OLLWH HVWLFH ELWL SURSRUFLRQDOQD VSRVREQRVWL HVWLFH GD GLIXGLUD WM NRQVWDQWL GLIX]LMH ' $NR VH UDGL R NRQFHQWUDFLML HOHNWURQD LPDPR
n n J DN = q e D N E = q e D N ( grad n ) = q e D N = q e D N x x

i analogno tome, za upljine
J DP = q e DP E = q e D P (grad p ) = q e DP
p x

6WUXMD X JRUQMLP MHGQDGEDPD MH NDNR MH WR XRELDMHQR X]HWD V NRQYHQFLRQDOQLP VPMHURP WM VPMHURP X NRMHP EL VH JLEDOL SR]LWLYQL QDERML ,] MHGQDGEL L PRHPR GDOMH SLVDWL
n p J D = qe DN DP x x

8NXSQD JXVWRD VWUXMH XSOMLQD XVOLMHG VWUXMD GLIX]LMH L HOHNWULQRJ SROMD MHGQDND MH QMLKRYRP ]EURMX J = Jd + JD
J P = P E q e DP
D ]D HOHNWURQH
J N = N E + qe D N
p p p = q e p P E q e D P = q e p P E D P x x x
n n n = q e n N E + q e D N = q e n N E + D N x x x

=D SR]LWLYQH QDERMH VH JXVWRH VWUXMH PH XVREQR RGELMDMX D ]D QHJDWLYQH QDERMH ]EUDMDMX GRJRYRU 9H]D L]PH X NRQVWDQWH GLIX]LMH L SRNUHWOMLYRVWL LVWRYUVQLK HVWLFD PRH VH L]UD]LWL VOLMHGHRP MHGQDGERP
D kT = qe
[V ]

*RUQMD UHODFLMD NRMX QD]LYDPR L (LQVWHLQRYD UHODFLMD YULMHGL ]D QHGHJHQHULUDQH SROXYRGLH L SOLQRYH kT = ET q e
U T = ET =
[J ]
kT qe
HQHUJLMD QRVLWHOMD QDERMD ]D RGUH HQX WHPSHUDWXUX
[eV ]
HVWLFX V SURVMHQRP WHUPLNRP NLQHWLNRP HQHUJLMRP
SRWHQFLMDOQD HQHUJLMD 8 NRMD PRH ]DXVWDYLWL QDHOHNWUL]LUDQX
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 3LWDQMD

1DYHGLWH YUVWH NULVWDOD YUVWLK WLMHOD V RE]LURP QD NDUDNWHU VLOD NRMH GUH DWRPH NULVWDOD QD RNXSX .RML VX RVQRYQL QDLQL GRELYDQMD HOHNWURQD L] PHWDOD" 1DFUWDM L REMDVQL JUDIRYH UDVSRGMHOH HQHUJLMD VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD X PHWDOX WH ]DSRVMHGQXWRVWL HQHUJHWVNLK UD]LQD X RYLVQRVWL R WHPSHUDWXUL .RMD MH PDNVLPDOQD HQHUJLMD NRMX HOHNWURQL X PHWDOX PRJX LPDWL QD WHPSHUDWXUL RG ." .ROLNR L]QRVH WLSLQH YULMHGQRVWL L]OD]QRJ UDGD ]D PHWDOH" Kako objanjavate pojavu da, iako pri temperaturi od 250 . HQHUJLMD SRMHGLQDQRJ HOHNWURQD X NDWRGL RG YROIUDPD L]QRVL H9 LSDN GROD]L GR SRMDYH WHUPLRQVNH HPLVLMH" to je faktor sekundarne emisije? Zato za neke vrste svjetlosti ne dolazi do emisije elektrona bez obzira na jakost UDGLMDFLMH" WR VH GRJD a zagrijavanjem kristalne reetke? Zato dolazi do pojave energetskih vrpci elektrona po ljuskama atoma, a ne do GLVNUHWQLK YULMHGQRVWL HQHUJLMD HOHNWURQD X DWRPX" Koja energetska vrpca nam je najzanimljivija i zato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


(OHNWURQLNL HOHPHQWL
3ROXYRGLNL 31 VSRM 3ROXYRGL V QHUDYQRPMHUQRP UDVSRGMHORP SULPMHVD LPD L QHUDYQRPMHUQX UDVSRGMHOX QRVLWHOMD QDERMD =ERJ UD]OLLWLK NRQFHQWUDFLMD QRVLWHOMD GROD]L GR VWUXMH GLIX]LMH NDNR MH YH RSLVDQR X SUHWKRGQLP SRJODYOMX 2GODVNRP SRNUHWQLK QRVLWHOMD V PMHVWD YHH NRQFHQWUDFLMH SRUHPHWLW H VH HOHNWULQD UDYQRWHD L]PH X SRNUHWQLK QRVLWHOMD L SULPMHVQLK LRQD D SRVOMHGLFD RYRJ SRUHPHDMD MH VWYDUDQMH HOHNWULQRJ SROMD NRMH H VH VXSURWVWDYOMDWL GLIX]QRP NUHWDQMX QRVLWHOMD 3RVOMHGLFD HOHNWULQRJ SROMD MH VWUXMD GULIWD 8 UDYQRWHQRP VWDQMX VX VWUXMH GULIWD L GLIX]LMH MHGQDNH SR YHOLLQL D VXSURWQLK VPMHURYD .DR SULPMHU YHOLNH QHUDYQRPMHUQRVWL NRQFHQWUDFLMD SULPMHVD MH VSRM GYD VXSURWQD WLSD SROXYRGLD
P
manjinski n-nositelji
* -
N
vecinski n-nositelji
EFN
EG
EFI EFP 0
vecinski p-nositelji
+ +I -I
manjinski p-nositelji
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stranu, a upljine na NVWUDQX 8VOLMHG SUHODVND HOHNWURQD V 1VWUDQH QD 3stranu, a i zbog istovremenog prelaza upljina, N

VWUDQD SRVWDMH SR]LWLYQLMD D 3VWUDQD SRVWDMH QHJDWLYQLMD 1DERML VH ]DGUDYDMX X EOL]LQL dodirne povrine. Ti naboji stvaraju unutranji naboj, tj. unutranje polje (Slika 3.2).
dE K q = dx
6OLND (OHNWULQR SROMH NRQWDNWD NRMH QDVWDMH NDR SRVOMHGLFD GLIX]LMH QDERMD
EK = 1 q ( x )dx SHUPLWLYQRVW
Unutranje polje ili polje kontakta je orijentirano prema negativnom naboju. Polje ( H SRVWXSQR VSUMHDYDWL GLIX]LMX SR]LWLYQRJ QDERMD NDR L QHJDWLYQRJ QDERMD 3URVWRUQL QDERM NRML VH JRPLOD GLIX]LMRP RNR NRQWDNWQH SRYULQH NRQDQR SRWSXQR ]DXVWDYL SURFHV GLIX]LMH SD NDHPR GD MH XVSRVWDYOMHQR UDYQRWHQR VWDQMH 6OLND WM XNXSQD VWUXMD HOHNWURQD L XSOMLQD MHGQDND MH QXOL 5DYQRWHD QDVWXSD NDGD VH PH XVREQR L]MHGQDH )HUPLMHYH UD]LQH (QHUJHWVND UD]LQD 1VWUDQH VH VSXVWLOD ]D ( 3ULMHOD] QLMH VNRNRYLW YH SRVWHSHQ LULQD EDULMHUH QD 3VWUDQL GP ) ne mora biti jednaka irini barijere na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rebna da bi se ponitile struje PDQMLQVNLK QRVLWHOMD ]D NRMH EDULMHUD QH SRVWRML =D VWDQMH UDYQRWHH PRHPR GDNOH QDSLVDWL VOLMHGHH UHODFLMH I DN + I SN = 0 I DP + I SP = 0

JGMH VX , L , VWUXMH YHLQVNLK QRVLWHOMD NRML VH LQMHNWLUDMX X VYRMD PDQMLQVND SRGUXMD (elektroni i upljine respektivno), a , L , struje manjinskih nositelja (upljine i elektroni UHVSHNWLYQR
P E N
EG EB (energija barijere)
EFP 0
EFN
dB
+ + + +
6OLND (QHUJHWVNL GLMDJUDP 31 VSRMD X UDYQRWHL G LULQD EDULMHUH REXKYDD SURVWRUQL QDERM 3RWHQFLMDOQD UD]OLND L]PH X 3 L 1 VWUDQH NRMD SRVWRML SRG UDYQRWHQLP SULOLNDPD QD]LYD VH NRQWDNWQL SRWHQFLMDO 8 L L]QRVL
U K = E K ( x)dx
dBP dBN
.RQWDNWQL SRWHQFLMDO UDVWH V SRUDVWRP NRQFHQWUDFLMD YHLQVNLK QRVLWHOMD X SROXYRGLX WM to su NRQFHQWUDFLMH QHLVWRD V REMH VWUDQH EDULMHUH YHH WR H L NRQWDNWQL SRWHQFLMDO ELWL YHL 7LSLQH YULMHGQRVWL NRQWDNWQRJ SRWHQFLMDOD ]D QHGHJHQHULUDQH JHUPDQLMHYH 31 VSRMHYH NUHH VH X JUDQLFDPD RG 9 QDMHH 9 D ]D VLOLFLMHYH 31 VSRMHYH RYH YULMHGQRVWL VH NUHX RG 9 QDMHH 9 7DNR HU WR MH NULVWDO YLH RQHLHQ GHEOMLQD EDULMHUH MH PDQMD
d BN N = A d BP N D


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ni2 kT ln q NA ND
6OLND (QHUJHWVNL GLMDJUDP 31 VSRMD ]D SURSXVQX L QHSURSXVQX SRODUL]DFLMX 'MHORYDQMH YDQMVNRJ HOHNWULQRJ SROMD ]DSUDYR ]QDL GD VPR QD 31 VSRM SULNOMXLOL QHNL QDSRQVNL L]YRU (QHUJHWVNL GLMDJUDPL SULND]DQL QD VOLFL RGJRYDUDMX VSDMDQMX 31 VSRMD QD QDSRQVNL L]YRU NDNR MH SULND]DQR QD VOLFL

P
I = - IS +
P
I = ID - IS
N
+
Nepropusna polarizacija
Propusna polarizacija
6OLND 1HSURSXVQD L SURSXVQD SRODUL]DFLMD 31 VSRMD $NR QD 3VWUDQX 31 VSRMD VSRMLPR SR]LWLYQL SRO YDQMVNRJ QDSRQD SRWHQFLMDOQD EDULMHUD VH VPDQMXMH D DNR VSRMLPR QHJDWLYQL SRO SRWHQFLMDOQD EDULMHUD VH SRYHDYD 8 SUYRP VOXDMX GLIX]LMD YHLQVNLK QRVLWHOMD VH RODNDYD SD GROD]L GR SRMDDQH LQMHNFLMH HOHNWURQD QD 3VWUDQX L upljina na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mA] >> I S [A] D DNR VH JLEDMX RQGD MH WR X VXSURWQRP VPMHUX RG PDMRULWHWQLK 8 QHSURSXVQRP VOXDMX XNXSQD VWUXMD MHGQDND MH VWUXML VDWXUDFLMH 6OLND E I = I S
P IS ID N P IS N

a) b)
6OLND 6WUXMH GLIX]LMH L VDWXUDFLMH ]D D SURSXVQX L E QHSURSXVQX SRODUL]DFLMX
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 3ROXYRGLNH GLRGH

31 VSRM NRML LPD L]YRGH QD 1VWUDQL L 3VWUDQL PRH VH XNOMXLWL X HOHNWULQL NUXJ NDR QMHJRY HOHPHQW 7DM HOHPHQW QD]LYDPR SROXYRGLND GLRGD LOL NUDH GLRGD Osnovna osobina diode je nelinearnost karakteristike, tj. u jednom smjeru proputa veliku VWUXMX D SDG QDSRQD QD QMRM MH PDOL 8 GUXJRP VPMHUX L SRG YHOLNLP QDSRQRP VWUXMD MH ]DQHPDULYD 3R]LWLYDQ NUDM SUL SURWLFDQMX VWUXMH ]RYH VH DQRGD D QHJDWLYDQ NDWRGD
6OLND 6LPEROLNL SULND] GLRGH $NR QD GLRGX VSRMLPR L]PMHQLQX VWUXMX RQD H MH LVSUDYOMDWL 7R MH W]Y SROXYDOQR LVSUDYOMDQMH 6OLND D
U I R IR=U t
a) U
+ -
I R IR=U t
b) U I R IR=U t
+
c)
6OLND 1DSRQ QD VWH]DOMNDPD GLRGH DNR MH QDSRQ L]YRUD D ,]PMHQLQL E ,VWRVPMHUQL SURSXVQR VWDQMH F ,VWRVPMHUQL QHSURSXVQR VWDQMH

%LWQL VDVWDYQL GLMHORYL QHNH 31 GLRGH GRELYHQH SRVWXSNRP GLIX]LMH QHLVWRD SULND]DQL VX QD VOLFL
metalni prikljucak metalizirani film metalni prikljucak
0.2 mm
P N
1 mm
6OLND 6DVWDYQL GLMHORYL 31 GLRGH 'D EL VH L]UDGLOD GLRGD X]LPD VH EORN NULVWDOD X SULND]DQRP SULPMHUX 1WLSD -HGDQ GLR VH WHKQRORNL REUDGL X 3 SROXYRGL L WDNR GRELMHPR GLRGX 'D EL VH GLRGD PRJOD NRULVWLWL SRWUHEQR MX MH VSRMiti s ostalim elementima. Na povrini se nalaze metalni spojevi s izvodima. Na mjestima gdje je metal nanesen na diodu imamo jo jednu granicu tj. spoj metal SROXYRGL 7DM VSRM LPD QHNL RWSRU NRML MH RPVNL QHLVSUDYOMDNL DNR MH HQHUJLMD UDGD L]OD]D PHWDOD PDQMD RG HQHUJLMH UDGD L]OD]D 1 SROXYRGLD ( ( RGQRVQR ]D 3WLS SROXYRGLD HQHUJLMD UDGD L]OD]D PHWDOD WUHED ELWL YHD RG HQHUJLMH UDGD L]OD]D SROXYRGLD ( ! ( ). to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unitenja P1 VSRMD 7DM QDSRQ ]RYH VH QDSRQ SURERMD 8 8 SURSXVQRP SRGUXMX ]D VWUXMX NUR] 31 GLRGX YULMHGL MHGQDGED GR koje je doao Shockley:
qU kT I = IS e 1

Na sobnoj temperaturi, T = 290 K (17C) vrijedi
kT q = 0.025 = 40 I I S e 40U q kT

I(mA)
PROPUSNO
15
10
+ +
P -
UPR - U(V)
0 IS 100 10 200 300 400 U(mV)
N +
20 - I(A)
NEPROPUSNO
6OLND 6WDWLND NDUDNWHULVWLND GLRGH 'DNOH V RE]LURP QD UDGQH WHPSHUDWXUH L QDSRQH L]UD] X SUDNVL PRHPR SRMHGQRVWDYQLWL L NRULVWLWL MHGQDGEX
I ISe
qU kT

0RH VH SRND]DWL GD VWUXMD ]DVLHQMD LOL UHYHU]QD VWUXMD , ovisi o temperaturi i irini ]DEUDQMHQH YUSFH
I S = KT 3 e
EG kT

RGDNOH PRHPR GRELWL L]UD] ]D VWUXMX GLRGH

I = KT 3 e
EG qU kT

.DNR MH YH QDSLVDQR QDSRQL NRG NRMLK GROD]L GR QDJORJ SRUDVWD VWUXMH YDULUDMX X LURNLP JUDQLFDPD L NUHX VH RG QHNROLNR YROWL GR QHNROLNR NLORYROWL RYLVQR R YUVWL GLRGH L tehnolokom postXSNX SUL L]UDGL QD]LYDMX VH QDSRQL SURERMD 3URERM QDVWXSD ]ERJ GYD X]URND D WXQHOLUDQMH =HQHURY SURERM E ODYLQVNL SURERM

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elektrona s jedne strane barijere i vie slobodnih mjesta (nepopunjenih energetskih nivoa) s GUXJH VWUDQH 6OLND
EB E0 dB
ECP EVP ECN EVN dB
a)
b)
6OLND 7XQHOVNL SURERM D (OHNWURQ PRH SURL NUR] SRWHQFLMDOQX EDULMHUX DNR QD VXSURWQRM VWUDQL SRVWRML SUD]QR PMHVWR VORERGDQ HQHUJHWVNL QLYR L DNR PRH ]DGUDWL VYRMX HQHUJLMX E 8 31 VSRMX HOHNWURQL L] YDOHQWQH YUSFH SROXYRGLD 3 WLSD PRJX SUHL X YRGOMLYX YUSFX SROXYRGLD 1 WLSD DNR MH GQR YRGOMLYH ]RQH ( LVSRG QLYRD YDOHQWQH YUSFH ( L DNR MH pri tome irina barijere d PDOD /DYLQVNL SURERM MH XYMHWRYDQ PDQMLQVNLP QRVLWHOMLPD NRML VORERGQR SUROD]H EDULMHUX UD]ELMDMX YDOHQWQH YH]H XQXWDU EDULMHUH ]ERJ HJD GROD]L GR VWYDUDQMD GRGDWQLK SDURYD HOHNWURQupljina SD QDJOR UDVWH XNXSQD VWUXMD 2YD SRMDYD MH PQRJR HD L GR QMH GROD]L NRG LULK EDULMHUD 2SHQLWR PRHPR SUHWSRVWDYOMDWL GD ]D QDSRQ SURERMD 8P 9 GRPLQLUD =HQHURY HIHNW ]D 8P ! 9 GRPLQLUD ODYLQVNL HIHNW D L]PH X WLK YULMHGQRVWL LPDPR VLPXOWDQR GMHORYDQMH RED PHKDQL]PD
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 1HNH YUVWH 31 GLRGD

2VLP YH RSLVDQLK GLRGD LML VH UDG WHPHOML QD QHOLQHDUQRVWL RSLVDQH VWDWLNH NDUDNWHULVWLNH SRVWRMH L GUXJH YUVWH GLRGD NRMH LPDMX QHNH VSHFLILQRVWL NRMH VH X SULPMHQDPD PRJX LVNRULVWLWL 1DMHH VX =HQHU GLRGH 7XQHO GLRGH (VDNL GLRGH Diode s povrinskom barijerom (Schottky dioda) 9DULNDS NDSDFLWLYQH GLRGH /(' GLRGH
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
Uul RE Uiz = 8
6OLND -HGQRVWDYQL UHJXODWRU QDSRQD 7XQHO GLRGH =D GRELYDQMH WXQHO GLRGH NRULVWL VH SROXYRGLNL PDWHULMDO YHOLNRJ RQHLHQMD 7XQHO GLRGD LPD NDUDNWHULVWLNX NRMD MH X YHOLNRM PMHUL UD]OLLWD RG VWDQGDUGQH NDUDNWHULVWLNH 6OLND .RULVWL VH LVNOMXLYR X SURSXVQRP SRGUXMX 6WUXMD X QHSURSXVQRP VPMHUX L X YHHP GLMHOX SURSXVQRJ VPMHUD MH UH]XOWDW WXQHOLUDQMD HOHNWURQD NUR] EDULMHUX
I
g=0 g>0 g<0 g>0
g=0
1.
2.
3.
6OLND 6WUXMQRQDSRQVND NDUDNWHULVWLND WXQHOGLRGH

8 SRGUXMX L SULND]DQLP QD VOLFL YRGOMLYRVW QRUPDOQR UDVWH V SRYHDQMHP QDSRQD D X SRGUXMX YRGOMLYRVW RSDGD QHJDWLYDQ RWSRU LOL YRGOMLYRVW 6WDWLND YRGOMLYRVW 6OLND PRH VH L]UD]LWL NDR I G0 = 0 = tg 0 U0
6OLND *UDILNR RGUH LYDQMH VWDWLNH L GLQDPLNH YRGOMLYRVWL 'LQDPLND YRGOMLYRVW MH RPMHU VWUXMH L QDSRQD X UDGQRM WRNL DOL ]D PDOH SURPMHQH QDSRQD L VWUXMH WM X RNROLX UDGQH WRNH 6D VOLNH PRHPR RLWDWL GLQDPLNX YRGOMLYRVW
g0 =
JGMH MH U GLQDPLNL RWSRU
2 I I dI g0 = = tg 0 = 2U U dU
(g = 1 / r )

+ R
+ R -R
E 6OLND D 7LWUDMQL NUXJ E 7LWUDMQL NUXJ V WXQHOGLRGRP

6WDWLND YRGOMLYRVW MH RGUH HQD NXWRP VHNDQWH D GLQDPLND NXWRP WDQJHQWH .RG WXQHO GLRGH MH X SUYRP SRGUXMX NXW WDQJHQWH SR]LWLYDQ QD PDNVLPXPX MH QXOD D X GUXJRP GLMHOX QHJDWLYDQ =DWR NDHPR GD WXQHO GLRGD LPD QHJDWLYQX GLQDPLNX YRGOMLYRVW L]PH X GYD HNVWUHPD 8 WRP SRGUXMX VWDWLND YRGOMLYRVW RSDGD SRYHDQjem napona. Ono to razlikuje WXQHO GLRGH RG GLRGD NRG NRMLK SRVWRML VDPR =HQHURYR WXQHOLUDQMH MHVW GRGDWQR WXQHOLUDQMH HOHNWURQD L] YRGOMLYRJ SRMDVD 1WLSD X YDOHQWQL SRMDV 3WLSD L WR X SRGUXMX SURSXVQH polarizacije. To tuneliranje jo se zove i Esakije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iode s povrinskom barijerom =D UD]OLNX RG NRQYHQFLRQDOQLK GLRGD V 31 VSRMHP NRMH VH IRUPLUDMX QD VSRMX GYD UD]OLLWD WLSD SROXYRGLD 6FKRWWN\ GLRGH VH IRUPLUDMX QD VSRMX L]PH X PHWDOD QSU $O L SROXYRGLD ,VSUDYOMDNL NRQWDNW ]DYLVL VDPR R YHLQVNLP QRVLWHOMLPD QDERMD L PQRJR MH EUL RG 31 VSRMHYD LMD MH EU]LQD UDGD RJUDQLHQD UHODWLYQR VSRURP UHNRPELQDFLMRP PDQMLQVNLK QRVLWHOMD QDERMD 2YD YUVWD GLRGD WDNR HU LPD UHODWLYQR PDOL SDG QDSRQD RG RNR 9 SD VH HVWR NRULVWH SUL L]UDGL EU]LK ORJLNLK YUDWD 9DULNDS GLRGH 9DULNDS GLRGH NRULVWH NDSDFLWHW LQYHU]QR SRODUL]LUDQRJ 31 VSRMD 2YDM NDSDFLWHW RYLVL R LQYHU]QRP QDSRQX QD 31 VSRMX RGQRVQR GLRGL 3UHPD WRPH PRH VH NRULVWLWL NDR SURPMHQOMLYL NRQGHQ]DWRU 1DGRPMHVQD VKHPD YDULNDS GLRGH RGJRYDUD QDGRPMHVQRM VKHPL LQYHU]QR SRODUL]LUDQH GLRGH 7LSLQD YDULNDS GLRGD LPD NDSDFLWHW RG S) SUL QDSRQX RG 9 ]D UD]OLNX RG NDSDFLWHWD RG S) SUL QDSRQX 9 /(' /LJKW (PLWWLQJ 'LRGH GLRGH. Prilikom rekombinacije elektrona sa upljinom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

u(t)
+
U0
6OLND 'LRGD X UDGQRM WRNL
I0
2* 1
I0 + i(t)
2
1*
u(t)
+ +
U0
U0
a)
6OLND 'RYR HQMH GLRGH X UDGQX WRNX D 6WDWLNR VWDQMH E 6WDWLNR L GLQDPLNR VWDQMH 1D VOLFL D SULND]DQR MH VWDWLNR VWDQMH GLRGH 8 RYRP VOXDMX X HOHNWULQRP NUXJX LPDPR LVWRVPMHUQL QDSRQ 3UHWSRVWDYND MH GD GLRGD QHH GMHORYDWL NDR NUDWNL VSRM 6DPD GLRGD SUHGVWDYOMD QHNL RWSRU X VWUXMQRP NUXJX D WDM RWSRU PRHPR RGUHGLWL L]
R= U0 1 = = ctg I 0 tg
b)

5 MH RPVNL RWSRU GLRGH LOL VWDWLNL RWSRU GLRGH X UDGQRM WRNL 'UXJL GLR MHGQDGEH RGJRYDUD YH QDSLVDQRP L]UD]X X SUHWKRGQRP SRJODYOMX ,]PMHQLQL QDSRQ 6OLND E MH ]QDWQR PDQML RG 8 ,]PMHQLQL QDSRQ GRYRGL GR SURPMHQH QDSRQD L]PH X WRDND L SD LPDPR L]UD] ]D GLQDPLNL RWSRU
r= 1 = ctg tg

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS HNYLYDOHQWQD VKHPD

1DGRPMHVQL VNORS GLRGH ]D LVWRVPMHUQL QDSRQ SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL D L ]DSUDYR RGJRYDUD VOLFL D GRN MH QDGRPMHVQL VNORS ]D L]PMHQLQL QDSRQ GLQDPLNR VWDQMH SULND]DQ QD VOLFL E
I0 1* R U 2*
1**
i(t) r u(t)
2**
6OLND D 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS GLRGH ]D LVWRVPMHUQL QDSRQ E 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS GLRGH ]D L]PMHQLQL QDSRQ =D UHLP PDOLK VLJQDOD PRHPR SRPRX 6KRFNOH\HYH MHGQDGEH L]UD]LWL GLQDPLNX YRGOMLYRVW
qU kT I = IS e 1 I S = KT 3 e g=
EG kT
a)
b)
dI dU qU q g= I S e kT kT
qU

qU
D
'LQDPLNX YRGOMLYRVW PRHPR RGUHGLWL L QD GUXJL QDLQ SRPRX L]UD]D

I = I S e kT I S I + I S = I S e kT
g=
q (I + I S ) kT
E
=D SRGUXMH SURSXVQLK SRODULWHWD YULMHGL I >> I S SD GUXJL ODQ PRHPR ]DQHPDULWL
g=
$NR NDHPR GD MH VWUXMD NUR] GLRGX
q I kT
qU

I I S e kT
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH RQGD MH GLQDPLND YRGOMLYRVW GLRGH

q q I S e kT g I= kT kT
qU

L GDOMH
q KT 3 e (EG qU )/ kT kT qK 2 (EG qU )/ kT g T e k

=D SRGUXMH QHSURSXVQLK SRODULWHWD YULMHGL I = I S odakle uvrtavanjem u izraz (3.15.b) ]D YRGOMLYRVW GRELMHPR 1D YLLP IUHNYHQFLMDPD SRQX HQL QDGRPMHVQL VNORS QLMH GRYROMQR WRDQ 3RWUHEQR MH X HNYLYDOHQWQX VKHPX XYHVWL L NDSDFLWLYQRVWL GR NRMLK GROD]L ]ERJ GLIX]LMH QDERMD &T WH SDUD]LWQH NDSDFLWLYQRVWL GRYRGD &W 7DNR HU ]ERJ WRQRVWL X]HW HPR X RE]LU L RPVNL RWSRU GRYRGQLK VSRMHYD U dQ .DSDFLWHW GLIX]LMH PRH VH REMDVQLWL SRPRX SR]QDWH UHODFLMH ]D NDSDFLWHW C = dU 3URPMHQRP QDSRQD NRML SUROD]L NUR] GLRGX SURPLMHQLW H VH L QDERM XSOMLQH GLIXGLUDMX RG EDULMHUH L VWUXMD QDNRQ XVSRVWDYOMDQMD QRYRJ VWDFLRQDUQRJ VWDQMD 2PMHU SURPMHQH XNXSQH vrijednosti injektiranog naboja upljina i promjene napona narinutog na diodu daje nam YHOLLQX GLIX]LMVNRJ NDSDFLWHWD
Cdif = dQ dU
g=0

1DVWRMLPR GD RWSRU GRYRGQLK VSRMHYD EXGH WR PDQML 7R SRVWLHPR VPDQMLYDQMHP GRYRGD VNUDLYDQMHP LLFD 1D WDM QDLQ VPDQMXMHPR L SDUD]LWQL NDSDFLWHW NDSDFLWHW GRYRGD 'LRGD H ELWL LGHDOQLMD WR VX MRM YRGOMLYRVW J L NDSDFLWHW GLIX]LMH YHL 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS GLQDPLNRJ VWDQMD GLRGH X XYMHWLPD SURSXVQH SRODUL]DFLMH SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL
rs <<
g >>
Cdif >> Cpar <<

6OLND 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS GLQDPLNRJ VWDQMD X XYMHWLPD SURSXVQH SRODUL]DFLMH
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH =D QHSURSXVQR SRODUL]LUDQX GLRGX LPDPR LVNOMXLYR UHYHU]QX VWUXMX GLRGH 6OLND
IS0 IS0 R >>
-

6OLND 1HSURSXVQD SRODUL]DFLMD GLRGH D 6WDWLQR VWDQMH E 5HYHU]QD VWUXMD GLRGH F 1DGRPMHVQD VKHPD ]D VWDWLQR VWDQMH 2WSRU 5 MH YUOR YHOLN MHU MH VWUXMD ,T YUOR PDOD 'LRGD ]DWYDUD SUROD] VWUXMH 8NROLNR LPDPR L]PMHQLQL QDSRQ QD GLRGL X QHSURSXVQRP SRGUXMX YULMHGL VOLND 1D VOLFL E QLMH QDFUWDQ LVWRVPMHUQL L]YRU QDSRQD .RG GLQDPLNLK SRMDYD VH L]RVWDYOMDMX LVWRVPMHUQL L]YRUL DOL VH SUHWSRVWDYOMD GD VH GLRGD QDOD]L X QHNRM XQDSULMHG RGUH HQRM VWDWLNRM UDGQRM WRNL
=D SURPMHQX QDSRQD QHPD SURPMHQH VWUXMH ,]PMHQLQD VWUXMD LW MH WROLNR PDOD GD VH PRH ]DQHPDULWL 7R ]QDL GD MH GLQDPLNL RWSRU GLRGH U YUOR YHOLN =D QHSURSXVQX polarizaciju pri viiP IUHNYHQFLMDPD GLQDPLNR VWDQMH QDGRPMHVQL VNORS SULND]DQ QD VOLFL QLMH GRYROMQR WRDQ 8 RYRM QDGRPMHVQRM VKHPL ]D UD]OLNX RG VKHPH SURSXVQH SRODUL]DFLMH QHPD GLIX]LMH UDGL REUQXWH SRODUL]DFLMH SD QHPDPR NDSDFLWHWD GLIX]LMH 8PMHVWR QMHJD SULVXWDQ MH NDSDFLWHW EDULMHUH & .DSDFLWHW EDULMHUH RYLVL R SURPMHQL naboja u barijeri (irina barijere se mijenja promjenom napona) dok kapacitet difuzije RYLVL R SURPMHQL QDERMD YDQ EDULMHUH
+ +
U0
IS a) b)
U c)
IS0
r >> u(t)
u(t)
-
U0
b) 6OLND 3RMHGQRVWDYQMHQL QDGRPMHVQL VNORS GLRGH X GLQDPLNRP VWDQMX X QHSURSXVQRP SRGUXMX
a)

rs <<
g <<
Cbar Cpar
6OLND 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS GLQDPLNRJ VWDQMD X XYMHWLPD QHSURSXVQH SRODUL]DFLMH 'DNOH GD ]DNOMXLPR DNR VH GLRGD SRVWDYL SRPRX LVWRVPMHUQRJ L]YRUD EDWHULMH X RGUH HQX VWDWLQX UDGQX WRNX SURSXVQR SRODUL]LUDQRJ VWDQMD RQGD VH HOHNWULNL PRH SULND]DWL ]D GLQDPLQR VWDQMH PDOLK VLJQDOD QDGRPMHVQLP VNORSRP QD VOLFL D ]D QHSURSXVQX SRODUL]DFLMX QDGRPMHVQLP VNORSRP VD VOLNH (NYLYDOHQWQD VKHPD NRMD REXKYDD RED SRGUXMD SULND]DQD MH QD VOLFL
Cdif g rs g0 Cbar
Cpar
6OLND 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS GLRGH X UHLPX PDOLK VLJQDOD
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 2JUDQLHQMH VQDJH X SROXYRGLNLP GLRGDPD

3RYHDQMHP WRSOLQH XQLWDYD VH SROXYRGL VWRJD QH VPLMHPR GR]YROLWL YHOLNL SRUDVW WHPSHUDWXUH 3RYHDQMH VWUXMH NUR] NULVWDO X]URNXMH SRYHDQMH WHPSHUDWXUH EDULMHUD GMHOXMH NDR RWSRUQLN L WX LPDPR SDG QDSRQD =ERJ SDGD QDSRQD MDYOMD VH VQDJD
P =U I

7D VH VQDJD ]ERJ RPVNRJ RSWHUHHQMD RLWXMH NDR WRSOLQD 3UROD] VWUXMH NUR] EDULMHUX JULMH SROXYRGLNL HOHPHQW D WR ]DJULMDYDQMH SRVSMHXMH SRUDVW VWUXMH $NR VH WDM ]DWYRUHQL NUXJ QH SUHNLQH GROD]L GR WRSOLQVNRJ unitenja diode. 6QDJD GLVLSDFLMH MH VQDJD NRMD VH SUHWYDUD X WRSOLQX WD VQDJD VH UDVLSD 6QDJD GLVLSDFLMH PRH VH L]UDXQDWL NRULWHQMHP L]UD]D
P= TS T A T 1 = TA + S K K K

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
0RJXQRVW GLVLSDFLMH MH NRQVWDQWQD GR WHPSHUDWXUH RNROLQH oC, a nakon te temperature RSDGD 7UHED SD]LWL GD WHPSHUDWXUD RNROLQH EXGH ]DGRYROMDYDMXD 3RVHEQD KODGLOD VX RELQR SRWUHEQD ]D SROXYRGLNH HOHPHQWH NRML UD]YLMDMX VQDJX YHX RG : 8 SUDNVL GLRGH L]UD HQH RG VLOLFLMD PRJX LL GR WHPSHUDWXUH 7 & D GLRGH L]UD HQH RG JHUPDQLMD PRJX LL GR WHPSHUDWXUH NULVWDOD 7 = 100oC. Za ovu, gornju temperaturnu granicu PRHPR UHL GD RYLVL R PHKDQLNLP NHPLMVNLP L HOHNWULNLP IDNWRULPD 'RQMD WHPSHUDWXUQD JUDQLFD NRMD VH RELQR NUHH RG 50oC do 70oC ovisi o mehaniNLP L HOHNWULNLP IDNWRULPD 3UL WDNR QLVNLP WHPSHUDWXUDPD GROD]L GR PHKDQLNLK RWHHQMD ]ERJ VWH]DQMD HOHPHQDWD D WDNR HU L DWRPL QHLVWRD YLH QLVX X potpunosti ionizirani to je bitno za ispravan rad. 8VSRUHGED SROXYRGLNH L YDNXXPVNH GLRGH (OHNWURQVND FLMHY MH L]DOD L] XSRWUHEH MHU MH ]D QMHQX XSRWUHEX SRWUHEQD YHD HQHUJLMD 7D HQHUJLMD VH RGQRVL QD ]DJULMDYDQMH NDWRGH ]ERJ HPLVLMH HOHNWURQD HOHNWURQVNL REODN 9DNXXPVND GLRGD MH JUD HQD RG VWDNOHQRJ EDORQD NRML VDGUL NDWRGX L DQRGX 6OLND .DWRGD MH PHWDOQL FLOLQGDU JUD HQ RG PHWDOQRJ RNVLGD LML MH L]OD]QL UDG HOHNWURQD GRVWD PDOL *ULMH VH DUQRP QLWL NRMD VH QDSDMD L] EDWHULMH 8 9DNXXPVND GLRGD GMHOXMH NDR LVSUDYOMDND HOHNWURQVND FLMHY

IA
Smjer kretanja elektrona

(dogovorni smjer struje)
Uizl(t) UIZL(t) = R * iIZL(t)
iIZL K
Uul(t)
Uizl(t)
+ UFF
UA
+
t
a)
b)
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
VAKUUMSKA DIODA Ia POLUVODICKA DIODA I povecanjem napona termicki sagori
IS
Ua u negativnom podrucju se ne dogada nista
napon proboja
6OLND 8VSRUHGED NDUDNWHULVWLNH YDNXXPVNH L SROXYRGLNH GLRGH
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH %LSRODUQL WUDQ]LVWRUL

%LSRODUQL WUDQ]LVWRUL WUDQVIHU UHVLVWRU RWSRUQLN SULMHQRVD VX DNWLYQL SROXYRGLNL HOHPHQWL NRML X SUDYLOX LPDMX WUL HOHNWURGH =D UD]OLNX RG XQLSRODUQLK WUDQ]LVWRUD NRG ELSRODUQLK WUDQ]LVWRUD NRULVQX VWUXMX NUR] WUDQ]LVWRU LQH YHLQVNL L PDQMLQVNL QRVLWHOML QDERMD .RULVWH VH NDR SRMDDOD L HOHNWURQLNH VNORSNH %LSRODUQH WUDQ]LVWRUH PRHPR ]DPLVOLWL NDR VSRM GYD SROXYRGLND VSRMD SD PRJX ELWL 313 L NPN tipa. Zbog toga se ovi tranzistori jo nazivaju i spojni (MXQFWLRQ 2VQRYQD UD]OLND L]PH X RYD GYD WLSD VX REUQXWL SRODULWHWL EDWHULMD 2VQRYQD LGHMD SULOLNRP LVWUDLYDQMD NRMD VX UH]XOWLUDOD SUYLP WUDQ]LVWRURP %DUGHQ L %UDttain, 1949. Shockley) je bila pokuaj da se QDSRQRP L VWUXMRP YHOLNL QDSRQ L VWUXMD X MHGQRP HOHNWULQRP NUXJX XSUDYOMD SRPRX VWUXMH PDOH L] GUXJRJ NUXJD
N B
P B
B a)
b) 6OLND 6KHPDWVNL L VLPEROLNL SULND] D 313 L E 131 WLSD WUDQ]LVWRUD

7UL HOHNWURGH NRMH WUDQ]LVWRU LPD VX ( HPLWHU HPLWLUD QRVLWHOMH QDERMD & NROHNWRU VDNXSOMD QRVLWHOMH QDERMD % ED]D
E B
P
P N P
N P
C
a)
b) 6OLND D /HJLUDQL WUDQ]LVWRU E 'LIX]QRSODQDUQL WUDQ]LVWRU

%D]D MH SROXYRGLNL GLR NUR] NRML SUROD]H QRVLWHOML QDERMD QD SXWX L] HPLWHUD SUHPD NROHNWRUX Ovisno o primijenjenom tehnolokom postupku proizvodnje tranzistora, irina baze varira. 8NROLNR MH NRULWHQ SRVWXSDN OHJLUDQMD 6OLND D ED]D MH IL]LNL LUD GR cm) nego to je irina baze dobivena difuznoSODQDUQLP Sostupkom (Slika 3.27.b) gdje je irina baze manja RG FP /HJLUDQL WUDQ]LVWRUL LPDMX KRPRJHQX ED]X L SULNODGQL VX ]D UDG QD QLLP IUHNYHQFLMDPD D GLIX]QRplanarni tranzistori imaju nehomogenu bazu i rade na viim IUHNYHQFLMDPD 2VQRYQL SULQFLSL UDGD WUDQ]LVWRUD 1RUPDOQR SRODUL]LUDQL 313 WUDQ]LVWRU SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL 2SHQLWR LPDPR GYD NUXJD XOD]QL L L]OD]QL L GYLMH EDWHULMH NRMH RVLJXUDYDMX SRWUHEQH QDSRQH WM SRODUL]DFLMH 0RJXD MH L L]YHGED V MHGQRP EDWHULMRP NRMRP VH UHDOL]LUDMX GYD QDSRQD 2YLVQR R YUVWDPD VSRMD ]DMHGQLNRM HOHNWURGL WUDQ]LVWRUD PRHPR LPDWL VSRM VD ]DMHGQLNRP ED]RP =% VSRM VD ]DMHGQLNLP HPLWHURP =( VSRM VD ]DMHGQLNLP NROHNWRURP =&
=D WUDQ]LVWRU QD VOLFL XOD]QL NUXJ MH NUXJ HPLWHUED]D D NUXJ NROHNWRUED]D MH L]OD]QL %D]D MH ]DMHGQLND ]D XOD]QL L L]OD]QL NUXJ SD NDHPR GD VH UDGL R VSRMX VD ]DMHGQLNRP ED]RP =D XSR]QDYDQMH RVQRYQLK VYRMVWDYD L UDGD WUDQ]LVWRUD VSRM VD ]DMHGQLNRP ED]RP MH QDMSULNODGQLML SD HPR QMHJD REMDVQLWL LDNR VH VSRM VD ]DMHGQLNLP HPLWHURP QDMHH NRULVWL .RG XRELDMHQRJ UDGD WUDQ]LVWRUD EH] RE]LUD QD YUVWX VSRMD GLRGD HPLWHUED]D SRODUL]LUDQD MH SURSXVQR D GLRGD NROHNWRUED]D QHSURSXVQR
E P IE + UEB IB
B N
C P IC + UCB IE + UEB
E
PNP C
IB
IC + UCB
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

P E
N B
-IR
E
IPC ICB0
P C
IPE -INE
IE + UEB
IB + UCB
IC
6OLND Unutranja kretanja nositelja naboja u normalno polariziranom P13 WUDQ]LVWRUX X VSRMX VD ]DMHGQLNRP ED]RP =% Objasnimo sada unutranja kretanja naboja u normalno polariziranom P13 WUDQ]LVWRUX X VSRMX VD ]DMHGQLNRP ED]RP 6OLND U emiteru su majoritetni nositelji naboja upljine, a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upljinska kretanja uvjetuju stvaranje YLVRNH NRQFHQWUDFLMH XSOMLQD X ED]L 2QH VH NUHX SUHPD VOMHGHHP VSRMX 7DM VSRM EDULMHUD NROHNWRU MH ]DSRUQR SRODUL]LUDQ HQHUJLMD EDULMHUH MH MR YHD QHJR LQDH 7X QHPD NUHWDQMD ]ERJ VSRMD YH SRVWRML VDPR NUHWDQMH ]ERJ GLIX]LMH 6WUXMD , EL ELOD MHGQDND , NDG EL VYH upljine iz emitera dole u kolektor. Ali, u bazi se jedan dio upljina spoji s elektronima i QHXWUDOL]LUD VH SD MH VWUXMD , PDQMD RG VWUXMH , , , 6WUXMX HOHNWURQD NRML X ED]L QHXWUDOL]LUDMX XSOMLQH R]QDLPR V , 6WUXMD ,W MH VWUXMD ]DVLHQMD VWUXMD ]DSRUQRJ VSRMD 2YD VWUXMD PLQRULWHWQLK QRVLWHOMD MH YUOR PDOD ,W , ,]UD] ]D VWUXMQR SRMDDQMH WUDQ]LVWRUD X VSRMX VD ]DMHGQLNRP ED]RP MH
=
QDGDOMH L] VOLMHGL
I PC IE
IC I E

I E = I PE + I NE
I PC = I PE + I NE I PE I PC
1 I NE + >1 I PC >0
<1

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH =D VWUXMX ED]H L NROHNWRUD YULMHGL I B = I NE I R I CB 0 I C = I PC + I CB 0 I PC

8 SUDNVL YULMHGQRVW VWUXMQRJ SRMDDQMD VH QDOD]L X LQWHUYDOX [0.95,0.995] )DNWRU SRMDDQMD MH GHILQLUDQ SRPRX LVWRVPMHUQLK VWUXMD SD JD VWURJR X]HYL QD]LYDPR LVWRVPMHUQLP IDNWRURP VWUXMQRJ SRMDDQMD ,]PMHQLQL IDNWRU VWUXMQRJ SRMDDQMD UDXQDPR L] RPMHUD SURPMHQH VWUXMH NROHNWRUD L SURPMHQH VWUXMH HPLWHUD X] NRQVWDQWQL QDSRQ 8W VWUXMD ,W RVWDMH NRQVWDQWQD iC = i E U
CB
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h 8W 8W SD ]D QHSURSXVQX SRODUL]DFLMX VSRMD NROHNWRUED]D PRUD WDNR HU ELWL LVSXQMHQ XYMHW U CE > U BE 2YDM VSRM UDVSRODH VD ]QDDMQLP VWUXMQLP SRMDDQMHP
IC I PC + I CB 0 I E + I CB 0 = = I B I NE I R I CB 0 I NE + I PC I PE I CB 0
I E + I CB 0 I E + I CB 0 = I E + I E I CB 0 ( 1 )I E I CB 0

SD X] ]DQHPDUHQMH VWUXMH ]DVLHQMD ,W PRHPR SLVDWL


8] YH SR]QDWH YULMHGQRVWL ]D VWUXMQR SRMDDQMH X VSRMX =( RELQR LPD YULMHGQRVWL RG GR 'DNOH WUDQ]LVWRU X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD LPD YHOLNR VWUXMQR SRMDDQMH SD VH NRULVWL NDR VWUXMQR SRMDDOR
PNP B C
IB
IC
E
IE UBE + UCE
6OLND 313 WUDQ]LVWRU X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD U CE > U BE 3RUHG YH QDYHGHQRJ VWUXMQRJ SRMDDQMD VSRM ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD ]ERJ U CE > U BE UDVSRODH L V QDSRQVNLP SRMDDQMHP ]ERJ HJD LPDPR ]QDWQR SRMDDQMH VQDJH .DR L NRG VSRMD V ]DMHGQLNRP ED]RP PRJXH MH IDNWRU VWUXMQRJ SRMDDQMD GHILQLUDWL RPMHURP SURPMHQH VWUXMH NROHNWRUD L ED]H
iC = i B U

CE
6SRM ]DMHGQLNRJ NROHNWRUD =& MH VSRM NRG NRMHJ MH NROHNWRU ]DMHGQLNL ]D XOD]QL L L]OD]QL krug (Slika 3.31). Ovaj spoj nazivamo jo i emitersko slijedilo. Naime, kod ovakvog spajanja HOHNWURGD WUDQ]LVWRUD VYDND SURPMHQD QDSRQD QD ED]L L]D]LYD SUDNWLNL MHGQDNX SURPMHQX QDSRQD QD HPLWHUX SD PRHPR ND]DWL GD HPLWHUVNL QDSRQ VOLMHGL ED]QL 1DSRQVNRJ SRMDDQMD QHPD DOL RYDM VSRM LPD ]QDDMQR VWUXMQR SRMDDQMH
PNP B E
IB
IE
C
IC UBC UEC
6OLND 313 WUDQ]LVWRU X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ NROHNWRUD U EC > U BC 9LH R NRULWHQMX WUDQ]LVWRUD ]D SRMDDQMH VLJQDOD HOHNWURQLNLP VNORSRYLPD ELWL H REMDQMHQR X SRJODYOMX R

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h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f (U EB )U CB = konst . ,]OD]QH NDUDNWHULVWLNH QSU ]D VSRM =% I C = f (U CB )I E = konst. 3ULMHQRVQH NDUDNWHULVWLNH QSU ]D VSRM =% I C = f (I E )U CB = konst.
.DUDNWHULVWLNH SRYUDWQH YH]H QSU ]D VSRM =% U EB = f (U CB )I E = konst .
3UL WRPH MH MHGQD RG YHOLLQD L]OD]QLK RGQRVQR XOD]QLK NRQVWDQWQD =D NRQVWDQWQX YHOLLQX RGDELUHPR RQX YHOLLQX NRMX MH QDMODNH RGUDYDWL NRQVWDQWQRP WLMHNRP PMHUHQMD 1DMHH VH GDMX XOD]QH L L]OD]QH NDUDNWHULVWLNH L V QMLPD VX VWDWLND VYRMVWYD WUDQ]LVWRUD QD RGUH HQRM WHPSHUDWXUL RGUH HQD X SRWSXQRVWL
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 8OD]QH L L]OD]QH NDUDNWHULVWLNH WUDQ]LVWRUD ]D VSRM ]DMHGQLNH ED]H I UL = I E I IZ = I C U UL = U EB U IZ = U CB

,]OD]QD NDUDNWHULVWLND I C = f (U CB )I E = konst.

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 IE (mA)
-2 V -8 V
8OD]QD NDUDNWHULVWLND I E = f (U EB )U CB = konst.
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
IC (mA)
IE = 10 mA
8 mA
UCB = 0 V
6 mA
4 mA
2 mA ICB0 IE = 0 mA
50
100
150 UEB (mV)
200
250
+1
-2
-4 UCB (V)
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
a)
b)
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h MH posljedica Earlyevog efekta (efekt promjene irine baze kod SURPMHQH QDSRQD UHYHU]QH SRODUL]DFLMH 1DSRPHQD SULPMHUL VX ]D 313 WUDQ]LVWRU 8OD]QH L L]OD]QH NDUDNWHULVWLNH WUDQ]LVWRUD ]D VSRM ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD I UL = I B I IZ = I C U UL = U BE U IZ = U CE
,]OD]QD NDUDNWHULVWLND I C = f (U CE )I B = konst .
8OD]QD NDUDNWHULVWLND I B = f (U BE )U CE = konst.

-120 -100
IB (A)
-2 V
-12 -10
IC (mA)
IB = -250 A -200 A
UCE = 0 V
-8 V
-80 -60 -40 -20 0
-8
-150 A
-6 -4 -2
ICE0 -100 A
-50 A IB = 0 A
-50
-100 -150 -200 -250 UBE (mV)
-2
-4
-6 -8 UCE (V)
-10
-12
-14
a)
b)
6OLND 313 WUDQ]LVWRU X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD D 8OD]QH NDUDNWHULVWLNH E ,]OD]QH NDUDNWHULVWLNH 3RUDVWRP QDSRQD 8P 8W VWUXMD , UDVWH HNVSRQHQFLMDOQR 6OLND D 3URPDWUDMXL L]OD]QX NDUDNWHULVWLNX 6OLND E PRHPR SULPLMHWLWL ]QDDMQLML SRUDVW VWUXMH NROHNWRUD X RYLVQRVWL R QDSRQX 8h /LMHYR RG NROMHQD NDUDNWHULVWLNH WUDQ]LVWRU MH X SRGUXMX ]DVLHQMD MHU vie nije U CE > U BE WR ]QDL GD MH QDSRQ 8h ! SURSXVQD SRODUL]DFLMD 2JUDQLHQMD X UDGX WUDQ]LVWRUD 2JUDQLHQMD X UDGX WUDQ]LVWRUD PRJX VH SRGLMHOLWL X WUL JUXSH QDSRQVND RJUDQLHQMD VWUXMQD RJUDQLHQMD RJUDQLHQMD VQDJH
=D VYDNL WUDQ]LVWRU EL WUHEDOR ELWL ]DGDQR SROMH L]OD]QH NDUDNWHULVWLNH SRGUXMD XQXWDU NRMHJD MH GR]YROMHQR GD VH QDOD]L UDGQD WRND WUDQ]LVWRUD 7R ]QDL GD PRUDPR RJUDQLLWL VWUXMX QDSRQ L VQDJX PC = I IZ U IZ
1DSRQVND RJUDQLHQMD VX SRYH]DQD V GR]YROMHQLP YULMHGQRVWLPD QDSRQD VSRMHYD NRG NRMLK GROD]L GR SURERMD 0DNVLPDOQD GR]YROMHQD WRSOLQD UDGD WUDQ]LVWRUD L]UDYQR XWLH QD W]Y RJUDQLHQMD VQDJH D PDNVLPDOQD GR]YROMHQD VQDJD XWLH L QD RJUDQLHQMH VWUXMH 3RVWRMH MR L IUHNYHQFLMVND RJUDQLHQMD DOL RQD VX YH]DQD X] GLQDPLND VYRMVWYD WUDQ]LVWRUD NRMD H ELWL L]ORHQD X QDUHGQLP SRJODYOMLPD

IIZ IIZMAX PCMAX

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
I UCE1 UCE2
UIZMAX UIZ
iC(t)
C B E
IC
staticka radna tocka
UBE
u(t)
UBE
UCE
a)
b)
t
6OLND 5DG WUDQ]LVWRUD SRG GLQDPLNLP XYMHWLPD D 'RYR HQMH WUDQ]LVWRUD X UDGQX WRNX E ,]PMHQLQD VWUXMD NROHNWRUD NDR SRVOMHGLFD L]PMHQLQRJ QDSRQD QD XOD]X 3ULPMHU 313 WUDQ]LVWRU X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD

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
PNP C B E E B
u1=UUL
+ i1=IUL
h11
+ - h21i1
i2=IIZ
+
1/h22
C
u2=UIZ
h12u2
crna kutija (cetveropol)
6OLND 7UDQ]LVWRU NDR HWYHURSRO 8 =WLSX VX NRHILFLMHQWL X VLVWHPX MHGQDGEL RWSRUL LPSHGDQFLMH X <WLSX NRHILFLMHQWL VX YRGOMLYRVWL DGPLWDQFLMD D X +WLSX NRHILFLMHQWL X VXVWDYX MHGQDGEL VX PLMHDQL LPSHGDQFLMD YRGOMLYRVW L EH]GLPHQ]LRQDOQH YHOLLQH +WLS HWYHURSROD LOL KLEULGQL WLS VH YUOR HVWR NRULVWL QMHJRYL SDUDPHWUL ODNR VH RGUH XMX L] VWDWLNLK NDUDNWHULVWLND WUDQ]LVWRUD SD HPR QMHJD L GHWDOMQLMH REMDVQLWL 'RGDWDN SRMDP HIHNWLYQH YULMHGQRVWL u (t ) = U max cos(t + ) ; i (t ) = I max cos(t + ) (IHNWLYQD YULMHGQRVW L]PMHQLQH VWUXMH MHGQDND MH RQRM YULMHGQRVWL NRQVWDQWQH LVWRVPMHUQH VWUXMH , NRMD QD RWSRUX 5 ]D YULMHPH 7 SURL]YHGH LVWX NROLLQX WRSOLQH NDR L SURPDWUDQD L]PMHQLQD VWUXMD L na istom otporu za isto vrijeme. Napiimo izraz za toplinu:
2 Q = i (t ) 2 Rdt = I ef RT I ef = 0 T
1 i (t ) 2 dt T 0
L GDOMH

2
T T T 2 2 2 I max I max I max 1 2 1 2 1 1 I 2 i (t )dt = I max cos (t + ")dt = [ 1 + cos(t + ")] dt = T = = max T 0 T 0 T 20 T 2 2 2
1DSRPHQD $NR VH VXVWDYL MHGQDGEL SLX PDOLP VORYLPD UDGL VH R GLQDPLNLP L]PMHQLQLP YHOLLQDPD D DNR VH SLX YHOLNLP VORYLPD WR QLMH VWDWLND LVWRVPMHUQD YULMHGQRVW QHJR HIHNWLYQD 1DSLLPR VDGD MHGQDGEH +WLSD HWYHURSROD u1 = h11i1 + h12 u 2 i 2 = h21i1 + h22 u 2 LOL X PDWULQRP REOLNX
u1 h11 i = h 2 21
+LEULGQH SDUDPHWUH GHILQLUDPR QD VOLMHGHL QDLQ
h11 = u1 i1 ;
u 2 =0
h12 i1 h22 u 2

h12 =
u1 u2
;
i1 = 0
i h21 = 2 i1
;
u 2 =0
i h22 = 2 u2

i1 = 0
)L]LNDOQR ]QDHQMH KLEULGQLK SDUDPHWDUD K K KT K MH XOD]QD LPSHGDQFLMD X] NUDWNR VSRMHQL L]OD] MH IDNWRU QDSRQVNH SRYUDWQH YH]H X] RWYRUHQ XOD] EURM EH] GLPHQ]LMH MH IDNWRU SULMHQRVD VWUXMD X] NUDWNR VSRMHQ L]OD] EURM EH] GLPHQ]LMH MH L]OD]QD DGPLWDQFLMD X] RWYRUHQ XOD] 6 6LHPHQV
1D GHVQRM VWUDQL VOLNH SULND]DQ MH QDGRPMHVQL VNORS ]D GLQDPLNR VWDQMH ELSRODUQRJ WUDQ]LVWRUD X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD *UDILNR RGUH LYDQMH KLEULGQLK SDUDPHWDUD QD WHPHOMX XOD]QLK L L]OD]QLK VWDWLNLK NDUDNWHULVWLND 3DUDPHWUH PRHPR L]UDXQDWL L] VWDWLNLK NDUDNWHULVWLND X]LPDMXL XPMHVWR L]PMHQLQLK YHOLLQD SULUDWDMH RGJRYDUDMXLK LVWRVPMHUQLK YHOLLQD 6OLND 3UYR GHILQLUDMPR SDUDPHWUH ]D WUDQ]LVWRU X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD =( 8OD]QL KSDUDPHWDU PRHPR GHILQLUDWL QD VOLMHGHL QDLQ

h11 = hie = U BE I B

U CE = konst .
3RYUDWQL KSDUDPHWDU GHILQLUDPR

h12 = hre = U BE U CE
I B = konst .

3ULMHQRVQL KSDUDPHWDU GHILQLUDPR

h21 = h fe =
I C I B

U CE = konst .
,]OD]QL KSDUDPHWDU GHILQLUDPR

h22 = hoe =
UBE
I C U CE

I B = konst .
UCE = konst.
UBE
UCE2 UCE1
UCE
UBE
UBE
IB
IB
IB = konst. b)
IB
a) IC IB2
IC
IB
IB1
IC IC
IB = konst.
UCE = konst. UCE c)
UCE
d)
UCE
6OLND 'HILQLUDQMH K SDUDPHWDUD L] VWDWLNLK NDUDNWHULVWLND D 8OD]QL SDUDPHWDU E 3RYUDWQL SDUDPHWDU F 3ULMHQRVQL SDUDPHWDU G ,]OD]QL SDUDPHWDU 3DUDPHWUL ]D WUDQ]LVWRU X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNH ED]H =% L]UDXQDYDMX VH QD LVWL QDLQ 3RWUHEQR MH VDPR X]HWL RGJRYDUDMXH NDUDNWHULVWLNH

$NR VX ]DGDQL KLEULGQL SDUDPHWUL RQL YULMHGH ]D RGUH HQX UDGQX WRNX 2EUDWQR DNR VX ]DGDQH VWDWLNH NDUDNWHULVWLNH PRHPR L]UDXQDWL KLEULGQH SDUDPHWUH ]D ELOR NRMX UDGQX WRNX 1DGRPMHVQL VNORSRYL ELSRODUQLK WUDQ]LVWRUD 1DGRPMHVQL VNORSRYL VX VNORSRYL NRML QDP SRND]XMX ]DPLOMHQX XQXWUDQMRVW HWYHURSROD WH QD WDM QDLQ RPRJXDYDMX SURUDXQ VNORSRYD =D LGHDOQL WUDQ]LVWRU X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNH ED]H NRG NRMHJ QHPDPR GRGDWQLK RWSRUD NDSDFLWHWD L LQGXNWLYLWHWD R]QDLPR KLEULGQH SDUDPHWUH QD VOLMHGHL QDLQ
b = re h11 b = ec h12 b = h21 b = gc h22
GLQDPLNL XOD]QL RWSRU LGHDOQRJ WUDQ]LVWRUD IDNWRU QDSRQVNH SRYUDWQH YH]H LGHDOQRJ WUDQ]LVWRUD IDNWRU VWUXMQRJ SRMDDQMD LGHDOQRJ WUDQ]LVWRUD L]OD]QD YRGOMLYRVW LGHDOQRJ WUDQ]LVWRUD
$NR WUDQ]LVWRU QLMH LGHDODQ RQGD UHDOQL KLEULGQL SDUDPHWUL imaju neto izmijenjene oblike:
b + rb b (1 ) h11b = h11
b + rb b g c h12b = h12 b h21b = h21
b h22b = h22
b rbb
6OLND ,GHDOQL LVFUWDQR L UHDOQL WUDQ]LVWRU FUWDWRND SULND]DQ NDR HWYHURSRO D =% (DUO\MHY QDGRPMHVQL VNORS
u cb 6NORS NRULVWL MHGDQ VWUXMQL L MHGDQ QDSRQVNL L]YRU 1DSRQVNL L]YRU LPD YULMHGQRVW ec MH QDSRQ QD LGHDOQLP VWH]DOMNDPD 1DSRQ u cb & NRQGHQ]DWRU QD HPLWHUVNRP RWSRUX

& NRQGHQ]DWRU QD NROHNWRUVNRM YRGOMLYRVWL 2YR VX SDUD]LWVNL NDSDFLWHWL NRML VH MDYOMDMX SUL YLVRNLP IUHNYHQFLMDPD WM ]D QLVNH IUHNYHQFLMH NRQGHQ]DWRUL QD VOLFL PRJX VH ]DQHPDULWL i + ie + c e r
+ -
ecu
-i
1/g
ib b
rbb b
6OLND (DUO\MHY QDGRPMHVQL VNORS E =( *LDFROHWWRY QDGRPMHVQL VNORS 2YDM QDGRPMHVQL VNORS VDGUL VDPR MHGDQ L]YRU VWUXMQL +LEULGQL QDGRPMHVQL VNORS VKHPD LPD REOLN VSRMD ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD MH RSHQLWR MHGDQ RG QDMHH XSRWUHEOMDYDQLK =D QLVNH IUHNYHQFLMH VH NRQGHQ]DWRUL QD VOLFL PRJX ]DQHPDULWL J VWUPLQD WUDQ]LVWRUD gm r e C T
+ ib
rbb
b 1/gT
gmup u
up
1/gp
C T
1/g
u
e
6OLND *LDFROHWWRY QDGRPMHVQL VNORS
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 9DNXXPVND WULRGD

Trioda (Slika 3.41.b) je elektronska cijev koja se sastoji od tri elektrode: katode, reetke i anode. One su smjetene u vakumiranoj posudi od staNOD LOL PHWDOD .DWRGD MH JUD HQD NDR L NRG NDWRGQH FLMHYL PHWDOQL FLOLQGDU MH SUHNULYHQ PHWDOQLP RNVLGRP D XQXWDU FLOLQGUD VH QDOD]L JULMDH WLMHOR NRMH VH QDSDMD LVWRVPMHUQLP L]YRURP 6OLND D
IA
G Uff UG G a) + +
K UAA b) +
6OLND D .DWRGD E 9DNXXPVND WULRGD * UHHWND PUHLFD
(PLWLUDQL HOHNWURQL ELYDMX SULYXHQL SR]LWLYQLP QDSRQRP DQRGH $NR HOLPR VPDQMLWL DQRGQX VWUXMX PUHLFD PRUD ELWL WDNYRJ QDERMD GD NRL HOHNWURQH L WDNR VH UHJXOLUD VWUXMD .DG MH PUHLFD QD QXOWRP QDSRQX LPDPR PDNVLPDOQX DQRGQX VWUXMX L VYL HOHNWURQL V NDWRGH GR X QD DQRGX $QRGQL QDSRQ 8P PRH ELWL L RNR 9 GRN MH QDSRQ PUHLFH 8 RNR 9 ,SDN GMHORYDQMH UHHWNH MH MDH MHU MH RQD EOLH NDWRGL =D YDNXXPVNX WULRGX NDR L ]D VYH GUXJH HOHNWURQVNH FLMHYL YULMHGL %DUNKDXVHQRYD UHODFLMD
= S ru
JGMH MH SRMDDQMH GLRGH 6 VWUPLQD D U unutranji otpor. ,] NDUDNWHULVWLNH WULRGH SULND]DQH QD VOLFL PRHPR SULPLMHWLWL GD QHJDWLYQLML QDSRQ reetke 8 LPD ]D SRVOMHGLFX PDQMX DQRGQX VWUXMX Strmina S je omjer vrlo male promjene anodne struje i vrlo male promjene napona reetke pri NRQVWDQWQRP DQRGQRP QDSRQX 'UXJLP ULMHLPD NDH QDP NROLNR MH MDN XWMHFDM QHJDWLYQRJ napona reetke na anodnu struju:
di A S = du G i = A U A = konst. u G


UA1 UA2 UA3 IA (mA) -UG3 -UG2 -UG1

-UG (V)
UA (V)
U G1
6OLND > U G 3 U A1 > U A3
8QXWDUQML RWSRU U MH RPMHU YUOR PDOH SURPMHQH DQRGQRJ QDSRQD L RGJRYDUDMXH SURPMHQH anodne struje pri konstantnom naponu reetke:
du A u ru = = A di A U G = konst . i A

)DNWRU SRMDDQMD MH RPMHU YUOR PDOH SURPMHQH DQRGQRJ QDSRQD L RGJRYDUDMXH SURPMHQH napona reetke pri konstantnoj anodnoj struji:
du A = du G I =
A = konst .
u A u G

8QLSRODUQL WUDQ]LVWRUL ,GHMD R XSUDYOMDQMX SUROD]D VWUXMH L QMHQRP SRMDDQMX NUR] SROXYRGLH SRPRX YDQMVNRJ HOHNWULNRJ SROMD LDNR VWDULMD RG RQH NRMD MH GRYHOD GR NRQVWUXNFLMH ELSRODUQLK WUDQ]LVWRUD zbog tehnolokih problema uspjeno je realizirana tek 1953. godine. .RG XQLSRODUQLK WUDQ]LVWRUD L]OD]QD VWUXMD MH VWUXMD YHLQVNLK QRVLWHOMD NRMD QDVWDMH X] zanemarivo malo djelovanje manjinskih nositelja. Oni se lake proizvode od bipolarnih WUDQ]LVWRUD L ]DX]LPDMX PDQMH SURVWRUD SD VH LQWHQ]LYQR NRULVWH X SURL]YRGQML LQWHJULUDQLK NUXJRYD ,PDMX YUOR YHOLNX XOD]QX LPSHGDQFLMX WDNR GD LK VH PRH XVSRUHGLWL V HOHNWURQLNLP FLMHYLPD 2SHQLWR WURH PDQMH VQDJH DOL LPDMX L PDQMH SRMDDQMH 8QLSRODUQL WUDQ]LVWRU MH NDR L HOHNWURQVND FLMHY QDSRQVNR XSUDYOMDQL HOHNWURQLNL HOHPHQW GRN MH ELSRODUQL WUDQ]LVWRU VWUXMQR XSUDYOMDQL HOHNWURQLNL HOHPHQW 0RH VH kazati da se bipolarni tranzistori vie koriste u analognim, a unipolarni u digitalnim VNORSRYLPD

Unipolarni tranzistori se jo nazivaju i tranzistori s efektom polja (Field Effect Transistor )(7 D SRVWRMH GYD RVQRYQD NRQVWUXNFLMVND REOLND VSRMQL WUDQ]LVWRUL V HIHNWRP SROMD -XQFWLRQ )LHOG (IIHFW 7UDQVLVWRU -)(7 PHWDO RNVLGQL SROXYRGLNL WUDQ]LVWRU V HIHNWRP SROMD 0HWDO 2[LGH 6HPLFRQGXFWRU )LHOG (IIHFW 7UDQVLVWRU 026)(7 LOL WUDQ]LVWRU V HIHNWRP SROMD V L]ROLUDQRP XSUDYOMDNRP HOHNWURGRP
-)(7 6SRMQL WUDQ]LVWRUL V HIHNWRP SROMD -)(7 NDR L 026)(7 WUDQ]LVWRUL LPDMX WUL HOHNWURGH XSUDYOMDND HOHNWURGD LOL YUDWD * JDLW L]YRG LOL SRQRU ' GUDLQ XYRG LOL L]YRU 6 VRXUFH
,]YRG ' L XYRG 6 VX RVQRYQH HOHNWURGH D YUDWD * XSUDYOMDND HOHNWURGD 2YL WUDQ]LVWRUL VH SURL]YRGH V NDQDORP 1 L 3 WLSD, a tehnoloki postupci koji se koriste pri proizvodnji su OHJLUDQMH L GLIX]LMD QRYLML
UGS ID
metal
+ -
D G
SiO2
G P
G P
+ -
UDS
N P
osiromaseni sloj
osiromaseni sloj (barijera)
S
+ -
metal
UGS
-
UDS
6OLND 3ULND] VSRMQRJ )(7D V L]YRULPD QDSDMDQMD ]DMHGQLNL XYRG =6 D 1NDQDOQL -)(7 GRELYHQ SURFHVRP OHJLUDQMD E 1NDQDOQL -)(7 GRELYHQ SURFHVRP GLIX]LMH ,DNR VX SUYL WUDQ]LVWRUL ELOL L]UD HQL RG JHUPDQLMD XJODYQRP VH NRULVWH VLOLFLMHYL NULVWDOL ]ERJ EROMLK VYRMVWDYD VLOLFLMD SUL YLVRNLP WHPSHUDWXUDPD 6LPEROL VSRMQRJ )(7 WUDQ]LVWRUD SULND]DQL VX QD VOLFL 2EMDVQLPR VDGD UDG -)(7D SULND]DQRJ QD VOLFL D 6ODER GRSLUDQL 1 WLS SROXYRGLD koji ima oblik tapa predstavlja kanal s izvodom ili ponorom (DGUDLQ QD MHGQRP NUDMX L XYRGRP 6VRXUFH QD GUXJRP 'YD MDNR GRSLUDQD 3 SRGUXMD QDOD]H VH VD VWUDQH JODYQH RVL NDQDOD L PH XVREQR VX SRYH]DQD 2YD GYD MDNR GRSLUDQD SRGUXMD YDOHQWQH QHLVWRH L
a)
b)

VODER GRSLUDQR 1 SRGUXMH YDOHQWQH QHLVWRH ]DMHGQR WYRUH 31 VSRM D FLMHOR WR SRGUXMH VH QD]LYD XSUDYOMDND HOHNWURGD LOL YUDWD * JDWH
D D
S a) b)
6OLND 6LPEROL -)(7D D 1 NDQDOQL -)(7 E 3 NDQDOQL -)(7 ,]PH X HOHNWURGD ' L 6 SULNOMXHQ MH QDSRQ 8 8 ! D L]PH X SULNOMXDND 3 SRGUXMD R]QDHQLK V * L HOHNWURGH 6 SULNOMXHQ MH QDSRQ 8R 1DSRQ 8R RVLJXUDYD UHYHU]QX SRODUL]DFLMX 31 VSRMD 8R 8T 1DSRQ L]PH X HOHNWURGH ' L * MH SR]LWLYDQ 8 !
D ID G + S a) b) UDS + G UGS + -
D ID UDS
UGS
6OLND ,VSUDYQD SRODUL]DFLMD )(7D D 1 NDQDOQL E 3 NDQDOQL 6 RE]LURP QD PQRJR YHH RQHLHQMH 3 SRGUXMD EDULMHUD RVLURPDHQR SRGUXMH NRMH QDVWDMH XVOLMHG UHYHU]QH SRODUL]DFLMH 31 VSRMD NDNR je i vidljivo sa slike 3.43.a), iri se JRWRYR LVNOMXLYR QD 1 VWUDQX 1DMLUL GLR EDULMHUH MH X SRGUXMX SULNOMXND L]YRGD ' MHU VX QD WRP SRGUXMX 31 spojevi najvie inverzno polarizirani (8 ! ]D 1 NDQDOQL -)(7 6WUXMD NRMD WHH NUR] SUHRVWDOL GLR NDQDOD RYLVL R QDSRQX 8 DOL L R QDSRQX 8R

1DLPH X] QHNL NRQVWDQWQL L]QRV QDSRQD 8 VWUXMD H ELWL VYH PDQMD NDNR SRYHDYDPR QDSRQ UHYHU]QH SRODUL]DFLMH 8R WR MH QDSRQ UHYHU]QH SRODUL]DFLMH YLL XL MH NDQDO LUL VH EDULMHUD .DNR RWSRU GLUHNWQR RYLVL R LULQL SUHVMHND NDQDOD XL NDQDO XMHGQR ]QDL L YHL RWSRU ,] 2KPRYRJ ]DNRQD ]QDPR GD X] NRQVWDQWQL QDSRQ L YHL RWSRU GRELMHPR PDQMX VWUXMX =D RGUH HQX YULMHGQRVW LQYHU]QRJ QDSRQD 8R kanal cijelom irinom postaje QHYRGOMLY L VWUXMD NUR] QMHJD MH WDGD MHGQDND QXOL =D VOXDM 1 NDQDOQRJ )(7D QRVLRFL QDERMD VX HOHNWURQL YHLQVNL QRVLRFL X NDQDOX D NRG 3 NDQDOQRJ )(7a nosioci su upljine. Ovo je i razlog to ova vrsta tranzistora ima QD]LY XQLSRODUQL (IHNW SROMD VH RLWXMH X LQMHQLFL GD VX RVLURPDHQD SRGUXMD X NDQDOX UH]XOWDW GMHORYDQMD HOHNWULQRJ SROMD QD LQYHU]QR SRODUL]LUDQLP 31 VSRMHYLPD XSUDYOMDND HOHNWURGD NDQDO 2VLP SULND]DQRJ VOXDMD ]DMHGQLNRJ XYRGD =6 NDR L NRG ELSRODUQLK WUDQ]LVWRUD PRHPR LPDWL VSRMHYH VD ]DMHGQLNRP XSUDYOMDNRP HOHNWURGRP =* L ]DMHGQLNLP L]YRGRP =' 6WDWLNH NDUDNWHULVWLNH 1 NDQDOQRJ -)(7D Ponaanje JFETD ELWQR MH RGUH HQR RVLURPDHQLP 31 VSRMHP 8RELDMHQR MH SURPDWUDWL ponaanje struje , X RYLVQRVWL R QDSRQX 8 ]D QHNX NRQVWDQWQX YULMHGQRVW QDSRQD 8R 2EMDVQLPR RYX NDUDNWHULVWLNX X] 8R 6OLND
ID (mA) IDSS
triodno p. pod. zasicenja pod. proboja
UP
UPR
UDS (V)
6OLND I8 8
5D]OLNXMHPR WUL SRGUXMD UDGD WULRGQR SRGUXMH LOL RKPVNR SRGUXMH SRGUXMH ]DVLHQMD L SRGUXMH SURERMD 1RUPDOQL UDG -)(7 WUDQ]LVWRUD MH X SRGUXMX ]DVLHQMD 6WUXMD , NRMD SUROD]L NDQDORP VWYDUD SDG QDSRQD ]ERJ RWSRUD NDQDOD .DR SRVOMHGLFD RYRJ SDGD QDSRQD QDSRQ L]PH X XSUDYOMDNH HOHNWURGH * L QHNH WRNH QD NDQDOX QLMH NRQVWDQWDQ 7R GRYRGL GR UD]OLLWRJ LUHQMD RVLURPDHQRJ VORMD GX NDQDOD 1DMYHD LQYHU]QD SRODUL]DFLMD 31 VSRMD MH X SRGUXMX L]YRGD ' SD MH L RVLURPDHQL VORM XSUDYR WX najiri. Promotrimo sada ponaanje struje , X RYLVQRVWL R QDSRQX 8y DNR VX XSUDYOMDND GLRGD * L XYRG 6 NUDWNR VSRMHQL 8R =D PDQMH QDSRQH 8 SRUDVW VWUXMH , MH SULEOLQR OLQHDUDQ =ERJ VYH YHH LQYHU]QH SRODUL]DFLMH 31 VSRMD SRYHDYDQMHP QDSRQD 8 NDQDO VH VXDYD L RWSRU UDVWH .DGD QDSRQ WROLNR QDUDVWH GD GROD]L GR SUHNLGD NDQDOD

GROD]L GR VWUXMH ]DVLHQMD ,F 2YDM QDSRQ 8 QD]LYD VH QDSRQ SUHNLGD LOL GRGLUD SLQFK RII YROWDJH 3RGUXMH QDSRQD GR QDSRQD GRGLUD QD]LYD VH WULRGQR SRGUXMH MHU MH NDUDNWHULVWLND VOLQD NDUDNWHULVWLFL WULRGH =D QDSRQH YHH RG QDSRQD GRGLUD 8 ! 8 GDOMQMLP SRYHDQMHP QDSRQD 8 GROD]L GR QH]QDWQRJ SRYHDQMD VWUXMH , 2YR SRGUXMH QD]LYD VH SRGUXMH ]DVLHQMD =D YULMHGQRVW QDSRQD 8 8P GROD]L GR SURERMD L vjerojatnog unitenja tranzistora. 6SDMDQMHP 8R 1 kanalni tranzistor), jo vie se inverzno polarizira 31 VSRM SD L SUL 8 SRVWRML RVLURPDHQR SRGUXMH X NDQDOX 3RVOMHGLFD RYRJ QDSRQD MH XD SRHWQD LULQD NDQDOD GDNOH YHL RWSRU SD VWRJD NULYXOMD , I8 LPD PDQML QDJLE ,]OD]QD NDUDNWHULVWLND 1 NDQDOQRJ WUDQ]LVWRUD SULND]DQD MH QD VOLFL
ID (mA) 10 8 6 4 2 0
triodno p. UDS=
pod. zasicenja 8 UGS= 0
UGS= -1.5 V UGS= -2.5 V UGS= -3.5 V
10
15
UDS (V)
6OLND ,]OD]QD NDUDNWHULVWLND UHDOQRJ 1 NDQDOQRJ -)(7D 8 SRGUXMX ]DVLHQMD VWUXMD , PRH VH L]UD]LWL SRPRX MHGQDGEH
U GS I D = I DSS 1 + U P
2

RGQRVQR
I D = K (U GS + U P )

JGMH MH . NRQVWDQWD RYLVQD R IL]LNLP SDUDPHWULPD L JHRPHWULML WUDQ]LVWRUD ]D 1 NDQDOQL WUDQ]LVWRU QDSRQ 8 ! D 8R 3ULND] RYLVQRVWL VWUXMH , R QDSRQX 8R X] NRQVWDQWDQ 8 SUHGVWDYOMD SULMHQRVQX NDUDNWHULVWLNX 6OLND )DNWRU SRMDDQMD WUDQ]LVWRUD PRHPR L]UDXQDWL L]
U DS U GS

I D = konst .
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH D GLQDPLNL RWSRU SRPRX L]UD]D

rd =

U DS I D

U GS = konst .
6WUPLQD WM SDUDPHWDU J WUDQ]LVWRUD L]UDXQDYD VH SRPRX L]UD]D

gm = I D U GS

U DS = konst .
ID (mA)
IDSS
triodno p.
pod. zasicenja UGS= 0
10 8 6
UDS= 10 V
UGS= -1.5 V UGS= -2.5 V UGS= -3.5 V
4 2
UGS= -UP
UGS (V)
-3.5
-1.5
10
15
UDS (V)
6OLND 3ULMHQRVQD NDUDNWHULVWLND 1 NDQDOQRJ -)(7D , I8R 8 NRQVW 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS -)(7D 1D VOLFL SULND]DQD MH QDGRPMHVQD VKHPD -)(7D 1D QLVNLP IUHNYHQFLMDPD PRJX VH ]DQHPDULWL NDSDFLWHWL & L &
G Cgd D
Ugs
Cgs
gmUgs
rd
Uds
6OLND 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS -)(7D
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 026)(7

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a
metal
D
SiO2
N+ P (podloga)
6OLND 1 NDQDOQL 026)(7
N+
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ada razmotrimo ponaanje NNDQDOQRJ 026)(7D 3kanalni MOSFET ponaa se na LVWL QDLQ DOL X] REUQXWH SRODUL]DFLMH QDSRQD 8 QRUPDOQRP UDGX 1NDQDOQRJ 026)(7D QDSRQ L]PH X L]YRGD ' L XYRGD 6 SULNOMXHQ MH WDNR GD MH 8y ! 6OLND $NR QD XSUDYOMDNRM HOHNWURGL QLMH SULNOMXHQ QLNDNDY QDSRQ SRGORJD 3WLSD L GYD 1 SRGUXMD SUHGVWDYOMDMX GYLMH 31 GLRGH RG NRMLK MH MHGQD SURSXVQR D GUXJD QHSURSXVQR SRODUL]LUDQD .DNR REMH GLRGH QLVX SURSXVQR SRODUL]LUDQH FLMHOL VSRM VH SRQDD NDR YHOLNL RWSRU L]PH X XYRGD L L]YRGD 3ULNOMXLYDQMHP SR]LWLYQRJ QDSRQD V RE]LURP QD XYRG QD XSUDYOMDNRM HOHNWURGL X 3WLSX SROXYRGLD H VH LQGXFLUDWL QHJDWLYQL QDERM WM HOHNWURQL H ELWL SULYXHQL X EOL]LQX PHWDOQH SORH XSUDYOMDNH HOHNWURGH DOL ]ERJ VORMD 6L2 QHH SUHL QD QMX 2YL HOHNWURQL NRML ]D SRGORJX SUHGVWDYOMDMX PDQMLQVNH QRVLRFH VNXSOMDMXL VH LVSRG SORH X SRGUXMX RG XYRGD GR L]YRGD IRUPLUDMX NDQDO 1WLSD 3URPMHQRP SRWHQFLMDOD QD XSUDYOMDNRM GLRGL PLMHQMD VH L LULQD NDQDOD LUL NDQDO PDQML RWSRU SD VH QD WDM QDLQ XSUDYOMD VWUXMRP L]YRGD 3RYHDQMHP SR]LWLYQRJ QDSRQD XSUDYOMDNH HOHNWURGH * NDQDO se iri, a negativQLML QDSRQ VXDYD NDQDO Kanal prikazan na slici 3.51 zapravo nije ravnomjerno irok cijelom duljinom. Ravnomjerna irina kanala bila bi za napon 8y DOL ]ERJ SRVWRMDQMD QDSRQD WR QLMH VOXDM .DNR VPR YH YLGMHOL NRG 1NDQDOQRJ 026)(7D L]YRG ' MH SR]LWLYQLML RG

XYRGD 6 =ERJ WRJD MH X EOL]LQL L]YRGD NDQDO ]QDWQR SR]LWLYQLML SUHPD XSUDYOMDNRM GLRGL * QHJR WR MH WR VOXDM QD GUXJRP NUDMX RGQRVQR XYRGX 0DQMD UD]OLND QDSRQD L]PH X L]YRGD L XSUDYOMDNH GLRGH X XVSRUHGEL V UD]OLNRP QDSRQD L]PH X XSUDYOMDNH GLRGH L XYRGD NDR SRVOMHGLFD LPD PQRJR XL NDQDO X] L]YRG D LUL X] XYRG 3RUDVW QDSRQD L]YRGD X]URNXMH VPDQMHQMH YRGOMLYRVWL NDQDOD WM MR XL NDQDO X EOL]LQL L]YRGD ]ERJ VPDQMHQMD UD]OLNH SRWHQFLMDOD L]PH X XSUDYOMDNH HOHNWURGH L L]YRGD
UGS +
G D
N+
kanal N-tipa
N+
ID
G2
UDS +
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
6OLND 6LPEROL 026)(7D
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 6WDWLNH NDUDNWHULVWLNH 026)(7D

026)(7 LPD GYD RVQRYQD SRGUXMD UDGD V SULMHOD]QLP SRGUXMHP L]PH X QMLK =D PDOH QDSRQH 8y WUDQ]LVWRU MH X WULRGQRP SRGUXMX NRG NRMHJ MH VWUXMD L]YRGD SURSRUFLRQDOQD naponu izvoda. Vie vrijednosti napona 8 GRYRGH GR ]DVLHQMD D WDGD MH VWUXMD L]YRGD JRWRYR QHRYLVQD R QDSRQX L]YRGD 8 RYRP GUXJRP SRGUXMX UDGD VWUXMD L]YRGD RGUH HQD MH QDSRQRP XSUDYOMDNH GLRGH 7LSLQH L]OD]QH L SULMHQRVQH NDUDNWHULVWLNH SULND]DQH VX QD VOLNDPD L
ID P$) 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 a) 6 7
triodno podr. UDS

podr. zasicenja UGS pv
ID P$) 10
UDS
"! #
UP
8 6 4 2
8 U 9) DS
-2 -1
1 b)
4 U 9) GS
6OLND D ,]OD]QD NDUDNWHULVWLND E 3ULMHQRVQD NDUDNWHULVWLND 1NDQDOQRJ 026)(7D

9
ID P$) -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
$%
9
9 9 UGS 9
'
&
-6
-12
-18
-24 U 9) DS
6OLND ,]OD]QH NDUDNWHULVWLNH UHDOQRJ 3NDQDOQRJ 026)(7D 026)(7 NDGD UDGL NDR SRMDDOR XRELDMHQR UDGL X SRGUXMX ]DVLHQMD JGMH MH L]OD]QD VWUXMD RGUH HQD SUYHQVWYHQR XOD]QLP QDSRQRP D XWMHFDM L]OD]QRJ QDSRQD QD L]YRGX QLMH YHOLN 8 SRGUXMX ]DVLHQMD YH]D L]PH X VWUXMH , L QDSRQD 8R PRH VH RSLVDWL MHGQRVWDYQLP L]UD]RP

I D = K (U GS U P )
JGMH MH . NRQVWDQWD NRMD RYLVL R IL]LNDOQLP SDUDPHWULPD L JHRPHWULML WUDQ]LVWRUD *UDQLFD L]PH X WULRGQRJ SRGUXMD L SRGUXMD ]DVLHQMD RYLVQD MH R QDSRQX GRGLUD 8 SUHPD L]UD]X U DS (dodira ) = U GS U P
,] QDJLED SULMHQRVQH NDUDNWHULVWLNH PRH VH RGUHGLWL SDUDPHWDU J VWUPLQD L U RWSRU L]YRGD 9ULMHGH LVWL L]UD]L NDR L ]D -)(7
rd = U DS I D I D U GS

U GS = konst .
gm =

U DS = konst .
8OD]QL RWSRU MH YUOR YHOLN

rul = U GS >> I G
[M]

1DGRPMHVQL VNORS 026)(7D 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS 026)(7D JRWRYR MH X SRWSXQRVWL MHGQDN RQRP -)(7D 1D PDOLP frekvencijama nema nikakve razlike dok kod viih frekvencija u razmatranje uvodimo RVLP SDUD]LWQLK NDSDFLWHWD & L & L SDUD]LWQL NDSDFLWHW &
)10 )32
042
Cgd
Ugs
Cgs
gmUgs
rd
Cds
Uds
S
6OLND 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS 026)(7D
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 2JUDQLHQMD UDGD L SUHGQRVWL XQLSRODUQLK WUDQ]LVWRUD

$NR L] QHNRJ UD]ORJD UDVWH WHPSHUDWXUD X RNROLQL WUDQ]LVWRUD L NRG -)(7D L NRG 026)(7D GROD]L GR OLQHDUQRJ SDGD VWUXMH .RG 026)(7D MH SDG PDQMH L]UDHQ 6OLND 2YR VYRMVWYR MH SUHGQRVW QDG ELSRODUQLP WUDQ]LVWRULPD NRG NRMLK SRUDVWRP WHPSHUDWXUH GROD]L GR SRUDVWD VWUXMH WR GRYRGL GR YHHJ SDGD QDSRQD NRML X]URNXMH SRYHDQMH VQDJH 3RYHDQMH VQDJH X]URNXMH SRYHDQMH WHPSHUDWXUH VYH GR WHUPLNRJ ELMHJD SURERMD .RG XQLSRODUQLK WUDQ]LVWRUD QH PRH GRL GR WHUPLNRJ ELMHJD
ID(T) ID(T=250C) 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
JF E T
MOSFET
-50 -25
25
50
75
100 T( C)
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
GRN ELSRODUQL WUDQ]LVWRUL LPDMX OLQHDUQLMX NDUDNWHULVWLNX L YHH SRMDDQMH 3LWDQMD to je posljedica razOLNH NRQFHQWUDFLMD QRVLWHOMD QDERMD QD 3 L 1 VWUDQL 31 VSRMD" .DGD QDVWXSD UDYQRWHQR VWDQMH" .DNR L]JOHGD HQHUJHWVNL GLMDJUDP 31 VSRMD X UDYQRWHL" 2 HPX RYLVL NRQWDNWQL SRWHQFLMDO L NRMH VX QMHJRYH WLSLQH YULMHGQRVWL"

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bjasnite unutranja kretanja naboja normalno polariziranog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

(OHNWURQLNL VNORSRYL
3RMDDOD 3RMDDOD VX OLQHDUQL HOHNWURQLNL VNORSRYL ]DSUDYR VX OLQHDUQL VDPR RQGD NDGD VH SURPDWUDMX SRG GMHORYDQMHP PDOLK VLJQDOD VDVWDYOMHQL RG DNWLYQLK L SDVLYQLK HOHNWURQLNLK HOHPHQDWD 3RG DNWLYQLP HOHPHQWLPD XEUDMDPR SROXYRGLNH GLRGH ELSRODUQH L XQLSRODUQH WUDQ]LVWRUH GRN VX RWSRUQLFL ]DYRMQLFH L NRQGHQ]DWRUL SDVLYQL HOHPHQWL (OHNWULQL VLJQDO NRML VH SRMDDYD PRH ELWL VWUXMQL LOL QDSRQVNL D L]OD]QL VLJQDO SRMDDQL WDNR HU PRH ELWL VWUXMQL LOL QDSRQVNL $NWLYLUDQMH WUDQ]LVWRUD ]QDL QMHJRYR GRYR HQMH X QHNX VWDWLNX UDGQX WRNX 2 VWDWLNRM UDGQRM WRNL RYLVH KLEULGQL SDUDPHWUL WUDQ]LVWRUD D WDNR L VYH YHOLLQH NRMH RYLVH R QMLPD 3ULQFLS UDGD X]HWL DNWLYQL HOHNWURQLNL HOHPHQW DNWLYLUDWL JD WM SULNOMXLWL LVWRVPMHUQL QDSRQ GRYHVWL VLJQDO QD XOD] QD L]OD]X GRELWL SRMDDQL VLJQDO 3RMDDOR PRHPR SULND]DWL NDR HWYHURSRO 6OLND 3RMDDOX SRPRX JHQHUDWRUD GRYRGLPR VLJQDO QD XOD] 'D EL QD L]OD]X GRELOL QDSRQ PRUDPR VWDYLWL RWSRUQLN 5 NRML ]DSUDYR SUHGVWDYOMD RWSRU QHNRJ SRWURDD
798
3RMDDOR
@A
798
798
D
$,
@ 798 @ A
5
B

B B CDB
8 ,5
E 6OLND D 3RMDDOR NDR HWYHURSRO E 2WSRU SRWURDD QD L]OD]X SRMDDOD VD ]DMHGQLNLP HPLWHURP 5 RWSRU SRWURDD , , VWUXMD SRWURDD
,]OD]QL RWSRU SRMDDOD 5 UDXQD VH X] LVNOMXHQL JHQHUDWRU * WM X] 8 LOL , RYLVQR R WRPH UDGL OL VH R QDSRQVNRP LOL VWUXMQRP JHQHUDWRUX 9HOLLQH 8 L , VX HIHNWLYQH YULMHGQRVWL XOD]QRJ QDSRQD L XOD]QH VWUXMH D 8 L , VX HIHNWLYQH YULMHGQRVWL L]OD]QRJ QDSRQD L VWUXMH 8NROLNR SURPDWUDPR RGQRVH VQDJD RSHQLWR YULMHGL 6OLND
HPI H4I
EF
EF 6
EF EF
Pul + Pnap = Piz + Ptop

WM VXPD VQDJH XOD]QRJ VLJQDOD VQDJD L] JHQHUDWRUD * L QDSDMDQMD L]YRU LVWRVPMHUQRJ QDSRQD MHGQDNH VX VXPL VQDJH SRMDDQRJ VLJQDOD L WRSOLQVNLK JXELWDND ,]OD]QD VQDJD SRMDDQRJ VLJQDOD WDGD MH
Piz = Pul + Pnap Ptop

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH SD X]

K=

Ptop Pnap
WM Ptop = K Pnap
GRELMHPR L]UD] ]D XNXSQX L]PMHQLQX VQDJX QD L]OD]X NRMD VH SUHGD SRWURDX
Piz = Pul + (1 K ) Pnap

JGMH MH . ,] UHODFLMH PRHPR ]DNOMXLWL GD VH XOD]QL VLJQDO SRMDDYD ]ERJ SUHWYDUDQMD GLMHOD VQDJH LVWRVPMHUQRJ L]YRUD X VQDJX L]OD]QRJ VLJQDOD
Ptop Pul
ulazni signal
toplinski gubici
POJACALO
Piz
pojacani signal
Pnap
napajanje
6OLND 2GQRVL VQDJD =D LGHDOQR SRMDDOR YULMHGLR EL L]UD]

Ptop = 0 K = 0 ; Piz = Pul + Pnap

,]OD]QD L XOD]QD VQDJD PRH VH RSLVDWL SRPRX RGJRYDUDMXLK VWUXMD QDSRQD L RWSRUD
2 Piz = I iz U iz = I iz Rp = 2 U iz Rp
U2 2 Pul = I ul U ul = I ul Rul = ul Rul

8OD]QD VWUXMD L XOD]QL QDSRQ GRLYOMDYDMX SRMDDOR NDR L]OD]QL RWSRU 1D L]OD]X VH VQDJD UD]YLMD QD RWSRUX SRWURDD 5 D QH QD 5 (OHNWURQLNL HOHPHQW MH X QHNX UXNX SUHWYRUQLN LVWRVPMHUQH X L]PMHQLQX VQDJX DNR VH UDGL R SRMDDQMX L]PMHQLQRJ VLJQDOD 0H XWLP SRVWRMH L SRMDDOD LVWRVPMHUQRJ VLJQDOD 8 WRP VOXDMX HOHNWURQLNL HOHPHQW QH GMHOXMH NDR SUHWYRUQLN QHJR MHGQRVWDYQR FUSHL LVWRVPMHUQX VQDJX L] QDSDMDQMD SRMDDYD LVWRVPMHUQL VLJQDO QD L]OD]X
EF
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 5DXQDQMH X GHFLEHOLPD

'RELWDN VQDJH * *DLQ GRELWDN PRHPR GHILQLUDWL NDR RPMHU VQDJH L]PMHQLQRJ VLJQDOD SUHGDQRJ SRWURDX L VQDJH VLJQDOD SUHGDQRP XOD]QRP NUXJX SRMDDOD
G=
Piz Pul

.RG VQDJH QH JRYRULPR R SRMDDQMX QHJR R GRELWNX 8RELDMHQR VH RYDM GRELWDN L]UDDYD X GHFLEHOLPD
G[dB ] = 10 log G[dB ] = 10 log

QDGDOMH L] PRHPR SLVDWL
Piz Pul
2 I iz Rp 2 I ul Rul
= 10 log
2 U iz / Rp 2 U ul / Rul

G[dB ] = 20 log
Rp Rp I iz + 10 log = AI [dB ]+ 10 log Rul Rul I ul
JGMH VX $ L $ QDSRQVNR L VWUXMQR SRMDDQMH $ $PSOLILFDWLRQ SRMDDQMH 8NROLNR MH RWSRU SRWURDD MHGQDN XOD]QRP RWSRUX SRMDDOD 5 5 GRELWDN VQDJH MH MHGQDN QDSRQVNRP LOL VWUXMQRP SRMDDQMX
Q R
U R R G[dB ] = 20 log iz + 10 log ul = AV [dB ]+ 10 log ul Rp Rp U ul

6 H4I
R p = Rul G[dB ] = AI [dB ] = AV [dB ]
G[dB ] = 10 log
6WUXMQL L QDSRQVNL L]YRUL
I iz U iz I U 1 = 10 log iz + 10 log iz = (AI + AV ) I ul U ul I ul U ul 2
5HDOQL VWUXMQL L]YRU SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL .UXJ VD VWUXMRP , MH LGHDOQL VWUXMQL L]YRU D ]DMHGQR V 5 QSU RWSRU HOHNWUROLWD WR MH UHDOQL VWUXMQL L]YRU 6D VOLNH YLGLPR GD MH
I G = I + I p I p = IG I
8] I =

Up RG

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH VWUXMD QD SRWURDX I p = IG I p = IG L GDOMH

Rp Ip 1 + R = IG G RG + R p Ip = IG RG

Up RG I p Rp RG

RGDNOH GRELMHPR RYLVQRVW VWUXMH SRWURDD R JHQHUDWRUX , YULMHGQRVWL RWSRUD SRWURDD 5 L RWSRUD JHQHUDWRUD 5
Ip =
RG IG RG + R p

IG I IG RG
Ip
Rp
Up = Ip Rp
realni strujni izvor
6OLND 5HDOQL VWUXMQL L]YRU , VWUXMD JHQHUDWRUD 5 RWSRU JHQHUDWRUD 5 RWSRU SRWURDD ,GHDOQL VWUXMQL L]YRU MH L]YRU NRML EL QD L]OD]QLP VWH]DOMNDPD LPDR XYLMHN LVWX YHOLLQX L]OD]QH VWUXMH 6WRJD , PRUD ELWL NRQVWDQWQD WM QH EL VPMHOD RYLVLWL R 5 =D R p << RG I p I G = konst .
,GHDOQL VWUXMQL L]YRU SRVWLH VH QH VWDYOMDQMHP 5 QHJR RG 7DGD MH , , ,GHDOQL VWUXMQL L]YRU SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL .DGD HOLPR RGUHGLWL VWDWLNX UDGQX WRNX PRHPR MH RGUHGLWL JUDILNL L WR SUHVMHFLWHP NDUDNWHULVWLNH V UDGQLP SUDYFHP 6OLND 1DJLE UDGQRJ SUDYFD RYLVL R RWSRUX SRWURDD
T S

IG
IG = Ip
IG
Rp
Up = IG Rp
idealni strujni izvor
6OLND ,GHDOQL VWUXMQL L]YRU
6WUXMQL L]YRU MH SULND]DQ SRPRX RGVMHND QD RUGLQDWQRM RVL , L RGVMHND QD DSVROXWQRM RVL I G RG 6SDMDQMHP RYH GYLMH WRNH GRELOL VPR SUDYDF NRML RYLVL LVNOMXLYR R L]YRUX NDUDNWHULVWLND L]YRUD YLGL MHGQDGEX L SUDYDF NRML RYLVL LVNOMXLYR R SRWURDX UDGQL SUDYDF YLGL VOLNX U p = I p R p 8 QMLKRYRP VMHFLWX MH VWDWLND UDGQD WRND
Ip
IG
idealni strujni izvor

c va pra i n rad
Ip1
T1
ka rak
ter is
tik a
i zv
ora
Up1
IG5
Up
6OLND *UDILNR RGUH LYDQMH VWDWLNH UDGQH WRNH VWUXMQRJ L]YRUD tg = 1 / R p tg = 1 / RG 5HDOQL QDSRQVNL L]YRU SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL YRU MH PMHVWR JUDQDQMD VWUXMD =D YRU XYLMHN NDHPR GD MH VXPD XOD]QLK L L]OD]QLK VWUXMD MHGQDND QXOL =D UD]OLNX RG UHDOQRJ VWUXMQRJ L]YRUD RYGMH XPMHVWR JUDQDQMD VWUXMD X YRUX LPDPR SHWOMX =D SHWOMX NDHPR GD MH VXPD QDSRQD SHWOMH MHGQDND QXOL -HGDQ QDSRQ MH 8 drugi je onaj zamiljeni 8
QD 5 D WUHL MH QDSRQ QD SRWURDX 8 6WUXMD L]OD]L L] SR]LWLYQRJ SROD L]YRUD D SR]LWLYQL SRO SDGD QDSRQD QD SDVLYQLP HOHPHQWLPD MH PMHVWR XODVND VWUXMH ,]YRUL LPDMX QDSRQH D SDVLYQL HOHPHQWL SDG QDSRQD 3URPDWUDMPR SHWOMX VD VOLNH X MHGQRM URWDFLML QDMHH X VPMHUX ND]DOMNH QD VDWX 3UHWSRVWDYLPR GD MH NDG VWUXMD L]OD]L QD SOXVX QDSRQ SR]LWLYDQ 0RHPR SLVDWL
U G U U p = 0

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH .DUDNWHULVWLND L]YRUD MH L GDOMH L]

U G = I p RG + U p
U G = I p RG + I p R p
GRELOL VPR L]UD] ]D VWUXMX QD SRWURDX
Ip =
D WDNR HU L ]D QDSRQ QD SRWURDX
Up =
1 UG RG + R p

Rp R p + RG
UG

+ + UG RG
Ip + Rp Up = I p Rp
U=IpRG
realni naponski izvor
6OLND 5HDOQL QDSRQVNL L]YRU 8 LGHDOQRP VOXDMX QDSRQ SRWURDD MHGQDN MH QDSRQX JHQHUDWRUD
Ip + UG Rp idealni naponski izvor
+ Up = UG
6OLND ,GHDOQL QDSRQVNL L]YRU
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH $NR MH RWSRU JHQHUDWRUD PQRJR PDQML RG RWSRUD SRWURDD RQGD YULMHGL
RG << R p U p U G

WM ]D LGHDOQL QDSRQVNL L]YRU 6OLND YULMHGL RG 0 U p = U G 6OLQR NDR NRG VWUXMQRJ L]YRUD L] MHGQDGEL L , UDGQX WRNX QDSRQVNRJ L]YRUD 6OLND
Ip UG RG Ip1 Up1 T1
8 5
T V
PRJXH MH JUDILNL RGUHGLWL
idealni naponski izvor

a rav ip n rad c
ka rak ter is
tik a
i zv o ra
UG
Up
6OLND *UDILNR RGUH LYDQMH UDGQH WRNH QDSRQVNRJ L]YRUD tg = 1 / R p tg = 1 / RG 6YDNL L]YRU NRML GDMH QD SULNOMXQLP VWH]DOMNDPD QHNL QDSRQ PRH VH SULND]DWL PRGHORP VWUXMQRJ L QDSRQVNRJ L]YRUD 1RUWRQRY L 7KHYHQLQRY WHRUHP 7KHYHQLQRY WHRUHP %LOR NRML GLR DNWLYQH OLQHDUQH PUHH PRH VH QDGRPMHVWLWL V RE]LURP QD GYLMH VWH]DOMNH D L E UHDOQLP QDSRQVNLP L]YRURP LML XQXWDUQML QDSRQ ( 7KHYHQLQRY QDSRQ L XQXWDUQMX LPSHGDQFLMX = 7KHYHQLQRYX LPSHGDQFLMX RGUH XMHPR L] ]DGDQH PUHH
W 7KHYHQLQRY QDSRQ ( W RGUH XMHPR WDNR GD L]UDXQDPR LOL L]PMHULPR QDSRQ 8X3Y3` QD RWYRUHQLP VWH]DOMNDPD DE OLQHDUQH PUHH 8XaY1` ! ( W ima plus prema a; 8b3c1d ( e LPD SOXV prema b. 7KHYHQLQRYX LPSHGDQFLMX = e RGUHGLPR WDNR GD NUDWNR VSRMLPR VYH QDSRQVNH L]YRUH L LVNOMXLPR VYH VWUXMQH L]YRUH WH RQGD L]UDXQDPR LOL L]PMHULPR XNXSQX LPSHGDQFLMX L]PH X W
WRDND D L E 1RUWRQRY WHRUHP %LOR NRML GLR DNWLYQH OLQHDUQH PUHH PRH VH QDGRPMHVWLWL V RE]LURP QD GYLMH VWH]DOMNH D L E UHDOQLP VWUXMQLP L]YRURP LMX VWUXMX , 1RUWRQRYX VWUXMX L XQXWDUQMX LPSHGDQFLMX = 1RUWRQRYX LPSHGDQFLMX RGUH XMHPR L] ]DGDQH PUHH
1RUWRQRYX VWUXMX , RGUH XMHPR WDNR GD L]UDXQDPR VWUXMX NRMD WHH RG D SUHPD E NDGD VX VWH]DOMNH DE NUDWNR VSRMHQH 1RUWRQRYX LPSHGDQFLMX = RGUHGLPR WDNR GD NUDWNR VSRMLPR VYH QDSRQVNH L]YRUH L LVNOMXLPR VYH VWUXMQH L]YRUH WH RQGD L]UDXQDPR XNXSQX LPSHGDQFLMX L]PH X D L E

3UHWSRVWDYLPR GD X NXLWX LPDPR QHSR]QDWL VNORS 6OLND NRML VH PRH VDVWRMDWL RG YHHJ EURMD QH]DYLVQLK VWUXMQLK L QDSRQVNLK L]YRUD WH RWSRUQLND 6NORS LPD GYLMH YDQMVNH VWH]DOMNH &LOM QDP MH RGUHGLWL HNYLYDOHQWQL VNORS ]D RYDM VOXDM
nepoznato
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
gih f e r p q gih prq f e
psq t e gih t
6OLND =DPMHQD QHSR]QDWRJ VNORSD UHDOQLP QDSRQVNLP LOL VWUXMQLP L]YRURP ,DNR VH QDSRQ RWYRUHQH SHWOMH 8 XRELDMHQR Pjeri voltmetrom koji ima veliki unutranji RWSRU HVWR QLMH SULNODGQR PMHULWL VWUXMX NUDWNRJ VSRMD NUDWNR SRYH]XMXL VWH]DOMNH ]ERJ PRJXLK RWHHQMD VNORSD 3RVWRML YLH PHWRGD LQGLUHNWQRJ PMHUHQMD VWUXMH NUDWNRJ VSRMD 0HWRGD , 1D L]OD]QH VWH]DOMNH L]YRUD VSRMLPR YDULMDELOQL RWSRUQLN L PMHULPR L]OD]QL QDSRQ L VWUXMX ]D UD]OLLWH YULMHGQRVWL SRVWDYOMHQRJ RWSRUD YDULMDELOQRJ RWSRUQLND SRWURDD 1DFUWDPR JUDI RYLVQRVWL QDSRQD R VWUXML NDNR EL L] GRELYHQRJ SUDYFD RGUH LYDQMHP presjecita pravca s apscisRP RGUHGLOL VWUXMX NUDWNRJ VSRMD , 6OLND 0HWRGD ,, ,]PMHULPR QDSRQ RWYRUHQH SHWOMH 8 SRPRX YROWPHWUD V YHOLNLP XQXWUDQMLP RWSRURP 1DNRQ WRJD SULNOMXLPR YDQMVNL RWSRU U L]PH X VWH]DOMNL VNORSD L PMHULPR QDSRQ 8
gih
gih
psq
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH QD RWSRUQLNX U 6OLND Unutranji otpor 5 PRHPR L]UDXQDWL L] UHODFLMH D ]DWLP L VWUXMX NUDWNRJ VSRMD I KS =
U OP R

U r = U OP r + R
U UOP
6OLND 0MHUHQMH VWUXMH NUDWNRJ VSRMD 0HWRGD ,
IKS
R UOP r U
6OLND 0MHUHQMH VWUXMH NUDWNRJ VSRMD 0HWRGD ,, 0HWRGD ,,, 2YD PHWRGD MH NRPELQDFLMD SUHWKRGQH GYLMH PHWRGH ,]PMHULPR QDSRQ RWYRUHQH SHWOMH SULMH QHJR WR VPR VSRMLOL YDULMDELOQL RWSRUQLN L]PH X VWH]DOMNL VNORSD 0MHULPR izlazni napon i podeavamo otpor dok napon na otporniku ne padne na polovicu vrijednosti 1 QDSRQD RWYRUHQH SHWOMH U = U OP . U tom trenutku je vanjski otpor jednak unutranjem 2 RWSRUX 5 L VWUXMD NUDWNRJ VSRMD , VH SRQRYR PRH L]UDXQDWL L] RPMHUD QDSRQD RWYRUHQH SHWOMH L RWSRUD 5 NDNR MH SRND]DQR UDQLMH
psq
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 8OD]QL RWSRU

.DG QD XOD]QH VWH]DOMNH QHNH UHDOQH HOHNWULQH PUHH SULNOMXLPR QDSRQ SRWHL H HOHNWULQD VWUXMD -DNRVW VWUXMH RYLVLW H R XOD]QRM LPSHGDQFLML = VNORSD LOL PUHH 6OLND D 8 YHOLNRP EURMX VOXDMHYD XOD]QL NUXJ PRHPR SULND]DWL VDPR NDR RWSRU SD X WRP VOXDMX JRYRULPR R XOD]QRP RWSRUX 5 VNORSD LOL PUHH 6OLND E
uPv
u4v
Zul
Rul
6OLND D 1DGRPMHVQD VKHPD XOD]D E 3RMHGQRVWDYQMHQD QDGRPMHVQD VKHPD XOD]D HVWR VH YULMHGQRVW XOD]QRJ RWSRUD VNORSD PRH RGUHGLWL QD RVQRYX SR]QDYDQMD VNORSD 8NROLNR QDH SR]QDYDQMH VNORSD QLMH GRYROMQR XOD]QL RWSRU RGUH XMHPR PMHUHQMHP 6OLND R
a)
b)
RG UOP Ui Uul Rul
6OLND 0MHUHQMH XOD]QRJ RWSRUD VNORSD 0MHUHQMH XOD]QRJ RWSRUD QHSR]QDWRJ VNORSD 6NORS NRML LVSLWXMHPR VSRMLPR X VHULMX V YDULMDELOQLP RWSRUQLNRP L QDSRQVNLP L]YRURP 0MHULPR L]OD]QL QDSRQ L]YRUD 8 L QDSRQ QD VWH]DOMNDPD VNORSD 8 NRMHJ LVSLWXMHPR 1 0LMHQMDQMHP YULMHGQRVWL YDULMDELOQRJ RWSRUQLND 5 QDPMHVWLPR GD EXGH U ul = U i 2 6DGD MH YDQMVNL RWSRU 5 MHGQDN XOD]QRP RWSRUX 5 ,]PMHULPR 5 L RGUHGLOL VPR 5 5 5
uPv
Unutranji otpor izvora 5 QH XWLH QD RYX PHWRGX MHU MH ]D PMHUHQMH NRULWHQ L]OD]QL QDSRQ L]YRUD 8 D QH QDSRQ RWYRUHQH SHWOMH 8
u4v
u4v
uPv
gih
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 1DSRQVNR SRMDDQMH L IUHNYHQFLMVNL RG]LY

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sredinjem pojasu. Ovaj iznos odgovarD SDGX GRELWND VQDJH QD SRORYLFX RG PDNVLPDOQH VQDJH (snage u sredinjem pojasu). Kako je snaga na izlazu proporcionalna kvadratu izlaznog QDSRQD SURL]OD]L GD QD JRUQMRM L GRQMRM JUDQLQRM IUHNYHQFLML QDSRQVNR SRMDDQMH SDGD QD 1 / 2 LOL RG PDNVLPDOQH YULMHGQRVWL 1D VOLFL SULND]DQ MH WLSLQL IUHNYHQFLMVNL RG]LY SRMDDOD =ERJ LURNRJ RSVHJD IUHNYHQFLMD XRELDMHQR MH FUWDQMH IUHNYHQFLMD ORJDULWDPVNRP VNDORP
AV (dB) sirina frekvencijskog pojasa
3 dB
fd
fg
f(Hz)
6OLND 7LSLDQ IUHNYHQFLMVNL RG]LY SRMDDOD
1LVNRIUHNYHQFLMVNL RG]LY SRMDDQMD QDMHH MH RGUH HQ XWMHFDMHP YH]QRJ NRQGHQ]DWRUD & 6OLND NRML VOXL ]D SURSXWDQMH VDPR L]PMHQLQRJ GLMHOD XOD]QRJ VLJQDOD L SRVWL]DQMH QHRYLVQRVWL LVWRVPMHUQLK XYMHWD PUHH LVSUHG L L]D NRQGHQ]DWRUD 9LVRNRIUHNYHQFLMVNL RG]LY RYLVL R QHHOMHQRM SRMDYL NDSDFLWHWD & GLIX]LMVNL L EDULMHUQL NDSDFLWHW
3UL PDOLP IUHNYHQFLMDPD YULMHGL

1 >> R SD X XNXSQRP RWSRUX ]DQHPDUXMHPR NDSDFLWHW & MHU H VYD VWUXMD j 2fC P SUROD]LWL SUHNR RWSRUQLND 5 2WSRU JHQHUDWRUD 5 ]DQHPDUXMHPR MHU MH 5 5 SD YULMHGL 8 8 LGHDOQL QDSRQVNL JHQHUDWRU .DSDFLWHW YH]QRJ NRQGHQ]DWRUD SUL RYLP IUHNYHQFLMDPD QH PRHPR ]DQHPDULWL MHU MH RYDM NDSDFLWHW YH]DQ X VHULML V RWSRURP 5 6WRJD ]D XNXSQX LPSHGDQFLMX SUL PDOLP IUHNYHQFLMDPD YULMHGL f << f g
t u4v

1 j 2fCV RGDNOH PRHPR L]UD]LWL L QDSRQVNR SRMDDQMH ]D PDOH IUHNYHQFLMH f << Zd = R + AV = U0 = U ul R 1 R+ j 2fCV = 1 1 1+ j 2fCR

$PSOLWXGD QDSRQVNRJ SRMDDQMD GRELMH VH L] MHGQDGEH

AV = 1 1 1+ C R V
2

2YR SRMDDQMH LPD L]QRV MHGQDN
1 2
SUL GRQMRM JUDQLQRM IUHNYHQFLML NRMD L]QRVL
1 1 1 = 1 2f d = fd = d CV R CV R 2CV R
RG UG Uul
CV CP R U0
6OLND .DSDFLWHWL NRML XWMHX QD UDG SRMDDOD QD QLVNLP L YLVRNLP IUHNYHQFLMDPD 8NOMXLYDQMHP RWSRUD 5 X MHGQDGEX GRELMHPR
AV = U0 = UG R 1 RG + R + j 2fCV = R R + RG 1 1 1+ jCV ( R + RG )

LOL QD GUXJL QDLQ

AV = A A = d f 1+ 1 j d j f

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH JGMH MH A=

R ; R + RG

fd =
d =
1 0 ]D jCV R =ERJ SDUDOHOQRJ VSRMD RWSRUQLND 5 L NRQGHQ]DWRUD & X RYRP VOXDMX ]D L]UDXQ JRUQMH JUDQLQH IUHNYHQFLMH X]LPDPR YULMHGQRVW RYRJ NRQGHQ]DWRUD 8NXSQD XOD]QD LPSHGDQFLMD SRMDDOD VDGD MH
3UL YLVRNLP IUHNYHQFLMDPD ]DQHPDUXMHPR NDSDFLWHW YH]QRJ NRQGHQ]DWRUD MHU
1 ; CV ( R + RG )
d 2
Zg =
1 1 + jC P R
R 1 + j C P R

8QXWUDQML RWSRU JHQHUDWRUD QH PRHPR ]DQHPDULWL MHU NDNR VPR YLGMHOL XOD]QD LPSHGDQFLMD SRUDVWRP IUHNYHQFLMH SDGD 8] NRQVWDQWDQ QDSRQ JHQHUDWRUD 8 GROD]L GR SDGD QDSRQD QD RWSRUX 5 jer dio napona ostane na otporu 5 0RHPR QDSLVDWL L]UD] ]D QDSRQVNR SRMDDQMH SUL YLVRNLP IUHNYHQFLMDPD
R R R + RG 1 + jC P R = AV = R RRG RG + 1 + jC P R+R 1 + jC P R G
A = 1 + jC P Reff
A f 1+ j fg

JGMH MH SRMDDQMH A= RWSRU Reff =

fg =
1 MH JRUQMD JUDQLQD IUHNYHQFLMD 2C P Reff
RRG MH HIHNWLYQL RWSRU SDUDOHOQRJ VSRMD RWSRUQLND 5 L 5 R + RG
R NRMH EL PUHD LPDOD EH] NDSDFLWHWD & R + RG
,GHDOQR VWUXMQR SRMDDOR LPD XOD]QL RWSRU MHGQDN QXOL WR X]URNXMH GD QHPD JXELWDND VWUXMH GRELYHQH L] VWUXMQRJ JHQHUDWRUD 8 L]OD]QRP VWUXMQRP NUXJX QDOD]L VH LGHDOQL VWUXMQL L]YRU NRML GDMH VWUXMX I iz = AI I ul = AI I G D 6WUXMD QD L]OD]X L] WDNYRJ SRMDDOD QH RYLVL R RWSRUX SRWURDD SULNOMXHQRJ QD L]OD]QH VWH]DOMNH SRMDDOD .RG LGHDOQRJ QDSRQVNRJ SRMDDOD $ QH RYLVL R RWSRUX SRWURDD L IUHNYHQFLML SRMDDYDQRJ QDSRQVNRJ VLJQDOD ,GHDOQR QDSRQVNR SRMDDOR LPD XOD]QL RWSRU EHVNRQDQR YHOLN 9ULMHGL
U iz = AV U ul = AV U G
E
1DSRQ QD L]OD]X L] WDNYRJ SRMDDOD QH RYLVL R RWSRUX SRWURDD SULNOMXHQRJ QD L]OD]QH VWH]DOMNH SRMDDOD
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 3RMDDOD V ELSRODUQLP WUDQ]LVWRULPD 6WUXMQR SRMDDOR X VSRMX =(

3RMDDOR ]DPLOMDPR NDR UHDOQL VWUXMQL L]YRU 3RWURD 5 VSDMDPR QD NROHNWRU 3RPRX RWSRUD 5 smo izbjegli jo jednu bateriju (negativan pol baterije preko otpora 5 VSRMHQ MH QD ED]X
C B Uce E
IC Ip Rp
RB IG RG
Ucc + -
$ L $ VX SRMDDQMD NRMD VH SRVWLX NDG VH WUDQ]LVWRU UHDOL]LUD X MHGQRP RG VSRMHYD L RQD QH ]DYLVH LVNOMXLYR R VYRMVWYLPD WUDQ]LVWRUD YH L R SDVLYQLP HOHPHQWLPD NRML VH QDOD]H X NRQNUHWQRP VNORSX L VX NRHILFLMHQWL SRMDDQMD NRML VH RGQRVH LVNOMXLYR QD VDPL WUDQ]LVWRU
6OLND 3RMDDOR X VSRMX =(
Rp
Rul
6OLND 8OD]QL L L]OD]QL RWSRUL HWYHURSROD
Riz
=D VNORS =( ELWQR MH VWUXMQR SRMDDQMH SD NDNR MH = h21e ELUDPR WUDQ]LVWRU LML MH SDUDPHWDU h21e YHOLN
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 8 WRP VOXDMX VWUXMQR SRMDDQMH MH AI = Riz Riz + R p

1HJDWLYDQ SUHG]QDN ]QDL GD VH REUH ID]D VLJQDOD $NR MH
R p << Riz AI
8 GUXJRP VOXDMX DNR MH R p >> Riz AI Riz Rp

=D VOXDM L] MHGQDGEH PRHPR SULPLMHWLWL GD MH SRMDDQMH ]QDWQR PDQMH QHJR WR QDP VDP WUDQ]LVWRU WR RPRJXXMH .RG VWUXMQRJ SRMDDOD QDMHL MH VOXDM R p << Riz ,] VOLNH HWYHURSROD SULND]DQRJ X VSRMX =( SURL]OD]L
Riz 1 ; h22e Rul h11e

SD QDP MH X LQWHUHVX GD SDUDPHWDU h22 bude to manji tj. izlazni otpor 5 WR YHL 3ULPMHU YULMHGQRVWL K SDUDPHWDUD WUDQ]LVWRUD ]D VWUXMQR SRMDDOR K N K K K 6 1DSRQVNR SRMDDQMH QLMH WROLNR ELWQR NDR VWUXMQR L PRHPR JD L]UDXQDWL L]
43
4P
1P
AV = X] SUHWSRVWDYNX $
Rp Rul
h21e
Rp Rul

YULMHGL
G = AI AV = Rp Rul
2 h21 e

1DSRQVNR SRMDDQMH WDNR HU L]D]LYD REUWDQMH ID]H $NR HOLPR YHOLNR VWUXMQR SRMDDQMH QDSRQVNR MH PDOR MHU MH R p << Riz 'D EL GRELOL WR YHH QDSRQVNR SRMDDQMH K PRUD ELWL WR PDQMH 'DNOH WUDLPR WUDQ]LVWRU NRML LPD GRYROMQR YHOLNL L]OD]QL RWSRU 5 L GRYROMQR PDOL XOD]QL RWSRU 5 'D EL VH WUDQ]LVWRU GRYHR X RGJRYDUDMXX UDGQX WRNX X NRMRM SRVWRML HOMHQL L]QRV IDNWRUD VWUXMQRJ SRMDDQMD SRWUHEQR MH RVLJXUDWL LVWRVPMHUQH QDSRQH L VWUXMH NROHNWRUD L ED]H X UDGQRM WRNL 6OLND ,] VOLNH SRWUHEQR MH RGUHGLWL SUDYDF
4P
U CC I C R p U ce = 0 IC = U 1 U ce + CC Rp Rp


IC UCC Rp T IB1 IB2 IB3
UCC
Uce
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
6OLND 3RMDDOR V WUDQ]LVWRURP X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNH ED]H
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH =D VWUXMQR SRMDDQMH YULMHGL GRN MH QDSRQVNR SRMDDQMH AV

AI h21b 1 Rp Rul
>> 1
2WSRU 5 VD VOLNH MH YUOR YHOLN 2Q QH SRUHPHXMH VWUXMX , DOL QDP WUHED DNR VH RGVSRML JHQHUDWRU 3RMDDOR X VSRMX =& WUDQVIRUPDWRU LPSHGDQFLMH HPLWHUVNR VOMHGLOR 7LSLQR SRMDDOR V ELSRODUQLP WUDQ]LVWRURP SULND]DQR MH QD VOLFL 3RWURD MH VSRMHQ X NUXJX HPLWHUD D NROHNWRU MH VSRMHQ GLUHNWQR QD EDWHULMX 8 (PLWHU PRUD ELWL QD SR]LWLYQRP SROX 2WSRUQLN 5 VOXL ]D L]EMHJDYDQMH MR MHGQH EDWHULMH
R1 B RG UG + R2
C E izlaz RP +
UCC
6WUXMQR SRMDDQMH MH YHOLNR D QDSRQVNR YUOR EOL]X MHGLQLFL

AI >> 1
6OLND 3RMDDOR V WUDQ]LVWRURP X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ NROHNWRUD
8OD]QL RWSRU MH YHOLN D L]OD]QL PDOL
AV 1 Rul h11c 100k Rul >> Riz <<
2YDM VNORS VOXL ]D WUDQVIRUPLUDQMH YHOLNH QD PDOX LPSHGDQFLMX D QD]LYDPR JD L HPLWHUVNR VOMHGLOR ]ERJ WRJD WR VX QDSRQL QD XOD]X L L]OD]X MHGQDNL SR L]QRVX L ID]L WR VH WLH VWUXMH QHPDPR VOLMH HQMH SR DPSOLWXGL QHJR VDPR SR ID]L
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 3RMDDOD V XQLSRODUQLP WUDQ]LVWRULPD 3RMDDOR X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ XYRGD =6

026)(7 WUDQ]LVWRUL RYLVQR R WLSX RERJDHQL LOL RVLURPDHQL NDQDO PRJX UDGLWL V UD]OLLWLP QDSRQLPD QD XSUDYOMDNRM HOHNWURGL * 026)(7 RVLURPDHQRJ WLSD PRH UDGLWL V RED SUHG]QDND QDSRQD QD XSUDYOMDNRM HOHNWURGL GRN 026)(7 RERJDHQRJ WLSD PRH UDGLWL VDPR V MHGQLP SUHG]QDNRP WRJ QDSRQD -)(7ovi su uvijek osiromaenog tipa. Kad bi sklop prikazan na slici 4.22 radio u osiromaenom modu, onda bi napon 8 LPDR REUQXWL SRODULWHW
dd
D G RP RG + S UGG + UDD
UG
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
egf egf
AV = g m RP

)DNWRU SRMDDQMD MHGQDN MH XPQRNX VWUPLQH L GLQDPLNRJ RWSRUD %DUNKDXVHQRYD UHODFLMD
'LQDPLNL RWSRU U MH YHOLN N0 SD MH QDSRQ L]PH X L]YRGD L XYRGD XYHOLNH RYLVDQ R RWSRUX 5 ,]OD]QL RWSRU VD VOLNH MHGQDN MH GLQDPLNRP RWSRUX 5 U
g m rd =


G RG + S
gmUgs
rd
RP
UG
6OLND 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS SRMDDOD X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ XYRGD =6 3RMDDOR X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ RGYRGD =' 3RMDDOR X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ RGYRGD SULND]DQR MH QD VOLFL D .RULWHQMHP GYD RWSRUQLND NDR GMHOLWHOMD QDSRQD 5 L 5 GRYROMQD QDP MH VDPR MHGQD EDWHULMD 8 ), a suvina je SRVHEQD EDWHULMD ]D SRVWDYOMDQMH QDSRQD XSUDYOMDNH GLRGH 8 3RWURD 5 MH VSRMHQX NUXJ XYRGD D RGYRG MH VSRMHQ QD EDWHULMX 8 WR ]QDL GD MH ]D L]PMHQLQL VLJQDO ]DSUDYR X]HPOMHQ
ee
dd
eh e
R1 G + RG +
ID + UDD
R2
6OLND D 3RMDDOR X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ RGYRGD =' UDG X RERJDHQRP PRGX , RYDM VNORS SULND]DQ QD VOLFL UDGL X RERJDHQRP PRGX MHU MH XSUDYOMDND HOHNWURGD * SR]LWLYQR SRODUL]LUDQD X RGQRVX QD XYRG 6 6NORS LPD VYRMVWYD VOLQD VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ NROHNWRUD HPLWHUVNR VOMHGLOR 1HPD SRMDDQMD QH REUH ID]X L SULODJR DYD LPSHGDQFLMX Rul >> Riz << AV 1 AV > 0
UG
RP
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH ,]UD] ]D QDSRQVNR SRMDDQMH PRHPR GRELWL L] VOLNH QDGRPMHVQRJ VNORSD
U gs = U G U P rd RP U P = g mU gs r +R P d gm U rd >> R P AV = P = RP U G 1 + g m RP

D X] g m RP >> 1 GRELMHPR AV 1 .RULVWL VH NDR MHGQD YUVWD PH XVNORSD WM VNORSD ]D VXHOMDYDQMH 6XHOMDYD YUOR YHOLNX L YUOR PDOX LPSHGDQFLMX
G G Ugs S S ID UG R1 II 52 gmUgs rd UP RP
6OLND E 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS SRMDDOD X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNRJ XYRGD =' 3RMDDOR X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNH XSUDYOMDNH HOHNWURGH =* ,]YHGED SRMDDOD X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNH XSUDYOMDNH HOHNWURGH SULND]DQD MH QD VOLFL D
S RG + RS C D ID
UG
6OLND D 3RMDDOR X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNH XSUDYOMDNH HOHNWURGH =* UDG X RERJDHQRP PRGX
+ UDD
R2
R1
RP

8OD]QL VLJQDO VH GRYRGL X NUXJ XYRGD 6 D L]OD]QL VLJQDO SRMDDQ VH SUHGDMH SRWURDX X NUXJX RGYRGD ' 2WSRU 5 MH GRGDQ GD EL SRO ELR VSRMHQ QD XYRG 6 DN L DNR RGVSRMLPR JHQHUDWRU 1D 5 VH VWYDUD L]UD]LWL SDG QDSRQD 2WSRUQLN 5 MH X XOD]QRP NUXJX QD NRML GMHOXMH L]PMHQLQL L]YRU QDSRQD =ERJ WRJD EL QD 5 GRELOL L]PMHQLQL SDG QDSRQD D WR EL L]D]YDOR SRUHPHDM QDSRQD L]PH X XYRGD 6 L XSUDYOMDNH HOHNWURGH * ,]PMHQLQL QDSRQ GHVWDELOL]LUD SRMDDOR L ]ERJ WRJD VWDYOMDPR NRQGHQ]DWRU & NRML VOXL ]D X]HPOMHQMH L]PMHQLQRJ VLJQDOD QD XSUDYOMDNRM HOHNWURGL * 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL E
RG
gmUgs rd
ID
+ UG Us
RS G
Ugs
UP ID
RP
Rul
Rul
6OLND E 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS SRMDDOD X VSRMX ]DMHGQLNH XSUDYOMDNH HOHNWURGH =* 8OD]QL QDSRQ SRMDDOD MH 8 D XOD]QL QDSRQ WUDQ]LVWRUD MH 8 ,] VOLNH PRHPR ]DNOMXLWL GD MH 8 8 =D QDSRQVNR SRMDDQMH PRH VH GRND]DWL GD YULMHGL
j l3m
l3m
AV =
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
1+ ) UP ( US = US rd + RP

n k pk
n1o p9o

AV = U3 U3 U 2 = = AV 2 AV 1 U1 U 2 U1

2SHQLWR YULMHGL
AV = AVi
i =1 n

LOL DNR SRMDDQMH L]UD]LPR X GHFLEHOLPD

AV [dB ] = AVi [dB ]
i =1 n

=D VWUXMQR SRMDDQMH PRHPR QDSLVDWL

AI = I3 I3 I2 = = AI 2 AI 1 I1 I 2 I1

L RSHQLWR
AI = AIi
i =1 n

LOL X GHFLEHOLPD
AI [dB ] = AIi [dB ]
i =1 n

I1
I2
I3
RG + U1
Av1 $
Av2 U2 $
UG
qr
qs
U3
RP
6OLND .DVNDGQD SRMDDOD

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
tPuwv x1v
tPuwv
QDGDOMH
I b2 = ( 1 + h fe1 )I b1

I c2 = ( 1 + h fe1 )I b1 h fe 2
SD MH XNXSQD VWUXMD NROHNWRUD
I c = h fe1 I b1 + ( 1 + h fe1 )I b1 h fe 2
RGDNOH MH XNXSQL IDNWRU VWUXMQRJ SRMDDQMD
h fe = Ic = h fe1 + ( 1 + h fe1 ) h fe 2 h fe1 h fe 2 I b1

7UDQ]LVWRUL 7 L 7 QD VOLFL VX W]Y XSDUHQL WUDQ]LVWRUL 2QL LPDMX SRWSXQR LVWH NDUDNWHULVWLNH VYL SDUDPHWUL VX LP LVWL T1 T2 6WUXMQR SRMDDQMH SUYRJ WUDQ]LVWRUD SRPQRHQR MH VWUXMQLP SRMDDQMHP GUXJRJD GD EL SRVWLJOL NRPELQDFLMX NRMD VH SRQDD NDR MHGDQ WUDQ]LVWRU V IDNWRURP VWUXMQRJ SRMDDQMD K K , , MHGQDNLP XPQRNX SRMDDQMD GYD WUDQ]LVWRUD
v y
y v twu z {
B
IC
C - UCC
T1 ulaz T2 E Rp Rul2
6OLND 'DUOLQJWRQRY VSRM
Rul
izlaz

'DUOLQJWRQRY SDU VH HVWR NRULVWL ]ERJ SRYHDQMD XOD]QRJ RWSRUD ELSRODUQLK VNORSRYD =D VNORS QD VOLFL PRHPR QDSLVDWL Rul h11e 2 Rul h21e Rul 2 1SU X] 5 K N LPDPR VDPR WUDQ]LVWRU 7 L DNR MH SDUDPHWDU K 'RGDYDQMHP WUDQ]LVWRUD 7 XOD]QL RWSRU SRVWDMH Rul = 28 100k = 2.8M 3ULPMHQRP 'DUOLQJWRQRYD SDUD XOD]QL RWSRU HPLWHUVNRJ VOMHGLOD SRYHDQ MH SXWD h21e1 = h21e 2 = h21e
|4} y v4vPu y
y vPu
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
v y v y
- UCC
RB
RP
RP
RB
Uiz T1 T2 RE + UEE U2
U1
6OLND 'LIHUHQFLMDOQR SRMDDOR T1 T2 'RYR HQMHP UD]OLLWLK VLJQDOD QD XOD]H SRUHPHWLW H VH VWDQMH UDYQRWHH SD H VWUXMD MHGQRJ HPLWHUD SRUDVWL D GUXJRJ H VH VPDQMLWL WDNR GD MH XNXSQD VXPD VWUXMD NUR] 5 RSHW MHGQDND

3RVOMHGLFD UD]OLLWLK HPLWHUVNLK VWUXMD VX L UD]OLLWH NROHNWRUVNH VWUXMH SD VX L QDSRQL QD L]OD]LPD 8 L 8 UD]OLLWL 3RMDDQMH QH RYLVL R WRPH GD OL VH VLJQDO GRYRGL VLPHWULQR NRULVWHL RED XOD]D LOL DVLPHWULQR VDPR QD MHGDQ XOD] 3RMDDOR SRMDDYD UD]OLNX QDSRQD QD XOD]LPD 3RMDDQMH ]D VLPHWULQL GLIHUHQFLMDOQL L]OD] GYRVWUXNR MH YHH QHJR SRMDDQMH ]D DVLPHWULQL L]OD] ,]OD]QL QDSRQ L] RYRJ SRMDDOD MHGQDN MH
v y
U iz =
h21e (U 1 U 2 )RP h11e

GDNOH LPDPR RNUHWDQMH ID]H 1D SULPMHU X] YULMHGQRVWL SDUDPHWDUD WUDQ]LVWRUD K WH X] 5 N L]OD]QL QDSRQ MHGQDN MH 8 8 D 8 8 8
|P}
|P} v y vPy u
K
v4vwu
6WUXMQR ]UFDOR 6WUXMQR ]UFDOR MH MHGDQ RG QDLQD UHDOL]DFLMH NRQVWDQWQRJ VWUXMQRJ L]YRUD JGMH MH SURL]YHGHQD VWUXMD MHGQDND QHNRM XOD]QRM VWUXML 2YDM SULQFLS LOXVWULUDQ MH VOLNRP 'YD WUDQ]LVWRUD 7 L 7 LPDMX SRYH]DQH ED]H L HPLWHUH SD VWRJD LPDMX MHGQDNH QDSRQH L]PH X HPLWHUD L ED]H 8NROLNR VX WUDQ]LVWRUL 7 L 7 LGHQWLQL NROHNWRUVND VWUXMD H LP WDNR HU ELWL MHGQDND 6WUXMD , NRMD SUHNR RWSRUQLND 5 GROD]L QD WUDQ]LVWRU 7 XOD]QL WUDQ]LVWRU ELWL H MHGQDND VWUXML NRMD SUROD]L SRWURDHP 5 VSRMHQLP QD NROHNWRUX WUDQ]LVWRUD 7 L]OD]QL WUDQ]LVWRU
~
UCC I0 R I0 RP
T1
T2
6OLND 2VQRYQL SULQFLS UDGD VWUXMQRJ ]UFDOD 2YDNDY QDLQ SUHVOLNDYDQMD HOMHQH VWUXMH PRH VH NRULVWLWL L ]D UHDOL]DFLMX VWUXMQRJ L]YRUD NDNYR MH ELOR SRWUHEQR ]D UHDOL]DFLMX GLIHUHQFLMDOQRJ SRMDDOD SULND]DQRJ QD VOLFL 2EMDVQLPR VDGD UDG VNORSD SULND]DQRJ QD VOLFL RYDM SXW UDGL VH R 131 WUDQ]LVWRULPD HOMHQD VWUXMD , VH JHQHULUD X JUDQL PDVD RWSRU 5 WUDQ]LVWRU 7 QDSRQ 8 2YD JUDQD nema nita zaMHGQLNRJ VD VNORSRP GLIHUHQFLMDOQRJ SRMDDOD DOL WD JUDQD RPRJXDYD GD VH SUHNR WUDQ]LVWRUD 7 SUHVOLND QMHQD VWUXMD , X NROHNWRU WUDQ]LVWRUD 7 6WUXMX NRMD SUROD]L NUR] RWSRU 5 R]QDLPR V ,
D NROHNWRUVNX VWUXMX WUDQ]LVWRUD 7 R]QDLPR V ,

7H GYLMH VWUXMH

]DSUDYR L QLVX SRWSXQR MHGQDNH DOL PRHPR SRND]DWL GD MH UD]OLND YUOR PDOD 6WUXMH ED]H VX ]ERJ LGHQWLQLK WUDQ]LVWRUD 7 L 7 WH ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUVNRJ QDSRQD 8 MHGQDNH 7DGD MH VWUXMD ,
MHGQDND
D VWUXMD NUR] RWSRU 5 MH MHGQDND I 0 = 0 I B + 2 I B = ( + 2 ) I B 2GDWOH PRHPR GRELWL L YH]X L]PH X VWUXMD ,
L ,
I 0 = 0 I B

I0 0 0 = I 0 = I 0 I 0 0 + 2 0 + 2

,] MHGQDGEH YLGLPR GD UD]OLND PH X ]UFDOQLP VWUXMDPD SRVWRML DOL QLMH YHOLND MHU VH NUHH RG ,]QRV VWUXMH ,
MH RGUH HQD L] SDGD QDSRQD QD RWSRUX 5 NDR
I 0 =
WR ]QDL GD SURPMHQRP RWSRUD 5 podeavamo iznos struje ,
D WLPH L VWUXMX ,

U EE U BE R1

RB T1 RB U1 I0 = 0IB R1 2IB T3 IB IB - UEE

6OLND 6WUXMQR ]UFDOR NDR VWUXMQL L]YRU GLIHUHQFLMDOQRJ SRMDDOD
T2 U2
I0 = 0IB + 2IB 0IB
T4

7HKQLND VWUXMQRJ ]UFDOD HVWR VH NRULVWL ]D GRELYDQMH YHHJ EURMD LVWLK VWUXMD X VNORSX 7R VH SRVWLH VSDMDQMHP YHHJ EURMD L]OD]QLK WUDQ]LVWRUD QD MHGDQ XOD]QL WUDQ]LVWRU 6WUXMQD ]UFDOD iroko se primjenjuju u integriranim sklopoviPD JGMH MH PRJXH SRVWLL JRWRYR LGHQWLQH WUDQ]LVWRUH 0DOH XGDOMHQRVWL L]PH X WUDQ]LVWRUD X VNORSX WDNR HU RVLJXUDYDMX L ]DQHPDULYH razlike u temperaturi to je povoljno zbog varijacije strujno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postoji vie razloga njena koritenja. Navedimo osnovne: VWDELOL]LUDQMH L]QRVD SRMDDQMD V RE]LURP QD SURPMHQH SDUDPHWDUD DNWLYQLK NRPSRQHQDWD VNORSD ]ERJ SURPMHQH WHPSHUDWXUH QDSRQD QDSDMDQMD VWDUHQMD NRPSRQHQDWD LWG SULODJR HQMH XOD]QH L L]OD]QH LPSHGDQFLMH VNORSD QD HOMHQL L]QRV UHGXFLUDQMH QHOLQHDUQLK L]REOLHQMD OLQHDUL]DFLMD SULMHQRVQH IXQNFLMH SRYHDQMH LULQH SRMDVD SRMDDOD 3R]LWLYQD SRYUDWQD YH]D L]D]LYD SRYHDQMH L]QRVD SRMDDQMD 2YD YUVWD SRYUDWQH YH]H NRULVWL VH SUL L]UDGL RVFLODWRUD
ulaz xul
+ xf
K -
xa
xp
izlaz
xp
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x f < x p
L WDNR VPDQMHQ VH YUDD QD NRPSDUDWRU 5D]OLND XOD]QRJ L SRYUDWQRJ VLJQDOD GMHOXMH NDR XOD]QL VLJQDO [ X SRMDDOR $ LWG

xul x f = x a xul = x a + x f
3RMDDQMH SRMDDOD MH MHGQDNR RPMHUX L]OD]QRJ L XOD]QRJ VLJQDOD SRMDDOD A= GRN MH SRMDDQMH RGQRVQR VPDQMHQMH % PUHH xp xa

B=
xf xp

RGDNOH GRELMHPR L]UD] ]D SRMDDQMH V SRYUDWQRP YH]RP xp Af = xp xul

=
xp
=
xa xf xa
+1
xf
+1 x p xa
xa xp
A A = BA + 1 F

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f = WM X] [
GRELYDPR x p 0 6NORS EH] GMHORYDQMD YDQMVNRJ JHQHUDWRUD QD XOD]X VDP JHQHULUD L]PMHQLQL VLJQDO [ QD L]OD]X SUHWYDUDMXL LVWRVPMHUQL QDSRQ QDSDMDQMD X L]PMHQLQL L]OD]QL QDSRQ 7DNDY VNORS QD]LYDPR RVFLODWRU L RQ VH NRULVWL ]D JHQHULUDQMH L]PMHQLQLK VLJQDOD
2VFLODWRUL =D RVFLODWRUH PRUD NDNR MH YH QDYHGHQR ELWL ]DGRYROMHQ %DUNKDXVHQRY XYMHW RVFLOLUDQMD BA + 1 = 0 2SHQLWR % L $ VX NRPSOHNVQL EURMHYL SD PRHPR SLVDWL
Re(BA) + i Im(BA) = 1
RGDNOH MH
Re(BA) = 1 Im(BA) = 0


- UCC
R1
RP C C C
R R2 RE CE
R3
6OLND 5& RVFLODWRU R3 + h11e = R
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
f =
1 2RC 6 + 4 RP R
NRMD SUYHQVWYHQR RYLVL R YULMHGQRVWL 5&
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 2SHUDFLMVND SRMDDOD

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
1D SULPMHU SRMDDOR /0 NRMH MH X QDMLURM SULPMHQL VDVWRML VH RG WUDQ]LVWRUD L ]DX]LPD povrinu od 1 mm 8NXSQR SRMDDQMH L]QRVL RNR G% SXWD ,GHDOQR RSHUDFLMVNR SRMDDOR WUHEDOR EL LPDWL RYH RVRELQH EHVNRQDQR YHOLNR SRMDDQMH (AV = ) EHVNRQDQR YHOLN XOD]QL RWSRU (Rul = ) L]OD]QL RWSRU MHGQDN QXOL (Riz = 0 ) SULMHQRV VYLK IUHNYHQFLMD
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proizvesti napon u naponskom opsegu od npr. 13 V.
6OLND 2SHUDFLMVNR SRMDDOR % LQYHUWLUDMXL XOD] % QHLQYHUWLUDMXL XOD]

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
4P
6OLND 1DGRPMHVQL VNORS RSHUDFLMVNRJ SRMDDOD
6OLND 7LSLQH L]YHGEH RSHUDFLMVNLK SRMDDOD

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
1HLQYHUWLUDMXH SRMDDOR
2EMDVQLPR QHLQYHUWLUDMXH SRMDDOR SULND]DQR QD VOLFL 8 R]QDDYD QHLQYHUWLUDMXL D V 8 LQYHUWLUDMXL XOD] RSHUDFLMVNRJ SRMDDOD .DNR SRMDDQMH $ WHL EHVNRQDQR YHOLNRM YULMHGQRVWL ]D NRQDQH YULMHGQRVWL L]OD]QRJ QDSRQD 8 XOD]QL QDSRQ RSHUDFLMVNRJ SRMDDOD 8 8 8 PRUD WHLWL QXOL 6WRJD PRHPR QDSLVDWL
U = U + = U ul

8] YUOR YHOLNL XOD]QL RWSRU (Rul ) PRHPR ]DQHPDULWL XOD]QX VWUXMX X SRMDDOR 6WRJD YULMHGL
U = U iz
R2 R1 + R2
R2 R1 + R2

RGDNOH MH XNXSQR SRMDDQMH
U ul = U iz

Af =
U iz R1 + R2 = U ul R2

6OLND 1HLQYHUWLUDMXH SRMDDOR
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH ,QYHUWLUDMXH SRMDDOR

1HJDWLYQD SRYUDWQD YH]D RYRJ VNORSD 6OLND QDVWRML RGUDWL QDSRQ QD LQYHUWLUDMXHP XOD]X 8 MHGQDN QDSRQX QD QHLQYHUWLUDMXHP XOD]X 8 , koji je uzemljen (0 V). Naime, to 8 SRVWDMH SR]LWLYQLML L]OD] SRVWDMH QHJDWLYQLML SD SUHNR RWSRUQLND 5 XOD] 8 SRVWDMH QHJDWLYQLML 6OLQR WR MH 8 QHJDWLYQLML L]OD] SRVWDMH SR]LWLYQLML WR ]D SRVOMHGLFX LPD SRYHDQMH SR]LWLYQRVWL 8 =D LGHDOQR SRMDDOR SRMDDQMH MH EHVNRQDQR VWDELOL]DFija je savrena i ulaz 8 MH VWDOQR QD 9 6WRJD MH XOD]QL QDSRQ RSHUDFLMVNRJ SRMDDOD 8 8 MHGQDN QXOL WM YULMHGL
U = U+ = 0
.DNR MH XOD]QD VWUXMD X RSHUDFLMVNR SRMDDOR ]DQHPDULYD VWUXMH , L , PRUDMX ELWL MHGQDNH SR L]QRVX L VXSURWQRJ VPMHUD =D VWUXMX , PRHPR QDSLVDWL

D ]D VWUXMX , ,] UHODFLMH VOLMHGL
I1 =
U ul U U ul 0 U ul = = R1 R1 R1
U iz U U iz 0 U iz = = R2 R2 R2

I2 =
I1 = I 2
U ul U = iz R1 R2 Af = U iz R = 2 U ul R1
SD MH XNXSQR SRMDDQMH
6OLND ,QYHUWLUDMXH SRMDDOR 8 RYRP VNORSX LQYHUWLUDMXL XOD] VH QDOD]L QD QXOWRP SRWHQFLMDOX LDNR QLMH GLUHNWQR X]HPOMHQ =ERJ WRJD VH RYD WRND HVWR QD]LYD YLUWXDOQR X]HPOMHQMH D LWDY VNORS SRMDDOR V YLUWXDOQLP X]HPOMHQMHP
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 'LIHUHQFLMDOQR SRMDDOR =D VNORS VD VOLNH YULMHGH VOLMHGHH UHODFLMH
U + = U ul1 R2 R1 + R2

U = U ul 2 + (U iz U ul 2 )
R1 R1 + R2
.DR L X VOXDMX LQYHUWLUDMXHJ SRMDDOD NDR SRVOMHGLFD QHJDWLYQH SRYUDWQH YH]H QDSRQL 8 L 8 VH QDVWRMH L]MHGQDLWL SD MH VWRJD
RGDNOH GRELMHPR
U ul1
R2 R1 = U ul 2 + (U iz U ul 2 ) R1 + R2 R1 + R2

U ul1 R2 = U ul 2 R1 + U ul 2 R2 + U iz R1 U ul 2 R1 U iz = U ul1 R2 U ul 2 R2 R1
'DNOH L]OD]QL QDSRQ PRHPR L]UDXQDWL L]

U iz = (U ul1 U ul 2 ) R2 R1

,]OD]QL QDSRQ MH MHGQDN UD]OLFL XOD]QLK QDSRQD SRPQRHQLK V RPMHURP RWSRUD 5 L 5 0RHPR SULPLMHWLWL GD ]D MHGQDNH RWSRUH 5 L 5 L]OD]QL QDSRQ MH MHGQDN 8 8 SD LPDPR MHGQRVWDYQR RGX]LPDQMH QDSRQD
4 4
6OLND 'LIHUHQFLMDOQR SRMDDOR
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 6XPDWRU ]EUDMDOR

7RND 8 QD VOLFL MH WRND YLUWXDOQRJ X]HPOMHQMD 6WRJD PRHPR UHL GD MH QD QXOWRP SRWHQFLMDOX 9 L VWUXMH NRMH XOD]H X WRNX VH PRJX L]UDXQDWL
I1 = U ul1 ; R1 I2 = U ul 2 ; R1 I3 = U iz R2

6 RE]LURP QD ]DQHPDULYR PDOX XOD]QX VWUXMX RSHUDFLMVNRJ SRMDDOD VXPD VWUXMD X LQYHUWLUDMXL XOD] 8 MH QXOD
I 3 = (I 1 + I 2 )

U ul1 U ul 2 U iz = R + R R2 1 1
2GDNOH ]D L]OD]QL QDSRQ GRELMHPR
U iz = (U ul1 + U ul 2 )
R2 R1

,]OD]QL QDSRQ MH RGUH HQ VXPRP XOD]QLK QDSRQD L RPMHURP RWSRUQLND 5 L 5 1HJDWLYQL SUHG]QDN SRND]XMH GD VNORS REUH ID]X =D MHGQDNH RWSRUH 5 L 5 L]OD]QL QDSRQ EL ELR MHGQDN (U ul1 + U ul 2 ) 2YDM VNORS VH PRH MHGQRVWDYQR PRGLILFLUDWL GRGDYDQMHP YLH XOD]QLK VLJQDOD 1HRJUDQLHQL EURM XOD]QLK RWSRUQLND PRJX VH SDUDOHOQR VSRMLWL L XNROLNR VX VYL V LVWRP YULMHGQRX 5 L]OD]QL QDSRQ H ELWL
U iz = (U ul1 + U ul 2 + U ul 3 + ...)
R2 R1

6OLND 6XPDWRU
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 1DSRQVNR VOMHGLOR

2YR SRMDDOR MH ]DSUDYR VSHFLMDOQL VOXDM QHLQYHULUDMXHJ SRMDDOD NRMHPX MH RWSRU 5 QXOD D RWSRU 5 EHVNRQDDQ -HGQDGED PRH VH QDSLVDWL L QD VOMHGHL QDLQ
Af =
=DPMHQRP RGJRYDUDMXLK YULMHGQRVWL RWSRUD GRELMHPR
R1 +1 R2

Af =
WR MH SRMDDOR V MHGLQLQLP SRMDDQMHP .DR L HPLWHUVND VOMHGLOD NRMD UHDOL]LUDPR V WUDQ]LVWRULPD L RYDM VNORS VH HVWR NRULVWL NDG LPDPR L]YRU QDSRQD V YHOLNRP XQXWUDQMRP LPSHGDQFLMRP D HOLPR SRYXL YHX VWUXMX QHJR L]YRU PRH SURL]YHVWL 5MHHQMH MH X SUHVOLNDYDQMX XOD]QRJ QDSRQD 8 QD L]OD] RSHUDFLMVNRJ SRMDDOD 8 NRMH PRH SURL]YHVWL YHX VWUXMX EH] VPDQMHQMD L]OD]QRJ QDSRQD MHU MH XQXWUDQML RWSRU RSHUDFLMVNRJ SRMDDOD PDQML od unutranjeg otpora originalnog izvora.
0 +1 = 1

6OLND 1DSRQVNR VOMHGLOR 6WUXMQRQDSRQVNL SUHWYRUQLN =EURM VWUXMD NRMH XOD]H X WRNX YLUWXDOQH QXOH 8 MHGQDN MH QXOL 6OLND
.DNR MH QDSRQ 8
VWUXMX , PRHPR QDSLVDWL NDR

IR = U iz R U iz R
I ul + I R = 0

RGDNOH YULMHGL L QDGDOMH

I ul = I R =
U iz = I ul R
,] MHGQDGEH PRHPR ]DNOMXLWL GD MH L]OD]QL QDSRQ GLUHNWQR SURSRUFLRQDODQ XOD]QRM VWUXML 1HJDWLYQL SUHG]QDN ]QDL GD VH ID]D VLJQDOD RNUHH

6OLND 6WUXMQRQDSRQVNL SUHWYRUQLN ,QWHJUDWRU 6NORS NRML VH SRQDD NDR LQWHJUDWRU GRELW HPR ]DPMHQRP RWSRUQLND 5 LQYHUWLUDMXHJ SRMDDOD V NRQGHQ]DWRURP & 6OLND
6OLND ,QWHJUDWRU 6D VOLNH PRHPR ]DNOMXLWL GD YULMHGL

IC + IR = 0 I C = I R = U ul R

.DNR MH QDSRQ 8
L]OD]QL QDSRQ 8 MH MHGQDN QDSRQX QD NRQGHQ]DWRUX

t
U iz =
JGMH MH % NRQVWDQWD MHGQDND SRHWQRP QDERMX QD NRQGHQ]DWRUX X WUHQXWNX W $NR SUHWSRVWDYLPR GD X SRHWQRP WUHQXWNX QLMH ELOR QDERMD QD NRQGHQ]DWRUX VXSVWLWXFLMRP L]UD]D X GRELMHPR t t 1 U 1 U iz = ul dt = U ul dt C0 R RC 0 ,]OD]QL QDSRQ MH SURSRUFLRQDODQ LQWHJUDOX XOD]QRJ QDSRQD D NRQVWDQWD SURSRUFLRQDOQRVWL RGUH HQD MH YUHPHQVNRP NRQVWDQWRP NRMD MH MHGQDND XPQRNX 5& 'HULYDWRU 'HULYDWRU PRHPR UHDOL]LUDWL ]DPMHQRP SR]LFLMD RWSRUQLND L NRQGHQ]DWRUD X LQWHJUDWRUX 6OLND .DR L UDQLMH 8 MH YLUWXDOQD WRND X]HPOMHQMD L ]EURM XOD]QLK VWUXMD X RYX WRNX PRUD ELWL MHGQDN QXOL U I C + I R = 0 I C = I R = iz R
q 1 = I C dt + B1 . C C 0

.DNR MH QDSRQ 8
QDSRQ QD NRQGHQ]DWRUX MHGQDN MH XOD]QRP QDSRQX 8
1 U ul = I C dt + B1 C0
'HULYLUDQMHP OLMHYH L GHVQH VWUDQH SR W GRELMHPR
dU ul I C = dt C dU ul U = iz dt RC

,] MHGQDGEH QDGDOMH VOLMHGL

RGDNOH VPR GRELOL RYLVQRVW L]OD]QRJ R XOD]QRP QDSRQX

U iz = RC dU ul dt

'DNOH L]OD]QL QDSRQ SURSRUFLRQDODQ MH GHULYDFLML XOD]QRJ QDSRQD SR YUHPHQX 8 SUDNVL VH RYDM VNORS ULMHWNR NRULVWL X RYRP REOLNX MHU ]QDDMQR SRMDDYD XP YLVRNLK IUHNYHQFLMD L QHHOMHQH LOMNH VLJQDOD SD MH VWRJD QHVWDELODQ 2ELQR VH X VHULMX V NRQGHQ]DWRURP GRGD RWSRUQLN NRML VPDQMXMH QHHOMHQR SRMDDQMH XPD

6OLND 'HULYDWRU 5& RVFLODWRU UHDOL]LUDQ SRPRX RSHUDFLMVNRJ SRMDDOD 5& RVFLODWRU SULND]DQ QD VOLFL PRH VH XPMHVWR SRPRX WUDQ]LVWRUD UHDOL]LUDWL RSHUDFLMVNLP SRMDDORP 2YDNDY VNORS SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL 2VQRYQR SRMDDQMH $ SULND]DQRJ RSHUDFLMVNRJ SRMDDOD L]QRVL 5 5
R2 R1 UU+
R*
B
6OLND 5& RVFLODWRU (R1 R * = R )

3ULQFLS UDGD MH MHGQDN NDR L NRG VNORSD NRML NRULVWL WUDQ]LVWRU ]D SRMDDQMH GDNOH % PUHD VH VDVWRML RG WUL 5& VHNFLMH VX RGJRYRUQH ]D ]DNUHWDQMH ID]H SRYUDWQRJ VLJQDOD ]D 0RH VH GRND]DWL GD MH IUHNYHQFLMD WLWUDQMD RYDNYRJ RVFLODWRUD
f 0 = 2 6 RC
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oji su razlozi koritenja negativne povratne veze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

'LJLWDOQD HOHNWURQLND
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
6NORS NRMLP UHDOL]LUDPR RYX ORJLNX IXQNFLMX QD]LYDPR SROXVXPDWRU %ORN GLMDJUDP VNORSD L SULSDGDMXD WDEOLFD LVWLQH SULND]DQL VX QD VOLFL
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 6NORS 6LPERO $ % = ,VNOMXLYL ,/, VNORS $ % = 1( VNORS , VNORS ,/, VNORS

7DEOLFD LVWLQH 6NORS 6LPERO
7DEOLFD LVWLQH 6NORS 6LPERO

A B
$
% = 1,/, VNORS
Z=A+B
$
= 1, VNORS
A B
Z=A B
7DEOLFD LVWLQH
$
%
=
$
%
=
6OLND /RJLNL VNORSRYL VLPEROL L WDEOLFH LVWLQH
A B
A B
A B Z
a)
b)
c)
6OLND 1DGRPMHVQH VKHPH D 1, E 1,/, F ,VNOMXLYR ,/,
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH $ D % E & 6

6OLND 3ROXVXPDWRU D %ORN GLMDJUDP E 7DEOLFD LVWLQH
%ORN GLMDJUDP QD VOLFL VDGUL GYD XOD]D $ L % WH GYD L]OD]D & SULMHQRV L 6 VXPD 1D RVQRYX WDEOLFH LVWLQH PRHPR QDSLVDWL GYD %RRORYD L]UD]D ]D L]OD]H SROXVXPDWRUD X RYLVQRVWL R VWDQMLPD QD XOD]X C = A B S = (A + B ) AB = A B + AB ,]UD] ]D L]OD] 6 PRHPR QDSLVDWL L QD GUXJL QDLQ
S = A B
3ROXVXPDWRU PRHPR UHDOL]LUDWL QD UD]OLLWH QDLQH D MHGDQ RG PRJXLK QDLQD SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL

6OLND 3ROXVXPDWRU UHDOL]DFLMD MHGQLP , L LVNOMXLYR ,/, ORJLNLP VNORSRP 3ROXVXPDWRU QD VOLFL REDYOMD VDPR RSHUDFLMX ]EUDMDQMD 'D EL VH SULMHQRV REXKYDWLR SUL ]EUDMDQMX ELWRYD YHH WHLQH SRWUHEQD VX WUL XOD]D 7R ]QDL GD VH SRWSXQL VXPDWRU VDVWRML RG dva polusumatora od kojih jedan vri binarno zbrajanje, a drugi pribraja prijenos koji d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

1DYHGLPR WHKQLNH NRMH VX VH WLMHNRP JRGLQD SRND]DOH QDMXVSMHQLMLPD D NRMLPD HPR QHWR kasnije vie biti napisano:

2G QDYHGHQLK WHKQLND GLRGQD ORJLND VH QH NRULVWL X LQWHJULUDQLP VNORSRYLPD GRN VH 57/ L '7/ WHKQLNH YLH QH SULPMHQMXMX 3ULMH XSR]QDYDQMD V RYLP WHKQLNDPD XSR]QDW HPR VH V UDGRP ELSRODUQRJ L 026)(7 WUDQ]LVWRUD NDR ORJLNH VNORSNH D WDNR HU L V ORJLNLP LQYHUWRURP /RJLNL VNORSRYL PRJX ELWL UHDOL]LUDQL X SR]LWLYQRM L QHJDWLYQRM ORJLFL 3R]LWLYQD ORJLND MH RQD NRG NRMH MH QLYR

SR]LWLYQLML RG QLYRD

WM 8 ! 8 D QHJDWLYQD ORJLND MH RQD NRG NRMH MH QLYR

QHJDWLYQLML RG QLYRD

WM 8 8 'UXJLP ULMHLPD QHJDWLYQD ORJLND SUHGVWDYOMD LQYHU]LMX SR]LWLYQH ORJLNH 6OLND
RWSRUQLNWUDQ]LVWRU ORJLND 57/ GLRGQD ORJLND '/ GLRGQRWUDQ]LVWRUVND ORJLND '7/ WUDQ]LVWRUWUDQ]LVWRU ORJLND 77/ ORJLND ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD (&/ 026)(7 026 NRPSOHPHQWDUQL 026)(7 &026
6OLND 3R]LWLYQD L QHJDWLYQD ORJLND 6YDNR UHDOQR OLQHDUQR SRMDDOR LPD RJUDQLHQL RSVHJ L]OD]QLK QDSRQD NRML MH RGUH HQ QDSRQRP QDSDMDQMD .DUDNWHULVWLND WLSLQRJ LQYHUWLUDMXHJ OLQHDUQRJ SRMDDOD SULND]DQD MH QD VOLFL
6OLND ,QYHUWLUDMXH OLQHDUQR SRMDDOR $NR WDNDY VNORS HOLPR NRULVWLWL NDR OLQHDUQR SRMDDOR PRUDPR RVLJXUDWL GD XOD]QL QDSRQ EXGH XQXWDU OLQHDUQRJ SRGUXMD UDGD VNORSD 6NORS PRHPR NRULVWLWL L NDR ORJLNL VNORS $NR MH XOD]QL VLJQDO XYLMHN L]YDQ OLQHDUQRJ SRGUXMD UDGD SRMDDOD GYD SUHRVWDOD XOD]QD SRGUXMD QDSRQD PRHPR SUHGVWDYLWL V

SRGUXMH QLLK XOD]QLK QDSRQD L

SRGUXMH YLLK XOD]QLK

QDSRQD WR MH SULND]DQR QD VOLFL ,]OD]QL QDSRQ PRH LPDWL VDPR GYLMH PRJXH YULMHGQRVWL PDNVLPDOQD L]OD]QD YULMHGQRVW

L PLQLPDOQD L]OD]QD YULMHGQRVW QDSRQD

6OLND 3ULMHQRVQD NDUDNWHULVWLND ORJLNRJ LQYHUWRUD SR]LWLYQD ORJLND Prilikom odabiranja komponenti i podeavanja njihovih parametara namjetamo maksimalne i PLQLPDOQH L]OD]QH YULMHGQRVWL QDSRQD WDNR GD QMLKRYH YULMHGQRVWL RGJRYDUDMX YULMHGQRVWLPD

L

XOD]QRJ QDSRQD 6D VOLNH YLGLPR GD ]D YULMHGQRVW QD XOD]X

QD L]OD]X LPDPR

L REUDWQR 'DNOH VNORS LPD NDUDNWHULVWLNX ORJLNRJ LQYHUWRUD LOL 1( VNORSD .DNR VX XOD]QL L L]OD]QL QDSRQL NRPSDWLELOQL L]OD] L] RYDNYRJ VNORSD PRH VH GRYHVWL QD XOD] QHNRJ VOLQRJ ORJLNRJ VNORSD 3RWUHEQR MH QDSRPHQXWL GD VH SUL L]UDGL ORJLNLK LQYHUWRUD QDVWRML OLQHDUQR SRGUXMH WM SRGUXMH SUHOD]D L] MHGQRJ VWDQMD X GUXJR WR YLH VPDQMLWL RGQRVQR SRVWLL WR EUL SUHOD] L] MHGQRJ VWDQMD X GUXJR
6OLND %LSRODUQL WUDQ]LVWRU NDR ORJLND VNORSND /RJLNL LQYHUWHU 1( VNORS PRHPR UHDOL]LUDWL NRULWHQMHP ELSRODUQRJ L 026)(7 WUDQ]LVWRUD 3UYR HPR XNUDWNR REMDVQLWL UDG ELSRODUQRJ WUDQ]LVWRUD NDR ORJLNH VNORSNH 6OLND

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je dominantan oblik koritenja FETRYD ]D SULPMHQX X GLJLWDOQRM WHKQLFL 'RN ]D DQDORJQH SULPMHQH RYH VNORSRYH QDMHH QD]LYDPR )(7RYL X GLJLWDOQLP VXVWDYLPD HH VH NRULVWL L]UD] 026 VNORSRYL NRML RSLVXMH QDLQ L]UDGH XPMHVWR QDLQD UDGD .DNR MH YH QDYHGHQR JODYQH SUHGQRVWL 026 WUDQ]LVWRUD X RGQRVX QD ELSRODUQH WUDQ]LVWRUH VX QMLKRYD MHGQRVWDYQRVW L MHIWLQLMD L]UDGD 026 ORJLNL VNORSRYL ]DX]LPDMX PDQMX SRYULQX QD VLOLFLMX SD WLPH RPRJXDYDMX VPMHWDQMH YHHJ EURMD HOHPHQDWD QD LSX 7DNR HU MH PDQMD L SRWURQMD snage to uvelike umanjuje probleme zagrijavanja. Nedostatak MOS tranzistora je sporiji rad. 3ULPMHU 026 WUDQ]LVWRUD NDR ORJLNH VNORSNH SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL
.DG MH XOD]QL QDSRQ 8 8 EOL]X 9 QNDQDOQL 026)(7 MH LVNOMXHQ MHU MH WUDQ]LVWRUX SRWUHEDQ SR]LWLYDQ QDSRQ QD XSUDYOMDNRM HOHNWURGL ]D IRUPLUDQMH NDQDOD L]PH X XYRGD 6 L L]YRGD ' 6WUXMD L]YRGD MH VWRJD ]DQHPDULYD SD QD RWSRUQLNX 5 QHPDPR JRWRYR QLNDNDY SDG QDSRQD ,]OD]QL QDSRQ MH EOL]X QDSRQD QDSDMDQMD 8 ORJLND

.DG MH YHOLLQD XOD]QRJ QDSRQD EOL]X QDSRQD QDSDMDQMD 026)(7 MH XNOMXHQ L VWUXMD WHH NUR] RWSRUQLN 5, to za SRVOMHGLFX LPD GD MH L]OD]QL QDSRQ EOL]X 9 ORJLND

P s
6OLND 026 WUDQ]LVWRU NDR ORJLND VNORSND
2WSRUQLN WUDQ]LVWRU ORJLND 57/ -HGQRVWDYQL LQYHUWRU SULND]DQ QD VOLFL PRH ELWL RVQRYD ]D FLMHOX JUXSX ORJLNLK VNORSRYD 'RGDYDQMHP GUXJRJ WUDQ]LVWRUD GRELOL VPR 1,/, VNORS V GYD XOD]D 6OLND 'RGDYDQMHP YLH WUDQ]LVWRUD PRHPR UHDOL]LUDWL VNORS V YLH XOD]D

6OLND 1,/, VNORS X 57/ ORJLFL 3UHGQRVWL 57/ WHKQLNH VX MHGQRVWDYQRVW L NRPSDNWQRVW 1HGRVWDWFL VX X UHODWLYQR QLVNRP imunitetu na utjecaj uma i maloj brzini rada. 'LRGQD ORJLND '/ , L ,/, ORJLNL VNORS PRHPR L]UDGLWL NRULVWHL VDPR GLRGH L RWSRUQLNH 6OLND 0RHPR SULPLMHWLWL GD ]D , VNORS VD VOLNH D QDSRQ NRML RGJRYDUD ORJLNRM

QD L]OD]X QLMH MHGQDN XOD]X MHU MH XYHDQ ]D QDSRQ QD GLRGL XRELDMHQR RNR 9 1D L]OD]X , VNORSD SRMDYLW H VH SR]LWLYDQ LPSXOV VDPR RQGD DNR MH SR]LWLYQL LPSXOV ORJLND

SULVXWDQ QD RED XOD]D 8 PLUQRP VWDQMX YRGH REH GLRGH L QD L]OD]X MH QDSRQ 9 1DL H OL SR]LWLYQL LPSXOV QD GLRGX RQD SUHVWDMH YRGLWL $NR SR]LWLYQL LPSXOV GRYHGHPR QD REMH GLRGH QD L]OD]X HPR GRELWL QDSRQ 8 MHU VWUXMD VDGD SUROD]L VDPR NUR] RWSRUQLN 5 =D ,/, VNORS QD VOLFL E L]OD]QL QDSRQ NRML RGJRYDUD ORJLNRM

MHGQDN MH XOD]X GRN MH ORJLND

VPDQMHQD ]D QDSRQ QD GLRGL 'LRGQD ORJLND MH MHGQRVWDYQD DOL MH SDVLYQD SD VLJQDO SURODVNRP NUR] QL] VNORSRYD SRVWXSQR HURGLUD WM QDSRQ NRML SUHGVWDYOMD ORJLNX

VH SRYHDYD D QDSRQ NRML SUHGVWDYOMD ORJLNX

VH VPDQMXMH VYH GRN UD]OLND QH SRVWDQH QHGRYROMQR YHOLND GD EL VH PRJOD SUHSR]QDWL =ERJ WRJD GLRGQX ORJLNX NRULVWLPR VDPR ]D MHGQRVWDYQH ORJLNH RSHUDFLMH
"
6OLND 'LRGQD ORJLND D , VNORS L E ,/, VNORS
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 'LRGQRWUDQ]LVWRUVND ORJLND '7/

9HLQD SUREOHPD GLRGQH ORJLNH PRH VH ULMHLWL GRGDYDQMHP SRMDDOD QD L]OD]X VNORSD NDNR EL VH NRULJLUDOL ORJLNL QLYRL 6NORS QD VOLFL SUHGVWDYOMD PRGLILFLUDQL , VNORS VD VOLNH D .DNR MH GRGDQR LQYHUWLUDMXH SRMDDOR GRELOL VPR 1, VNORS 'RGDWQD GLRGD ' VSRMHQD MH X VHULMX V WUDQ]LVWRURP NDNR EL VQL]LOL QDSRQ ED]H WUDQ]LVWRUD V 9 QD 9 X VOXDMX ORJLNH

QD MHGQRP RG XOD]D 1DSRQ X WRNL ( WUHED ELWL YHL RG ]EURMD QDSRQD XNOMXHQMD WUDQ]LVWRUD L GLRGH ' 6 RE]LURP GD MH QDSRQ XNOMXHQMD ]D GLRGX L WUDQ]LVWRU RNR 9 VDPR H PDOD VWUXMD SUROD]LWL RWSRUQLNRP 5 GRNOH JRG QDSRQ X WRNL ( QH GRVHJQH 9 .DG QD ELOR NRML XOD] GRYHGHPR ORJLNX

QDSRQ X WRNL ( SDGD QD RWSULOLNH 9 WUDQ]LVWRU VH LVNOMXXMH L QD L]OD]X GRELMHPR ORJLNX

6OLND 'LRGQRWUDQ]LVWRUVND ORJLND 1, VNORS 7UDQ]LVWRUWUDQ]LVWRU ORJLND 77/ 3URPDWUDMXL VNORS VD VOLNH PRHPR SULPLMHWLWL GD VYDNL XOD] YLGL NRPELQDFLMX GYLMH REUQXWR RULMHQWLUDQH GLRGH =DSUDYR VH UDGL R 13 31 VSRMX NRMHJ PRHPR ]DPLMHQLWL 131 WUDQ]LVWRURP 6OLND 8PMHVWR GLRGD VDGD LPDPR WUDQ]LVWRU SD NDHPR GD LPDPR VNORS UHDOL]LUDQ X WUDQ]LVWRUtranzistor logici (TTL). TTL logika je jedna od najrairenijih tehnika UHDOL]DFLMH ORJLNLK VNORSRYD QDURLWR ]D VNORSRYH QLVNRJ L VUHGQMHJ VWXSQMD LQWHJUDFLMH
6OLND 7UDQ]LVWRUWUDQ]LVWRU ORJLND 1, VNORS
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH /RJLND ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD (&/

3UHGQRVW (&/ WHKQLNH MH YUOR YHOLND EU]LQD UDGD MHU WUDQ]LVWRUL X UDGX QH XOD]H X SRGUXMH ]DVLHQMD 1HGRVWDWFL VX YHOLND RVMHWOMLYRVW QD XP L YHOLND SRWURQMD VQDJH ]ERJ WRJD WR VX WUDQ]LVWRUL VWDOQR X DNWLYQRP SRGUXMX 3ULPMHU ORJLNRJ VNORSD NRML UDGL V WUDQ]LVWRULPD NRML QH XOD]H X SRGUXMH ]DVLHQMD SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL
6OLND /RJLND ]DMHGQLNRJ HPLWHUD , 1, VNORS
$NR VX XOD]L $ L % VD VOLNH X ORJLNRM

RED QDSRQD VX PDQMD RG QDSRQD 8 /RJLNL QDSRQL 8 L 8 VH RGDELUX WDNR GD 8 EXGH PDOR PDQML RG 8 D 8 PDOR YHL RG 8 7UDQ]LVWRU 7 MH XNOMXHQ D QDSRQ QD HPLWHULPD WUDQ]LVWRUD 8 MHGQDN MH
U E = U BB U BE U BB 0.7V
.DNR VX QDSRQL QD $ L % QLL RG 8 QDSRQ L]PH X ED]H L HPLWHUD WUDQ]LVWRUD 7 L 7 H ELWL QLL RG 9 GDNOH WUDQ]LVWRUL VX LVNOMXHQL 6WUXMD , MHGQDND MH
IE =
L RQD SURWLH LVNOMXLYR NUR] 7 MHU VX 7 L 7 LVNOMXHQL 1DSRQ X WRNL = MH
U E U BB 0.7 RE RE
U Z = U CC RC I E = U CC RC
(U BB 0.7 )
RE
D QDSRQ X WRNL =
MH SULEOLQR MHGQDN 8 8] RGDELU RGJRYDUDMXLK 8 5 L 5 PRH VH SRGHVLWL GD WUDQ]LVWRU 7 RVWDQH X DNWLYQRP SRGUXMX $NR VH $ LOL % SRVWDYL X ORJLNX

QDSRQ 8 VH SRYLVL QD 8 9 VPDQMXMXL QDSRQ ED]DHPLWHU WUDQ]LVWRUD 7 LVSRG 9 =ERJ WRJD VH XNOMXXMH RGJRYDUDMXL WUDQ]LVWRU L LVNOMXXMH 7 8 RYRP VOXDMX MH VWUXMD HPLWHUD

IE = U E U 1 0. 7 = RE RE

2YD VWUXMD H WHL LVNOMXLYR NUR] RGJRYDUDMXL WUDQ]LVWRU WDNR GD MH QDSRQ X WRFL =
MHGQDN
U Z = U CC RC I E = U CC RC
(U 1 0.7 )
RE
GRN MH QDSRQ 8 SULEOLQR MHGQDN 8 8] RGJRYDUDMXL RGDELU NRPSRQHQWL WUDQ]LVWRU QHH ELWL X SRGUXMX ]DVLHQMD 026)(7 026 1D SRHWNX RYRJ SRJODYOMD YH MH SULND]DQ SULPMHU NRULWHQMD 026)(7D NDR ORJLNRJ invertora. Koritenje otpoUQLND X LQWHJULUDQLP VNORSRYLPD QLMH HNRQRPLQR SD VH NDR DNWLYQD RSWHUHHQMD NRULVWH 026)(7 WUDQ]LVWRUL 3ULND] UHDOL]DFLMH LQYHUWRUD L 1, VNORSD NRULWHQMHP QNDQDOQLK 026)(7 WUDQ]LVWRUD 1026 GDQ MH QD VOLFL 6OLQL VNORSRYL VH PRJX UHDOL]LUDWL L koritenjem pNDQDOQLK WUDQ]LVWRUD 3026 -HGQD RG YHOLNLK SUHGQRVWL 026 WHKQRORJLMH MH QMHQD MHGQRVWDYQRVW 7UDQ]LVWRULsklopke ponaaju se kao gotovo savrene sklopke i sklopovi su otporni na um.
6OLND 1026 D 1( VNORS E 1, VNORS
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH .RPSOHPHQWDUQL 026)(7 &026

.RPSOHPHQWDUQD 026)(7 WHKQLND RGOLNXMH VH YUOR YHOLNRP EU]LQRP UDGD L YUOR PDORP potronjom. Ovi sklopovi koriste po jedan nNDQDOQL L SNDQDOQL VNORS SD RGDWOH L QD]LY NRPSOHPHQWDUQL 026)(7 .DR L NRG 1026 VNORSRYD QDSRQ 8 SUHGVWDYOMD ORJLNX

D 9 SUHGVWDYOMD ORJLNX

.DNR VX UD]OLLWR SRODUL]LUDQL WUDQ]LVWRUL VH UD]OLLWR SRQDDMX V RE]LURP QD QDSRQ QD XSUDYOMDNRM HOHNWURGL 'RN QDSRQ 8 QD XSUDYOMDNRM HOHNWURGL XNOMXXMH QNDQDOQL WUDQ]LVWRU LVWRYUHPHQR LVNOMXXMH SNDQDOQL 2EUDWQR YULMHGL ]D QXOWL QDSRQ QD XSUDYOMDNRM HOHNWURGL 3ULPMHU UHDOL]DFLMH 1( L 1, VNORSD X &026 WHKQRORJLML SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL
6OLND &026 D 1( VNORS E 1, VNORS ,DNR MH &026 VNORSRYH WHH SURL]YHVWL QHJR 1026 LOL 3026 VNORSRYH MHU MH SRWUHEQR izraditi istovremeno oba tipa sklopova, velika brzina, mala potronja i velika otpornost na um imaju za posljedicu da je ova tehnologija, najrairenija tehnologija koja se koristi pri izradi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

6HNYHQFLMDOQL VNORSRYL PRJX VH SRGLMHOLWL QD VLQNURQH L DVLQNURQH .RG VLQNURQLK VXVWDYD XOD]L L]OD]L L XQXWUDQMD VWDQMD VX X]RUNRYDQD X RGUH HQLP YUHPHQVNLP WUHQXFLPD D YUHPHQVNL VOLMHG VH XSUDYOMD VLJQDORP WDNWD FORFN 6NORSRYOMH DVLQNURQLK VXVWDYD X ELOR NRMHP WUHQXWNX PRH SURPLMHQLWL VWDQMH V RE]LURP QD SURPMHQX VWDQMD QD XOD]LPD
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
1D RVQRYX QDYHGHQRJ RLWR MH GD VH PXOWLYLEUDWRUL PRJX NRULVWLWL ]D JHQHULUDQMH LPSXOVQLK VLJQDOD ELVWDELOQL PXOWLYLEUDWRU QDSRQVNL VNRN PRQRVWDELOQL PXOWLYLEUDWRU SUDYRNXWQL LPSXOV DVWDELOQL PXOWLYLEUDWRUSUDYRNXWQL YDO 7DNR HU PRQRVWDELOL VH PRJX NRULVWLWL NDR sklopovi za kanjenje, a bistabilni multivibratori ili bistabili se koriste i kao temeljni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

%ULGRP RNLGDQL ELVWDELO IOLSIORS 2YDM ELVWDELO GDMH RG]LY QD XOD]QH SURPMHQH VDPR X YUHPHQVNLP WUHQXFLPD SURPMHQH XOD]QRJ VLJQDOD VLJQDOD WDNWD
5D]LQRP RNLGDQL ELVWDELOL 8 RYX JUXSX ELVWDELOD SULSDGD 65 ELVWDELO 6(75(6(7 SULND]DQ QD VOLFL 'YD XOD]D R]QDHQD VX V 6 L 5 D L]OD]L V Q L Q %ORN VKHPD L SULSDGQD WDEOLFD LVWLQLWRVWL SULND]DQL VX QD VOLFL
R Q
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oba izlaza imaju vrijednost 0 i vie ne vrijedi komplementarnost izlaza. Stoga je RYDNYD NRPELQDFLMD QD XOD]X ]DEUDQMHQD
S Q S 0 0 R a) Q 1 1 R 0 1 0 1 Qn 0 1 0 Qn 1 0 0 b)
RESET SET Neodredeno
Qn-1 Qn-1 Nema promjene
6OLND D %ORN VKHPD 65 ELVWDELOD E 7DEOLFD LVWLQH 65 ELVWDELOD 3ULPMHU YUHPHQVNRJ GLMDJUDPD ]D UD]LQRP RNLGDQ 65 ELVWDELO SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL 2YX YUVWX ELVWDELOD PRHPR VPDWUDWL ]D MHGQRVWDYDQ REOLN HOHNWULQH PHPRULje jer sklop pamti NRML MH RG GYD XOD]D SRVOMHGQML SRVWDR DNWLYDQ

R Q
Q
6OLND 9UHPHQVNL GLMDJUDP 65 ELVWDELOD HVWR MH NRULVQR RPRJXLWL XSUDYOMDQMH UDGRP ELVWDELOD QD QDLQ GD VLJQDO V XOD]D EXGH RPRJXHQ X QHNLP WUHQXFLPD D RQHPRJXHQ X GUXJLP 1HWR VORHQLML VNORS 65 ELVWDELOD V WUL XOD]D RPRJXDYD WDNYR XSUDYOMDQMH 6OLND
S S Q E Q R R a) b) S E R Q Q
6OLND D 65 ELVWDELO V ( XOD]RP E 6LPERO VNORSD

D S Q E Q R a) D E
b)
6OLND D -HGQD RG PRJXLK L]YHGEL ' ELVWDELOD E 6LPERO VNORSD

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
Q
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

Y7 Y6 Y5
X7 X6 X5 X4 X3 X2 X1 X0 8 D bistabila
Y4 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
6OLND 3RKUDQMLYDQMH ELWQRJ SRGDWND SRPRX ' ELVWDELOD
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH %ULGRP RNLGDQL ELVWDELOL

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
CK a) CK b) CK c)
6OLND D 6LJQDO WDNWD E 3R]LWLYQL EULG F 1HJDWLYQL EULG

S CK R a) Q R b) Q S CK Q Q
6OLND D 6LPERO 65 ELVWDELOD RNLGDQRJ SR]LWLYQLP EULGRP E 6LPERO 65 ELVWDELOD RNLGDQRJ QHJDWLYQLP EULGRP %ULGRP RNLQXWL ELVWDELO X]LPD X]RUNH VLJQDOD V XOD]D VDPR QD EULGRYLPD VLJQDOD WDNWD L L]OD]L VH PLMHQMDMX VDPR NDR UH]XOWDW SRMDYH EULGD VLJQDOD WDNWD
S S R CK S R R Q Q Q Q
S
S R Q Q Q Q
R 0 1 0 1
CK
Qn 0 1 0
Qn 1 0 0
RESET SET Neodredeno
0 0 1 1
6OLND 65 ELVWDELO RNLGDQ SR]LWLYQLP EULGRP D 6NORS E 7DEOLFD LVWLQLWRVWL
a)
b)

%ULGRP RNLGDQ 65 ELVWDELO UD]OLNXMH VH RG UD]LQRP RNLGDQRJ 65 ELVWDELla po tome to ulazi GMHOXMX QD RYDM VNORS VDPR ]D YULMHPH SR]LWLYQRJ RGQRVQR QHJDWLYQRJ EULGD WDNWD RYLVQR R YUVWL VNORSD -HGQD RG PRJXLK L]YHGEL RYRJ VNORSD ]DMHGQR V WDEOLFRP LVWLQLWRVWL SULND]DQD MH QD VOLFL 3ULPMHU YUHPHQVNRJ GLMDJUDPD VNORSD SULND]DQ MH QD VOLFL
CK
Q S=1 R=0 SET S=0 R=1 RESET S=1 R=0 SET S=0 R=0 bez promjene S=0 R=1 RESET
6OLND 9UHPHQVNL GLMDJUDP 65 ELVWDELOD RNLGDQRJ SR]LWLYQLP EULGRP %ULGRP RNLGDQL ' ELVWDELO SULND]DQ MH QD VOLNDPD L
D D CK CK Q a) b) Q D CK R S CK Q Q 0 1 0 1 c) 1 0 RESET SET CK Qn Qn
6OLND ' ELVWDELO RNLGDQ SR]LWLYQLP EULGRP D 6LPERO E 1DGRPMHVQD VKHPD F 7DEOLFD LVWLQLWRVWL 9H QDYHGHQL QHGRVWDWDN 65 ELVWDELOD ]ERJ ]DEUDQMHQRJ VWDQMD NRMH QDVWXSD NDGD VX RED XOD]D X 6 5 RVLP NRULWHQMD ' ELVWDELOD PRH VH L]EMHL L NRULWHQMHP -. ELVWDELOD $NR SRJOHGDPR WDEOLFX LVWLQLWRVWL 65 ELVWDELOD PRHPR SULPLMHWLWL GD LPDPR WUL GHILQLUDQD L]OD]D 1HPD SURPMHQH 4 4 DNR VX RED XOD]D MHGQDND RESET (brii); 4 DNR MH 6 5 6(7 SRVWDYL 4 DNR MH 6 5 1HRGUH HQR VWDQMH -. ELVWDELO QHPD YH XPMHVWR QMHJD LPD VWDQMH SUHEDFLYDQMD 72**/( 'DNOH DNR VX RED XOD]D X RQGD L]OD] PLMHQMD VWDQMH 2YDM VNORS X RVQRYL NRULVWL 65 ELVWDELO V GYD , YUDWD X SRYUDWQRM YH]L 6LPERO L WDEOLFD LVWLQLWRVWL -. ELVWDELOD SULND]DQL VX QD VOLFL

CK
Q D=1 Q=1 D=0 Q=0 D=0 Q=0 D=1 Q=1 D=1 Q=1
6OLND 9UHPHQVNL GLMDJUDP ' ELVWDELOD RNLGDQRJ SR]LWLYQLP EULGRP

J J CK K a) Q Q 0 0 1 1 K 0 1 0 1 CK Qn 0 1 Qn 1 0
RESET SET
Qn-1 Qn-1 Prebaci b)
6OLND -. ELVWDELO RNLGDQ QHJDWLYQLP EULGRP D 6LPERO E 7DEOLFD LVWLQLWRVWL -. ELVWDELO PRH VH LVNRULVWLWL ]D UHDOL]DFLMX GUXJLK ELVWDELOD NDR WR VX 65 ' L 7 EULGRP RNLGDQL ELVWDELOL 1DYHGLPR ]QDDMNH 7 ELVWDELOD 6OLND - L . XOD]L -. ELVWDELOD VX VSRMHQL NDNR EL GRELOL VDPR MHGDQ XOD] NRMHJ R]QDDYDPR V 7 7RJJOH SUHEDFL $NR MH XOD] 7 X VNORS MH X PHPRULMVNRP PRGX L ]DGUDYD WUHQXWQR VWDQMH $NR MH XOD] 7 RED XOD]D - L . VX MHGQDND L VNORS PLMHQMD VWDQMH VYDNLP WDNWRP
T CK K a) J CK Q Q T 0 1 CK Qn Qn
Qn-1 Qn-1 Qn-1 Qn-1
b) 6OLND 7 ELVWDELO RNLGDQ SR]LWLYQLP EULGRP D ,]YHGED SRPRX -. ELVWDELOD E 7DEOLFD LVWLQLWRVWL
93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 3LWDQMD

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to je preduvjet za promjeQX L]OD]D NRG ELVWDELOD RNLGDQLK EULGRP" 1DFUWDMWH WDEOLFX LVWLQLWRVWL -. ELVWDELOD .RMH VX ]QDDMNH 7 ELVWDELOD"

/LWHUDWXUD
-X]EDL (OHNWURQLNL HOHPHQWL NROVND NQMLJD =DJUHE %LOMDQRYL (OHNWURQLNL VNORSRYL NROVND NQMLJD =DJUHE Peruko, Digitalna elektronika, kolska knjiga, Zagreb, 1996. 6ODSQLDU ,PSXOVQD L GLJLWDOQD WHKQLND )(6% 6YHXilite u Splitu, 1990. 6WRUH\ (OHFWURQLFV $ 6\VWHPV $SSURDFK 3UHQWLFH +DOO 6ODSQLDU *RWRYDF (OHNWURQLNL VNORSRYL 6YHXLOLWH X 6SOLWX

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6YHXLOLWH X 6SOLWX

35('$9$1-$ ,= 26129$ (/(.7521,.(

6SOLW YHOMDD 

,, (OHNWURQLNL HOHPHQWL L VNORSRYL

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

 1DELMHQH HVWLFH X HOHNWULQRP L PDJQHWVNRP SROMX

0$6$ P  [  NJ   [ P  [  NJ   [ P  [  NJ

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH  1DELMHQD HVWLFD X HOHNWURVWDWLNRP SROMX

=D HOHNWURQ YULMHGL RPMHU

6OLND  1DELMHQD HVWLFD X HOHNWULQRP SROMX 8 VWDQMX UDYQRWHH MH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH q Ex m q ay = Ey m q az = Ez m ax = d q vx = Ex dt m d q vy = Ey dt m d q vz = Ez dt m

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

SRWHQFLMDOQD HQHUJLMD QDERM [ SRWHQFLMDO

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH  (OHNWURQ X KRPRJHQRP HOHNWURVWDWVNRP SROMX

Y  ]D EU]LQX HOHNWURQD VH GRELMH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

D ]D SRORDM HOHNWURQD NRQVWDQWD &

SD NRPELQLUDQMHP SRVOMHGQMH GYLMH MHGQDGEH GRELMHPR L]UD] ]D EU]LQX QHRYLVDQ R YUHPHQX

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

=D [ NRPSRQHQWX PRHPR SLVDWL

=D \ NRPSRQHQWX PRHPR SLVDWL y= qe t 2 XW E + C1t + C 2 me 0 2  \

=D ] NRPSRQHQWX PRHPR SLVDWL

'RELOL VPR VXVWDY

q x 1 y = e E 2 x 2 SDUDEROD RNUHQXWD SUHPD JRUH  qe t t = y= E va me 0 2v a me0 2

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

l 6D VOLNH  PRHPR RLWDWL NRRUGLQDWH WRNH 7 ) O \ ) L 70 L + , d s 2

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

U Dl 2 U l U l2 U l U l2 = D l + b b = D yt = D x D 4dU a 2dU a 4dU a 2dU a 4dU a

GDNOH DSVROXWQD YULMHGQRVW YHUWLNDOQRJ RWNORQD UDXQD VH L] L]UD]D

8VOLMHG GMHORYDQMD VLOH HVWLFD GRELMH XEU]DQMH

& q & & a = vB m

& & q & i (v y B z v z B y ) + j (v z B x v x B z ) + k (v x B y v y B x ) m

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 3ULPMHU .UXQD SXWDQMD

6OLND  3ULPMHU SRQDDQMD HVWLFH X PDJQHWRVWDWVNRP SROMX SRHWQL XYMHWL

& q & & & q a = v B a = vB = a m m

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

8YUWDYDQMHP SRHWQLK XYMHWD X W

3RWR VH XNXSQD EU]LQD NLQHWLND HQHUJLMD QH PLMHQMD PRHPR SLVDWL

6OLND  5H]XOWDQWQD SXWDQMD HVWLFH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

b T1(l,y1) ds l L T2(l/2+L,ds) EKRAN x

=D HOHNWURQ PRHPR SLVDWL

7DNR HU DNR L]  HNVSOLFLWQR QDSLHPR \

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

8YLMHN MH r >> y1  SD YULMHGL

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

2VMHWOMLYRVW MH MHGQDND RPMHUX RWNORQD L LQGXNFLMH

& & & & & F = ma = qE + qv B

& q & & & a= E+vB m

WR GDOMH PRHPR QDSLVDWL SRVHEQR ]D VYDNX NRPSRQHQWX

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

& & & & E = jE y E = jE & & & & B = k B z B = k B Ex = Ez = 0 Bx = B y = 0

  

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

SD XYUWDYDQMHP X  PRHPR QDSLVDWL

qe B qe B m t sin m t e e mU q B y= e 2 cos e t 1 me q e dB meU q e dB 2

$NR HOLPR GD HOHNWURQ GLUD HOHNWURGX NULWLQD PDJQHWVND LQGXNFLMD 

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH ]D N  MH t =

me YULMHPH QDVWXSDQMD SUYRJ PDNVLPXPD SD MH qe B

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

%U]LQD HOHNWURQD PRH VH NDNR MH YH SRND]DQR LVND]DWL UHODFLMRP v1 = v2 = 2q e U1 me 2q e U2 me

SD NRPELQLUDQMHP MHGQDGEL  L  GRELMHPR

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

6SOLW YHOMDD

,, (OHNWURQLNL HOHPHQWL L VNORSRYL

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

1DELMHQH HVWLFH X HOHNWULQRP L PDJQHWVNRP SROMX

0$6$ P [ NJ [ P [ NJ [ P [ NJ

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 1DELMHQD HVWLFD X HOHNWURVWDWLNRP SROMX

6OLND 1DELMHQD HVWLFD X HOHNWULQRP SROMX 8 VWDQMX UDYQRWHH MH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH q Ex m q ay = Ey m q az = Ez m ax = d q vx = Ex dt m d q vy = Ey dt m d q vz = Ez dt m

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH (OHNWURQ X KRPRJHQRP HOHNWURVWDWVNRP SROMX

Y ]D EU]LQX HOHNWURQD VH GRELMH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

D ]D SRORDM HOHNWURQD NRQVWDQWD &

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

=D [ NRPSRQHQWX PRHPR SLVDWL

=D \ NRPSRQHQWX PRHPR SLVDWL y= qe t 2 XW E + C1t + C 2 me 0 2 \

=D ] NRPSRQHQWX PRHPR SLVDWL

'RELOL VPR VXVWDY

q x 1 y = e E 2 x 2 SDUDEROD RNUHQXWD SUHPD JRUH qe t t = y= E va me 0 2v a me0 2

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

l 6D VOLNH PRHPR RLWDWL NRRUGLQDWH WRNH 7 ) O \ ) L 70 L + , d s 2

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 3ULPMHU .UXQD SXWDQMD

6OLND 3ULPMHU SRQDDQMD HVWLFH X PDJQHWRVWDWVNRP SROMX SRHWQL XYMHWL

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

3RWR VH XNXSQD EU]LQD NLQHWLND HQHUJLMD QH PLMHQMD PRHPR SLVDWL

6OLND 5H]XOWDQWQD SXWDQMD HVWLFH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

=D HOHNWURQ PRHPR SLVDWL

7DNR HU DNR L] HNVSOLFLWQR QDSLHPR \

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

8YLMHN MH r >> y1 SD YULMHGL

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

SD XYUWDYDQMHP X PRHPR QDSLVDWL

$NR HOLPR GD HOHNWURQ GLUD HOHNWURGX NULWLQD PDJQHWVND LQGXNFLMD

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH ]D N MH t =

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

%U]LQD HOHNWURQD PRH VH NDNR MH YH SRND]DQR LVND]DWL UHODFLMRP v1 = v2 = 2q e U1 me 2q e U2 me

SD NRPELQLUDQMHP MHGQDGEL L GRELMHPR

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

6OLND 2VQRYQL HOHPHQWL PDVHQRJ VSHNWURPHWUD

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

6YRMVWYD PHWDOD L SROXYRGLD

VSHFLILQRJ RWSRUD 10 3 cm < RSP < 10 6 cm JRYRULPR R SROXYRGLX D ]D YULMHGQRVWL

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

VtbIB StbcWabGWShipaRUCcgIvGWIRQDTIR` IRQabB SG B cWwhD GhfPyx ed

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH RQGD LPDPR f ( E , T ) =

6OLND 'LMDJUDP HQHUJLMD VORERGQLK HOHNWURQD X PHWDOX

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

JGMH MH F EU]LQD VYMHWORVWL 8YUWDYDQMHP RYH MHGQDGEH X MHGQDGEX GRELMHPR

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 3ROXYRGLL L HQHUJHWVNH YUSFH X SROXYRGLLPD

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

6OLND (QHUJHWVNH YUSFH SROXYRGLD

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH .RQFHQWUDFLMD QRVLWHOMD QDERMD

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH LOL X HOHNWURQYROWLPD H9

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 6LOD NRMD GMHOXMH QD HOHNWURQ MHGQDND MH

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH 9RGOMLYRVW SROXYRGLD

93DSL 3UHGDYDQMD L] RVQRYD HOHNWURQLNH J dP = q e p v dP = q e p P E = P E J dN = q e n v dN = q e n N E = N E