Kevin Stolpe Physics 464 Prof.

La Rosa

Introduction to Optoelectronics
Optoelectronics is the interaction between optics and circuitry. Throughout my live I have been exposed to applications which require these two mediums to communicate with each other, yet never really understood how it was accomplished. I was aware that a signal was sent and a receiver in turn gathered data, but how? What physical properties allowed the circuitry to interpret the data? The connection between optics and electronics will be discussed along with the applications brought about by them. Several applications for optoelectronics use a few basic principles which are well founded in electronics. The first portion of this paper will review some of the characteristics electrical devices have which enable them to distinguish between different lighting conditions. The second section will discuss commonly used interactions between optics and the digital medium. In the last section the common interfaces in optoelectronics are used in applications. An introduction of sending and receiving The sending and receiving ends of an electronic device make up the majority of an optoelectric system. The sending end can be any light source depending on the application. An electronic device like a light emitting diode (LED), a non-electronic device like a lantern, or a natural source like the sun can be used as the light source for a receiving device. Of the mentioned devices the LED is used in several applications, because the device can be turned off and on numerous times will consuming a small amount of current and requiring little voltage. Further explanation of sources will be given within specific applications later on. The receiving device is a temperature sensitive electronic device. When light reaches an electric device, the temperature in the device may change which can effect the circuit the device is within. In other words the change in temperature on a device can be used to trigger reactions in a circuit. In addition different devices have different sensitivities to light which can be used to isolate and distinguish what light is sensed by the detector. A company selling a device will state the range of the wavelength or frequency range that the device will send or detect. The following figure, Fig. 1, shows the electromagnetic spectrum:

Fig.1 Electromagnetic spectrum Source: Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook

What electrical devices are used for detection and why Of the receiving devices resistors, diodes, and transistors are some of the most commonly used. A light dependent resistor (LDR) is often used to sense the general change in light over a few seconds. When light hits a resistor made of cadmium sulphide (CdS) or another highly light sensitive material, the resistance is greatly reduced thereby changing the state of the circuit it is in. The presence of a diode and a phototransistor within a circuit are also greatly diminished when they are hit by light. A diode has a far greater response time then a resistor, but is in turn far more sensitive to light. Increased sensitivity to light increases the likelihood of interference from an undesirable light source. In turn a transistor has a faster response time to light than a diode, but again is far more susceptible to stray light interfering. In order to increase the effectiveness of a transistor a phototransistor is used. A phototransistor is a regular transistor with a larger base that is exposed. For an additional increase in speed a Darlington phototransistor can be used to increase the reaction time by a factor of ten. Traditionally resistors, diodes, and transistors built with silicon have always been susceptible to heat. In order to solve the problem integrated circuit devices are shielded to reduce the effects of heat and other elements. As a result photo-resistors, photodiodes, and phototransistors are basically traditional IC (integrated circuit) devices with packaging designed to capture light instead of fend it off. The following diagram, Fig. 2 shows photodetector symbols:

Fig.1 Photodetector symbols Source: Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook

Basic interaction between optics and electronics There are a few powerful combinations of optics and electronics which serve several applications. Each of these principles will be introduced in this section and then explained within a few common applications later on. Reducing stray light & increasing the power of detection: One of the most common sending devices is a diode, yet diodes emit light in a number of directions. In order to direct the light emitted from the LED a black cylindrical object called a light shield is used. The receiving end of an optical system can also reduce the impact of stray light by using a light shield. Adding a lens within the light shield will focus the light onto the photo detector. The following figure, Fig. 3, displays a light shield around a phototransistor:

Fig. 3 Light collimator Source: Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook

Another common sending device is a laser diode. A laser diode charges its P and N layers to create light which is then bounced between the two surfaces until it exits the device in a waveform. The following figure, Fig. 4, displays a laser diode:

Fig. 4 Semiconductor laser diode Source: Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook Light-beam system: A light beam system has one or more sets of sensors and detectors used to set up an array or arrays of light. The detector is constantly polling light originating from the sensor for a break in the system. When a break occurs, the circuit the detector is in does something. Light-beam systems are commonly used in security systems and assembly lines in factories. There are an infinite number of ways the light can travel between the sending and receiving end of the system. The sensor and detector can be facing each other as they often do in factors or mirrors can be used to bounce the light around before it enters the sensor to increase the area beams cover. Note the more a beam is bounced around the slower the detection time. If lenses are added to the system the response time will be even slower. Remember if the system needs to react faster, there may be a sensors which take less time to react, but in turn will be more sensitive to light. When additional sensors and detectors are added, redundancy can be added into the circuit to require multiple light rays to be tripped before something happens. A dual light beam system as seen in Fig. 5 can be used to deter false alarms:

Fig.5 Dual-light beam alarm Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual

Optocouplers: The optocoupler is used in numerous devices as a means of one digital device talking to another. In short an optocoupler is a sensor and receiver in close proximity to each other within an enclosed environment. This allows the sender and receiver to communicate with each other without interference. Optocouplers are commonly used when two devices need to communicated, but most not transfer any voltage, current, or other properties from one circuit to the next. A basic optocoupler is show in Fig. 6 below.

Fig. 6 Transistor optoisolators Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual

Fig. 7

Darlington optoisolators

Optocouplers can include several senders and receivers, but there is a limitation on the voltage for parallel components. Fig. 7 Darlington optoisolators & Dual isolated optocoupler Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual

Dual isolated optocoupler

Optical Film Strip Switch This device is an optocoupler with an object between the sensor and detector. When the object is removed, a connection between the sensor and the connector is made. The main application to an optical film strip switch is an alarm system for windows, door, and other objects requiring one object to be moved always from another. The following diagram, Fig. 8, is a diagram of a optical film strip switch:

Fig. 8 Optical Film Strip Switch Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual Light from a natural source and detectors: Detectors can be used to determine natural light and heat. A series of sensitive detectors designed to receive different wavelengths can be used to sense what light is coming in based on frequencies. In turn a series of detectors can determine how cold or hot a room is using highly temperature sensitive sensors. Another method to gauging light and heat is to have one highly sensitive detector and have different responses to various voltage levels near the circuit. Applications A smoke detector can be created using a light dependent resistor with only an enclosure, screen, and light source. Small openings are allowed in the enclosure that do not interact with the LDR and the screen blocks the light source from the LDR. When smoke enters the enclosure, light from the light source reflects off the smoke into the LDR turning on an alarm. The following figure, Fig. 9, shows an application of a reflection smoke detector:

Fig. 9 Reflection-type smoke detector Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual

An alarm system is a light-beam system used to detect any intruder by constantly sending and receiving a source of light in order to determine if a break in the line is made. In the following application mirrors are used to set up a light-beam parameter along the outside of a house in Fig. 10:

Fig. 10 Laser perimeter alarm layout Source: Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook The laser and laser receiver/alarm both use a phase locked loop (PLL) to create and maintain the desired sending and receiving frequency. In addition the PLLs contain the VCO which generates the frequency. A remote controller uses an infer red light emitting diode to communicate with another device by multiplexing a pulse. By varying the length and time of pulses two devices can talk to each other. Think of it as a type of Morse code. The diode pulses signals from one device to another that has the ability to decoded and reacted upon the message. The following figure, Fig. 11, illustrates an example of on and off timing requirements for the light emitting diode to send a particular signal:

Fig. 11 six-bit remote-control system Source: Optoelectronics Circuits Manual

There are far too many areas of theory and application to cover within this paper. If anyone wishes to learn more about optoelectronics I recommend that you read the following books: Optoelectonics, Fiber Optics, and Laser Cookbook and Optoelectonics Circuits Manual. Both books cover applications for the theories they describe throughout their texts. Note that both books assume the reader has some understanding of circuits. Conclusion: Before undertaking this project I understood several principles, theories, and applications of circuits and optics individually, but was unaware of exactly how the two mediums interfaced. I always knew there were interfaces between the two mediums given that we all use those applications in our daily lives. When I undertook this project, I was driven to find the reasoning behind all the technology I have come so accustomed to. As a result I discovered what physically happens to electrical devices when they are hit by light, the common configurations to create and derive from those physical reactions, and in turn applications achievable upon those common interfaces. In short when I look at a device which uses optoelectronics like a remote controller I now I have the ability to visual in my head how the device is communicating with another.

Works Sited: Marston, M. R. Optoelectronics Circuits Manual Oxford: Heinemann Newnes, 1988. Petiezzellis, Thomas. Optoelectronics, Fiber Optics, And Laser Cookbook. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 1997.