TMR7 Experimental Methods in Marine Hydrodynamics lecture in week 37

General Modelling and Scaling Laws

Dimensionless numbers Similarity requirements Derivation of dimensionless numbers used in model testing Froude scaling Hydroelasticity Cavitation number

Chapter 2 in the lecture notes

Dimensionless numbers
Without dimensionless numbers, experimental progress in fluid mechanics would have been almost nil; It would have been swamped by masses of accumulated data (R. Olson) Example: Due to the beauty of dimensionless numbers, Cf of a flat, smooth plate is a function of Re only
(not function of temperature, pressure or type of fluid)

Types of similarity
Geometrical similarity Kinematic similarity Dynamic similarity

What are the similarity requirements for a model test?

Geometrical Similarity
The model and full scale structures must have the same shape All linear dimensions must = LF LM have the same scale ratio: This applies also to:
The environment surrounding the model and ship Elastic deformations of the model and ship

Kinematic Similarity
Similarity of velocities: The flow and model(s) will have geometrically similar motions in model and full scale Examples: - Velocities in x and y direction must have the same ratio, so that a circular motion in full scale must be a circular motion also in model scale - The ratio between propeller tip speed and advance speed must be the same in model and full scale:
VF VM = nF (2 RF ) nM (2 RM )
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or

VF VM = J= JM F nF DF nM DM

Dynamic Similarity
Geometric similarity and Similarity of forces
Ratios between different forces in full scale must be the same in model scale

If you have geometric and dynamic similarity, youll also have kinematic similarity The following force contributions are of importance:
Inertia Forces, Fi Viscous forces, Fv Gravitational forces, Fg Pressure forces, Fp Elastic forces in the fluid (compressibility), Fe. Surface forces, Fs.

Inertia Forces (mass forces)

dU dx 3 dU 3 Fi L = L U 2 L2 dt dx dt
is fluid density U is a characteristic velocity t is time L is a characteristic length (linear dimension)

Gravitational Forces

Fg gL
Just mass times acceleration g is acceleration of gravity

Viscous Forces
dU 2 Fv L UL dx
is dynamic viscosity [kg/ms] - a function of temperature and type of fluid

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Pressure Forces

F p pL

Force equals pressure times area p is pressure

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Elastic Fluid Forces

Fe v E v L

v is compression ratio Ev is the volume elasticity (or compressibility) v Ev=elasticity modulus K [kg/ms2]

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Surface Forces

Fs L

is the surface tension [kg/s2]

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Froude number Fn
The ratio between inertia and gravity:
Inertia force Fi U 2 L2 U 2 = = 3 Gravity force Fg gL gL

Dynamic similarity requirement between model and full scale: U 2 U 2

M

gLM

gLF UF = Fn gLF

UM = gLM

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Equality in Fn in model and full scale will ensure that gravity forces are correctly scaled Surface waves are gravity-driven equality in Fn will ensure that wave resistance is correctly scaled

Reynolds number Re
Equal ratio between inertia and viscous forces:
Inertia forces Fi U 2 L2 UL UL Re = = == Viscous forces Fv UL

is the kinematic viscosity, =

[m2/s]

Equality in Re will ensure that viscous forces are correctly scaled

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Kinematic viscosity of fluids

(from White: Fluid Mechanics)

To obtain equality of both Fn and Rn for a ship model in scale 1:10: m=3.5x10-8
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Mach number Mn
Equal ratio between inertia and elastic fluid forces: Fi U 2 L2 Fe v E v L2 By requiring v to be equal in model and full scale:
U 2 L2 U 2 L2 = 2 2 E L E L v v M v v F UM UF = = Mn Ev , M Ev , F

Ev is the speed of sound Fluid elasticity is very small in water, so usually Mach number similarity is not required
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Weber number Wn
The ratio between inertia and surface tension forces:
Fi Inertia forces U 2 L2 U 2 L = = Surface tension forces Fs L

Similarity requirement for model and full scale forces:

U 2 L U 2 L = M F
=0.073 at 20C

UM =

UF = Wn

( L) M

( L) F

When Wn>180, a further increase in Wn doesnt influence the fluid forces

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Scaling ratios used in testing of ships and offshore structures

Symbol Re Fn Mn Wn St KC Dimensionless Number Reynolds Number Froude Number Machs Number Webers Number Strouhall number Keulegan-Carpenter Number Force Ratio Inertia/Viscous Inertia/Gravity Inertia/Elasticity Inertia/Surface tension Drag/Inertia Definition
UL

U gL

U EV U

L
fv D U

U AT D

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Froude Scaling
UM UF = gLM gLF UF = UM LF = UM LM

Using the geometrical similarity requirement:

= LF LM

If you remember this, most of the other scaling relations can be easily derived just from the physical units

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Froude scaling table

Physical Parameter Length Structural mass: Force: Moment: Acceleration: Time: Pressure:
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Unit [m] [kg] [N] [Nm] [m/s2] [s] [Pa=N/m2]

Multiplication factor

3 F M 3 F M
4 F M

a F = aM

F M

Hydroelasticity
Additional requirements to the elastic model
Correctly scaled global stiffness Structural damping must be similar to full scale The mass distribution must be similar

Typical applications:
Springing and whipping of ships Dynamic behaviour of marine risers and mooring lines

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Scaling of elasticity
F

FL3 EI

Hydrodynamic force: Geometric similarity requirement: Requirement to structural rigidity:

F CU 2 L2

F
LF

M
LM

F = M

U 2 L4 U 2 L4 = ( EI )= F EI EI F M
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( EI )M 5

Scaling of elasticity geometrically similar models

Geometrically similar model implies: Must change the elasticity of material: IF = IM 4 E F = EM

Elastic propellers must be made geometrically similar, EM = E F using a very soft material: Elastic hull models are made geometrically similar only on the outside. Thus, E is not scaled and I M = I F 5

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Cavitation
Dynamic similarity requires that cavitation is modelled Cavitation is correctly modelled by equality in cavitation number:

( gh + p0 ) pv = 2 1/ 2 U

To obtain equality in cavitation number, atmospheric pressure p0 might be scaled pv is vapour pressure and gh is hydrostatic pressure Different definitions of the velocity U is used
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General Modelling and Scaling Laws

Dimensionless numbers Similarity requirements Derivation of dimensionless numbers used in model testing Froude scaling Hydroelasticity Cavitation number

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